Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi tizimi - Trans-Alaska Pipeline System

Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi tizimi
Trans-Alyaska neft quvuri, chunki u landshaft bo'ylab zig-zaglar
Trans-Alyaska quvurining joylashishi
Manzil
Mamlakat	Alyaska, Qo'shma Shtatlar
Koordinatalar	70 ° 15′26 ″ N. 148 ° 37′8 ″ V / 70.25722 ° N 148.61889 ° Vt / 70.25722; -148.61889Koordinatalar: 70 ° 15′26 ″ N. 148 ° 37′8 ″ V / 70.25722 ° N 148.61889 ° Vt / 70.25722; -148.61889
Umumiy yo'nalish	Shimoliy-janubiy
Kimdan	Prudho Bay (Alyaska)
O'tadi	Deadhorse Delta birikmasi Feyrbanks Tulki Glennallen Shimoliy qutb
Kimga	Valdez, Alyaska
Bilan birga ishlaydi	Dalton shosse Richardson shosse Elliott shosse
Umumiy ma'lumot
Turi	Nasos stantsiyalari
Egasi	Alyeska quvur liniyasiga xizmat ko'rsatuvchi kompaniya
Hamkorlar	BP ConocoPhillips Exxon Mobil Koch Industries Chevron korporatsiyasi
Ishga topshirildi	1977; 43 yil oldin (1977)[1][2][3]
Texnik ma'lumotlar
Uzunlik	800,3 mil (1,288.0 km)
Maksimal deşarj	2,136 million barreli / kun (339,600 m.)3/ d)
Diametri	48 dyuym (1,219 mm)
Yo'q nasos stantsiyalari	12

The Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi tizimi (TAPS) - bu Alyaskaga, shu jumladan trans-Alyaskaga tarqalgan neftni tashish tizimi xom neft quvur liniyasi, 11 nasos stantsiyalari, bir necha yuz millik oziqlantiruvchi quvur liniyalari va Valdez dengiz terminali. TAPS dunyodagi eng yirik quvur tizimlaridan biridir. Odatda "." Deb nomlanadi Alyaska quvur liniyasi, trans-Alyaska quvuri, yoki Alyeska quvur liniyasi, (yoki quvur liniyasi da aytilganidek Alyaska ), ammo bu atamalar texnik jihatdan quvurni diametri 48 dyuym (1,22 m) bo'lgan 800 milya (1,287 km) ga tegishli. Prudxo Bay ga Valdez, Alyaska. Xom neft quvuri xususiy egalik qiladi Alyeska quvur liniyasiga xizmat ko'rsatuvchi kompaniya.

Quvur liniyasi 1975 yildan 1977 yilgacha qurilgan 1973 yilgi neft inqirozi neft narxlarining keskin o'sishiga sabab bo'ldi Qo'shma Shtatlar. Ushbu ko'tarilish kashfiyotni amalga oshirdi Prudxo Bay neft koni iqtisodiy jihatdan maqsadga muvofiqdir. Atrof-muhit, huquqiy va siyosiy munozaralar 1968 yilda Prudhoe ko'rfazida neft topilganidan keyin va quvur neft inqirozidan keyin qurilgan qonun hujjatlarining qabul qilinishini qo'zg'atdi loyihadagi huquqiy muammolarni bartaraf etish uchun mo'ljallangan.

Quvur liniyasini qurishda muhandislar asosan qattiq sovuqdan va qiyin, ajratilgan erlardan kelib chiqqan holda turli xil qiyinchiliklarga duch kelishdi. Quvur liniyasi qurilishi yuzaga kelgan muammolarni hal qilishga qaratilgan birinchi yirik loyihalardan biri bo'ldi doimiy muzlik va muzlatilgan er bilan kurashish uchun maxsus qurilish texnikasini ishlab chiqish kerak edi. Loyiha Alyaskaga o'n minglab ishchilarni jalb qildi va bu a portlash atmosfera Valdez, Feyrbanks va Anchorage.

Birinchi barrel neft yozda quvur orqali sayohat qildi 1977 yil,^[1][2][3][4] yil oxiriga qadar to'liq hajmdagi ishlab chiqarish bilan. O'shandan beri neftning oqib ketishi bilan bog'liq bir necha muhim voqealar ro'y berdi, shu jumladan sabotaj, texnik xizmat ko'rsatishning buzilishi va o'q teshiklar. 2014 yilga kelib, u 17 milliard barreldan (2,7.) Ko'proq jo'natdi×10⁹ m³) neft.^[5] Quvur liniyasi kuniga 2 million barreldan ortiq neft etkazib berishga qodir ekanligi isbotlangan, ammo bugungi kunda odatda maksimal quvvatning bir qismida ishlaydi. Agar oqim to'xtab qolsa yoki o'tkazuvchanlik juda oz bo'lsa, chiziq muzlashi mumkin. Quvur liniyasi uzaytirilishi va ishlab chiqarilgan neftni tashish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin burg'ulash loyihalari bo'yicha bahsli yaqin atrofda Arktika milliy yovvoyi tabiat qo'riqxonasi (ANWR).

Kelib chiqishi

Iñupiat Alyaskaning Shimoliy Nishabidagi odamlar neft bilan to'yingan holda qazib olishgan torf ehtimol ming yillar davomida uni issiqlik va yorug'lik uchun yoqilg'i sifatida ishlatgan. Qolgan kitlar Barrow Iñupiat pitch deb nomlangan moddani ko'rdi va uni neft deb tan oldi. Barrouga kelib, Arktika sohilida savdo postlarini boshqargan baliq ovchisi Charlz Brouer yo'naltirilgan geolog Alfred Xuls Bruks ga neft qatlamlari Simpson burnida va Alyaskaning shimolidagi Fish Creekda, qishloqdan sharqda Barrow.^[6] Bruksning hisobotida ofitser ofitseri Tomas Simpsonning kuzatuvlari tasdiqlangan Hudson's Bay kompaniyasi birinchi marta 1836 yilda dengiz sathini kuzatgan.^[7] Shunga o'xshash suv o'tkazgichlari topilgan Konserva daryosi 1919 yilda Ernest de Koven Leffingwell.^[8] Keyingi Birinchi jahon urushi kabi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari dengiz kuchlari kemalarini aylantirdi ko'mir ga mazut, neftning barqaror ta'minoti AQSh hukumati uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'ldi. Shunga ko'ra, Prezident Uorren G. Xarding bir qator ijro buyrug'i bilan tashkil etilgan Dengiz neft zaxiralari (NPR-1 dan -4 gacha) Qo'shma Shtatlar bo'ylab. Ushbu zaxiralar neftga boy va AQSh dengiz floti tomonidan kelajakda burg'ulash uchun ajratilgan deb hisoblangan joylar edi. 4-sonli dengiz neft zaxirasi Alyaskaning shimoliy qismida, Barrowdan janubda joylashgan va 23 000 000 gektar maydonni (93 078 km) qamrab olgan.²).^[9] Boshqa dengiz neft zaxiralari hukumatdagi korruptsiya masalasida tortishuvlarga duch keldi Choynak gumbazidagi janjal.

