Nisbiy gap - Relative clause

A nisbiy band a tobe gap tarkibida subordinatsiya grammatik jihatdan bog'liq bo'lgan ibora bilan izohlanishi ta'minlanadigan element mavjud. Ergash gapning grammatik jihatdan bog'liq bo'lgan ifodasi oldingi va bor anaforik nisbiy gapdagi relyativizatsiya qilingan element va unga bog'liq bo'lgan oldingi narsa o'rtasidagi munosabatlar.^[1]

Odatda nisbiy gap a-ni o'zgartiradi ism yoki ot iborasi,^[1] va nisbiy gap ichidagi argumentlardan biri shu ism yoki ot iborasi bilan bir xil referentga ega ekanligini ko'rsatish uchun ba'zi grammatik vositalardan foydalanadi. Masalan, gapda Men u erda bo'lmagan odam bilan uchrashdim, tobe gap kim yo'q edi nisbiy gap, chunki u ismni o'zgartiradi kishi, va olmoshidan foydalanadi JSSV bir xil "odam" ergash gapning ichida aytilganligini ko'rsatish uchun (bu holda, uning nomi bilan) Mavzu ).

Ko'pgina Evropa tillarida nisbiy gaplar maxsus sinf tomonidan kiritilgan olmoshlar deb nomlangan nisbiy olmoshlar,^[2] kabi JSSV hozir berilgan misolda. Boshqa tillarda nisbiy gaplar turlicha belgilanishi mumkin: ularni bog'lanishning maxsus klassi deb atash mumkin relyativizatorlar; nisbiy gapning asosiy feli maxsus morfologik variantda paydo bo'lishi mumkin; yoki nisbiy band faqat so'z tartibida ko'rsatilishi mumkin.^[3] Ba'zi tillarda ushbu mexanizmlardan bittasi mumkin bo'lishi mumkin.

Turlari

Bog'liq va bepul

A bog'langan nisbiy gap, ko'pincha ko'rib chiqiladigan tur aniq elementni talab qiladi (odatda a ism yoki ot iborasi ) asosiy bandda paydo bo'ladi va nisbiy tarkibdagi ba'zi bir aniq yoki yashirin qurilma yordamida ushbu elementga murojaat qiladi.

Nisbiy gap ham vazifasini bajarishi mumkin ko'milgan band asosiy (yoki yuqori darajadagi) bandda, shu bilan a matritsa jumlasi.^[4] Nisbiy gap o‘zgartiradigan bosh gapdagi ism ot bosh ism, yoki (ayniqsa nisbiy olmosh bilan aytilganida) the oldingi.

Masalan, inglizcha "Men kecha ko'rgan odam uyiga ketdi" jumlasida "kecha ko'rganim" nisbiy gapi bosh ismni o'zgartiradi. kishiva nisbiy olmoshi kim yana shu ismning referentiga murojaat qiladi. Ushbu jumla quyidagi ikkita jumlaga teng keladi: "Men kecha bir odamni ko'rdim. Erkak uyiga ketdi". Umumiy argument ikkala bandda bir xil rolni bajarishi shart emas; ushbu misolda xuddi shu odam Mavzu matritsa bandining, lekin to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ekt nisbiy bandning.

A erkin nisbiy gapBoshqa tomondan, o'ziga xos tashqi ko'rinish mavjud emas. Buning o'rniga, matritsa gapida argument o'rnini nisbiy gapning o'zi oladi. Masalan, ingliz tilidagi "I like what I see", bandi nima ko'rayapman - bu erkin nisbiy gap, chunki unda avvalgi narsa yo'q, lekin o'zi sifatida xizmat qiladi ob'ekt fe'lning kabi asosiy bandda. (Muqobil tahlil - erkin nisbiy band mavjud nol uning oldingisi sifatida.)

Cheklovchi va cheklovsiz

Bog'langan nisbiy gaplar bo'lishi mumkin yoki bo'lmasligi mumkin cheklovchi. A cheklovchi nisbiy gap vazifasini bajaruvchi nisbiy gap cheklovchi modifikator. A cheklovsiz nisbiy gap taqiqlovchi nisbiy gap bo‘lmagan nisbiy gap. Holbuki a cheklovsiz yoki noaniq nisbiy band faqat qo'shimcha ma'lumot beradi, a cheklovchi yoki belgilaydigan nisbiy gap uning bosh so'zining ma'nosini o'zgartiradi (uning mumkin bo'lgan havolasini cheklaydi). Masalan:

• Erkak bu uyda kim yashaydi bir necha kundan beri ko'rinmayapti. Bu (bu uyda kim yashaydi) - ma'nosini o'zgartirib, cheklovchi nisbiy gap kishi, va jumla uchun muhim (agar band tashlab qo'yilgan bo'lsa, endi qaysi odamga murojaat qilinganligi ma'lum bo'lmaydi). Agar qalin qism o'chirilgan bo'lsa, qolgan qismi ma'no bermaydi.
• Hokim, bu uyda kim yashaydi, bir necha kundan beri ko'rinmayapti. Bu cheklovsiz nisbiy banddir, chunki u shahar hokimi haqida qo'shimcha ma'lumot beradi, ammo jumla uchun muhim emas - agar band tashlab qo'yilgan bo'lsa, unda qaysi shahar hokimi nazarda tutilganligi hali ham ma'lum bo'lar edi. Agar qalin qism o'chirilsa, qolgan qismi ma'no beradi.

Gapirish paytida cheklovsiz bandlar atrofida biroz pauza qilish tabiiydir va ingliz tilida bu yozma ravishda ko'rsatilgan vergul (misollarda bo'lgani kabi). Ammo ko'pgina tillar nisbiy gapning ikki turini shu tarzda ajratib ko'rsatmaydi. Ingliz tilidagi yana bir farq shundaki, faqat cheklovchi nisbiy gaplar kiritilishi mumkin bu yoki "nol" nisbiy olmoshidan foydalaning (qarang) Ingliz tilidagi nisbiy gaplar tafsilotlar uchun).

Og'zaki nutqda cheklovsiz nisbiy gapda ma'lum bir ism iborasi emas, balki avvalgi gap sifatida butun bir jumla bo'lishi mumkin; masalan:

• Mushukni karavotga qo'yishdi, itni bezovta qildi.

Bu erda jumla mazmuni (ehtimol) shuni ko'rsatadiki qaysi to'shakka yoki mushukga emas, balki butunga tegishli taklif asosiy bandda, ya'ni mushukning karavotga ruxsat berilgan holatida ifodalangan. Bunday konstruktsiyalar rasmiy foydalanish va mahalliy bo'lmagan ma'ruzachilar uchun yozilgan matnlarda potentsiali tufayli rad etiladi noaniqlik tahlil qilishda; rasmiy foydalanishda ko'proq qabul qilingan qurilish bo'ladi Mushuk bor [yoki bo'lish] to'shakda ruxsat berilgan itni bezovta qildi.

Sonli va cheklanmagan

Nisbiy gaplar cheklangan gaplar bo'lishi mumkin (yuqoridagi misollarda bo'lgani kabi) yoki cheklanmagan gaplar. Ingliz tilidagi cheklanmagan nisbiy gapning misoli infinitiv gap kimga ishonish kerak, "U kimga ishonishi kerak bo'lgan odam" jumlasida.

Formalash usullari

Tillar ko'p jihatdan nisbiy gaplarning qanday ifodalanishi bilan farq qiladi:

1. O'rnatilgan gapda umumiy ism iborasining roli qanday ko'rsatilgan.
2. Ikki band qanday birlashtirilganligi.
3. O'rnatilgan gap bosh ismga nisbatan joylashtirilgan joyda (asosiy banddagi qaysi ism iborasi o'zgartirilganligini ko'rsatadigan jarayonda).

Masalan, inglizcha "Kecha ko'rgan odam uyiga ketdi" jumlasini quyidagicha ta'riflash mumkin:

1. O'rnatilgan gapda umumiy ismning roli ko'rsatiladi bo'shliq; ya'ni "ko'rgandan" so'ng ob'ekt holatida bo'shliq qoldiriladi, bu umumiy ism iborasini ("odam") bu bo'shliqni to'ldirish va "ko'rdim" fe'lining ob'ekti bo'lib xizmat qilishini tushunish kerakligini anglatadi.
2. Ushbu bandlar to'ldiruvchi "bu".
3. O'rnatilgan band joylashtirilgan keyin bosh odam "odam".

