Makuriya - Makuria

Makuriya qirolligi

ⲇⲱⲧⲁⲩⲟ
V asr - XV / XV asr oxiri
Flag of Makuria
Ga ko'ra Makuriya bayrog'i Barcha shohliklarni bilish kitobi
Makuriya qirolligi 960 yilgacha maksimal darajada hududiy darajada
Makuriya qirolligi 960 yilgacha maksimal darajada hududiy darajada
PoytaxtDongola (1365 yilgacha)
Gebel Adda (1365 yildan)
Umumiy tillarNubian
Koptik
Yunoncha
Arabcha[1]
Din
HukumatMonarxiya
Qirol 
• fl. 651–652
Qalidurut (birinchi taniqli qirol)
• fl. 1463–1484
Joel (oxirgi tanilgan qirol)
Tarix 
• tashkil etilgan
5-asr
• Qirollik sudi Gebel Adda tomon qochdi, Dongola tashlab qo'yildi
1365
• bekor qilingan
15/16-asr oxiri
ValyutaOltin

Solidus

Dircham
Oldingi		Muvaffaqiyatli
Kush qirolligi
Banu Kanz
Funj Sultonligi
Misr Eyalet
Bugungi qismi Sudan
 Misr

Makuriya (Qadimgi Nubian: ⲇⲱⲧⲁⲩⲟ, Dotawo; Yunoncha: Chaκrosho, romanlashtirilgan: Makuriya; Arabcha: الlmqrة‎, romanlashtirilgan: al-Muqurra) edi a Nubian qirollik hozirgi Shimoliy hududda joylashgan Sudan va janubiy Misr. Makuriya dastlab maydon bo'ylab joylashgan Nil daryosi Uchinchidan Katarakt janubdagi biron bir joyga Abu Hamad ning qismlari kabi shimoliy Kordofan. Uning poytaxti edi Dongola (Eski Nubian: Tungul) va shohlik ba'zan poytaxt nomi bilan tanilgan.

6-asrning oxiriga kelib bunga erishildi nasroniylikni qabul qildi, ammo 7-asrda Misr Islomiy qo'shinlar. 651 yilda Arab qo'shin bostirib kirdi, ammo u qaytarib olindi va shartnoma sifatida tanilgan Baqt ikki tomon o'rtasida XIII asrgacha davom etgan nisbiy tinchlikni yaratgan holda imzolangan. Makuriya shimoliy qo'shnisini qo'shib olish bilan kengaytirildi Nobatiya VII asrning bir qismida, shuningdek, qirolligi bilan yaqin sulolaviy aloqalarni saqlab qolish bilan birga Alodiya janubga 9-asrdan 11-asrgacha bo'lgan davrda Makuriya madaniy rivojlanishining eng yuqori cho'qqisi bo'lgan: yangi monumental binolar qad rostlagan, devorga chizilgan rasmlar va nozik mahorat bilan ishlangan va bezatilgan sopol buyumlar rivojlanib, nubian tillari keng tarqalgan yozma tilga aylandi.

Misr tomonidan kuchaygan tajovuz, ichki kelishmovchilik, Badaviylar hujumlar va ehtimol vabo va savdo yo'llarining siljishi 13-14 asrlarda davlatning tanazzulga uchrashiga olib keldi. 1365 yildagi fuqarolar urushi tufayli qirollik janubiy hududlarining ko'p qismini, shu jumladan Dongolani yo'qotib qo'ygan rum davlatiga aylantirildi. Bu 1560-yillarda yo'q bo'lib ketgan, qachonki Usmonlilar egallab olingan Quyi Nubiya. Keyinchalik Nubiya islomlashtirildi, Nubiyaliklar esa yashashdi yuqori oqim ning Al Dabbah va Kordofan ham edi Arablashgan.

Manbalar

Makuriya qo'shniga qaraganda ancha yaxshi tanilgan Alodiya janubda, ammo bizning bilimlarimizda hali ham ko'p bo'shliqlar mavjud. Hudud tarixi uchun eng muhim manba har xil Arab ushbu davrda Nubiya orqali o'tgan sayohatchilar va tarixchilar. Ushbu yozuvlar ko'pincha muammoli bo'lib qoladi, chunki ko'plab arab yozuvchilari nasroniy qo'shnilariga qarshi edi. Ushbu asarlar, odatda, faqat Misr va Nubiya o'rtasidagi harbiy mojarolarga bag'ishlangan.[2] Istisnolardan biri Ibn Selim al-Asvaniy, Makuriya 10-asrda qudratining eng yuqori cho'qqisida bo'lganida Dongolaga sayohat qilgan va batafsil ma'lumot qoldirgan misrlik diplomat.[3]

Ning modeli Faras sobori 1960 yillarning boshlarida qazish holatida. Cherkovning kashf etilishi va uning ajoyib rasmlari nasroniy Nubiya haqidagi bilimlarni tubdan o'zgartirdi.

Nubiyaliklar savodli jamiyat bo'lgan va adolatli yozuvlar davri omon qolgan. Ushbu hujjatlar Eski Nubiya tili ichida noial xilma-xilligi Yunon alifbosi ba'zi kopt ramzlari va Nubianga xos ba'zi belgilar bilan kengaytirilgan. Zamonaviy bilan chambarchas bog'liq bo'lgan tilda yozilgan Nobiin tili, bu hujjatlar uzoq vaqtdan beri shifrlangan. Biroq, ularning aksariyati tarixchilar uchun unchalik foydali bo'lmagan diniy yoki huquqiy hujjatlar bilan bog'liq asarlardir. Topilgan eng katta to'plam Qasr Ibrim, ba'zi qimmatli davlat yozuvlarini o'z ichiga oladi.[4]

Ning qurilishi Asvan baland to'g'oni 1964 yilda Makuriyaning shimoliy yarmi bo'lgan suv toshqini bilan tahdid qildi. 1960 yilda, YuNESKO toshqin sodir bo'lishidan oldin iloji boricha ko'proq arxeologik ishlarni bajarish uchun katta sa'y-harakatlarni boshladi. Keyingi bir necha yil ichida dunyoning turli mamlakatlaridan minglab mutaxassislar jalb qilindi. Makuriyaning eng muhim saytlaridan ba'zilari shahar edi Faras va Polshadan bir guruh tomonidan qazilgan uning sobori; inglizlar ishlaydi Qasr Ibrim; va Gana universiteti kundalik hayot haqida muhim ma'lumot bergan Debeira West shahridagi ish o'rta asrlar Nubiya. Ushbu saytlarning barchasi Nobatia-da joylashgan; Makuriyadagi yagona yirik arxeologik maydon bu poytaxtni qisman o'rganishdir Qadimgi Dongola.[5]

Tarix

Dastlabki davr (5–8-asr)

19-asrning er rejasi tumulus Tanqasi maydoni (3-asr oxiri - 6-asrning birinchi yarmi).[6] O'shandan beri u erda ko'plab yangi tumullar qayd etildi,[7] garchi ularning aksariyati hali ham qazishni kutmoqdalar.[6]
Kassinjer Bahrining tumulus sohasi (4-asrning ikkinchi yarmi - 6-asr boshlari) tumulusi ichida dafn etilgan.[8]