NPR-4 ning birinchi izlanishlari 1923 yildan 1925 yilgacha AQSh Geologik xizmati tomonidan olib borilgan va qo'riqxonaning g'arbiy qismidagi ko'mir resurslarini xaritalash, aniqlash va tavsiflashga qaratilgan. neftni qidirish qo'riqxonaning sharqiy va shimoliy qismlarida. Ushbu so'rovnomalar asosan piyodalarga tegishli edi; o'sha paytda burg'ulash yoki masofadan zondlash texnikasi mavjud emas edi. Ushbu tadqiqotlarda Filipp Smit tog'lari va to'rtburchaklar singari o'rganilgan hududlarning ko'plab geografik xususiyatlari nomlari berilgan.^[10][11]

Neft zaxirasi shu vaqtgacha harakatsiz edi Ikkinchi jahon urushi neftning yangi istiqbollarini o'rganish uchun turtki berdi. Strategik neft aktivlarini aniqlash bo'yicha birinchi yangilangan sa'y-harakatlar ikki tomonlama tadqiqotlar yordamida amalga oshirildi buta samolyoti, mahalliy Inupiat yo'riqnomalari va ko'plab agentliklarning xodimlari xabar berilgan sızıntıları aniqlash uchun. Ebbli va Joesting 1943 yilda ushbu dastlabki yo'llar haqida xabar berishdi. 1944 yildan boshlab AQSh dengiz floti yaqinidagi neft qidiruv ishlarini moliyalashtirdi. Umiat tog'i, ustida Kolvil daryosi tog 'etaklarida Bruks Range.^[12] Dan tadqiqotchilar AQSh Geologik xizmati neft zaxirasi bo'ylab tarqaldi va 1953 yilgacha, dengiz floti loyihani moliyalashtirishni to'xtatib turguniga qadar uning hajmini aniqlash uchun ishladi. USGS bir nechta neft konlarini topdi, eng muhimi Alp tog'lari va Umiat neft koni, ammo hech biri iqtisodiy jihatdan samarali bo'lmagan.^[13]

Dengiz kuchlari tadqiqotni to'xtatgandan to'rt yil o'tib, Richfield Oil korporatsiyasi (keyinchalik Atlantik Richfield va ARCO) juda muvaffaqiyatli burg'ulashdi neft qudug'i yaqinida Swanson daryosi janubiy Alyaskada, yaqinida Kenay.^[14] Natijada Swanson daryosi neft koni Alyaskaning birinchi yirik tijorat ishlab chiqaradigan neft koni bo'lgan va bu ko'plab boshqalarni qidirish va rivojlantirishga turtki bergan.^[15] 1965 yilga kelib beshta neft va 11 tabiiy gaz konlari o'zlashtirildi. Ushbu muvaffaqiyat va dengiz flotining avvalgi neft zahirasini o'rganish natijasida neft muhandislari Alyaskaning Bruks tizmasining shimolida juda ko'p miqdordagi neft va gaz bor degan xulosaga kelishdi.^[16] Muammolar hududning uzoqligi va qattiq iqlim bilan bog'liq edi. 200,000,000 barrel (32,000,000 m) orasida ekanligi taxmin qilingan³) va 500,000,000 barrel (79,000,000 m)³) Shimoliy Nishab neft konini tijorat jihatdan foydali qilish uchun neftni qayta tiklash kerak edi.^[14]

1967 yilda Atlantika Richfild (ARCO) yilda batafsil tadqiqot ishlari boshlandi Prudxo Bay maydon. 1968 yil yanvar oyiga kelib tabiiy gaz kashfiyot qudug'i tomonidan topilganligi haqida xabarlar tarqaldi.^[17] 1968 yil 12 martda Atlantik Richfield burg'ulash brigadasi paydirtga urildi.^[18] Kashfiyot qudug'i 1152 barrel (183,2 m) tezligida oqishni boshladi³) kuniga neft.^[17] 25 iyun kuni ARCO ikkinchi kashfiyot qudug'i ham xuddi shunday tezlikda neft qazib olishini e'lon qildi. Birgalikda, ikkita quduq mavjudligini tasdiqladi Prudhoe Bay neft koni. Yangi konda 25 milliard barreldan ko'proq (4,0) bor edi×10^⁹ m³) neft, bu Shimoliy Amerikada eng yirik va dunyoda 18-o'rinda turadi.^[18]

Tez orada muammo neft konini qanday qilib o'zlashtirish va mahsulotni AQSh bozorlariga etkazib berish bilan bog'liq edi. Quvur liniyalari tizimlari yuqori boshlang'ich xarajatlarni anglatadi, ammo operatsion xarajatlarning pastligi, ammo zarur uzunlikdagi quvurlar hali qurilmagan. Boshqa bir qator echimlar taklif qilindi. Boeing neftni kondan tashish uchun ulkan 12 dvigatelli tanker samolyotlarini taklif qildi Boeing RC-1.^[19] Umumiy dinamikasi tanker chizig'ini taklif qildi dengiz osti kemalari ostidagi sayohat uchun Arktikadagi muzlik va yana bir guruh bu muddatni uzaytirishni taklif qildi Alyaska temir yo'li Prudho Beyga.^[20] Muzning buzilishi neft tankerlari to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Prudhoe ko'rfazidan neftni tashish uchun taklif qilingan, ammo maqsadga muvofiqligi shubha ostiga olingan.

Buni sinab ko'rish uchun, 1969 yilda Kamtarin moy va Qayta ishlash kompaniyasi maxsus jihozlangan neft tankerini yubordi SSManxetten, muzni buzuvchi tankerlar orqali bozorga etkazib berishning maqsadga muvofiqligini sinab ko'rish.^[21] The Manxetten muvaffaqiyatli sayohat qilishdan oldin muzni buzadigan kamon, kuchli dvigatellar va qotib qolgan pervaneler bilan jihozlangan Shimoli-g'arbiy o'tish yo'li Atlantika okeanidan Bofort dengizigacha. Safar davomida kema dengiz suvi bilan to'lib toshgan bir nechta yuk tashish joylariga zarar etkazdi. Shamol esgan muz majbur qildi Manxetten dan mo'ljallangan yo'nalishni o'zgartirish uchun M'Clure Bo'g'ozi kichikroq Uels bo'g'ozi shahzodasi. U Shimoliy-G'arbiy o'tish yo'li orqali orqaga qaytdi Kanada qirg'oq xavfsizligi muzqaymoq kemasi CCGS Jon A. Makdonald. Garchi Manxetten 1970 yil yozida yana Shimoliy G'arbiy o'tish yo'li orqali tranzit qilindi, bu kontseptsiya juda xavfli deb hisoblandi.^[22] Shu bilan neft quvuri eng yaqin neftni tashish uchun yagona hayotiy tizim edi port deyarli 800 mil (1300 km) uzoqlikda Valdez.