Quyidagi jumlalar turli xil imkoniyatlarni ko'rsatadi (ulardan ba'zilari faqat ingliz tilida grammatik):

• "Kecha [men ko'rgan] odam uyiga ketdi". (A to'ldiruvchi ikkita bandni a bilan bog'lash bo'shliq qo'shma so'zda umumiy ismning rolini ko'rsatadigan strategiya. Ingliz tilida bitta imkoniyat. Lingvistik jihatdan juda keng tarqalgan.)
• "U kishi [men kecha ko'rganman] uyiga ketdi". (Gapping strategiyasi, so'zlarga qo'shilmasdan, shuningdek, a deb ham tanilgan qisqartirilgan nisbiy band. Ingliz tilida bitta imkoniyat. Ichida ishlatilgan Arabcha qachon bosh ism noaniq, "odam" o'rniga "odam" kabi.)
• "Kecha men ko'rgan odam uyiga ketdi". (A nisbiy olmosh ko'milgan gapda umumiy ismning rolini ko'rsatuvchi - bu holda to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ekt. Kabi rasmiy ingliz tilida ishlatiladi Lotin, Nemis yoki Ruscha.)
• "U kishi [kecha men ko'rgan] uyiga ketdi". (A qisqartirilgan nisbiy band, Ushbu holatda passivlashgan. Ingliz tilida bitta imkoniyat.)
• "U [men uni kecha ko'rganman] uyiga ketdi". (Ikki jumlani a bilan bog'laydigan to'ldiruvchi resumptive olmoshi singari singari qo'shma gapda umumiy ismning rolini ko'rsatib beradi Arabcha, Ibroniycha yoki Fors tili.)
• "U [men uni kecha ko'rganman] uyiga ketdi". (Oldingisiga o'xshash, ammo rezyumiv olmoshi old tomonda. Bu zamonaviyda uchraydi Yunoncha va zamonaviy imkoniyatlardan biri sifatida Ibroniycha; kombinatsiya u uni komplementer va resumptive olmoshi unitar nisbiy olmoshiga o‘xshaydi.)
• "Men [kecha ko'rgan] odam uyiga ketdi". (Odatda a .da ishlatilgandek, egalik zarrachasini bo'shatish va ishlatish bilan bog'liq nisbiy banddan oldin genetik qurilish - nisbiy gapni bosh ot bilan boglash uchun. Bu ko'plab xitoy-tibet tillarida uchraydi va ehtimol "nisbiy klaus + ot"> "nominalized clause + noun"> "genitive build" dan rivojlangan.^[5][6])
• "Men [kecha ko'rganman] odam uyiga ketdi". (Gap bilan gaplashadigan va bog'laydigan so'zsiz nisbiy gapdan oldin, xuddi Yapon yoki Mo'g'ul.)
• "[Kecha ko'rgan odam] uyiga ketdi". (Nominalizatsiya qilingan singari nisbiy band Turkcha.)
• "[Kecha qaysi odamni ko'rdim], u odam uyiga ketdi". (A korrelyatsion kabi, tuzilishi Hind.)
• "[Men kecha odamni ko'rdim] uyiga ketdi." (An o'qimagan, ichki boshliq singari nisbiy band Tibet yoki Navaxo.)

Umumiy ismning nisbiy gapdagi rolini kursatish strategiyasi

O'rnatilgan gapda umumiy ism iborasining rolini ko'rsatishning to'rtta asosiy strategiyasi mavjud.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Ular odatda nisbiy ergash gapdagi otning kamaytirilganlik darajasi bo'yicha, ko'pdan eng kichigacha tartibida keltirilgan:

1. Gap strategiyasi yoki nuqsonli nisbiy band
2. Nisbiy olmosh
3. Olmoshni ushlab qolish
4. Qisqartirish

Gapped nisbiy gap

Ushbu strategiyada umumiy ism mavjud bo'lgan nisbiy bandda shunchaki bo'shliq mavjud. Masalan, ingliz tilida, shuningdek, xitoy va yapon tillarida bu odatiy holdir. Bu nisbiy gapning eng keng tarqalgan turi, ayniqsa fe'l-final prenominal nisbiy gaplar bilan tillar, lekin postnominal tashqi bosh gapli tillar orasida ham keng tarqalgan.

Nisbiy va asosiy bandlarga qo'shilish uchun biron bir marker ishlatilishi mumkin yoki bo'lmasligi mumkin. (Harf bilan belgilangan nisbiy olmoshi bo'lgan tillar texnik jihatdan bo'shliqqa ega bo'lishiga qaramay, bo'shliq strategiyasini qo'llaydi deb hisoblanmaydi, chunki nisbiy olmoshning holati umumiy ismning rolini bildiradi.) Ko'pincha fe'l shakli asosiy bandlarda bundan farq qiladi va turk va ingliz tillarida bo'lgani kabi ma'lum darajada nominallanadi qisqartirilgan nisbiy bandlar.^[7][8]

Kabi tillardan tashqari, fe'lsiz yakuniy tillarda Tailandcha va Vetnam grammatikalarida juda kuchli xushmuomalalik bilan^{[iqtibos kerak ]}, bo'shashgan nisbiy bandlar, ammo mavjudlik ierarxiyasida yuqori pozitsiyalar bilan chegaralanishga moyil. Obliklar va genitivlar bilan, fe'ldan tashqari tillarda olmoshni ishlatishda xushmuomalalik cheklovlari mavjud emas, ular olmoshni ushlab turishni qo'llaydilar. Ingliz tili bu erda odatiy emas barchasi ko'milgan banddagi rollarni bo'shliq bilan ko'rsatish mumkin: masalan. "Men o'zimning do'stim bo'lgan odamni ko'rdim", ammo (shuningdek, asta-sekin kamroq mavqega ega bo'lgan tillarda o'zaro faoliyat mavjudlik ierarxiyasi quyida tasvirlangan) "... kimni bilaman", "... kimga kitob sovg'a qildim", "... kim bilan gaplashdim", "... kimdan sekinroq yuguraman". Odatda, bo'shliqqa ega bo'lgan tillar uni kirish uchun ierarxiyadagi ma'lum darajadan tashqariga chiqarib qo'yishadi va shu payt boshqa strategiyaga o'tishadi. Klassik arabcha masalan, faqat mavzudagi va ba'zida to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ektdagi bo'shliqlarga yo'l qo'yiladi; bundan tashqari, resumptive olmoshi ishlatilishi kerak. Ba'zi tillarda ma'lum bir vaqtdan beri hech qanday strategiya mavjud emas, masalan. ko'pchilikda Avstronesiya tillari, kabi Tagalogcha, barcha nisbiy gaplarda ko'milgan gapda predmet rolini bajaradigan umumiy ism bo'lishi kerak. Ushbu tillarda "taqiqlangan" rollarni bajaradigan umumiy ismlar bilan nisbiy gaplarni ifodalash mumkin passivlashtiruvchi o`rnatilgan gap, shu bilan o`rnatilgan gapdagi ismni predmet holatiga ko`chiradi. Masalan, bu "Men kitob bergan odam" ni "Menga kitob bergan odam" ga aylantiradi. Odatda, bu kabi tillar passivizatsiyaga yo'l qo'yib, umumiy nisbiylashtirishni amalga oshirish uchun "fitna uyushtiradi" barchasi pozitsiyalar - shuning uchun "Mendan sekin ishlaydigan odam" ga teng bo'lgan jumla grammatikdir. Gapping ko'pincha harflar bilan belgilangan nisbiy olmoshlar bilan birgalikda ishlatiladi (chunki nisbiy olmosh ko'milgan gapdagi holat rolini bildiradi), ammo bu zarur emas (masalan, xitoy va yapon tillari ikkalasi ham bo'shashmasdan to'ldiruvchi bilan birgalikda).

Nisbiy olmosh turi

Bu aslida gaplashgan nisbiy gapning bir turi, lekin qo'shilgan ismdagi qo'shma ismning roli bilvosita markerning ish belgisi bilan ko'rsatilganligi bilan ajralib turadi ( nisbiy olmosh ) asosiy va ko'milgan gaplarga qo'shilish uchun ishlatilgan. Nisbiy olmoshlardan foydalanadigan barcha tillarda ularni gap boshlangich holati mavjud: garchi tasavvur qilish mumkin bo'lsa, ushbu pozitsiyadagi ergashish subordinatoriga o'xshash gapni yakunlovchi nisbiy olmoshini tasavvur qilish mumkin, ammo ular noma'lum.

Ba'zi tillarda "nisbiy olmoshlar" deb ta'riflangan narsalar mavjud (ular bosh ismning ba'zi xususiyatlari bilan, masalan, son va jins bilan), lekin ular aslida qo'shma ismning ko'milgan gapdagi holatini ko'rsatmaydi. Klassik arabcha aslida "nisbiy olmoshlar" ga ega, ular katta harflar bilan belgilanadi, lekin bilan mos keladi bosh ism. Harf bilan belgilangan nisbiy olmoshlar qat'iy ma'noda deyarli butunlay cheklangan Evropa tillari^{[iqtibos kerak ]}, Ular orasida faqat keng tarqalgan qaerda Keltlar oilasi va Hind-oriy oilasi. Ispanlarning ta'siri ularning juda oz sonli tomonidan moslashishiga olib keldi Mahalliy Amerika tillari, ulardan qaysi biri eng taniqli Keresan tillari.^[9]

Olmoshni saqlash turi

Ushbu turdagi relyativizatsiya pozitsiyasi a yordamida ko'rsatiladi shaxs olmoshi bir xil sintaktik pozitsiyada, odatdagidek, asosiy bandda ushbu turdagi ot iborasi bilan ishg'ol qilinadi - resumptive olmoshi. Bu "Men ko'rgan odam." uni Kecha uyga qaytdi ". Olmoshni ushlab turish, kirish imkoniyati ierarxiyasida mavjud bo'lmagan pozitsiyalarni nisbiylashtirish uchun juda tez-tez ishlatiladi. Fors tili va Klassik arabcha masalan, rezyumiv olmoshlar ko'milgan rol sub'ektdan yoki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ektdan boshqa, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ekt uchun esa ixtiyoriy bo'lganda talab qilinadi. Resumptive olmoshlari fe'lsiz-finalda keng tarqalgan Afrika tillari va Osiyo, shuningdek, Evropaning shimoli-g'arbiy qismida va kelt tillarida qo'llaniladi Rumin ("Omul pe g'amxo'rlik l-am văzut ieri a mers acasă "/" Men ko'rgan odam uni Kecha uyga qaytishdi "). Ular ingliz tilida chuqur singdirilgan holatlarda ham uchraydi, chunki" Bu qiz nima bilmayman u qildi ",^[10] garchi bu ba'zan nostandart hisoblanadi.