IV asrning boshlarida, agar ilgari bo'lmasa, Kush qirolligi uning poytaxti bilan Mero qulab tushayotgan edi.[9] Keyinchalik Makuriyani tashkil etadigan mintaqa, ya'ni uchinchisi orasida Nil vodiysi Nil kataraktasi va to'rtinchi / beshinchi kataraktning buyuk Nil burmasi, III asrda Kushdan ajralib chiqish taklif qilingan. Bu erda "Makuriyagacha" deb nomlangan bir hil va nisbatan izolyatsiya qilingan madaniyat rivojlandi.[10] IV-V asrlarda mintaqa Napata to'rtinchi katarakt yaqinida joylashgan va ilgari Kushning eng muhim siyosiy va muqaddas joylaridan biri bo'lgan, katta hajmda ko'milgan yangi mintaqaviy elita uchun markaz bo'lib xizmat qilgan. tumuli boshqalar kabi el Zuma yoki Tanqasi.[11] Aholining sezilarli o'sishi kuzatildi[12] ijtimoiy o'zgarishlar bilan birga,[13] natijada Kushitlar Nubiyaliklar,[14] asli Kordofandan bo'lgan xalq[15] IV asrda Nil vodiysida joylashgan.[16] Shunday qilib, yangi Makuriya jamiyati va davlati paydo bo'ldi[13] 5-asrga kelib.[17] 5-asr oxirida birinchi Makuriya shohlaridan biri[18] hali rivojlanayotgan qirollikning quvvat bazasini Napata shahridan quyi oqimga ko'chirdi, u erda shoh saroyining yangi joyi bo'lgan Dongola qal'asi tashkil etildi.[19] va tez orada ulkan shahar tumanini rivojlantirdi.[20] Nil bo'yida yana ko'plab qal'alar qurilgan, ehtimol ular harbiy maqsadga xizmat qilish uchun emas, balki urbanizatsiyani rivojlantirish uchun mo'ljallangan.[18]

Dongola tashkil etilgan paytdanoq aloqalar saqlanib qolgan Vizantiya imperiyasi.[21] 530-yillarda Vizantiya imperatori boshchiligida Yustinian kengaytirish siyosatini o'rnatdi. Nubiyaliklar unga qarshi ittifoqchilarni yutish rejasining bir qismi edi Sosoniy forslar ularni Vizantiya davlat dini bo'lgan nasroniylikka qabul qilish orqali. Ammo imperator saroyi ikki xil tabiatga ishonib, ikki mazhabga bo'lindi Iso Masih: Yustinian tegishli bo'lgan Kalsedoniyaliklar, imperiyaning rasmiy nomlanishi, uning xotini esa Teodora edi a Miafizit, kim kuchli bo'lgan Misr. Efeslik Yuhanno Ikki raqobatchi missiyalar Nubiyaga qanday jo'natilganini, Miafizit birinchi bo'lib kelib, 543 yilda shimoliy Nobatiya qirolligiga aylanganini tasvirlab berdi. Nobatiya qiroli Yustinianning janubga sayohat qilish bo'yicha topshirig'idan bosh tortdi.[22] arxeologik yozuvlar Makuriyaning hali VI asrning birinchi yarmida konvertatsiya qilinganligini taxmin qilishi mumkin.[23] Xronikachi Biklarlik Jon taxminan 568 yilda Makuriya "Masihning imonini qabul qilgan". 573 yilda Makuriya delegatsiyasi Konstantinopolga kelib, fil suyagi va jirafani taklif qilib, Vizantiya bilan yaxshi munosabatda ekanligini e'lon qildi. Shimolda joylashgan Nobatiyadan farqli o'laroq (Makuriya u bilan adovatda bo'lgan ko'rinadi)[24] va Makuriyaning janubidagi Alodiya Kalsedoniya ta'limotini qabul qildi.[25] Dongoladagi dastlabki cherkov arxitekturasi imperiya bilan yaqin aloqalarni tasdiqlaydi,[24] ikki davlat o'rtasidagi savdo-sotiq rivojlanib bordi.[26]

VI asr o'rtalarida tashkil etilgan Dongoladagi "Qadimgi cherkov" ning asosiy rejasi

7-asrda Makuriya shimoliy qo'shnisi Nobatiyani qo'shib oldi. Bir-biriga zid bo'lgan nazariyalar mavjud bo'lsa-da,[a] Bu Sasaniylar Misrni bosib olganidan ko'p o'tmay sodir bo'lgan bo'lsa kerak,[28] taxminan 620-yillarda,[29] ammo 642 yildan oldin.[30] Sosoniylar istilosidan oldin Nobatiya Misr bilan mustahkam aloqada bo'lgan[29] va shu tariqa uning qulashi bilan qattiq urildi.[31] Ehtimol, unga sosoniylarning o'zi ham bostirib kirgandir: o'sha davrdagi ba'zi mahalliy cherkovlarda vayronagarchilik va keyingi qayta qurish izlari mavjud.[32] Shunday qilib zaiflashgan Nobatiya Makuriyaga tushib, Makuriyani shimolga qadar cho'zdi Philae birinchi katarakt yaqinida.[33] 630 yillarda Farasda yangi episkopiya tashkil etilgan[b] Faras va Qasr Ibrimda Dongola bazilikasidan so'ng ikkita yangi sobor qurildi.[29] Birlashgandan keyin qirol Nobatiyaliklar oilasiga nima bo'lganligi ma'lum emas,[35] ammo qayd etilishicha, Nobatiya yakka tartibda boshqariladigan yagona qirollik tarkibida qolgan Eparx.[36]

Nubiyalik kamonchi Portugal XVI asrga oid qo'lyozma

639-641 yillarda musulmon arablar haddan oshgan Vizantiya Misr. Vizantiyaning yordam so'rovi, Beja bilan to'qnashuvlar tufayli nubiyaliklar tomonidan javobsiz qoldi. 641 yoki 642 yillarda arablar Makuriyaga birinchi ekspeditsiyani yuborishdi.[37] Janubning qanchalik uzoqligi aniq emas[c] u kirib bordi u oxir-oqibat mag'lubiyatga uchradi. Abdallah abi Sarx boshchiligidagi ikkinchi bosqinchilik 651/652 yillarda, hujumchilar janubga qadar Dongolaga qadar surishganida sodir bo'ldi.[39] Dongola qamal qilingan va tomonidan bombardimon qilingan katapultalar. Ular shaharning ba'zi qismlariga zarar etkazishganida, ular qal'a devorlariga kira olmadilar.[40] Musulmon manbalarida nubianlik mahorati ta'kidlangan kamonchilar bosqinni qaytarishda.[41] Ikki tomon ham jangni o'z foydasiga hal qila olmaganligi sababli, abi Sarh va Makuriya shohi Qalidurut uchrashib, kelishuv tuzdilar. Baqt.[42] Dastlab bu sulh, shuningdek, har yili tovar almashinuvini o'z ichiga olgan (makuriyalik qullar Misr bug'doyiga, to'qimachilik mahsulotlariga va boshqalarga),[43] tarixiy Shimoliy-Sharqiy Afrika davlatlari uchun xos bo'lgan almashinuv va ehtimol Nubiya va Vizantiya o'rtasida mavjud bo'lgan atamalarning davomi bo'lishi mumkin.[44] Ehtimol, ichida Umaviy marta Misrdagi nubiyaliklar va Makuriyadagi musulmonlar xavfsizligini tartibga solish orqali shartnoma kengaytirildi.[45] Ba'zi zamonaviy olimlar Baqtni Makuriyaning musulmonlarga bo'ysunishi deb bilsalar-da, bunday bo'lmasligi aniq: almashinadigan mahsulotlar teng qiymatga ega edi va Makuriya mustaqil davlatdan boshqa narsa sifatida tan olindi,[46] davomida arablarni mag'lubiyatga uchratgan kam sonli kishilardan biri bo'lib erta islomiy ekspansiya.[47] Baqt olti asrdan ko'proq vaqt davomida foydalanishda davom etadi,[48] ba'zan o'zaro reydlar tomonidan to'xtatilgan bo'lsa-da.[49]

8-asr konsolidatsiya davri edi. Podshoh ostida Merkurios, 7-asr oxiri va 8-asr boshlarida yashagan va koptlarning biografiyasi Jon Deacon ma'qullab "yangi" deb nomlanadi Konstantin ", Davlat qayta tashkil etilganga o'xshaydi va Miafizit nasroniylik rasmiy aqidaga aylandi.[50] U, ehtimol, monumentalga asos solgan G'azzoliy monastiri (5000 m atrofida)2) ichida Vodiy Abu Dom.[51] Merkuriosning o'g'li va vorisi Zakarias taxtga bo'lgan da'vosidan voz kechib, monastirga kirdi, ammo vorisni e'lon qilish huquqini saqlab qoldi. Bir necha yil ichida uch xil shohlar paydo bo'ldi[52] va bir nechta musulmon reydlari[49] 747 yilgacha taxt egallab olindi Kyriakos.[53] O'sha yili Jon Diyakonning ta'kidlashicha, Misrning Umaviylar gubernatori Kopt patriarxini qamoqqa tashlagan, natijada Makuriya bosqini va Misr poytaxti Fustatni qamal qilishgan, keyin Patriarx ozod qilingan.[53] Ushbu epizod "Misr nasroniylarining tashviqoti" deb nomlangan,[54] Yuqori Misr Makuriya kampaniyasiga uchragan bo'lsa-da,[53] ehtimol reyd.[55] Yuqori Misrda Nubiya ta'siri kuchli bo'lib qolaveradi.[56] Uch yildan so'ng, 750 yilda o'g'illari Marvan II, oxirgi Umaviy xalifasi, Nubiyaga qochib ketdi va Kiriakosdan boshpana so'radi, ammo muvaffaqiyatga erishmadi.[57] Taxminan 760 yilda Makuriyaga tashrif buyurgan Xitoy sayohatchi Du Xuan.[58]