Alyeskani shakllantirish

1980-yillardan beri Alyaskaning Britaniyaning Petrol neft kompaniyasining Ankoricdagi bosh qarorgohi

1969 yil fevral oyida SS Manxetten o'zining Sharqiy qirg'og'idagi boshlang'ich nuqtasidan suzib chiqmasdan oldin, Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi tizimi (TAPS), ARCO tomonidan tashkil qilinmagan qo'shma guruh, British Petroleum va 1968 yil oktyabr oyida Humble Oil,^[23] dan ruxsat so'radi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Ichki ishlar vazirligi Alyaska bo'ylab Prudhoe ko'rfazidan Valdezgacha bo'lgan neft quvuri yo'nalishining geologik va muhandislik tadqiqotlarini boshlash. Birinchi texnik-iqtisodiy asoslanish boshlanishidan oldin ham neft kompaniyalari quvurning taxminiy yo'lini tanladilar.^[24] Ruxsat berildi va muhandislar guruhlari burg'ulash ishlarini boshladi yadro namunalari va Alyaskada geodeziya.

1969 yil sentyabr oyida TAPS trubka yotqizishni boshlashiga umid qilganligi sababli, diametri 48 dyuym (122 sm) bo'lgan temir quvur uchun katta buyurtmalar berildi.^[25] Hech bir amerika kompaniyasi ushbu turdagi quvurlarni ishlab chiqarmagan, shuning uchun uchta yapon kompaniyasi -Sumitomo Metal Industries Ltd, Nippon Steel Corporation va Nippon Kokan Kabushiki Kaisha - 800 mil (1280 km) dan ortiq quvur liniyasi uchun 100 million dollarlik shartnoma oldi. Shu bilan birga, TAPS neftni quvur orqali surish uchun kerak bo'ladigan ulkan nasoslardan birinchisiga 30 million dollar miqdorida buyurtma berdi.^[26]

1969 yil iyun oyida SS Manxetten Shimoliy G'arbiy o'tish yo'li orqali sayohat qilganida, TAPS rasmiy ravishda Ichki ishlar vazirligiga 800 kilometr (1300 km) jamoat erlari bo'ylab - Prudhoe Baydan Valdezgacha neft quvuri qurishga ruxsat olish uchun murojaat qildi.^[27] Ariza 11 metrlik nasos stantsiyalarini o'z ichiga olgan er osti 48 dyuymli (122 santimetr) quvur liniyasini qurish uchun 100 fut (30,5 m) kenglik huquqi uchun edi. Quvur liniyasiga parallel ravishda qurilish va texnik xizmat ko'rsatish magistralini qurish uchun yana bir yo'l so'raldi. 20 sahifadan iborat hujjat, TAPSning ushbu bosqichga qadar marshrut bo'yicha to'plagan barcha ma'lumotlarini o'z ichiga olgan.^[28]

Ichki ishlar boshqarmasi bunga javoban taklif qilingan yo'nalish va rejani tahlil qilish uchun xodimlarni yubordi. Uchun mas'ul arktika mutaxassisi Maks Brewer Dengiz Arktikasi tadqiqot laboratoriyasi Barrow-da, quvurning katta qismini ko'mish rejasi mo'l-ko'lligi sababli umuman amalga oshirilmaydigan degan xulosaga keldi doimiy muzlik marshrut bo'ylab. Hisobotda Brewer, quvur orqali uzatiladigan issiq yog 'asosiy permafrostni eritib yuborishini va uning quvuri loyga aylangani sababli quvurning ishlamay qolishini aytdi. Ushbu hisobot tegishli qo'mitalarga etkazildi AQSh uyi va Senat, yo'l harakati taklifini ma'qullashi kerak edi, chunki u ruxsat berilganidan ko'proq er so'radi 1920 yilgi mineral lizing to'g'risidagi qonun va bu 1966 yilda ilgari o'rnatilgan rivojlanishning muzlashini buzishi mumkin edi Ichki ishlar kotibi Styuart Udal.^[29]

Udall Alyaskaning tub aholisi tomonidan da'vo qilingan erlar bilan bog'liq har qanday loyihalarni muzlatib qo'ydi.^[30] 1969 yilning kuzida, Ichki ishlar vazirligi va TAPS, turli xil mahalliy qishloqlardan taklif qilingan yo'l huquqining bir qismiga da'vo qilgan imtiyozlarni olish orqali erning muzlashini chetlab o'tishga kirishdilar. Sentyabr oyining oxiriga kelib, barcha tegishli qishloqlar o'zlarining huquqlarini himoya qilish bo'yicha da'volaridan voz kechishdi va Ichki ishlar kotibi Uolli Xikel Kongressdan butun TAPS loyihasi uchun erni muzlatishni ko'tarishni so'radi. Loyiha ustidan nazorat olib borgan Palata va Senat qo'mitalari tomonidan bir necha oylik so'roqlardan so'ng, Hikelga erni muzlatish holatini ko'tarish va TAPSga ruxsat berish huquqi berildi.

TAPS pudratchilarga qurilish uchun ishlatilishi kerak bo'lgan trassa trassasi uzunligidan o'tuvchi "avtomagistral yo'l" ni qurish niyatida xatlar berishni boshladi. Og'ir uskunalar tayyorlandi va ekipajlar Hikkel ruxsat berganidan va qor eriganidan keyin ishga ketishga tayyorlanishdi.^[31] Ammo Xikel harakatga kelmasdan oldin, bir nechta Alyaskaning mahalliy aholisi va tabiatni muhofaza qilish guruhlari Vashington shahridagi sudyadan loyihaga qarshi buyruq chiqarishni so'rashdi. TAPS loyiha uchun biron bir mahalliy pudratchini tanlamaganligi va tanlangan pudratchilar mahalliy ishchilarni yollamasliklari sababli, yo'l huquqidan da'volardan voz kechgan bir nechta mahalliy qishloqlar.^[32]

1970 yil 1 aprelda sudya Jorj Luzern Xart, kichik, ning Kolumbiya okrugi bo'yicha AQSh sudi, Ichki ishlar boshqarmasiga da'volardan birini kesib o'tgan loyihaning bir qismi uchun qurilishga ruxsat bermaslikni buyurdi.^[33] Ikki haftadan kam vaqt o'tgach, Xart tabiatni muhofaza qilish guruhlarining TAPS loyihasi buzganligi haqidagi dalillarini eshitdi Mineral lizing to'g'risidagi qonun va Milliy ekologik siyosat to'g'risidagi qonun, bu yil boshida kuchga kirgan. Xart loyihaga qarshi buyruq chiqarib, Ichki ishlar vazirligining qurilishga ruxsat berishiga to'sqinlik qildi va loyihani o'z izida to'xtatdi.^[34]