Faqatgina juda oz miqdordagi tillar, ulardan qaysi biri eng yaxshi ma'lum Yoruba, nisbiy gapning yagona grammatik turi sifatida olmoshni ushlab turishga ega.

Cheklanmaslik turi

Nonreduktsiya turida, qolgan uchtadan farqli o'laroq, umumiy ism a shaklida bo'ladi to'liq ismli ibora to'liq mustaqil gap shakliga ega bo'lgan ko'milgan gapda. Odatda, bu qisqartirilgan yoki yo'qolgan asosiy banddagi bosh ism. Ba'zi tillarda nisbiy gapni bosh ism yoniga joylashtirishning odatdagi strategiyasi bilan ushbu turdagi nisbiy gaplar ishlatiladi. Ushbu tillarda mavjud deyishadi ichki boshliq inglizcha tuzilishga o'xshash "nisbiy" bandlar, "[u erdagi qizni ko'rasiz] mening do'stim" yoki "men [u erdagi qizni ko'rayapsizmi] uchrashuvga olib bordim". Bu, masalan, ichida ishlatiladi Navaxo, bu maxsus nisbiy fe'ldan foydalanadi (ba'zi boshqa mahalliy Amerika tillarida bo'lgani kabi).

Ikkinchi strategiya - bu korrelyatsion- tomonidan ishlatiladigan band strategiyasi Hind va boshqalar Hind-oriyan tillari, shu qatorda; shu bilan birga Bambara. Ushbu strategiya "Siz u erda qaysi qizni ko'rasiz, u mening qizim" yoki "Do'stimni qaysi pichoq bilan o'ldirgan edim, politsiya bu pichoqni topdi" deyishga teng. Tegishli ismlarning tenglashtirilishini ko'rsatuvchi "qaysi ..." ... yoki "qaysi ... u / u ..." olmoshlari mos keladigan "korrelyatsion". Umumiy ism umuman bosh gapda takrorlanishi yoki olmoshga aylantirilishi mumkin. Bunday gapda umumiy ismni oldinga surishning hojati yo'q. Masalan, yuqoridagi ikkinchi misolda hind tilida aslida "men do'stimni qaysi pichoq bilan o'ldirgan edim, politsiya o'sha pichoqni topdi" ga teng keladigan narsa aytiladi.

Ba'zi yevropa tillarining shevalarida, masalan, italyan tilida, ingredientda "odam bizdan o'tib ketdi, u meni kantsler bilan tanishtirdi" deb nomlanishi mumkin.

Umuman olganda, qisqartirish faqat fe'lning so'nggi tillari bilan cheklangan, ammo bu tillar orasida keng tarqalgan bosh belgisi.

Nisbiy gapni bosh gapga qo'shilish strategiyalari

Quyidagi ikkita bandga qo'shilishning ba'zi umumiy strategiyalari:

• Ishonchsiz zarrachadan foydalanish (xususan, a relyativizator ) jumlaga kiritilgan, o'zgartirilgan ism yoniga qo'yilgan; ko'milgan gap shu tarzda tegishli holatga kiritiladi, odatda to'ldiruvchi tomonning boshqa tomoniga joylashtiriladi. Ushbu strategiya juda keng tarqalgan va shubhasiz ushbu so'z bilan ingliz tilida uchraydi bu ("men ko'rgan odam"), garchi "bu" ni nisbiy olmoshdan boshqa narsa sifatida talqin qilish munozarali bo'lsa ham (qarang quyida ). Zamonaviy arabcha navlar (foydalanib illi o'zgartirilgan ismdan keyin joylashtirilgan); yilda Xitoy (foydalanib de o'zgartirilgan ismdan oldin joylashtirilgan).
• A dan foydalanish nisbiy olmosh. Prototip sifatida nisbiy olmosh bosh ism bilan jinsi, soni, aniqligi, jonliligi va boshqalarda kelishadi, lekin qabul qiladi ish umumiy ismning ko'milgan, matritsa emas, band. Bu kabi bir qator konservativ Evropa tillarida Lotin, Nemis va Ruscha. Ko'pgina tillarda, odatda, "nisbiy olmoshlar" deb nomlangan o'xshash bog'lovchi so'zlar mavjud, ular bosh ism bilan qandaydir ma'noda kelishadi, lekin ko'milgan gapning katta rolini qabul qilmaydi. Masalan, ingliz tilida JSSV va boshqalar qaysi bosh ismning animatsiyasi bilan rozi, ammo rasmiy inglizcha qarama-qarshilikdan tashqari hech qanday kelishuv mavjud emas JSSV va boshqalar kim. Xuddi shunday, ichida Klassik arabcha, son, jins, kelishik nisbiy olmoshi mavjud aniqlik va bosh ism bilan ish (ko'milgan gapda ismning katta rolini olish o'rniga). Prototipik nisbiy olmoshlari bo'lgan tillar, odatda, so'zma-so'z so'zlashuv strategiyasidan ko'milgan banddagi rolni ko'rsatish uchun foydalanadi, chunki nisbiy olmoshning o'zi bu rolni o'z holati bo'yicha ko'rsatadi. (Klassik arabcha, ishning markirovkasi boshqa narsani ko'rsatadigan bo'lsa, a dan foydalanadi resumptive olmoshi.) Ba'zi tilshunoslar bu atamadan foydalanishni afzal ko'rishadi nisbiy olmosh faqat prototipik holatlar uchun (lekin bu holda prototipik bo'lmagan holatlarni nima deb nomlash noma'lum).
• To'g'ridan-to'g'ri matritsa tarkibiga kiritilgan gapni tegishli joyga qo'ying, ularga qo'shilish uchun so'z ishlatilmaydi. Bu, masalan, ingliz tilida keng tarqalgan (qarang: "Men kecha ko'rgan odam uyiga ketdi") va ishlatilgan Klassik arabcha noaniq otlarni o'zgartiradigan nisbiy gaplarda.
• By nominalizatsiya nisbiy band (masalan, uni qatnashuvchi konstruksiyaga aylantirish). Odatda nisbiy olmosh yoki to‘ldiruvchi ishlatilmaydi. Bu, masalan, ichida sodir bo'ladi qisqartirilgan nisbiy bandlar ingliz tilida (masalan: "Kecha men ko'rgan odam uyiga ketdi" yoki "Yaqinda uyga borishni rejalashtirayotgan odam mening do'stim"). Rasmiy nemis juda uzoqlashishi mumkin bo'lgan bunday nisbiy gaplardan keng foydalanadi. Bu ham normal strategiya Turkcha, "Men Xasanning Sinoga bergan kartoshkasini yedim" ("Xasan Sinoga bergan kartoshkani yedim" o'rniga) ga teng jumlalar mavjud. Buni "komplementer" ko'milgan bandning fe'liga biriktirilgan holat sifatida qaralishi mumkin (masalan, ingliz tilida "-ing" yoki "-ed" ni to'ldiruvchi turi sifatida ko'rish mumkin).

Bosh otning nisbiy gapga nisbatan joylashishi

Nisbiy gapning bosh ismdan oldin yoki keyin joylashishi umumiyroq tushunchasi bilan bog'liq dallanma tilshunoslikda. Nisbiy gaplarni bosh ismidan keyin qo'yadigan tillar (shunday deb ataladi) bosh-boshlang'ich yoki VO tillar) odatda sifatlar va genetik modifikatorlar bosh ismga, shuningdek, ularning predmetlaridan oldingi fe'llarga ergashish. Frantsuzcha, Ispaniya va Arabcha ushbu turdagi prototip tillardir. Nisbiy gaplarni bosh ismidan oldin qo'yadigan tillar (shunday deb ataladi) bosh final yoki OV tillar) odatda sifatlar va genetik modifikatorlar bosh ismdan oldin, shuningdek, ularning ob'ektlarini ergashgan fe'llar. Turkcha va Yapon ushbu turdagi prototip tillardir. Hamma tillar ushbu toifalarga osonlikcha sig'maydi. Masalan, ingliz tili odatda birinchi o'rinda turadi, lekin bosh ismlaridan oldin sifatdoshlar va genetik konstruktsiyalar oldingi va keyingi modifikatorlar bilan ("otamning do'sti" va "otamning do'sti"). Xitoy bor VO buyrug'i, oldingi fe'l bilan, lekin aks holda umuman bosh bo'ladi.

Buyurtma berishning turli xil imkoniyatlari:

• Ingliz tilidagi kabi bosh ismdan keyin nisbiy gap, Frantsuzcha yoki Arabcha.
• Kabi bosh otdan oldingi nisbiy gap Turkcha, Yapon, yoki Xitoy.
• Bosh ism ichida nisbiy band (an ichki boshliq nisbiy band). Bunday tilning misoli Navaxo. Ushbu tillarda mavjud deyishadi kamaytirilmagan nisbiy bandlar. Ushbu tillar "[Men kecha odamni ko'rdim] uyiga qaytdi" ga teng tuzilishga ega.
• Birlashtirilgan nisbiy gap. Ushbu tillarda nisbiy gap asosan bosh gapdan tashqarida bo'lib, ikkalasini bog'lash uchun korrelyatsion tuzilmadan foydalaniladi. Ushbu tillarda ham mavjud kamaytirilmagan nisbiy bandlar. Hind bu eng mashhur til bo'lib, "Men kecha qaysi odamni ko'rdim, u odam uyiga ketdi" yoki (nisbiy gapdagi nisbiy ismning old tomoni bo'lmagan holda) o'xshash tuzilishga ega "Men kecha qaysi odamni, u odamni ko'rdim uyga ketdi ". Yana bir misol Warlpiri, "Men kecha uyiga ketayotgan odamni ko'rdim" ga o'xshash shaklning nisbiy bandlarini tuzadi. Ammo, ba'zida bu tillarda hech qanday nisbiy gap yo'q deyishadi, chunki ushbu shakldagi jumlalar "men kecha uyiga ketayotgan odamni ko'rdim" yoki "men odamni kecha qachon / qachon ketayotganini ko'rdim" deb tarjima qilishi mumkin. uy ".