Zenit (9–11-asr)

Dongolaning 9-asr "Xoch shaklidagi cherkovi" ning tiklanishi. Bu qirollikdagi eng katta cherkov edi v. 28 x 37,3 x 34,8 m.[59] Bu nafaqat ko'plab Nubian, balki mashhur Efiopiya cherkovlari uchun ham ilhom manbai bo'lib xizmat qildi toshli cherkovlar ning Lalibela.[60]

IX-XI asrlar orasida shohlik eng yuqori cho'qqisida bo'lgan.[61] 9-asr boshlarida qirol Ioann hukmronligi davrida Misr bilan aloqalar uzilib, Baqtga pul to'lash to'xtatildi. Ioannes vafotidan keyin 835 yil Abbosiy Makuriyadan yo'qolgan 14 yillik to'lovni to'lashni talab qilib, talablar bajarilmasa, urush bilan tahdid qilgan emissar keldi.[62] Shunday qilib 5000 dan ortiq qullarga bo'lgan talabga duch keldi,[49] Zaxariya III "Avgust", yangi shoh, ehtimol uning obro'sini oshirish uchun o'g'li Georgios Iga podshohlik qilgan va uni xalifaga yuborgan. Bag'dod muzokara qilmoq.[d] O'sha paytda uning sayohati ko'pchilikning e'tiborini tortgan.[64] 12-asr Suriyalik patriarx Maykl Georgios va uning izdoshlarini batafsil bayon qilib, Georgiosning tuya minib, qo'lida tayoq va oltin xochni ushlab turgani va boshida qizil soyabon ko'tarilganligini yozgan. U bilan birga yepiskop, otliqlar va qullar, chap va o'ng tomonlarida xoch ko'tarib yurgan yigitlar bor edi.[65] U Bog'dodga kelganidan bir necha oy o'tgach, Georgios I, o'qimishli va odob-axloqli deb ta'riflangan, xalifani Nubiya qarzlarini kechirishga va Baqt to'lovlarini 3 yillik ritmga tushirishga ishontirishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.[66] 836 yilda[67] yoki 837 yil boshida[68] u Nubiyaga qaytgan edi. Qaytib kelgandan keyin Dongolada yangi cherkov qurildi, uning balandligi taxminan 28 metr bo'lgan va butun qirollikdagi eng katta bino bo'lgan Xoch shaklidagi cherkov qurildi.[69] Deb nomlangan yangi saroy Dongolaning taxt zali, shuningdek qurilgan,[70] kuchli Vizantiya ta'sirini namoyish etish.[71]

831 yilda Abbosiylar xalifasining jazo kampaniyasi al-Mutasim mag'lub bo'ldi Beja Nubiya sharqida. Natijada, ular xalifaga bo'ysunishlari kerak edi, shu bilan sudanlarning ko'p qismida nominal musulmon hokimiyati kengaytirildi Sharqiy cho'l.[72] 834 yilda al-Mutasim Abbosiylar paydo bo'lganidan beri harbiy kuch sifatida tanazzulga uchragan Misr arab badaviylariga boshqa to'lovlarni olmasliklarini buyurdi. Noqulay va egasiz bo'lib, ular janubga qarab surishdi. Ammo Makuriya tomonidan Nubiyaga olib boriladigan yo'l to'sib qo'yilgan edi: Quyi Nubiyada arab ko'chmanchilar jamoalari mavjud bo'lganida, arab ko'chmanchilarining katta qismi Beja orasiga joylashishga majbur bo'ldilar,[73] mahalliy oltin konlarini ekspluatatsiya qilish motivatsiyasi bilan ham bog'liq.[74] 9-asrning o'rtalarida arab avantyuristi al-Umariy xususiy qo'shin yollab, yaqinidagi konga joylashdi Abu Hamad Makuriyaning sharqida. Ikki tomonning to'qnashuvidan so'ng al-Umariy Nil bo'yidagi Makuriya hududlarini egallab oldi.[75] Qirol Georgios I elita kuchini yubordi[76] uning o'g'li Nyuti tomonidan boshqarilgan,[77] ammo u arablarni mag'lub eta olmadi va tojning o'ziga qarshi isyon ko'tardi. Keyin qirol Georgios o'zining eng katta o'g'lini, ehtimol keyinroq yuborgan Georgios II, ammo uni armiyasi tashlab qo'ydi va Alodiyaga qochishga majbur bo'ldi. Makuriya podshosi yana o'g'li Zakariyani yubordi, u al-Umari bilan birgalikda Nyutini o'ldirish uchun ish olib bordi va oxir-oqibat al-Umariyni mag'lubiyatga uchratib, cho'lga itardi.[76] Keyinchalik al-Umariy Quyi Nubiyada o'zini ko'rsatishga urindi, ammo tez orada yana itarib yuborildi va oxir-oqibat o'ldirilishidan oldin hukmronlik davrida Tulunid Sulton Ahmad ibn Tulun (868-884).[78]

Sonqi Tino shahridagi Mural, qirol Georgios II ni ko'rsatmoqda (10-asr oxiri).

Hukmronligi davrida Ixshidid sulola, Makuriya va Misr o'rtasidagi munosabatlar yomonlashdi: 951 yilda Makuriya armiyasi Misrga qarshi yurish qildi Xarga vohasi, ko'plab odamlarni o'ldirish va qul qilish.[79] Besh yil o'tgach, makuriyaliklar Asvanga hujum qilishdi, ammo keyinchalik Qasr Ibrimga qadar janubga qadar ta'qib etildilar. Asuraga yangi Makuriya hujumi darhol ro'y berdi, bunga Misrning yana bir qasosi javob berdi va bu safar Qasr Ibrimni qo'lga oldi.[80] Bu Makuriya tajovuzini to'xtata olmadi va 962-964 yillarda ular yana hujum qilib, bu safar shimolga qadar surishdi Axmim.[81] Ko'rinib turibdiki, Yuqori Misrning bir necha qismi Makuriya tomonidan bir necha yil davomida ishg'ol qilingan.[82][83] Oxir oqibat Ixshidid Misr 969 yilda qulab tushdi Shiit Fotimidlar. Darhol ular elchini yuborishdi Ibn Selim al-Asvaniy Makuriya qiroli Georgios III ga.[84] Georgios elchining birinchi iltimosini, Baqtning tiklanishini qabul qildi, ammo episkoplari va ilmli kishilar bilan uzoq munozaradan so'ng, ikkinchisini, ya'ni Islomni qabul qilishni rad etdi va buning o'rniga Fotimid hokimini xristianlikni qabul qilishga taklif qildi. Shundan keyin u al-Asvaniyga bayram qilish uchun ruxsat berdi Qurbon hayiti Dongola tashqarisida baraban va karnay-surnay bilan, garchi uning ba'zi fuqarolarining noroziligisiz.[85] Makuriya va Fatmid Misr o'rtasidagi munosabatlar tinchligicha qolishi kerak edi, chunki Fotimiylar nubiyaliklarga o'zlariga qarshi ittifoqdoshlar sifatida muhtoj edilar. Sunniy dushmanlar.[84]