Ichki ishlar vazirligi qurilish ruxsatnomasini berishni to'xtatgandan so'ng, yuridik shaxsga tegishli bo'lmagan TAPS konsortsiumi yangi qo'shma korxonaga aylantirildi Alyeska quvur liniyasiga xizmat ko'rsatuvchi kompaniya.^[35] Sobiq Humble Oil menejeri Edvard L. Patton yangi kompaniyaga rahbarlik qildi va Alyaska shtatining tub aholisi tomonidan quvur liniyasi bo'yicha kelishmovchiliklarni hal qilish bo'yicha da'volarni hal qilish tarafdori bo'lgan.^[36]

Qarama-qarshilik

Quvurni qurishga qarshi chiqish asosan ikki manbadan kelib chiqqan: Alyaskaning mahalliy guruhlari va tabiatni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha mutaxassislar. Alyaskaning mahalliy aholisi ushbu quvur an'anaviy ravishda turli xil mahalliy guruhlar tomonidan da'vo qilingan erdan o'tib ketishidan xafa bo'lishdi, ammo ularga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri iqtisodiy foyda keltirmaydi. Tabiatni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha mutaxassislar Amerikaning so'nggi cho'liga bostirib kirishni ko'rganlaridan g'azablanishdi.^[37] Ikkala oppozitsiya harakati ham quvurni to'xtatish uchun qonuniy kampaniyalarni boshladilar va qurilishni 1973 yilgacha kechiktirishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi.

Tabiatni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha e'tirozlar

A karibu trubaning shimolidan bir qismi yonida yuradi Bruks Range. Quvur liniyasining muxoliflari quvurning borligi karibuga xalaqit berishini ta'kidladilar.

Tabiatni muhofaza qilish guruhlari va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish tashkilotlari 1970 yilgacha quvur liniyasi loyihasiga qarshi chiqishlarini bildirgan bo'lsalar-da, Milliy atrof-muhit siyosati to'g'risidagi qonunning kiritilishi ularga loyihani to'xtatishga qonuniy asoslar berdi. Arktika muhandislari yer osti quvuri qurish rejalari, xususan Arktika muhandisligi va doimiy muzlikdan bexabarligini ko'rsatishi to'g'risida xavotir bildirishdi.^[38] NEPA-dagi muqobil variantlarni o'rganishni talab qiladigan va atrof-muhitga ta'sir ko'rsatishi kerak bo'lgan boshqa band bu muammolarni ushbu qo'llanmani ishlatadigan vositalarga aylantirdi. Yovvoyi tabiat jamiyati, Erning do'stlari, va Atrof muhitni muhofaza qilish jamg'armasi loyihani to'xtatish to'g'risida 1970 yil bahoridagi sud da'volarida.^[39]

Loyihaga qarshi ko'rsatma Alyeskani 1970 yil yozida qo'shimcha tadqiqotlar o'tkazishga majbur qildi. To'plangan materiallar 1970 yil oktyabr oyida Ichki ishlar vazirligiga topshirildi,^[40] va atrof-muhitga ta'siri to'g'risidagi bayonotning loyihasi 1971 yil yanvar oyida nashr etilgan.^[41] 294 betlik bayonot katta tanqidlarga sabab bo'ldi, mart oyining oxiriga kelib Kongress munozaralarida 12000 sahifadan ko'proq guvohlik va dalillar keltirildi.^[42] Loyihani tanqid qilish uning Alyaskaga ta'sirini o'z ichiga olgan tundra, mumkin bo'lgan ifloslanish, hayvonlarga zarar, geografik xususiyatlar va Alyeskadan juda ko'p muhandislik ma'lumotlarining etishmasligi. Hisobotda keltirilgan muxolifatning bir elementi alternativalarni muhokama qilish edi. Tavsiya etilgan barcha alternativalar - Alyaska temir yo'lini kengaytirish, Kanadadan o'tadigan muqobil yo'l, Prudxo ko'rfazida port tashkil etish va boshqalar - to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Alyaska bo'ylab quvur liniyasi qurilishidan ko'ra ko'proq ekologik xavf tug'diradi.^[41]

Qarama-qarshilik, shuningdek, quvur liniyasiga parallel ravishda qurilish va texnik xizmat ko'rsatish magistrali binosiga qaratilgan edi. Alyeskaning quvur liniyasi taklifidagi bandda ma'lum bir vaqtda quvurni olib tashlash kerakligi ko'rsatilgan bo'lsa-da, yo'lni olib tashlash uchun bunday qoidalar mavjud emas. Tabiatni muhofaza qilish jamg'armasi prezidenti Sidney Xou ogohlantirdi: "Yog 'ellik yilga cho'zilishi mumkin. Yo'l abadiy qoladi".^[43] Ushbu tortishuv shiddatli sharoit va qisqa vegetatsiya davri tufayli uzoq shimoliy Alyaskada o'simliklar va hayvonlarning sekin o'sishiga asoslangan edi. Shaxsiy guvohlikda ekolog, arktik daraxtlarning balandligi atigi bir necha metr bo'lsa ham, qachon "ko'chat bo'lgan", deb ta'kidladi Jorj Vashington ochilish marosimi bo'lib o'tdi ".^[44]

Atrof-muhit muhokamasining eng katta ramziy ta'sirga ega qismi quvur liniyasining karibu podalariga ta'sirini muhokama qilishda sodir bo'ldi.^[45] Atrof-muhitshunoslar, quvur liniyasi ta'siriga o'xshash karibuga ta'sir ko'rsatishini taklif qilishdi AQSh transkontinental temir yo'l ustida Amerikalik bizon Shimoliy Amerika aholisi.^[45] Quvur liniyasi tanqidchilarining ta'kidlashicha, quvur an'anaviy migratsiya yo'llarini to'sib qo'yadi, bu esa karibu populyatsiyasini kamaytiradi va ularni ov qilishni osonlashtiradi. Ushbu g'oya quvurlarga qarshi reklamada, xususan, bir nechta qonuniy ravishda otib tashlangan karibu olib ketayotgan forkliftning surati "Alyaska quvur liniyasi orqali karibu o'tishning bir nechta yo'li bor" shiori bilan bezatilganida ishlatilgan.^[46] Quvur liniyasining atrof-muhitga ta'siri misolida karibuudan foydalanish 1971 yil bahorida, atrof-muhit to'g'risidagi bayonot loyihasi muhokama qilinayotganda eng yuqori darajaga etdi.^[46]

Quvur liniyasi Caribou migratsiya yo'llariga xalaqit beradi, ammo buzilishlarni cheklash uchun o'tish punktlari o'rnatildi.