Maxsus imkoniyatlar ierarxiyasi

Nisbiy bandning oldingi holati (ya'ni, u tomonidan o'zgartirilgan ism) nazariyada asosiy bandning predmeti yoki uning ob'ekti yoki boshqa har qanday narsa bo'lishi mumkin. fe'l argumenti. Biroq, ko'plab tillarda, ayniqsa qat'iy chap shoxlangan, qaramlik belgilariga ega tillar prenominal nisbiy bandlar bilan,^[11] ilgari mavjud bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan rol uchun katta cheklovlar mavjud nisbiy gapda.

Edvard Kinan va Bernard Komri ushbu rollarni lingvistik jihatdan eng qulaydan eng pastgacha quyidagi tartibda ajratish mumkinligini ta'kidladi.^[12][13]

Mavzu> To'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ekt> Bilvosita ob'ekt> Oblique> Genitive> Ob'ektni taqqoslash

Ergativ-absolutiv tillar o'xshash ierarxiyaga ega:

Mutlaq > Ergativ > Bilvosita ob'ekt> va boshqalar (yuqoridagi kabi)

Ushbu buyruq mavjudlik ierarxiyasi. Agar til mavjudlik ierarxiyasida pastroq pozitsiyalarni nisbiylashtira olsa, u har doim yuqoriroq pozitsiyalarni nisbiylashtirishi mumkin, aksincha emas. Masalan, Malagasiya faqat mavzuni relyativlashtirishi mumkin va Chukchi faqat mutlaq dalillar, shu bilan birga Bask absolutivlarni, ergativlarni va bilvosita narsalarni relyativlashtirishi mumkin, ammo oblik yoki genitivlarni yoki taqqoslash ob'ektlarini emas. Shunga o'xshash ierarxiyalar boshqa holatlarda ham taklif qilingan, masalan. pronominal reflekslar uchun.

Ingliz tili iyerarxiyadagi barcha pozitsiyalarni relyativlashtirishi mumkin. Ingliz tilidan NP va nisbiy banddan foydalanishning ba'zi bir misollari:

Boshqa ba'zi misollar:

Imkoniyatlar ierarxiyasida past bo'lgan ism iboralari bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri relyativatsiya qila olmaydigan tillar ba'zida alternativadan foydalanishi mumkin ovozlar relyativlashtirilishi uchun tegishli ism iborasini "ko'tarish". Eng keng tarqalgan misol - foydalanish amaliy ovozlar obliklarni relyativatsiya qilish uchun, lekin Chukchi kabi tillarda antipassivlar argumentlarni absolutiv holatga keltirish uchun ishlatiladi.

Masalan, faqat predmetlarni relyativlashi mumkin bo'lgan til shunday deyishi mumkin:

• Qiz [menga yoqadigan] mehmonga keldi.

Ammo emas:

• [Menga yoqadigan] qiz mehmonga keldi.
• Qiz [men unga atirgul berganman] mehmonga keldi.
• [Men bilan birga film tomosha qilgan] qiz mehmonga keldi.
• Qiz (otasini bilaman) mehmonga keldi.
• [Men otasi deb bilgan] qiz mehmonga keldi. (oldingi bilan teng)
• (Men undan balandroq) qiz mehmonga keldi.

Ushbu tillar tomonidan teng keladigan jumla hosil bo'lishi mumkin passivizatsiya:

• Qiz [menga yoqqan] mehmonga keldi.
• Qiz [men unga atirgul berganman] mehmonga keldi.
• Qiz [men bilan birga film tomosha qilgan] mehmonga keldi.
• [Mening otam deb tanilgan] qiz mehmonga keldi.
• [Mening bo'yimdan balandroq] qiz mehmonga keldi.

Ushbu passivlashtirilgan jumlalar ingliz tilida borgan sari ungrammatik bo'lib, ular mavjudlik ierarxiyasidan pastga siljiydi; oxirgi ikkitasi, xususan, ingliz tilida so'zlashuvchilar deyarli taqqoslab bo'lmaydigan darajada nomuvofiqdir. Ammo rollarni nisbiylashtirishi mumkin bo'lgan jiddiy cheklovlarga ega bo'lgan tillar deyarli har qanday pozitsiyani passivlashtira oladigan tillardir va shuning uchun oxirgi ikki jumla bu tillarda odatiy holdir.

Yana bir misol - faqat predmetlarni va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ektlarni relyativlashtiradigan tillar. Shuning uchun quyidagilar mumkin edi:

• [Menga yoqadigan] qiz mehmonga keldi.

Yuqoridagi boshqa dasturiy bo'lmagan misollar hali ham noaniq bo'lar edi. Ushbu tillar ko'pincha oblik ob'ektini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ektlar uyasiga ko'chirishga imkon beradi amaliy ovoz, kabi majhul nisbat qiyalikli predmetni predmet holatiga o'tkazadi. Amaliy ovozda keltirilgan yuqoridagi misollar quyidagilarga o'xshash bo'lishi mumkin (ingliz tilida grammatik emas).

• Qiz [men atirgul berganman] mehmonga keldi.
• [Men bilan birga film tomosha qilgan] qiz mehmonga keldi.
• [Men otani biladigan] qiz tashrif buyurishga keldi.
• Men [baland bo'yli] qiz mehmonga keldi.

Zamonaviy grammatika mahsulotlarga buyurtma berish uchun mavjudlik ierarxiyasidan foydalanishi mumkin, masalan. yilda Bosh harakatga asoslangan iboralar tarkibi grammatikasi iyerarxiya elementlarning tartibiga mos keladi subcat majburiy dalillarni tushuntirishda ro'yxat va boshqa printsiplar bilan o'zaro ta'sir qiladi. Ierarxiya hamLeksik funktsional grammatika, bu erda u sintaktik daraja yoki munosabat iyerarxiyasi deb nomlanadi.

Misollar

Hind-evropa tillari

Ingliz tili

Ingliz tilida nisbiy gap u o'zgartirgan ismga ergashadi. Odatda gapning boshida nisbiy olmosh bilan ko'rsatiladi, garchi ba'zida shunchaki so'z tartibi bilan. Agar nisbiy olmosh nisbiy gapdagi fe'lning predmeti bo'lsa, u mustaqil gap oxirida kelishiga qaramay, gap boshida keladi ("U odam kim Men ko'rdim "," emas "U men ko'rgan odam kim").

Nisbiy olmoshni tanlashga, ushbu band odam yoki nom bo'lmagan ismni o'zgartiradimi, gapning cheklovchi yoki yo'qligi ta'sir qilishi mumkin,^[14] va nisbiy gapdagi nisbiy olmoshning roli (sub'ekti, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ekti yoki shunga o'xshash narsalar) bo'yicha.

• Odamning oldingi misoli uchun odatda "kim", "kim" yoki "u" ishlatiladi ("U bu shaxs JSSV meni ko'rdi "," U shaxs kim Men ko'rdim "," U shaxs bu Men ") ko'rdim. Odamlarga xos bo'lmagan narsa uchun faqat" u "yoki" qaysi "ishlatiladi.
• Cheklovsiz banddagi odam bo'lmagan misoli uchun faqat "qaysi" ishlatiladi ("Daraxt, qaysi yiqilib tushdi, u erda "); cheklash bandida" qaysi "yoki" u "ishlatilishi mumkin (" Daraxt " qaysi yiqildi u erda "," daraxt bu Fall u erda ") - lekin ba'zi uslublar va ko'rsatmalarga oid grammatikalar cheklov kontekstida" u "dan foydalanishni talab qiladi.
• "Who" va "Who" nisbiy olmoshlaridan, the sub'ektiv ish shakli ("kim") nisbiy bandga tegishli bo'lsa ishlatiladi ("U meni ko'rgan politsiyachi"); va rasmiy foydalanishda ob'ektiv ish shakli ("kim"), agar u nisbiy banddagi fe'l yoki predlog predmeti bo'lsa ("U men ko'rgan politsiyachi", "U men suhbatlashgan politsiyachi", "U kim bilan bo'lgan politsiyachi" Men gaplashdim "); ammo norasmiy foydalanishda "kim" ko'pincha "kim" bilan almashtiriladi.

Boshqa ba'zi tillarda bo'lgani kabi ingliz tilida (masalan, frantsuzcha; pastga qarang), cheklovsiz nisbiy bandlar vergul bilan o'rnatiladi, ammo cheklovlar quyidagilar emas:

• "Men kecha bir erkak va bir ayol bilan uchrashdim. Ayol, qalin frantsuzcha aksanga ega bo'lgan, juda chiroyli edi. "(cheklovsiz - kim haqida gap ketayotganini toraytirmaydi).
• "Men kecha ikkita ayol bilan uchrashdim, biri qalin frantsuzcha, biri yumshoq italiyalik ayol. Ayol qalin frantsuzcha aksanga ega bo'lganlar juda chiroyli edi. "(cheklovchi - kimga murojaat qilinganligi to'g'risida ma'lumot qo'shadi)

"O'sha" ning nisbiy olmoshi maqomi hamma uchun kelishilmagan. An'anaviy grammatika "o'sha" ga nisbiy olmosh sifatida qaraydi, ammo hozirgi zamon grammatikalarining hammasi ham bunday qila olmaydi: masalan. The Kembrij ingliz tili grammatikasi (1056-7-betlar) "u" ga nisbiy olmosh o'rniga subordinator sifatida qarash uchun dalil yaratadi; va Britaniya milliy korpusi nisbiy gaplarni kiritgan taqdirda ham, "to" ga bo'ysunuvchi birikma sifatida qaraydi. "O'sha" ga boshqacha munosabatda bo'lishning turtki jihati shundaki, "u" va "qaysi" o'rtasida farqlar mavjud (masalan, "qaysi" deb aytishi mumkin, ammo "unda" emas va hokazo).