XIII asrda Efiopiya shimolidagi cherkovda bir martabali odam tasvirlangan Qorqor Maryam. Nubiya ta'sirini nafaqat Nobadiyalik eparxlarnikiga o'xshagan mehmon kiygan shoxli bosh kiyimlar taklif qilmaydi,[86] X-XII asrlarda keng tarqalgan Nubiya uslubida ishlangan rasmning o'zi ham.[87]

Makuriya qirolligi, hech bo'lmaganda vaqtincha, nubian tilida so'zlashuvchi aholi ustidan ta'sir o'tkazar edi Kordofan, Nil vodiysi va Darfur, 10-asr sayyohi haqida yozilgan Ibn Xavqal shuningdek, og'zaki an'analar.[88] Makuriya o'z chegarasini Abu Hamad va Nil o'rtasida birlashtirgan janubiy Nubiya Alodiya qirolligi bilan-Atbara to'qnashuv,[89] Makuriya, 10-asrdagi arab geograflarining ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, sulolalar ittifoqini saqlab qolganga o'xshaydi[90] va XII asrga oid Nubiya manbalari.[91] Arxeologik dalillar 8-asrdan boshlab Alodiya san'ati va me'morchiligiga Makuriya ta'sirining kuchayganligini ko'rsatadi.[92] Ayni paytda, Xristian Efiopiya bilan aloqa qilish uchun dalillar juda kam.[93][94] Istisno holat[95] Patriarx o'rtasidagi Georgios III vositachiligi edi Filosoflar va ba'zi bir Efiopiya monarxi,[96] ehtimol kech Aksumit imperator Anbessa Vudem yoki uning o'rnini egallagan Dil Nead.[97] Efiopiya rohiblari Nubiya orqali etib borish uchun sayohat qildilar Quddus,[98] Sonqi Tino cherkovidagi grafitning efiopiyalik tashrif buyurganiga guvohlik beradi abuna.[99] Bunday sayohatchilar, shuningdek, O'rta asrlarning bir qator Efiopiya cherkovlariga ta'sir ko'rsatgan Nubiya arxitekturasi haqida ma'lumot berishgan.[60]

Arxiepiskop Georgios tomonidan boshlangan XI asrdagi Banganarti cherkovi

11-asrning ikkinchi yarmida Makuriya "Nubizatsiya" deb nomlangan katta madaniy va diniy islohotlarni amalga oshirdi. Asosiy tashabbuskori Dongola arxiepiskopi Georgios va shuning uchun Makuriya cherkovining rahbari bo'lishi taklif qilingan.[100] U kopt cherkovida arablarning kuchayib borayotgan ta'siriga qarshi turish uchun u nubiya tilini yozma til sifatida ommalashtirganga o'xshaydi[101] va o'lgan hukmdorlar va yepiskoplarga hamda tub Nubiya avliyolariga sig'inishni joriy qildi. Yangi, noyob cherkov qurildi Banganarti, ehtimol butun qirollikning eng muhimlaridan biriga aylanadi.[102] Xuddi shu davrda Makuriya ham yangi qirollik kiyimini qabul qila boshladi[103] va regaliya va ehtimol Nubiya ma'muriyati va unvonlari bo'yicha terminologiyasi, barchasi dastlab janubdagi Alodiyadan kelgan deb taxmin qilishgan.[101][104]

Kamayish (12-asr - 1365)

Farasdan Mural, shoh Muso Georgiosni tasvirlaydi (1155–1190 yillarda), ehtimol u Makuriya va Alodiya ustidan ham hukmronlik qilgan va 1170 yillarning boshlarida Saladdin bilan to'qnashgan.
Adindan gumbazli cherkovini qayta qurish

1171 yilda Saladin Misr va Nubiya o'rtasidagi yangi jangovar harakatlar to'g'risida xabar bergan Fotimidlar sulolasini ag'darib tashladi.[83] Keyingi yil,[105] Makuriya qo'shinlari Asvanni talon-taroj qilib, shimol tomon ham oldinga siljishdi. Ushbu kampaniya Fotimidlarga yordam berish uchun qilinganmi yoki shunchaki reyd bo'lganmi, aniq emas[83] Misrdagi beqaror vaziyatdan foydalanib,[106] makuriyaliklar tez orada chekinishganligi sababli, ikkinchisi ehtimolroq ko'rinadi.[107] Nubiyaliklar bilan kurashish uchun Salohiddin akasini yubordi Turon-Shoh. Ikkinchisi 1173 yil yanvar oyida Qasr Ibrimni zabt etdi,[108] xabarlarga ko'ra uni ishdan bo'shatish, ko'plab mahbuslarni olib ketish, cherkovni talon-taroj qilish va masjidga aylantirish.[109] Keyinchalik, u Makuriya shohi Muso Georgiosga elchi yubordi.[110] ilgari so'ralgan tinchlik shartnomasiga o'q bilan javob berishni niyat qilgan.[111] Ehtimol Makuriya va Alodiya ustidan hukmronlik qilish,[112] Muso Georjios misrliklarga qarshilik ko'rsatish qobiliyatiga ishongan, elchining qo'liga xochni temir bilan bosgan.[110] Turon Shoh Nubiyadan chiqib ketdi, ammo keyingi ikki yil davomida Quyi Nubiya hududiga bostirib kiradigan Qasr Ibrimda kurd qo'shinlarining bir qismini tark etdi. Arxeologik dalillar ularni Faras soborini yo'q qilish bilan bog'laydi,[113] Abdallah Nirqi[114] va Debeira West.[115] 1175 yilda nihoyat Nubiya qo'shini Adindan bosqinchilariga qarshi turish uchun keldi. Ammo jang oldidan kurd qo'mondoni Nil daryosidan o'tayotganda g'arq bo'ldi, natijada Saladin qo'shinlari Nubiyadan chiqib ketishdi.[113] Keyin yana 100 yil tinchlik hukm surdi.[83]

1172 yildan 1268 yilgacha Makuriyaga sayohatchilarning yozuvlari yo'q,[116] va bu davr voqealari uzoq vaqtdan beri sir bo'lib kelgan, garchi zamonaviy kashfiyotlar bu davrga bir oz oydinlik kiritgan bo'lsa ham. Bu davrda Makuriya keskin pasayishga kirishganga o'xshaydi. Bu haqda eng yaxshi manba Ibn Xaldun, 14-asrda yozgan, uni kim ayblagan Badaviylar Mamluklar duch kelgan narsalarga o'xshash bosqinlar. Afrikaning savdo yo'llarining o'zgarishi Nubiyaning pasayishi uchun boshqa omillar bo'lishi mumkin[117] va 1150 dan 1500 gacha bo'lgan qattiq quruq davr.[118]

Ko'tarilishi bilan masalalar o'zgaradi Mamluklar va Sulton Baybarlar 1260 yilda.[119] 1265 yilda Mamluk qo'shini Makuriyaga janubdan Dongolagacha bostirib kirgan[120] shu bilan birga Afrikaning Qizil dengiz qirg'og'i bo'ylab janubga qarab kengayib, nubiyaliklarga tahdid solmoqda.[121] 1272 yilda shoh Dovud sharqqa yurib, port shaharchasiga hujum qildi Aidhab,[122] muhim joylashgan haj marshrut Makka. Nubiya armiyasi "Islomning yuragiga zarba" berib, shaharni vayron qildi.[123] Jazo beruvchi Mamluk ekspeditsiyasi bunga javoban yuborilgan, ammo ikkinchi kataraktdan tashqariga chiqmagan.[124] Uch yildan so'ng makuriyaliklar Asvanga hujum qilib, vayron qilishdi,[122] ammo bu safar Mamluk Sulton Baybars 1276 yil boshida Qohiradan jo'nab ketgan yaxshi jihozlangan qo'shin bilan javob berdi,[123] podshoh Dovudning Mashkuda ismli amakivachchasi bilan birga[125] yoki Shekanda.[126] Mamluklar Jubel Adda, Meinarti va nihoyat Dongolada uchta jangda nubiyaliklarni mag'lub etishdi. Dovud Nil daryosining yuqori oqimidan qochib, oxir-oqibat kirdi al-Abvab janubda,[127] ilgari Alodiyaning eng shimoliy viloyati bo'lgan ushbu davrda, ehtimol, o'z qirolligiga aylangan.[128] Ammo al-Abvab shohi Dovudni Baybarsga topshirdi, uni o'ldirdi.[129]