Mahalliy e'tirozlar

Quvur liniyasi ko'plab kichik daryolar va soylarning ostidan o'tadi, ammo ko'priklar uzunroq o'tish joylarini qoplaydi.

1902 yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Qishloq xo'jaligi vazirligi 16 000 000 akr (64,750 km) ajratib qo'ydi²) sifatida Janubi-Sharqiy Alyaska Tongass milliy o'rmoni.^[47] Hududda yashovchi Tlingit aholisi bu yer ularniki ekanligi va adolatsiz ravishda olib qo'yilganiga norozilik bildirishdi. 1935 yilda Kongress tlingitlarga kompensatsiya uchun sudga murojaat qilishga ruxsat beruvchi qonun qabul qildi va natijada ish 1968 yilgacha cho'zilib, 7,5 million dollarlik kelishuvga erishildi.^[48] Trans-Alyaska quvuridagi ishni to'xtatish to'g'risidagi mahalliy sud jarayonidan so'ng, ushbu pretsedent bahs-munozaralarda tez-tez tilga olinib, tlingitlarni qondirish uchun olgan 33 yilga qaraganda vaziyatni tezroq hal qilish uchun bosimni keltirib chiqardi.^[49] 1968 yildan 1971 yilgacha AQSh Kongressiga shtat bo'ylab mahalliy aholining da'volarini qoplash uchun ketma-ket qonun loyihalari kiritildi.^[50] Dastlabki hisob-kitob 7 million dollarni taklif qildi, ammo bu qat'iy rad etildi.^[51]

The Alyaskaning mahalliy aholisi federatsiyasi 1966 yilda tashkil topgan, sobiq yollangan Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Oliy sudi adolat Artur Goldberg, aholi punkti 40 million akrni (160,000 km) o'z ichiga olishi kerakligini taklif qildi²) er va 500 million dollarlik to'lov.^[51] Alyeska quvur qurishga qarshi qonuniy choralarni bekor qilish uchun Kongressda mahalliylarning da'vo akti foydasiga lobbi ishlarini boshlagunga qadar bu masala to'xtab qoldi.^[51] 1971 yil oktyabr oyida Prezident Richard Nikson Alyaskada mahalliy da'volarni hal qilish to'g'risidagi qonuni (ANCSA) imzoladi. Ushbu qonunga binoan mahalliy guruhlar 962,5 million dollar va 148,5 million akr (601 000 km) evaziga erga bo'lgan da'volaridan voz kechishadi.²) federal erlarda.^[52] Pullar va erlar qishloq va mintaqaviy korporatsiyalar o'rtasida taqsimlanib, keyinchalik aktsiyalarni mintaqadagi yoki qishloqdagi mahalliy aholiga tarqatishdi. Aktsiyalar ikkala hisob-kitob va korporatsiya foydasiga qarab dividendlar to'lashdi.^[53] Quvurlarni ishlab chiqaruvchilar uchun ANCSA-ning eng muhim jihati quvur liniyasi yo'lida mahalliy ajratmalar tanlanmasligi mumkinligi haqidagi band edi.^[54]

Mahalliy aholining yana bir e'tirozi quvurning an'anaviy hayot tarzini buzishi mumkinligi edi. Ko'pgina mahalliy aholi, quvur quvuri tufayli yuzaga keladigan uzilishlar, oziq-ovqatga ishonadigan kitlar va karibularni qo'rqitib yuborishidan xavotirda edilar.^[55]

Huquqiy masalalar va siyosat

Ko'pgina o'tish joylari chuqurlikda ko'milgan, ammo bu o'tish joyi Richardson shosse yuzasiga yaqin va ish bilan ta'minlangan termosifonlar, maxsus issiqlik quvurlari Permafrostni eritib yubormaslik uchun yog'ni quvurlarning yuqori qismidagi suyaklarga issiqlik o'tkazadigan

Ham sudlarda, ham Kongressda Alyeska va neft kompaniyalari quvurning EIS (atrof-muhitga ta'siri to'g'risidagi bayonot) ga qarshi qarama-qarshiliklar orasida quvurni qurish uchun kurashdilar. Bahslar 1971 yilgacha davom etdi. Karibu podalari haqidagi e'tirozlarga kuzatishlar qarshi chiqdi Devidson Ditch, Trans-Alyaska truboprovodining diametri bir xil bo'lgan suv o'tkazgichi, u karibu sakrab o'tishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.^[56] Quvur liniyasi Alyaskaning cho'lini qaytarib bo'lmaydigan darajada o'zgartiradi, degan tarafdorlarga, tarafdorlar, ularning o'sib chiqqan qoldiqlariga ishora qildilar. Fairbanks Gold Rush, ularning aksariyati 70 yildan keyin o'chirildi.^[57] Ba'zi bir quvur liniyasi muxoliflari Alyeskaning dastlabki dizayni bilan mamnun edilar, ular karibu va boshqa katta o'yinlar, shag'al va ko'pikli izolyatsiyalash uchun er osti va ko'tarilgan o'tish joylarini o'z ichiga olgan bo'lib, ular abadiy muzning erishi, qochqinning avtomatik aniqlanishi va yopilishi va boshqa texnikani oldini olish uchun.^[58] Boshqa raqiblar, jumladan, Valdezning janubida tankerning qochib ketishidan qo'rqgan baliqchilar, reja bilan kelishmovchiliklarini saqlab qolishdi.^[59]

Quvur liniyasi uchun ham, unga qarshi ham barcha dalillar 1972 yil 20 martda e'lon qilingan 3500 betlik, 9 jildlik atrof-muhitga ta'siri to'g'risidagi yakuniy bayonotga kiritilgan.^[54] Alyaska senatori Ted Stivens ushbu bayonotni "tashabbuskor tomonidan yozilmagan" deb hisoblagan bo'lsa-da, bayonot loyihasida ko'rsatilgan quvurlarni qurish uchun umumiy ma'qullashni saqlab qoldi.^[60] AQSh ichki ishlar vaziri Rojers Morton ozod qilinganidan keyin 45 kunlik sharhlarga ruxsat berildi va tabiatni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha mutaxassislar ta'sir bayonotiga qarshi bo'lgan 1300 betlik hujjatni yaratdilar.^[61] Ushbu hujjat sudya Xartni chalg'itmadi, u 1972 yil 15 avgustda loyihaga qo'yilgan buyruqni bekor qildi.^[62]