Frantsuzcha

-Dagi nisbiy olmoshlar tizimi Frantsuzcha ingliz tilidagi tizim kabi juda murakkab, ammo ko'p jihatdan o'xshashdir.

Olmosh nisbiy gapning bevosita predmeti vazifasini bajarganda, que odatda ishlatiladi, garchi lequelgrammatik jinsi va soniga ajratilgan, ba'zida aniqlik berish uchun ishlatiladi. Masalan, quyidagilardan har qanday biri to'g'ri va "Men uning otasi va onasi bilan tanishganman" deb tarjima qilinadi:

J'ai parlé avec son père et sa mère, lakel (f. sing.) je connaissais déjà.

J'ai parlé avec son père et sa mère, o'pka (m. pl.) je connaissais déjà.

J'ai parlé avec son père et sa mère, que je connaissais déjà.

Biroq, birinchi jumlada "men allaqachon tanish bo'lgan" faqat onaga tegishli; ikkinchisida bu ikkala ota-onaga tegishli; uchinchisida esa, inglizcha gapdagi kabi, faqat onaga, yoki ikkala ota-onaga ham tegishli bo'lishi mumkin.

Olmosh nisbiy gapning predmeti vazifasini bajarishi kerak bo'lganda, qui odatda ishlatiladi, garchi avvalgidek, lequel o'rniga aniqroq foydalanish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin. (Bu foydalanishdan kamroq tarqalgan lequel to'g'ridan-to'g'ri narsalar bilan, ammo frantsuz tilidagi fe'llar ko'pincha sub'ektlarining grammatik sonini aks ettiradi.)

Ingliz tilidan farqli o'laroq, nisbiy olmosh hech qachon frantsuz tilida chiqarib tashlanishi mumkin emas, hatto nisbiy gap boshqa nisbiy tarkibga kiritilgan bo'lsa ham.

Mana nima deb o'ylayman Ø sodir bo'ldi.

Voilà ce que je crois qui est arrivé. (so'zma-so'z: "Mana mening fikrimcha bu sodir bo'ldi. ")

Olmosh egalik ma’nosida harakat qilganda, yuklamasi qayerda de (of / from) odatda ishlatilishi mumkin, olmoshi yo'q ("kimning") ishlatilgan, lekin a vazifasini bajarmaydi aniqlovchi "egalik qilgan" ism uchun:

J'ai parlé avec une femme yo'q le fils est mon collègue. ("Men o'g'li bilan ishlaydigan ayol bilan gaplashdim." - yoqilgan, "Men bir ayol bilan gaplashdim kimdan o'g'il mening hamkasbim. ")

Ushbu konstruktsiya olmoshi belgi qo'ygan ob'ekt o'rnini egallaydigan egalik bo'lmagan holatlarda ham qo'llaniladi de:

C'est l'homme yo'q j'ai parlé. ("Bu odam kimdan Men gaplashdim.")

Umuman olganda, zamonaviy frantsuz tilida, yo'q ushbu banddagi hech narsani almashtirmasdan quyidagi bandning mavzusiga ishora qilishi mumkin:

C'est un homme yo'q je crois qu'il doit très bien gagner sa vie. ("Bu odam kim haqida Men u juda ko'p pul ishlashiga ishonaman. ")

Qachon olmoshi predlog predmeti vazifasini bajarishi kerak (qachondan tashqari) yo'q ishlatilgan), lequel odatda ishlatiladi, ammo qui agar ilgari odam bo'lsa ishlatilishi mumkin.

Ce sont des gens sur lesquels peut compter-da. ("Bu odamlar bu bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin kuni. ") [so'zma-so'z:"kimga bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin "]

Ce sont des gens sur qui peut compter-da.

C'est une table sur laquelle on peut mettre beaucoup de choses. ("Bu jadval qaysi ustida siz juda ko'p narsalarni qo'yishingiz mumkin ")

*C'est une table sur qui on peut mettre beaucoup de choses.

Oldingi narsa odam bo'lmagan noaniq olmosh bo'lsa, yana bir murakkablik mavjud. Shunday bo'lgan taqdirda, lequel ishlatilishi mumkin emas, chunki u jinsi bilan boshi bilan kelishishi kerak va noaniq olmoshning jinsi yo'q. Buning o'rniga, quoi, odatda "nima" degan ma'noni anglatadi, ishlatiladi.

C'estning namoyishi quelque tanladi à quoi il a beaucoup réfléchi. ("Bu aniq nimadur bu u juda ko'p o'ylagan haqida .")

*C'est manifest quelque à laquelle il a beaucoup réfléchi ni tanladi.

Xuddi shu narsa oldingi holat butun bir band bo'lsa, shuningdek, jinsi yo'q bo'lganda sodir bo'ladi.

Il m'a dit d'aller me faire voir, à quoi j'ai répondu que... ("He told me to get lost, bunga I replied that ...")

The preposition always appears before the pronoun, and the prepositions de va à (at/to) contract with lequel shakllantirmoq duquel va auquelyoki bilan lesquel(le)s shakllantirmoq desquel(le)s va auxquel(le)s.

Nemis

Intonatsiya ning Nemis cheklovchi nisbiy gaplar

Aside from their highly inflected forms, Nemis relative pronouns are less complicated than English. There are two varieties. The more common one is based on the definite article der, o'lmoq, das, but with distinctive forms in the genitive (dessen, deren) and in the dative plural (denen). Historically this is related to English bu. The second, which is more literary and used for emphasis, is the relative use of payvandchi, welche, welches, comparable with English qaysi. As in most Germanic languages, including Old English, both of these varieties inflect according to gender, case and number. They take their gender and number from the noun which they modify, but the case from their function in their own clause.

Das Haus, in dem ich wohne, ist sehr alt.

The house in which I live is very old.

Nisbiy olmosh dem is neuter singular to agree with Haus, but dative because it follows a preposition in its own clause. On the same basis, it would be possible to substitute the pronoun welchem.

However, German uses the uninflecting edi ('what') as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is alles, etwas yoki nichts ('everything', 'something', 'nothing'.).

Alles, was Jack macht, gelingt ihm.

Everything that Jack does is a success.

In German, all relative clauses are marked with commas.

Alternatively, particularly in formal registers, participles (both active and passive) can be used to embed relative clauses in adjectival phrases:

Die von ihm in jenem Stil gemalten Bilder sind sehr begehrt

The pictures he painted in that style are highly sought after

Die Regierung möchte diese im letzten Jahr eher langsam wachsende Industrie weiter fördern

The government would like to further promote this industry, which has grown rather slowly over the last year

Unlike English, which only permits relatively small participle phrases in adjectival positions (typically just the participle and adverbs), and disallows the use of direct objects for active participles, German sentences of this sort can embed clauses of arbitrary complexity.

Ispaniya

Lotin

Yilda Lotin, relative clauses follow the noun phrases they modify, and are always introduced using relative pronouns. Relative pronouns, like other pronouns in Latin, agree with their antecedents in jins va raqam, lekin emas ish: a relative pronoun's case reflects its role in the relative clause it introduces, while its antecedent's case reflects the antecedent's role in the clause that contains the relative clause. (Nonetheless, it is possible for the pronoun and antecedent to be in the same case.) For example:

Urbēs, quae sunt magnae, videntur. (The shaharlar, qaysi are large, are being seen.)

Urbēs, quās vīdī, erant magnae. (The shaharlar, qaysi I saw, were large.)

In the former example, urbēs va quae both function as mavzular in their respective clauses, so both are in the nominative case; and due to gender and number agreement, both are feminine and plural. In the latter example, both are still feminine and plural, and urbēs is still in the nominative case, but quae bilan almashtirildi quās, its accusative-case counterpart, to reflect its role as the to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ob'ekt ning vīdī.

For more information on the forms of Latin relative pronouns, qarang the section on relative pronouns in the article on Latin declension.

Qadimgi yunoncha

Qadimgi yunoncha follows the same rule as Latin.

• αἱ πόλεις, ἃς εἶδον, μεγάλαι εἰσίν.

hai póleis, hàs eîdon, megálai eisin.

The cities that I saw are large.

The Ancient Greek relative pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ (hós, hḗ, hó) is unrelated to the Latin word, since it derives from Proto-hind-evropa *yos: yilda Proto-yunoncha, y before a vowel usually changed to h (debukkalizatsiya ). Taniydi o'z ichiga oladi Sanskritcha nisbiy olmoshlar yas, yā, yad (qayerda o changed to short a).^[15]

The Greek definite article ὁ, ἡ, τό (ho, hē, tó) has a different origin, since it is related to the Sanskrit demonstrative sa, sā va Lotin is-tud.^[16]

Information that in English would be encoded with relative clauses could be represented with complex participles in Ancient Greek. This was made particularly expressive by the rich suite of participles available, with active and passive participles in present, past and future tenses. Bu deyiladi the attributive participle.