Christian Nubia haqida xabardor bo'lib, evropaliklar buni o'zlariga qo'shdilar kartografiya 12-15 asrlar orasida.[130] Ushbu xabardorlikning eng yuqori darajasi Ebstorf xaritasi ning v. 1300.[131] Nubiya haqidagi afsonada shunday deyilgan: «Bu erda yashovchilar Nubiyaliklar deb nomlanadi. Bu xalq har doim yalang'och yuradi.[e] Ular halol va dindor nasroniylardir. Ular oltinga boy va savdo bilan yashashadi. Ularning uchta shohi va bir xil miqdordagi episkoplari bor.[f] Ular Quddusga juda ko'p olomon ichida tez-tez tashrif buyurib, o'zlariga boy bo'lgan boyliklarni olib yurishdi Rabbimiz qabri.”[133]

Rahmat salib yurishlari,[134] G'arbiy Evropa Xristian Nubiya borligini tobora ko'proq anglab yetishdi, XII-XIII asrlarda XIV asrning boshlariga qadar, hattoki Mamluklarga qarshi yana bir salib yurishi uchun nubiyaliklar bilan ittifoq qilish takliflari paydo bo'ldi.[135] Nubian belgilar ham namoyish etila boshlaydi salibchilar qo'shiqlari, dastlab XII asrdan keyin va xristianlar sifatida Nubiya haqidagi bilimlari ortib, keyin musulmon sifatida namoyish etildi.[136] Bir tomonda salibchilar va g'arbiy ziyoratchilar va boshqa tarafdagi nubiyaliklar o'rtasidagi aloqalar Quddusda sodir bo'lgan,[134] 12-14 asrlardagi Evropa hisobotlari Nubiya jamoati mavjudligini tasdiqlaydi,[137] shuningdek, agar ko'pgina nubiyaliklar yashagan Misrda bo'lmasa[138] va Evropa savdogarlari juda faol bo'lgan joylarda.[139] Ehtimol, Nubiya jamoati ham mavjud edi salibchilar tomonidan boshqariladigan Famagusta, Kipr.[140] 14-asrning o'rtalarida ziyoratchi Nikkole da Poggibonsi Nubiyaliklar uchun hamdard bo'lganliklarini da'vo qilishdi Lotinlar va shuning uchun Mamluk Sultoni lotinlarning Nubiya tomon yo'l olishiga yo'l qo'ymadi, chunki ular nubiyaliklarni urushga boshlashidan qo'rqib,[141] zamonaviy bo'lsa-da Barcha shohliklarni bilish kitobi deb yozilgan edi Genuyaliklar Dongolada savdogarlar mavjud edi.[142] Qasr Ibrimda Nubian tilini aralashtirib yuborgan matn topildi Italyancha[143] shuningdek a Kataloniya o'yin kartasi,[144] va Banganartida yozilgan yozuv qayd etilgan Provans 13-asrning ikkinchi yarmiga / 14-asrga tegishli.[145]

Ichki qiyinchiliklar qirollikka ham zarar etkazganga o'xshaydi. Shoh Dovudning amakivachchasi Shakanda taxtga da'vogar bo'lib, Mameluklardan madad so'rab Qohiraga yo'l oldi. Ular rozi bo'lishdi va 1276 yilda Nubiyani egallab olishdi va Shakandani taxtga qo'yishdi. Keyin nasroniy Shekanda Makuriyani Misrning vassaliga aylantirish to'g'risidagi bitimni imzoladi va Dongolada Mamluke garnizoni joylashdi. Bir necha yil o'tgach, Makuriya qirollik oilasining yana bir a'zosi Shamamun Makurian mustaqilligini tiklash uchun Shekandaga qarshi qo'zg'olonga boshchilik qildi. U oxir-oqibat Mamluk garnizonini mag'lubiyatga uchratdi va 1286 yilda Misrdan ajralib chiqib, tinchlik bitimiga xiyonat qilganidan keyin taxtni egalladi. Misrliklarga Shekanda qabul qilgan majburiyatlarni bekor qilish evaziga yillik Baqt to'lovlarini oshirishni taklif qildi. Mamluke qo'shinlari boshqa joylarda ishg'ol qilindi va Misr Sultoni bu yangi tartibga rozi bo'ldi.[iqtibos kerak ]

The Dongolaning taxt zali 1317 yilda masjidga aylantirildi
Taxtlar zalining konvertatsiyasini yodga oladigan arabcha stela

Tinchlik davridan keyin qirol Karanbas ushbu to'lovlarni to'lamaganligi sababli, 1312 yilda mamluklar yana qirollikni egallab olishdi. Bu safar taxtga Makuriya sulolasining bir musulmon a'zosi joylashtirildi. Sayfiddin Din Abdulloh Barshambu xalqni Islomga qabul qila boshladi va 1317 yilda Dongolaning taxt zali aylantirildi. masjid. Bu boshqa Makuriya rahbarlari tomonidan qabul qilinmadi va o'sha yili xalq fuqarolar urushi va anarxiyaga tushib qoldi. Oxir-oqibat Barshambu o'ldirildi va uning o'rnini egalladi Kanz ad-Davla. Banu Xanz qabilasi hukmronlik qilar ekan, mamluklarning qo'g'irchoq sulolasini boshqargan.[146] Yuqorida aytib o'tilgan qirol Keranbes 1323 yilda Kanz ad-Dvaladan boshqaruvni qo'lga kiritishga urinib ko'rdi va oxir-oqibat Dongolani egallab oldi, ammo atigi bir yil o'tib quvib chiqarildi. U taxtni egallash uchun yana bir imkoniyat uchun Asvanga chekindi, ammo bu hech qachon kelmadi.[147]

Musulmonlar shohi Abdallah Barshambuning ko'tarilishi va uning taxt zalini masjidga aylantirishi ko'pincha nasroniy Makuriyaning oxiri deb talqin qilingan. Xulosa noto'g'ri, chunki Nubiyada nasroniylik muhim bo'lib qoldi.[148] Keyingi o'n yilliklar haqida ko'p narsa ma'lum bo'lmasa-da, Makuriya taxtida ham musulmon, ham nasroniy shohlari bo'lgan ko'rinadi. Ikkala sayohatchi Ibn Battuta va Misr tarixchisi Shihab al-Umariy zamonaviy Makuriya shohlari Banu Xanzga tegishli bo'lgan musulmonlar, umumiy aholi esa nasroniy bo'lib qolgan deb da'vo qilmoqda. Al-Umariy Makuriyaning hali ham Mamluk Sultoniga qaram bo'lganligini ta'kidlamoqda.[149] Boshqa tomondan, u Makuriya taxtini musulmonlar va nasroniylar navbatma-navbat egallab olganligini ta'kidlamoqda.[150] Darhaqiqat, 1330 yilda Nubiya bo'ylab sayohat qilgan Efiopiya rohib Gadla Evstatevos, u shaxsan uchrashgan deb da'vo qilgan Nubiya qiroli nasroniy bo'lganligini aytadi.[151] In Barcha shohliklarni bilish kitobi, 14-asr o'rtalaridan boshlab noma'lum sayohatchiga ishongan holda, "Dongola qirolligi" da nasroniylar yashagan va uning shoh bayrog'i oq fonda xoch (qarang bayroq).[142] Epigrafik dalillar uchta Makuriya shohlarining ismlarini ochib beradi: ikkala 1330 yillarda hukmronlik qilgan Siti va Abdallah Kanz ad-Dawla va XIV asr o'rtalariga tegishli bo'lgan Qog'oz.[152] Siti hukmronligining barcha tabiatdagi attestatsiyalari shuni ko'rsatadiki, u hanuzgacha Quyi Nubiyadan Kordofangacha bo'lgan ulkan hudud ustidan nazorat / ta'sir o'tkazgan,[153] uning shohligi XIV asrning ikkinchi yarmiga markazlashgan, qudratli va nasroniylarga kirgan degan fikr.[154]