Qaror bergan ekologik guruhlar ushbu qaror ustidan shikoyat qilishdi va 1972 yil 6 oktyabrda Vashington shahridagi AQSh okrug apellyatsiya sudi Xartning qarorini qisman bekor qildi. Apellyatsiya sudining ta'kidlashicha, zarba to'g'risidagi bayonot atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha milliy qonunda belgilangan ko'rsatmalarga amal qilgan bo'lsa-da, mineral-gazlarni ijaraga berish to'g'risidagi qonunga rioya qilmagan, bu Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi uchun talab qilinganidan kichikroq quvur o'tkazish huquqini bergan.^[62] Neft kompaniyalari va Alyeska ushbu qaror ustidan AQSh Oliy sudiga shikoyat qilishdi, ammo 1973 yil aprel oyida sud ishni ko'rib chiqishni rad etdi.^[63]

Kongress masalalari

Apellyatsiya sudi Minerals leasing qonuni quvur talablariga javob bermaydi degan qarorga kelgach, Alyeska va neft kompaniyalari Kongressga ushbu qonunga o'zgartirish kiritish yoki kengroq harakatlanish huquqini beradigan yangi qonun yaratish uchun lobbichilik qila boshladilar. Senatning ichki ishlar qo'mitasi 1973 yil 9 martda bir qator qonun loyihalarini birinchi tinglashni boshladi.^[64] Atrof-muhit muxolifati NEPA asosidagi quvur liniyasi bilan bahslashishdan lizing shartnomasiga o'zgartirish kiritish yoki yangi qonun loyihasiga qarshi kurashga o'tdi.^[65] 1973 yil bahor va yoz oylariga kelib, ushbu muxolifat guruhlari Kongressni Trans-Kanada neft quvuri yoki temir yo'lni qo'llab-quvvatlashga ishontirishga urinishdi. Ular "uni erga qoldiring" argumenti muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lishiga ishonishdi va bu osonlikcha mag'lub bo'ladigan samarasiz alternativani taklif qilishdir.^[66] Ushbu yondashuv bilan bog'liq muammo shundaki, har qanday alternativa Trans-Alyaska quvuridan ko'ra ko'proq zaminni qamrab oladi va ekologik jihatdan zararli bo'ladi.^[67]

AQSh Senatida ham, palatasida ham tinglovlar 1973 yil yozigacha yangi qonun loyihalari va mineral lizing to'g'risidagi qonunga kiritilgan o'zgartirishlar bo'yicha davom etdi. 13-iyul kuni loyihani batafsil o'rganishni talab qiladigan o'zgartirish kiritildi Mondale-Bayxga o'zgartirishlar kiritish - mag'lub bo'ldi.^[68] Buning ortidan Alyaska senatori tomonidan tuzatish kiritilganda quvur quvvati tarafdorlari yana bir g'alabaga erishdilar. Mayk Gravel Senat tomonidan qabul qilindi. O'zgarishlarga ko'ra, quvur liniyasi loyihasi NEPA-ning barcha jihatlarini bajargan va Alyaska quvur liniyasi uchun eng katta yo'lni ta'minlash uchun mineral lizing to'g'risidagi qonuni o'zgartirgan.^[69] Ustiga qayta ko'rib chiqish, ovoz 49-49 ga teng bo'lib, vitse-prezidentning ovozi talab qilindi Spiro Agnew, tuzatishni kim qo'llab-quvvatladi.^[70] Xuddi shunday tuzatish 2 avgust kuni palatada qabul qilindi.^[71]

Neft inqirozi va avtorizatsiya akti

1973 yil 17 oktyabrda Arab neftini eksport qiluvchi mamlakatlar tashkiloti e'lon qildi neft embargosi qo'llab-quvvatlaganligi uchun qasos sifatida AQShga qarshi Isroil davomida Yom Kippur urushi. Qo'shma Shtatlar neftning taxminan 35 foizini xorijiy manbalardan import qilganligi sababli,^[72] embargo katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Benzin narxi yuqoriga ko'tarildi, benzin tanqisligi tez-tez uchradi va me'yor belgilandi. Aksariyat amerikaliklar muammoning echimini talab qila boshladilar va Prezident Richard Nikson Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasining lobbisini hech bo'lmaganda javobning bir qismi sifatida boshladi.

Nikson neft inqirozidan oldin ham quvur liniyasi loyihasini qo'llab-quvvatladi. 1973 yil 10 sentyabrda u kongressning o'sha yilgi sessiyasining qolgan qismida ushbu yo'nalish birinchi o'ringa qo'yilganligi to'g'risida xabar tarqatdi.^[73] 8-noyabr kuni, embargo uch hafta davomida amalga oshirilgandan so'ng, u ushbu bayonotni yana bir bor tasdiqladi. Kongress a'zolari o'z saylovchilarining bosimi ostida Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasini avtorizatsiya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, bu quvur qurilishidagi barcha qonuniy to'siqlarni olib tashlagan, moddiy rag'batlantirgan va uni qurish uchun yo'l bergan. Ushbu dalolatnoma tuzilib, qo'mita tomonidan shoshilinch ravishda amalga oshirildi va 1973 yil 12 noyabrda 361–14–60 ovoz bilan Palata tomonidan ma'qullandi. Ertasi kuni Senat uni 80-5-15 kunlari qabul qildi.^[74] Nikson 16-noyabrda uni imzoladi va 1974 yil 3-yanvarda quvur liniyasi va transport yo'li uchun federal yo'l berildi.^[75] Shartnoma neft kompaniyalari tomonidan 23 yanvarda imzolanib, ish boshlashiga imkon yaratildi.^[76]

Qurilish

Quvur liniyasi kesib o'tadigan joylarda slayder tayanchlarida joylashgan Denali xatosi.

Garchi qonuniy yo'l 1974 yil yanvarigacha tozalangan bo'lsa-da, sovuq ob-havo, ishchilarni jalb qilish zarurati va qurilish Dalton shosse quvurda ishlash mart oyigacha boshlamaganligini anglatadi.^[77] 1974 yildan 1977 yil 28 iyulgacha, Valdezga birinchi barrel neft yetib kelganida,^[3][78] quvurda o'n minglab odamlar ishladilar.^[79] Qo'shma Shtatlarning aksariyat qismi tanazzulni boshdan kechirayotgan bir paytda, minglab ishchilar Alyaskaga katta maoshli ishlarni kutib olishdi.^[80]

Qurilish ishchilari uzoq soatlarga, sovuq haroratga va shafqatsiz sharoitlarga dosh berdilar. Qiyin er, ayniqsa Atigun dovoni, Keystone kanyoni va Sagavanirktok daryosi yaqinida ishchilar kutilmagan muammolar uchun echim topishga majbur bo'lishdi.^[81] Noto'g'ri choklar va sifatsiz nazorat bo'yicha ayblovlar Kongressning tekshiruviga sabab bo'ldi, natijada juda oz narsa aniqlandi.^[82][83] 800 millik (1300 km) quvur liniyasi, Valdez dengiz terminali va 12 ta nasos stantsiyasini qurish uchun 8 milliard dollardan ko'proq mablag 'sarflandi.^[84] Qurilish sa'y-harakatlari, shuningdek, odamlarga zarar etkazdi. Alyeska va shartnoma bo'yicha 32 ishchi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qurilish bilan bog'liq sabablarga ko'ra vafot etdi. Ushbu ko'rsatkich o'z ichiga olmaydi umumiy tashuvchi qurbonlar.^[85]

Ta'sir

Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasining qurilishi va 1977 yilda tugallanishi Alyaskaga, umuman AQShga va butun dunyoga ulkan ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Uning ta'siri kichik shaharlardagi hayotdan global neft bozoriga qadar bo'lgan iqtisodiy, jismoniy va ijtimoiy oqibatlarni o'z ichiga oladi.