Serbo-xorvat

Serbo-xorvat uses exactly the same principle as Latin does.^[17] The following sentences are the Latin examples translated to Serbo-Croatian (the same sentences apply to the Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin standard variants of the pluritsentrik til ):

Gradovi,	koji	su	veliki,	video	se.
the cities:NOM.m.PL	qaysi:NOM.m.PL	ular:PR.3.PL	large:NOM.m.PL	qarang:PR.3.PL	o'zi:Ref
"The cities, which are large, are being seen."

Gradovi,	koje	sam	vidio,	bili	su	veliki.
the cities:NOM.m.PL	qaysi:ACC.m.PL	I am:AUX.1.SG	saw:AP.m.SG	edi:AP.m.PL	ular:AUX.3.PL	large:NOM.m.PL
"The cities, which I saw, were large."

Chastotani ning relyativizatorlar yilda Serbo-xorvat

In the first sentence, koji ichida nominativ, ikkinchisida koje ichida ayblov. Both words are two case forms of the same nisbiy olmosh, that is inflicted for jins (here: masculine), raqam (here: plural), and ish.

An alternative relativizing strategy is the use of the non-declinable word shto 'that' to introduce a relative clause.^[18] This word is used together with a resumptive pronoun, ya'ni a personal pronoun that agrees in gender and number with the oldingi, while its case form depends on its function in the relative clause.^[19] The resumptive pronoun never appears in subject function.

Onaj	poznanik	shto	si	ga	pozdravio...
bu:NOM.m.SG	acquaintance:NOM.m.SG	bu	bo'lishi:AUX.2.SG	him:ACC	greet:AP.m.SG
"That acquaintance that (whom) you have said 'hello' to..."

Relative clauses are relatively frequent in modern Serbo-Croatian^[18] since they have expanded as attributes at the expense of the kesim performing that function.^[20] The most frequently used relative pronoun is koji.^[21] There are several ongoing changes concerning koji. One of them is the spread of the genitive-accusative sinkretizm to the masculine inanimate of the pronoun.^[22] The cause lies in the necessity to disambiguate the Mavzu va ob'ekt tomonidan morfologik degani. The nominative-accusative syncretism of the form koji is inadequate, so the genitive form kojeg is preferred:^[23]

Nominative-accusative syncretism:

Avtomatik	koji	je	udario	avtobus
mashina:NOM/ACC.m.SG	qaysi:NOM/ACC.m.SG	bo'lishi:AUX.3.SG	hit:AP.m.SG	avtobus:NOM/ACC.m.SG

Genitive-accusative syncretism:

Avtomatik	kojeg	je	udario	avtobus
mashina:NOM/ACC.m.SG	qaysi:ACC/GEN.m.SG	bo'lishi:AUX.3.SG	hit:AP.m.SG	avtobus:NOM/ACC.m.SG
"Car hit by bus"

Kelt tillari

The Kelt tillari (at least the modern Kelt tilidagi tillar ) distinguish two types of relative clause: direct relative clauses and indirect relative clauses. A direct relative clause is used where the relativized element is the subject or the direct object of its clause (e.g. "the man JSSV saw me", "the man kim I saw"), while an indirect relative clause is used where the relativized element is a genitival (e.g. "the man kimning daughter is in the hospital") or is the object of a preposition (e.g. "the man kimga I gave the book"). Direct relative clauses are formed with a nisbiy olmosh (unmarked for case) at the beginning; a gap (in terms of syntactic theory, a iz, indicated by (t) in the examples below) is left in the relative clause at the pronoun's expected position.

Irland

Uelscha

The direct relative particle "a" is not used with "mae" ("is") in Welsh; instead the form "sydd" or "sy'" is used:

There is also a defective verb "piau" (usually lenited to "biau"), corresponding to "who own(s)":

Indirect relative clauses are formed with a relyativizator at the beginning; the relativized element remains joyida in the relative clause.

Irland

Uelscha

Although both the Irish relative pronoun and the relativizer are 'a', the relative pronoun triggers lenition of a following consonant, while the relativizer triggers eclipsis (see Irlandiyalik dastlabki mutatsiyalar ).

Both direct and indirect relative particles can be used simply for emphasis, often in answer to a question or as a way of disagreeing with a statement. For instance, the Welsh example above, "y dyn a welais" means not only "the man whom I saw", but also "it was the man (and not anyone else) I saw"; and "y dyn y rhois y llyfr iddo" can likewise mean "it was the man (and not anyone else) to whom I gave the book".

Semit tillari

Ibroniycha

Yilda Injil ibroniycha, relative clauses were headed with the word asher, which could be either a nisbiy olmosh yoki a relyativizator. Keyingi paytlarda asher became interchangeable with the prefix u (which is also used as a conjunction, with the sense of English bu) va Zamonaviy ibroniycha, bu foydalanish u ga qaraganda ancha keng tarqalgan asher, except in some formal, archaic, or poetic writing. In meaning, the two are interchangeable; they are used regardless of whether the clause is modifying a human, regardless of their grammatical case in the relative clause, and regardless of whether the clause is restrictive.

Further, because Hebrew does not generally use its word for bu, u is used to distinguish adjective phrases used in epithet from adjective phrases used in attribution:

Ha-kise l'-yad-kha. ("The chair is next to you." - yoqilgan, "The-chair [is] to-hand-your.")

Ha-kise ul'-yad-kha shavur. ("The chair next to you is broken."—yoqilgan, "The-chair bu-[is]-to-hand-your [is] broken.")

(This use of u does not occur with simple adjectives, as Hebrew has a different way of making that distinction. Masalan, Ha-kise adom means "The chair [is] red," while Ha-kis'e ha-adom shavur means "The red chair is broken"—literally, "The chair the red [is] broken.")

Since 1994, the official rules of Modern Hebrew (as determined by the Ibroniy tili akademiyasi ) have stated that relative clauses are to be punctuated in Hebrew the same way as in English (described above). That is, non-restrictive clauses are to be set off with commas, while restrictive clauses are not:

Ha-kise, uata yoshev alav, shavur. ("The chair, qaysi you are sitting on, is broken.")

Ha-kise uata yoshev alav shavur. ("The chair bu you are sitting on is broken.")

Nonetheless, many, perhaps most, speakers of Modern Hebrew still use the pre-1994 rules, which were based on the German rules (described above). Except for the simple adjective-phrase clauses described above, these speakers set off all relative clauses, restrictive or not, with commas:

Ha-kise, uata yoshev alav, shavur. ("The chair bu you are sitting on is broken," yoki "The chair, qaysi you are sitting on, is broken.")

One major difference between relative clauses in Hebrew and those in (for example) English is that in Hebrew, what might be called the "regular" pronoun is not always suppressed in the relative clause. To reuse the prior example:

Ha-kise, uata yoshev alav, shavur. (yoqilgan, "The chair, qaysi you are sitting ustida, [is] broken.")

More specifically, if this pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, it is always suppressed. If it is the direct object, then it is usually suppressed, though it is also correct to leave it in. (If it is suppressed, then the special preposition va boshqalar, used to mark the direct object, is suppressed as well.) If it is the object of a preposition, it must be left in, because in Hebrew—unlike in English—a preposition cannot appear without its object. When the pronoun is left in, u might more properly be called a relyativizator than a relative pronoun.

The Ibroniycha relyativizator u ‘that’ "might be a shortened form of the Ibroniycha relyativizator ‘asher ‘that’, which is related to Akkad ‘ashru ‘place’ (cf. Semitic *‘athar) Shu bilan bir qatorda, Ibroniycha ‘asher dan olingan u, or it was a convergence of Proto-Semitic dhu (cf. Aramaic dī) va ‘asher [...] Whereas Isroil u functions both as to'ldiruvchi va relyativizator, ashér can only function as a relyativizator."^[24]

Arabcha

Arab adabiy

Yilda Zamonaviy standart va Klassik arabcha there is a relative pronoun (in Arabic: الاسم الموصول al-ism al-mawṣūl) allaḏī (masculine singular), feminine singular allatī, erkaklar ko'pligi allaḏīna, feminine plural allawātī, masculine dual allaḏānī (nominative) / allaḏayni (accusative and genitive), feminine dual allatānī (nom.) / allataynī (acc. and gen.).

Its usage has two specific rules: it agrees with the antecedent in gender, number and case, and it is used only if the antecedent is definite. If the antecedent is indefinite, no relative pronoun is used. Birinchisi chaqiriladi jumlat sila (conjunctive sentence) while the latter is called jumlat sifa (descriptive sentence).

• الفتى الذي رأيته في الصف أمس غائب اليوم

al-fatā (a)lladhi ra’aytuhu fī (a)ṣ-ṣaffi ’amsi ġā’ibun al-yawma

"The boy I saw in class yesterday is missing today". (relative pronoun present)

• هذا فتًى رأيته في الصف أمس

hāḏā fatan ra’aytu-hu fī (a)ṣ-ṣaffi ’amsi

"This is a boy I saw in class yesterday". (relative pronoun absent)

Colloquial Arabic

In Colloquial Arabic the multiple forms of the relative pronoun have been levelled in favour of a single form, a simple conjunction, which in most dialects is illi, and is never omitted. So in Palestinian Arabic the above sentences would be:

• alwalad illi shuftō fi (a)ssaff embārih ghāyeb alyōm
• hāda walad illi shuftō fi (a)ssaff embārih

As in Hebrew, the regular pronoun referring to the antecedent is repeated in the relative clause - literally, "the boy whom I saw uni in class..." (the -hu yilda ra'aituhu va -ō yilda shuftō). The rules of suppression in Arabic are identical to those of Hebrew: obligatory suppression in the case that the pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, obligatory retention in the case that the pronoun is the object of a preposition, and at the discretion of the speaker if the pronoun is the direct object. The only difference from Hebrew is that, in the case of the direct object, it is preferable to retain the pronoun rather than suppress it.