Shuningdek, XIV asrning o'rtalarida, xususan 1347 yildan keyin, Nubiya vayron bo'lganida vabo. Arxeologiya shundan beri nasroniy Nubiya tsivilizatsiyasining tez pasayishini tasdiqlaydi. Umuman olganda juda oz sonli aholi tufayli vabo butun landshaftlarni Nubiya aholisidan tozalagan bo'lishi mumkin.[155]

1365 yilda yana bir qisqa, ammo halokatli fuqarolar urushi yuz berdi. Amaldagi podshoh Banu Ja'd qabilasi bilan ittifoq qilgan isyon ko'targan jiyani tomonidan jangda o'ldirilgan. O'ldirilgan qirolning ukasi va uning tarafdorlari deb nomlangan shaharga qochib ketishdi Daw arab manbalarida, ehtimol pastki Nubiyada Addo bilan bir xil.[156] So'ngra sudxo'r Banu Jad zodagonlarini o'ldirdi, chunki u endi ularga ishonib bo'lmaydi va Dongolani yo'q qildi va talon-taroj qildi, shunchaki Dawga sayohat qilib, keyin amakisidan kechirim so'radi. Shunday qilib Dongola Banu Ja'dda qoldi va Addo yangi poytaxt bo'ldi.[157]

Terminal davri (1365 - XV asr oxiri)

Makuriya qo'pol davlati

Kechki Makuriya qirolligining minimal kengayishi

Ham sudxo'r, ham qonuniy merosxo'r, hatto katta ehtimol bilan hatto uzurpatsiya paytida o'ldirilgan qirol ham nasroniy bo'lgan.[158] Endi Addoda yashovchi Makuriya shohlari xristianlik an'analarini davom ettirdilar.[159] Ular haqiqatan ham kattaroq bo'lishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, taxminan 100 km shimoliy-janubga tasdiqlangan kengaytirilgan rum holatini boshqarganlar.[160] Bunday strategik ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan chekkada joylashgan mamluklar qirollikni yolg'iz qoldirdilar.[159] Manbalarda bu shohlik quyidagicha ko'rinadi Dotawo. Yaqin-yaqingacha bu odatda shunday deb taxmin qilingan Dotawo Makuriya sudi o'z o'rnini Addoga ko'chirmasdan oldin, shunchaki Makuriyaning vazal qirolligi edi, ammo endi u shunchaki Qadimgi Nubian Makuriya uchun o'zini o'zi belgilash.[161]

So'nggi ma'lum bo'lgan shoh Joel 1463 yilgi hujjatda va 1484 yilgi yozuvda eslatib o'tilgan. Ehtimol, shohlik so'nggi, qisqa muddatli qayta tiklanishga guvoh bo'lganida, ehtimol bu Djoel davrida bo'lgan.[162] Shoul Djoel vafot etganidan keyin yoki shohlik qulashi mumkin edi.[163] 15-asrning oxirida Qasr Ibrimdan voz kechganidek, Faras sobori ham XV asrdan keyin foydalanishga kirdi.[128] Addo saroyi XV asrdan keyin ham foydalanishga kirdi.[160] 1518 yilda Nubiya hukmdori haqida so'nggi eslatmalar mavjud, garchi u qaerda yashaganligi va u nasroniy yoki musulmon bo'lganligi noma'lum.[164] Usmonlilar bosib olganda mustaqil nasroniylar saltanatidan asar ham qolmagan Quyi Nubiya 1560-yillarda,[163] esa Funj Uchinchi kataraktning janubida Yuqori Nubiya egalik qilgan.

Keyingi o'zgarishlar

Siyosiy

15-asrning boshlarida, ehtimol Misr sultonlari ta'siridan mustaqil bo'lgan Dongola shohi haqida so'z boradi. Juma namozi Dongolada bo'lib o'tgan ularni ham aytib o'tolmadi.[165] Dongolaning ushbu yangi shohlari, ehtimol, arablar ko'chishi to'lqinlariga duch kelishgan va shuning uchun Makuriyaning parchalanib ketgan Quyi Nubiya davlatini bosib olishga ojiz edilar.[166]

Xristian Nubiya madaniyatini davom ettirgan ba'zi bir kichik shohliklar sobiq Makuriya hududida rivojlangan bo'lishi mumkin, masalan, shimoliy Mograt orolida. Abu Hamed.[167] Yana bir kichik shohlik, ehtimol, 17-asrda shimolda Usmonli imperiyasi va janubda Funj o'rtasidagi insonsiz erlarda tashkil etilgan Kokka qirolligi bo'lar edi. Uning tashkil etilishi va marosimlari xristian davridagi kabi o'xshashliklarga ega edi.[168] Oxir oqibat shohlarning o'zlari XVIII asrgacha nasroniy edilar.[169]

1412 yilda Avlad Kenz Nubiya va Misrning bir qismini o'z tasarrufiga oldi Thebaid.

Etnografik va lingvistik
19-asr boshlarida nubiyaliklar

Nubiyaliklar yuqori oqim ning Al Dabbah arab tili va arab tilini qabul qila boshladi va oxir-oqibat Jaalin, da'vo qilingan avlodlari Abbos, tog'asi Muhammad.[170] Jaalin haqida allaqachon aytib o'tilgan Devid Rubeni, XVI asrning boshlarida Nubiya orqali sayohat qilgan.[171] Ular hozirda Dabbahdan Moviy va Oq Nilning qo'shilishigacha bo'lgan bir necha kichik qabilalarga bo'lingan: Shaiqiya, Rubatab, Manasir, Mirafab va "Jaalin tegishli".[172] Ularning orasida Nubian tili 19-asrgacha tilda bo'lib kelgan.[171] Al Dabbahning shimolida uchta Nubiya kichik guruhi ishlab chiqilgan: Kenzi, tugatilishidan oldin Asvan to'g'oni, Aswan va o'rtasida yashagan Maharraka, Maharraka va bilan o'rtasida joylashgan Mahasi Kerma va Danagla, qolgan Nil vodiysi nubiyaliklarning janubi. Ba'zilar Danaglani Jaalinga sanaydilar, chunki Danagla ham o'zlarini o'sha arab qabilasiga mansub deb da'vo qiladilar, ammo aslida ular hanuzgacha Nubiya tilida gaplashadilar, Dongolavi.[173] Shimoliy Kordofan, bu hali 1330-yillarning oxirlarida Makuriyaning bir qismi bo'lgan,[174] lingvistikadan ham o'tdi Arablashtirish Al Dabbahning yuqori oqimidagi Nil vodiysiga o'xshash. Tarixiy va lingvistik dalillar mahalliy aholining 19-asrgacha asosan nubiya tilida so'zlashishini, til Nil-Nubiya lahjalari bilan chambarchas bog'liqligini tasdiqlaydi.[175]

Bugungi kunda nubiya tili arabcha bilan almashtirilish bosqichida.[176] Bundan tashqari, nubiyaliklar tobora o'zlarini Abbosdan kelib chiqqan arablar deb da'vo qila boshlaydilar va shu bilan ularning nasroniy Nubian o'tmishlariga e'tibor bermaydilar.[177]

Madaniyat

Xristian Nubiya uzoq vaqtdan beri daryoning suvi deb hisoblangan, chunki uning qabrlari kichik va etishmasligi qabr mollari oldingi davrlarning.[178] Zamonaviy olimlar bunga madaniy sabablar sabab bo'lganligini va makuriyaliklar aslida boy va jonli san'at va madaniyatga ega ekanliklarini tushunadilar.

Tillar

Old Nubian tarjimasidan sahifa Ozodlik instituti Mixailis Archangelis 9-10 asrlarda, topilgan Qasr Ibrim, now housed in the Britaniya muzeyi. Nomi Maykl appears in red.