Boomtowns

Suv qirg'oqlaridan toshib ketdi Chena daryosi 1967 yil avgust oyida Feyrbanks va Fort Ueynrayt.

Quvur liniyasining qurilishi quvur yo'nalishidan yuqoriga va pastga qarab shaharlarda katta iqtisodiy o'sishni keltirib chiqardi. Qurilishdan oldin, Ferbenks singari shaharlarning aksariyat aholisi halokatli holatdan xalos bo'lishdi 1967 yil Feyrbanks toshqini - quvur liniyasini qattiq qo'llab-quvvatladi.^[86] 1976 yilga kelib, shahar aholisi jinoyatchilik avjiga duchor bo'lganidan so'ng, jamoat infratuzilmasi haddan tashqari og'irlashdi va Alyaskaning bojxonalarini yaxshi bilmaydigan odamlar ko'paydi, 56 foizi ushbu quvur Feyrbanksni yomon tomonga o'zgartirganligini aytdi.^[87] Rivojlanish Valdezda yanada kuchliroq bo'lib, u erda aholi soni 1974 yilda 1350 kishidan 1975 yil yozida 6512 kishiga va 1976 yilda 8253 kishiga sakrab tushdi.^[88]

Aholining ko'payishi ko'plab salbiy ta'sirlarni keltirib chiqardi. Uy narxi keskin ko'tarildi - 1974 yilda 40 ming dollarga sotilgan uy 1975 yilda 80 ming dollarga sotib olindi.^[89] Valdezda 1960 yillarning oxirlarida 400 dollarga sotilgan ko'plab erlar 1973 yilda 4000 dollarga, 1974 yilda 8000 dollarga va 1975 yilda 10000 dollarga sotilgan.^[90] Uy va kvartiralarni ijaraga olish narxlarning ko'tarilishi va quvur ishchilarining talablari bilan mos ravishda yuqoriga ko'tarildi. Santexnika o'rnatilmagan ikki xonali log kabinalar oyiga 500 dollarga ijaraga olingan.^[91] Feyrbanksdagi ikkita ikki xonali uyda haftasiga 40 dollar evaziga jadval bo'yicha yotadigan 45 nafar ishchi bor edi.^[92] Valdezda 1974 yil dekabr oyida oyiga 286 dollarga ijaraga berilgan kvartira 1975 yil mart oyida oyiga 520 dollar va oyiga 1600 dollar, shuningdek, ikkita majburiy xonadosh - 1975 yil aprelda turadi. Mehmonxonalarning xonalari Glenallenga qadar 115 mil (185) masofada sotilgan. km) Valdez shimolida.^[93]

Osmonga ko'tarilgan narxlar pullarini sarflashni xohlagan quvurchilarga beriladigan yuqori ish haqi bilan bog'liq edi.^[94] Yuqori maoshlar Alyaskadagi quvur liniyasi bo'lmagan ishchilar orasida yuqori ish haqi talab qilinadigan talabni keltirib chiqardi. Quvur liniyasidan tashqari korxonalar ko'pincha ish haqining ko'tarilishi talabini qondira olmadilar va ish joylarining almashinuvi yuqori bo'ldi. Sariq idishni Feyrbanksda tovar aylanmasi 800 foizni tashkil etgan; yaqin atrofdagi restoranda tovar aylanmasi darajasi 1000 foizdan oshgan.^[95] Ko'pgina lavozimlarni o'zlarining tajriba darajalaridan yuqori darajaga ko'tarilgan o'rta maktab o'quvchilari egalladilar. Talabni qondirish uchun Feyrbanks o'rta maktabi ikki smenada ishlaydi: biri ertalab, ikkinchisi tushdan keyin, shuningdek, kuniga sakkiz soat ishlaydigan o'quvchilarga dars berish uchun.^[96] Ko'proq ish haqi va ko'proq odamlar tovar va xizmatlarga talabning oshishini anglatardi. Feyrbanksda navbat kutish hayot haqiqatiga aylandi va Feyrbanks McDonald's savdo bo'yicha dunyoda 2-o'rinni egalladi - bu yaqinda ochilgan Stokgolm do'kon^[97] Alyeska va uning pudratchilari mahalliy do'konlardan ulgurji sotib olib, avtomobillardan tortib traktor qismlariga, suv yumshatuvchi tuz, akkumulyatorlar va narvonlariga qadar hamma narsaning etishmasligini keltirib chiqardi.^[97]

Ishlab chiqarilgan va sarflangan katta miqdordagi mablag 'quvur liniyasi bo'ylab joylashgan shaharlarda jinoyatchilik va noqonuniy faoliyatning kuchayishiga sabab bo'ldi. Politsiya zobitlari va shtat qo'shinlari jamoat ishlarida mavjud bo'lgan ish haqidan ancha yuqori ish haqi bo'yicha quvurlarni qo'riqlash uchun katta guruhlarga bo'lib iste'foga chiqishlari bilan bu yanada og'irlashdi.^[98] Feyrbanksning Ikkinchi avenyusi taniqli mehmonxonaga aylandi fohishalar va butun shahar bo'ylab o'nlab baralar ishlagan. 1975 yilda Feyrbanks politsiya bo'limi 15000 kishilik shaharda 40 dan 175 gacha fohishalar ishlashini taxmin qildi.^[99] Fohishalarni olib kelishdi sivilcilar, keyin kim shug'ullangan maysalar uchun kurash. 1976 yilda politsiyachilar jangovar siperlar o'rtasidagi otishmaga javob berishdi avtomatik qurol.^[100] Umuman olganda, politsiyaning eng katta muammosi mast bo'lganlar va mushtlashuvlar soni edi.^[100] Quvur liniyasida o'g'irlik katta muammo bo'lgan. Buxgalteriya hisobi va yuritishning yomonligi ko'p sonli asboblarni va katta miqdordagi uskunalarni o'g'irlashga imkon berdi.^[101] The Los Anjeles Tayms 1975 yilda Alyeskaning 1200 ta sariq rangga bo'yalgan yuk mashinalarining 200 ga yaqini Alyaskada yo'qolgani va "Mayamidan Mexiko shahriga tarqalib ketgani" haqida xabar bergan. Alyeska bu muammoni rad etdi va faqat 20-30 ta yuk mashinasi yo'qolganini aytdi.^[102] O'g'rilik muammosi quvurchilarning bo'sh qutilarni quvur liniyasi lagerlariga yuborish amaliyoti bilan aniqlandi. Keyin qutilar buyumlar bilan to'ldirilib, jo'natib yuboriladi. Alyeska barcha paketlarni qo'riqchi huzurida muhrlab qo'yish kerak degan qaror chiqargandan so'ng, lagerlardan jo'natilayotgan paketlar soni 75 foizga kamaydi.^[103]