Yaponiya tillari

Yapon

Japanese does not employ relative pronouns to relate relative clauses to their antecedents. Instead, the relative clause directly modifies the noun phrase as an atribut fe'l, occupying the same syntactic space as an attributive adjective (before the noun phrase).

この おいしい 天ぷら

kono oishii tempura

"this delicious tempura"

姉が 作った 天ぷら

ane-ga tsukutta tempura

sister-SUBJ make-PAST tempura

"the tempura [that] my sister made"

天ぷらを 食べた 人

tempura-o tabeta hito

tempura-OBJ eat-PAST person

"the person who ate the tempura"

In fact, since so-called i-adjectives in Japanese are technically intransitive stative verbs, it can be argued that the structure of the first example (with an adjective) is the same as the others. A number of "adjectival" meanings, in Japanese, are customarily shown with relative clauses consisting solely of a verb or a verb complex:

光っている ビル

hikatte-iru biru

lit-be building

"an illuminated building"

濡れている 犬

nurete-iru inu

get_wet-be dog

"a wet dog"

Often confusing to speakers of languages which use relative pronouns are relative clauses which would in their own languages require a preposition with the pronoun to indicate the semantic relationship among the constituent parts of the phrase.

紅茶を 淹れる ために お湯を 沸かした やかん

kōcha-o ireru tame ni oyu-o wakashita yakan

tea-OBJ make purpose for hot-water-OBJ boiled kettle

"the kettle I boiled water yilda for tea"

Here, the preposition "in" is missing from the Japanese ("missing" in the sense that the corresponding postposition would be used with the main clause verb in Japanese) Common sense indicates what the meaning is in this case, but the "missing preposition" can sometimes create ambiguity.

天ぷらを 作った 人

tempura-o tsukutta hito

tempura-OBJ made person

(1) "the person who made the tempura"

(2) "the person [someone] made the tempura uchun"

In this case, (1) is the context-free interpretation of choice, but (2) is possible with the proper context.

僕が 記事を 書いた レストラン

boku-ga kiji-o kaita resutoran

I-SUBJ article-OBJ wrote restaurant

(1) "a restaurant bu haqida I wrote an article"

(2) "a restaurant unda I wrote an article"

Without more context, both (1) and (2) are equally viable interpretations of the Japanese.

Eslatma: Spaces are not ordinarily used in Japanese, but they are supplemented here to facilitate parsing by non-speakers of the language.

Kavkaz tillari

Gruzin

Yilda Gruzin, there are two strategies for forming relative clauses. The first is similar to that of English or Latin: the modified noun is followed by a relativizer that inflects for its embedded case and may take a postposition. The relativized noun may be preceded by a determiner.

(ის)	კაცი,	რომელიც	პარკში	წავიდა,	გაზეთს	კითხულობს
(bu)	ḳac-i,	romel-i-c	ṗarḳ=ši	c̣avida,	gazet-s	ḳitxulobs
(that.NOM)	man-NOM	which-NOM-REL	park=to	he.went	newspaper-DAT	he.reads.it
"the man who went to the park is reading the newspaper"

(ის)	ქალი,	რომელსაც	წერილს	დავუწერ,	თბილისში	ცხოვრობს
(bu)	kal-i,	romel-sa-c	c̣eril-s	davuc̣er,	tbilis=ši	cxovrobs
(that.NOM)	woman-NOM	which-DAT-REL	letter-DAT	I.will.write.it.to.her	Tbilisi-in	she.lives
"the woman who I will write a letter to lives in Tbilisi "

ნინომ	(ის)	სკამი,	რომელზეც	ვზივარ,	იყიდა
Nino-m	(bu)	sḳam-i,	romel=ze-c	vzivar,	iqida
Nino-ERG	(that.NOM)	chair-NOM	which=on-REL	I.sit	she.bought.it
"Nino bought the chair I am sitting in"

A second, more colloquial, strategy is marked by the invariant particle რომ ROM. This particle is generally the second word of the clause, and since it does not decline, is often followed by the appropriately cased third-person pronoun to show the relativized noun's role in the embedded clause. A determiner precedes the relativized noun, which is also usually preceded by the clause as a whole.

წერილს	რომ	მას	დავუწერ,	ის	ქალი	თბილისში	ცხოვრობს
c̣̣eril-s	ROM	mas	davuc̣̣er,	bu	kal-i	tbilis=ši	cxovrobs
letter-DAT	REL	3S.DAT	I.will.write.it.to.her	that.NOM	woman-NOM	Tbilisi-in	she.lives
"the woman who I will write a letter to lives in Tbilisi "

მე	რომ	მასზე	ვზივარ,	ის	სკამი	ნინომ	იყიდა
men	ROM	mas=ze	vzivar,	bu	sḳam-i	Nino-m	iqida
1S	REL	3S.DAT=on	I.sit	that.NOM	chair-NOM	Nino-ERG	she.bought.it
"Nino bought the chair I am sitting in"

Such relative clauses may be internally headed. In such cases, the modified noun moves into the clause, taking the appropriate declension for its role therein (thus eliminating the need for the third person pronouns in the above examples), and leaves behind the determiner (which now functions as a pronoun) in the matrix clause.

ქალს	რომ	წერილს	დავუწერ,	ის	თბილისში	ცხოვრობს
kal-s	ROM	c̣̣eril-s	davuc̣̣er,	bu	tbilis=ši	cxovrobs
ayol-DAT	REL	letter-DAT	I.will.write.it.to.her	3S.NOM	Tbilisi-in	she.lives
"the woman who I will write a letter to lives in Tbilisi "

Avstronesiya tillari

Tagalogcha

Tagalogcha dan foydalanadi gapping strategy to form relative clauses, with the to'ldiruvchi, na / =ng 'that', separating the head, which is the noun being modified, from the actual relative clause. In (1a) below, lalaki 'man' serves as the head, while nagbigay ng bigas sa bata 'gave rice to the child' is the relative clause.

(1)	a.	lalaki	=ng	nagbigay	____	ng	bigas	sa	bata
		kishi	COMP	ACT.gave		ACC	guruch	DAT	bola
		"man that gave rice to the child"
	b.	Nagbigay	ang	lalaki	ng	bigas	sa	bata.
		ACT.gave	NOM	kishi	ACC	guruch	DAT	bola
		"The man gave rice to the child."

The gap inside the relative clause corresponds to the position that the noun acting as the head would have normally taken, had it been in a deklarativ jumla. In (1a), the gap is in subject position within the relative clause. This corresponds to the subject position occupied by ang lalaki 'the man' in the declarative sentence in (1b).

There is a constraint in Tagalog on the position from which a noun can be relativised and in which a gap can appear: A noun has to be the subject within the relative clause in order for it to be relativised. The phrases in (2) are ungrammatical because the nouns that have been relativised are not the subjects of their respective relative clauses. In (2a), the gap is in direct object position, while in (2b), the gap is in indirect object position.

(2)	a.	*	bigas	na	nagbigay	ang	lalaki	____	sa	bata
			guruch	COMP	ACT.gave	NOM	kishi		DAT	bola
			for: "rice that the man gave to the child"
	b.	*	bata	=ng	nagbigay	ang	lalaki	ng	bigas	____
			bola	COMP	ACT.gave	NOM	kishi	ACC	guruch
			for: "child that the man gave rice to"

The correct Tagalog translations for the intended meanings in (2) are found in (3), where the verbs have been passivised in order to raise the logical direct object in (3a) and the logical indirect object in (3b) to subject position. (Tagalog can have more than one majhul nisbat form for any given verb.)

(3)	a.	bigas	na	ibinigay	ng	lalaki	sa	bata
		guruch	COMP	PSV.gave	GEN	kishi	DAT	bola
		"rice that the man gave to the child"
		(or: "rice that was given to the child by the man")
	b.	bata	=ng	binigyan	ng	lalaki	ng	bigas
		bola	COMP	gave.PSV	GEN	kishi	ACC	guruch
		"child that the man gave rice to"
		(or: "child that was given rice to by the man")

Tagalog relative clauses can be left-headed, as in (1a) and (3), right-headed, as in (4), or internally headed, as in (5).

(4)	nagbigay	ng	bigas	sa	bata	na	lalaki
	ACT.gave	ACC	guruch	DAT	bola	COMP	kishi
	"man that gave rice to the child"

(5)	a.	nagbigay	na	lalaki	ng	bigas	sa	bata
		ACT.gave	COMP	kishi	ACC	guruch	DAT	bola
		"man that gave rice to the child"
	b.	nagbigay	ng	bigas	na	lalaki	sa	bata
		ACT.gave	ACC	guruch	COMP	kishi	DAT	bola
		"man that gave rice to the child"

In (4), the head, lalaki 'man', is found after or to the right of the relative clause, nagbigay ng bigas sa bata 'gave rice to the child'. In (5), the head is found in some position inside the relative clause. When the head appears to the right of or internally to the relative clause, the complementiser appears to the left of the head. When the head surfaces to the left of the relative clause, the complementiser surfaces to the right of the head.

There are exceptions to the subjects-only constraint to relativisation mentioned above. The first involves relativising the egasi of a noun phrase within the relative clause.

(6)	bata	=ng	nasugatan	ang	daliri	____
	bola	COMP	jarohatlangan.PSV	NOM	barmoq
	"child whose finger was injured"

In (6), the head, bata 'child', is the owner of the injured finger. Bu ibora ang daliri 'the finger' is the subject of the verb, nasugatan 'was injured'.

Another exception involves relativising the qiyshiq noun phrase.