Four languages were used in Makuria: Nubian, Koptik, Yunoncha va Arabcha.[179] Nubian was represented by two dialects, with Nobiin being said to have been spoken in the Nobadia province in the north and Dongolawi in the Makurian heartland,[180] although in the Islamic period Nobiin is also attested to have been employed by the Shaigiya qabilasi janubi-sharqda Dongola Reach.[181] The royal court employed Nobiin despite being located in Dongolawi-speaking territory. By the eight century Nobiin had been codified based on the Coptic alphabet,[182] but it was not until the 11th century when Nobiin had established itself as language of administrative, economic and religious documents.[183] The rise of Nobiin overlapped with the decline of the Coptic language in both Makuria and Egypt.[184] It has been suggested that before the rise of Nobiin as literary language, Coptic served as official administrative language, but this seems doubtful; Coptic literary remains are virtually absent in the Makurian heartland.[185] In Nobadia, however, Coptic was fairly widespread,[186] probably even serving as a lingua franca.[184] Coptic also served as the language of communication with Egypt and the Coptic Church. Coptic refugees escaping Islamic persecution settled in Makuria, while Nubian priests and bishops would have studied in Egyptian monasteries.[187] Greek, the third language, was of great prestige and used in religious context, but does not seem to have been actually spoken, making it a dead language (similar to Lotin in medieval Europe).[188] Lastly, Arabic was used from the 11th and 12th centuries, superseding Coptic as language of commerce and diplomatic correspondences with Egypt. Furthermore, Arab traders and settlers were present in northern Nubia,[189] although the spoken language of the latter appears to have gradually shifted from Arabic to Nubian.[190]

San'at

Wallpaintings

As of 2019, around 650 murals distributed over 25 sites have been recorded,[191] with more paintings still awaiting publication.[192] One of the most important discoveries of the rushed work prior to the flooding of Lower Nubia was the Cathedral of Faras. This large building had been completely filled with sand preserving a series of magnificent paintings. Similar, but less well preserved, paintings have been found at several other sites in Makuria, including palaces and private homes, giving an overall impression of Makurian art. The style and content was heavily influenced by Vizantiya san'ati, and also showed influence from Egyptian Coptic art and from Palestine.[193] Mainly religious in nature, it depicts many of the standard Christian scenes. Also illustrated are a number of Makurian kings and bishops, with noticeably darker skin than the Bibliyadagi raqamlar.

  • Galereya

  • Christ, Abu Oda (second half of the 7th century)

  • Muqaddas Piter inserted into a Pharaonic painting, Vadi es-Sebua (late 7th-early 8th century)

  • St. Anna, Faras (8th-first half of the 9th century)

  • Apostle Saints Peter and John (8th-first half of the 10th century)

  • Warrior saint with spear and shield, Faras (9th century)

  • Bosh farishta Gabriel with sword, Faras (9th-first quarter of the 10th century)

  • Madonna and Christ Child, Faras (10th century)

  • Three youths in the furnace, Faras (last quarter of the 10th century)

  • Theophany and bishop, Abdallah Nirqi (late 10th-early 11th century)

  • Magi on horseback, Faras (late 10th–early 11th century

  • Bishop Marianos with Madonna va Masihning bolasi, Faras (first half of the 11th century)

  • Elaborate cross, Faras (11th century)

  • Nubian dignitary and Christ, Faras (12th century)

  • Baptism of Christ, Old Dongola (12th–13th century)

  • Warrior saint, Meinarti (late 13th-mid 14th century)

Manuscript illustrations

  • Old Nubian manuscript from Serra East (973) showing some richly robed individual

  • Detail of a manuscript from Serra East showing a sitting man

  • Old Nubian manuscript from Qasr Ibrim showing a bishop

  • St. Menas and boatman on an Old Nubian manuscript found in Edfu

Kulolchilik

Pottery fragment from Faras, v. 900.

Nubian pottery in this period is also notable. Shinnie refers to it as the "richest indigenous pottery tradition on the African continent." Scholars divide the pottery into three eras.[194] The early period, from 550 to 650 according to Adams, or to 750 according to Shinnie, saw fairly simple pottery similar to that of the late Rim imperiyasi. It also saw much of Nubian pottery imported from Egypt rather than produced domestically. Adams feels this trade ended with the invasion of 652; Shinnie links it to the collapse of Umaviy rule in 750. After this domestic production increased, with a major production facility at Faras. In this middle era, which lasted until around 1100, the pottery was painted with floral and zoomorphic scenes and showed distinct Umayyad and even Sosoniyalik ta'sirlar.[195] The late period during Makuria's decline saw domestic production again fall in favour of imports from Egypt. Pottery produced in Makuria became less ornate, but better control of firing temperatures allowed different colours of clay.

Ayollarning roli

Makurian princess protected by Virgin Mary and Christ Child, Faras (12th century)

The Christian Nubian society was matrilineal[196] and women enjoyed a high social standing.[197] The matrilineal succession gave the queen mother and the sister of the current king as forthcoming queen mother great political relevance.[196] This importance is attested by the fact that she constantly appears in legal documents.[198] Another female political title was the asta ("daughter"), perhaps some type of provincial representative.[197]

Women had access to education[197] and there is evidence that, like in Byzantine Egypt, female scribes existed.[199] Private land tenure was open to both men and women, meaning that both could own, buy and sell land. Transfers of land from mother to daughter were common.[200] They could also be the patrons of churches and wall paintings.[201] Inscriptions from the cathedral of Faras indicate that around every second wall painting had a female sponsor.[202]

Gigiena

Latrines were a common sight in Nubian domestic buildings.[203] In Dongola all houses had ceramic toilets.[204] Some houses in Cerra Matto (Serra East) featured privies with ceramic toilets, which were connected to a small chamber with a stone-lined clean out window to the outside and a brick ventilation flue.[205] Biconical pieces of clay served as the equivalent of toilet paper.[206]

One house in Dongola featured a vaulted bathroom, fed by a system of pipes attached to a water tank.[207] A furnace heated up both the water and the air, which was circulated into the richly decorated bathroom via flues in the walls.[67] The monastic complex of Hambukol is thought to have had a room serving as a steam bath.[207] The Ghazali monastery in Wadi Abu Dom also might have featured several bathrooms.[208]

Hukumat

An Eparch of Nobatia

Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king was also considered a priest and could perform massa. Qanaqasiga vorislik was decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son. After the 11th century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was using the uncle-to-sister's-son system favoured for millennia in Kush. Shinnie speculates that the later form may have actually been used throughout, and that the early Arab writers merely misunderstood the situation and incorrectly described Makurian succession as similar to what they were used to.[209] A Coptic source from the mid 8th century refers to king Cyriacos as "orthodox Abyssinian king of Makuria" as well as "Greek king", with "Abyssinian" probably reflecting the Miaphysite Coptic church and "Greek" the Byzantine Orthodox one.[210] In 1186 king Moses Georgios called himself "king of Alodia, Makuria, Nobadia, Dalmatia[g] and Axioma."[212]

Little is known about government below the king. A wide array of officials, generally using Byzantine titles, are mentioned, but their roles are never explained. One figure who is well-known, thanks to the documents found at Qasr Ibrim, bo'ladi Eparx ning Nobatiya, who seems to have been the viceroy in that region after it was annexed to Makuria. The Eparch's records make clear that he was also responsible for trade and diplomacy with the Egyptians. Early records make it seem like the Eparch was appointed by the king, but later ones indicate that the position had become hereditary.[213] This office would eventually become that of the "Lord of the Horses" ruling the autonomous and then Egyptian-controlled al-Maris.[iqtibos kerak ]

The episkoplar might have played a role in the governance of the state. Ibn Selim al-Asvaniy noted that before the king responded to his mission he met with a council of bishops.[214] El-Aswani described a highly centralized state, but other writers state that Makuria was a federation of thirteen kingdoms presided over by the great king at Dongola.[215] It is unclear what the reality was, but the Kingdom of Dotawo, prominently mentioned in the Qasr Ibrim documents, might be one of these sub-kingdoms.[216]

Shohlar

Asosiy maqola: List of rulers of Makuria

Din

Butparastlik

Ning qoldiqlari Ghazali monastery on a mid-19th century painting by Karl Richard Lepsius

One of the most debated issues among scholars is over the religion of Makuria. Up to the 5th century the old faith of Mero seems to have remained strong, even while qadimgi Misr dini, its counterpart in Egypt, disappeared. In the 5th century the Nubians went so far as to launch an invasion of Egypt when the Christians there tried to turn some of the main temples into churches.[217]

Nasroniylik

A painting from the Faras Cathedral depicting the birth of Jesus
Wood painting from Vodiy Halfa depicting some Christian saint

Archaeological evidence in this period finds a number of Christian ornaments in Nubia, and some scholars feel that this implies that conversion from below was already taking place. Others argue that it is more likely that these reflected the faith of the manufacturers in Egypt rather than the buyers in Nubia.