(7)	a.	ospital	(na)	kung	saan	ipinanganak	si	Xuan
		kasalxona	COMP	Q-COMP	qayerda	PSV.bore	NOM	Xuan
		"hospital where Juan was born"
	b.	Nagtanong	siyo	kung	saan	ipinanganak	si	Juan.
		ACT.asked	3SG.NOM	Q-COMP	qayerda	PSV.bore	NOM	Xuan
		"She asked where Juan was born."
	v.	Ipinanganak	si	Xuan	sa	ospital.
		PSV.bore	NOM	Xuan	LOC	kasalxona
		"Juan was born at the hospital."
	d.	Saan	ipinanganak	si	Juan?
		qayerda	PSV.bore	NOM	Xuan
		"Where was Juan born?"

When an oblique noun phrase is relativised, as in (7a), na 'that', the complementiser that separates the head from the relative clause, is optional. The relative clause itself is also composed differently. In the examples in (1a), and in (3) to (6), the relative clauses are simple declaratives that contain a gap. However, the relative clause in (7a) looks more like an bilvosita savol, complete with the so'roq qiluvchi complementiser, kung 'if', and a pre-verbally positioned WH-word kabi saan 'where', as in (7b). The sentence in (7c) is the declarative version of the relative clause in (7a), illustrating where the head, ospital 'hospital', would have been "before" relativisation. The question in (7d) shows the direct question version of the bo'ysunuvchi indirect question in (7b).

Gavayi

Relative clauses in Gavayi^[25] are avoided unless they are short.

If in English a relative clause would have a copula and an adjective, in Hawaiian the antecedent is simply modified by the adjective: "The honest man" instead of "the man who is honest". If the English relative clause would have a copula and a noun, in Hawaiian an appositive is used instead: "Paul, an apostle" instead of "Paul, who was an apostle".

If the English relative pronoun would be the subject of an intransitive or passive verb, in Hawaiian a participle is used instead of a full relative clause: "the people fallen" instead of "the people who fell"; "the thing given" instead of "the thing that was given". But when the relative clause's antecedent is a person, the English relative pronoun would be the subject of the relative clause, and the relative clause's verb is active and transitive, a relative clause is used and it begins with the relative pronoun nana: The one who me (past) sent = "the one who sent me".

If in English a relative pronoun would be the object of a relative clause, in Hawaiian the possessive form is used so as to treat the antecedent as something possessed: the things of me to have seen = "the things that I saw"; Here is theirs to have seen = This is what they saw".

Andean languages

Aymara

Xitoy

mandarin

Yilda Mandarin xitoy, the relative clause is similar to other adjectival phrases in that it precedes the noun that it modifies, and ends with the relative particle de. If the relative clause is missing a subject but contains an object (in other words, if the verb is transitive), the main-clause noun is the implied subject of the relative clause:^[26]

种水果的农人 (種水果的農人。)

zhòng shuǐguǒ de nóngrén

grow fruit (particle) farmer

"the fruit-growing farmer" or "the farmer who grows fruit"

If the object but not the subject is missing from the relative clause, the main-clause noun is the implied object of the relative clause:

他们种的水果 (他們種的水果。)

tāmen zhòng de shuǐguǒ

they grow (particle) fruit

"the by-them-grown fruit" or "the fruit that they grow"

If both the subject and the object are missing from the relative clause, then the main-clause noun could either be the implied subject or the implied object of the relative clause; sometimes which is intended is clear from the context, especially when the subject or object of the verb must be human and the other must be non-human:

(用)今天赢的钱来付房租((用)今天贏的錢來付房租。)

jīntiān yíng de qián fù fáng zū

today win (particle) money pay house rent

"the won-today money pays the rent" or "the money that was won today pays the rent"

Ammo ba'zida noaniqlik, kontekstdan asosiy band ismning nisbiy gapning predmeti yoki ob'ekti sifatida mo'ljallanganligi aniq bo'lmaganda paydo bo'ladi:

昨天批评的人都不在这里(昨天 批評 的 人 都不 在 這裡。)

zuótiān pīping de rén dōu bu zài zhèlǐ

kecha (zarracha) odamni tanqid qiling, bu erda yo'q

"kecha [boshqalarni] tanqid qilgan odamlar bu erda yo'q" yoki "[boshqalar] kecha tanqid qilganlar bu erda yo'q"

Shu bilan birga, birinchi ma'no (unda asosiy bandning oti sub'ekt bo'lgan) odatda mo'ljallangan, chunki ikkinchisi passiv ovozli marker yordamida aniq ifodalanishi mumkin:

昨天被批评的人都不在这里 (昨天 被 批評 的 人 在 這裡。)

zuótiān bèi pīping de rén dōu bu zài zhèlǐ

kecha (passiv marker) odamni tanqid qiladi (zarracha) bu erda emas

"kecha tanqid qilingan odamlar bu erda yo'q"

Ba'zan nisbiy ergash gapda ham predmet, ham predmet ko'rsatilgan, bunda bosh gap-so'z oti nisbiy ergash gapda ko'zda tutilgan predlogning nazarda tutilgan ob'ekti hisoblanadi:

我写信的毛笔(我 寫信 的 毛筆。)

wǒ xiě xìn de máobǐ

Men xat (zarracha) cho'tkasi yozaman

men xat yozadigan cho'tka

Shuningdek, predlogni nisbiy gap tarkibiga aniq kiritish mumkin, ammo u holda u olmosh predmetini oladi (a shaxs olmoshi nisbiy olmoshi bilan):^[27]

我替他画画的人(我 替 他 畫畫 的 人。)

wǒ tì tā huà huà de rén

Men uning uchun rasm (zarracha) chizgan odam uchun

"men unga rasm chizgan odam"

Erkin nisbiy gaplar xuddi shu tarzda, zarrachadan keyin o'zgartirilgan ismni tashlab, hosil bo'ladi de. Bog'langan nisbiy bandlarda bo'lgani kabi, noaniqlik paydo bo'lishi mumkin; masalan, 吃 的; chī de "eb (zarracha)" "egan narsa", ya'ni "ovqat" yoki "yeyayotganlar" ma'nosini anglatishi mumkin.^[28]

Kreollar

Gavayi Creole English

Yilda Gavayi Creole English, ingliz tilida kreol shuningdek, Hawaiian Pidgin yoki oddiygina Pidgin deb nomlangan, nisbiy bandlar ingliz tilida ishlash uslubiga o'xshash, ammo shunga o'xshash bo'lmagan tarzda ishlaydi.^[29] Ingliz tilida bo'lgani kabi, nisbiy ergash gapda fe'l ob'ekti vazifasini bajaradigan nisbiy olmosh ixtiyoriy ravishda chiqarib tashlanishi mumkin: Masalan,

Ai neva si da buk daet Lisa wen bai

Liza (o'tmishdagi) sotib olgan kitobni hech qachon ko'rmayapman

Liza sotib olgan kitobni ko'rmadim

kabi nisbiy olmoshi qoldirilgan holda ham ifodalanishi mumkin, kabi

Ai neva si da buk Liza wen bai

Men hech qachon Liza (o'tmishdagi) kitobni sotib olganini ko'rmayapman

Liza sotib olgan kitobni ko'rmadim

Biroq, nisbiy gapning predmeti bo'lib xizmat qiladigan nisbiy olmoshlar ingliz tiliga qaraganda ko'proq moslashuvchanlikni namoyon etadi; ular ingliz tilida majburiy bo'lganidek kiritilishi mumkin, ularni tashlab qo'yish yoki boshqa olmosh bilan almashtirish mumkin. Masalan, quyidagilarning barchasi sodir bo'lishi mumkin va barchasi bir narsani anglatadi:

Wan nada grl hu no kaen ste stil ni oling

Yana bitta qiz bor, u hech kim tinch turolmaydi

Yana bir qiz bor, u tinch turolmaydi

Wan nada grl no kaen ste stil ni oling

Yana bitta qiz borki, u bir joyda turolmaydi

Wan nada grl shi no kaen ste stil ni oling

Yana bitta qiz bor, u hech joyda to'xtamaydi

Gullax

Yilda Gullax, Qo'shma Shtatlarning janubi-sharqiy qirg'oqlarida so'zlanadigan ingliz tilidagi kreol, odatda nisbiy gap predmeti uchun nisbiy olmosh ishlatilmaydi. Masalan:

Duh uni qichqirgan

U shunday deb baqirdi

U shunday qichqiradi

Enty duh dem shum dey?

Ular u erda ko'rgan emasmi?

Uni u erda ko'rganlar emasmi?

Shuningdek qarang

• Shaharlararo bog'liqliklar
• Nisbatan shart

Adabiyotlar

• Rodni Xaddlston va Geoffrey K. Pullum (2002). Ingliz tilining Kembrij grammatikasi. Kembrij; Nyu-York: Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  0-521-43146-8.
• A.J.Tomson va A.V.Martinet (1986 yil 4-nashr). Amaliy ingliz tili grammatikasi. Oksford universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  0-19-431342-5. §72-85. (Chet ellik o'quvchilar uchun mos bo'lgan taqdimotda ingliz tilidagi nisbiy olmoshning asosiy "qoidalari" uchun).
• Keenan & Comrie, "Nomli so'z birikmalariga oid ierarxiya to'g'risida ma'lumotlar", Til, vol. 55, № 2 (1979 yil iyun), 333–351-betlar [1]

Tashqi havolalar

• SIL Lingvistik atamalarning lug'ati - nisbiy gap nima?
• Nisbiy band: qaysi biri aniqlanganmi? Yoki u faqat bitta va yagona narsani tasvirlaydimi?
• Nisbiy gaplardan foydalanish, Jennifer Frost tomonidan