Certain conversion came with a series of 6th-century missions. The Vizantiya imperiyasi dispatched an official party to try to convert the kingdoms to Xalsedon Christianity, but Empress Teodora reportedly conspired to delay the party to allow a group of Miafizitlar to arrive first.[218] Efeslik Yuhanno reports that the Monophysites successfully converted the kingdoms of Nobatiya va Alodiya, but that Makuria remained hostile. Biklarumning Yuhanno states that Makuria then embraced the rival Byzantine Christianity. Archaeological evidence seems to point to a rapid conversion brought about by an official adoption of the new faith. Millennia-old traditions such as the building of elaborate tombs, and the burying of expensive grave goods with the dead were abandoned, and temples throughout the region seem to have been converted to churches. Churches eventually were built in virtually every town and village.[194]

After this point the exact course of Makurian Christianity is much disputed. It is clear that by ca. 710 Makuria had become officially Koptik and loyal to the Koptik patriarx Iskandariya;[219] the king of Makuria became the defender of the patriarch of Alexandria, occasionally intervening militarily to protect him, as Kyriakos did in 722. This same period saw Melkite Makuria absorb the Coptic Nobatia, and historians have long wondered why the conquering state adopted the religion of its rival. It is fairly clear that Egyptian Coptic influence was far stronger in the region, and that Byzantine power was fading, and this might have played a role. Historians are also divided on whether this was the end of the Melkite/Coptic split as there is some evidence that a Melkite minority persisted until the end of the kingdom.

Church infrastructure

The Makurian church was divided into seven bishoprics: Kalabsha, Qupta, Qasr Ibrim, Faras, Sai, Dongola, and Suenkur.[220] Aksincha Efiopiya, it appears that no national church was established and all seven bishops reported directly to the Koptik patriarx Iskandariya. The bishops were appointed by the Patriarch, not the king, though they seem to have largely been local Nubians rather than Egyptians.[221]

Monastirizm

The Adam chapel of the Muqaddas qabriston cherkovi yilda Quddus, which during the Crusades was owned by Nubian monks.

Unlike in Egypt, there is not much evidence for monastirizm in Makuria. According to Adams there are only three archaeological sites that are certainly monastic. All three are fairly small and quite Coptic, leading to the possibility that they were set up by Egyptian refugees rather than indigenous Makurians.[222] Since the 10th/11th century the Nubians had their own monastery in the Egyptian Vadi El Natrun vodiy.[223]

Islom

Muslim tombstone from Meinarti (11-asr)

The Baqt guaranteed the security of Muslims travelling in Makuria,[224] but prohibited their settlement in the kingdom. The latter point was, however, not maintained:[225] Muslim migrants, probably merchants and artisans,[226] are confirmed to have settled in Lower Nubia from the 9th century and to have intermarried with the locals, thus laying the foundation for a small Muslim population[227] janubga qadar Batn el-Hajar.[228] Arabic documents from Qasr Ibrim confirm that these Muslims had their own communal judiciary,[229] but still regarded the Eparch of Nobatia as their suzerain.[230] It seems likely that they had own mosques, but yet none has been identified archaeologically,[226] with a possible exception being in Jebel Adda.[225]

In Dongola, there was no larger number of Muslims until the end of the 13th century. Before that date, Muslim residents were limited to merchants and diplomats.[231] In the late 10th century, when al-Aswani came to Dongola, there was, despite being demanded in the Baqt, still no mosque; he and around 60 other Muslims had to pray outside of the city.[232] It is not until 1317, with the conversion of the throne hall by Abdallah Barshambu, when a mosque is firmly attested.[233] Da Jizya, the Islamic head tax enforced on non-Muslims, was established after the Mamluk invasion of 1276[234] and Makuria was periodically governed by Muslim kings since Abdallah Barshambu, the majority of the Nubians remained Christian.[235] The actual Islamization of Nubia began in the late 14th century, with the arrival of the first in a series of Muslim teachers propagating a rudimentary Sufi Islam.[236]

Iqtisodiyot

Financial transaction scene from Dongola (12th century)
A Makurian dancing mask as depicted on a mural from Dongola.

The main economic activity in Makuria was agriculture, with farmers growing several crops a year of arpa, tariq va sanalar. The methods used were generally the same that had been used for millennia. Small plots of well irrigated land were lined along the banks of the Nile, which would be fertilized by the river's annual flooding. One important technological advance was the saqiya, an ho'kizlar - kuchga ega suv g'ildiragi, that was introduced in the Roman period and helped increase yields and population density.[237] Settlement patterns indicate that land was divided into individual plots rather than as in a manorial system. The peasants lived in small villages composed of clustered houses of quritilgan g'isht.

Important industries included the production of sopol idishlar, asoslangan Faras va to'quvchilik asoslangan Dongola. Smaller local industries include charmdan ishlov berish, metalworking, and the widespread production of savat, paspaslar va sandallar from palm fibre.[238] Also important was the gold mined in the Qizil dengiz tepaliklari to the east of Makuria.[194]

Qoramol was of great economic importance. Perhaps their breeding and marketing was controlled by the central administration. A great assemblage of 13th century cattle bones from Old Dongola has been linked with a mass slaughter by the invading Mamluks, who attempted to weaken the Makurian economy.[239]

Makurian trade was largely by barter as the state never adopted a valyuta. In the north, however, Egyptian coins were common.[1] Makurian trade with Egypt was of great importance. From Egypt a wide array of luxury and manufactured goods were imported. The main Makurian export was slaves. The slaves sent north were not from Makuria itself, but rather from further south and west in Africa. Little is known about Makurian trade and relations with other parts of Africa. There is some archaeological evidence of contacts and trade with the areas to the west, especially Kordofan. Additionally, contacts to Darfur va Kanem-Bornu seem probable, but there are only few evidences. There seem to have been important political relations between Makuria and Christian Efiopiya janubi-sharqda. For instance, in the 10th century, Georgios II successfully intervened on behalf of the unnamed ruler at that time, and persuaded Patriarch Philotheos of Alexandria to at last ordain an abuna, yoki metropoliten, uchun Efiopiya pravoslav cherkovi. However, there is little evidence of much other interaction between the two Christian states.[iqtibos kerak ]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ Theory I places that event at the time of the Sasanian invasion, theory II at the time between the first and second Arab invasion, i.e. 642 and 652, and the third at the turn of the seventh century.[27]
  2. ^ It has also been argued that the bishopric was not founded, but merely reestablished.[34]
  3. ^ Recently it has been suggested that the Arabs fought the Nubians not in Nubia, but in Upper Egypt, which remained a battle zone contested by both parties until the Arab conquest of Aswan in 652.[38]
  4. ^ Zakharias, presumably already quite powerful during the lifetime of Ioannes, was the husband of a sister of Ioannes. The matrilinear Nubian succession demanded that only the son of the king's sister could be the next king, hence making Zakharias an illegitimate king in contrast to his son Georgios.[63]
  5. ^ The claim of complete nakedness should not be taken for a fact, as it reflects an ancient stereotype.[132]
  6. ^ This might be a reference to the original three kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia, unless the author was implying the semi-autonomous status of Nobatia within Makuria.[132]
  7. ^ "Dalmatia" or "Damaltia" is probably an error for Tolmeyta (ancient Ptolemais in Libya), which was a part of the patriarch of Alexandria's title: "archbishop of the great city of Alexandria and the city of Babylon (Cairo), and Nobadia, Alodia, Makuria, Dalmatia and Axioma (Axum)." It has been proposed that there was some confusion in the 1186 document between the titles of the king and the patriarch.[211]

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Adabiyotlar

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  • Adams, Uilyam Y. (1991). "The United Kingdom of Makouria and Nobadia: A Medieval Nubian Anomaly". In W.V. Davies (ed.). Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam. London: Britaniya muzeyi matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-7141-0962-6.
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