Alyaska iqtisodiyoti

1977 yilda Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi qurilishi tugagandan beri,^[3] Alyaska shtati hukumati neft ishlab chiqaruvchilar va yuk tashuvchilar to'laydigan soliqlarga ishonib kelgan. 1976 yilgacha Alyaskada shaxsiy daromad solig'i stavkasi 14,5 foizni tashkil etgan - bu AQShdagi eng yuqori ko'rsatkichdir.^[105] Yalpi davlat mahsuloti 8 milliard dollarni tashkil etdi va Alyaskaliklar 5 milliard dollar shaxsiy daromad olishdi.^[104] Quvur liniyasi ishlay boshlaganidan 30 yil o'tgach, davlatda shaxsiy daromad solig'i yo'q edi, yalpi davlat mahsuloti 39 milliard dollarni tashkil etdi va Alyaskaliklar 25 milliard dollar shaxsiy daromad olishdi.^[104] Alyaska eng og'ir soliqqa tortilgan shtatdan eng soliqsiz shtatga o'tdi.^[105][106]

Farqi Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasi tizimi va Alyaskaga olib kelgan soliqlari va daromadlari edi.^[104] Alyeska va neft kompaniyalari qurilish ishlari paytida va undan keyingi yillarda Alyaskaning iqtisodiyotiga milliardlab dollar kiritdilar.^[107] Bundan tashqari, ushbu kompaniyalar tomonidan to'lanadigan soliqlar davlatning soliq tuzilishini o'zgartirdi. By 1982, five years after the pipeline started transporting oil, 86.5 percent of Alaska revenue came directly from the petroleum industry.^[108]

The series of taxes levied on oil production in Alaska has changed several times since 1977, but the overall form remains mostly the same.^[109][110] Alaska receives royalties from oil production on state land. The state also has a property tax on oil production structures and transportation (pipeline) property—the only state property tax in Alaska. There is a special corporate income tax on petroleum companies, and the state taxes the amount of petroleum produced. This production tax is levied on the cost of oil at Pump Station 1. To calculate this tax, the state takes the market value of the oil, subtracts transportation costs (tanker and pipeline tariffs), subtracts production costs, then multiplies the resulting amount per barrel of oil produced each month. The state then takes a percentage of the dollar figure produced.^[111]

Under the latest taxation system, introduced by former governor Sara Peylin in 2007 and passed by the Alaska Legislature that year, the maximum tax rate on profits is 50 percent. The rate fluctuates based on the cost of oil, with lower prices incurring lower tax rates.^[110] The state also claims 12.5 percent of all oil produced in the state. This "royalty oil" is not taxed but is sold back to the oil companies, generating additional revenue.^[112] At a local level, the pipeline owners pay property taxes on the portions of the pipeline and the pipeline facilities that lay within districts that impose a property tax. This property tax is based on the pipeline's value (as assessed by the state) and the local property tax rate. In Feyrbanks Shimoliy Star Borough, for example, pipeline owners paid $9.2 million in property taxes—approximately 10 percent of all property taxes paid in the borough.^[113]

Alaska oil production peaked in 1988.

The enormous amount of public revenue created by the pipeline provoked debates about what to do with the windfall. The record $900 million created by the Prudhoe Bay oil lease sale took place at a time when the entire state budget was less than $118 million,^[105] yet the entire amount created by the sale was used up by 1975.^[114] Taxes on the pipeline and oil carried by it promised to bring even more money into state coffers. To ensure that oil revenue wasn't spent as it came in, the Alaska Legislature and governor Jey Xemmond proposed the creation of an Alyaska doimiy jamg'armasi —a long-term savings account for the state.^[115] This measure required a constitutional amendment, which was duly passed in November 1976. The amendment requires at least 25 percent of mineral extraction revenue to be deposited in the Permanent Fund.^[116] On February 28, 1977, the first deposit—$734,000—was put into the Permanent Fund. That deposit and subsequent ones were invested entirely in bonds, but debates quickly arose about the style of investments and what they should be used for.^[117]

In 1980, the Alaska Legislature created the Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation to manage the investments of the Permanent Fund, and it passed the Permanent Fund Dividend program, which provided for annual payments to Alaskans from the interest earned by the fund. After two years of legal arguments about who should be eligible for payments, the first checks were distributed to Alaskans.^[118] After peaking at more than $40 billion in 2007, the fund's value declined to approximately $26 billion as of summer 2009.^[119] In addition to the Permanent Fund, the state also maintains the Konstitutsiyaviy byudjet zaxirasi, a separate savings account established in 1990 after a legal dispute over pipeline tariffs generated a one-time payment of more than $1.5 billion from the oil companies.^[120] The Constitutional Budget reserve is run similar to the Permanent Fund, but money from it can be withdrawn to pay for the state's annual budget, unlike the Permanent Fund.^[112]

Neft narxi

Nominal and Real Price of Oil, 1971–2007

Although the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System began pumping oil in 1977,^[3] it did not have a major immediate impact on global oil prices.^[121] This is partly because it took several years to reach full production and partly because U.S. production outside Alaska declined until the mid-1980s.^[122] The Eron inqilobi and OPEC price increases triggered the 1979 yilgi energetika inqirozi despite TAPS production increases. Oil prices remained high until the late 1980s,^[121] when a stable international situation, the removal of price controls, and the peak of production at Prudhoe Bay contributed to the 1980-yillarda yog 'yog'i. In 1988, TAPS was delivering 25 percent of all U.S. oil production. As North Slope oil production declined, so did TAPS's share of U.S. production. Today, TAPS provides less than 17 percent of U.S. oil production.^[123]

Ijtimoiy ta'sir

The pipeline attracts tens of thousands of visitors annually on pipeline tourism trips.^[124] Taniqli mehmonlar kiritilgan Genri Kissincer,^[125] Jeymi Farr,^[125] Jon Denver,^[125] Prezident Jerald Ford,^[125] Qirol Norvegiyalik Olav V,^[126] va Gladis Nayt. Knight starred in one of two movies about the pipeline construction, Quvur orzulari. Boshqa film edi Joyride, and both were critically panned.^[127] Kabi boshqa filmlar O'lik zaminda va 30 kunlik tun, refer to the pipeline or use it as a plot device.^[128][129]

The Alistair Maclean novel, "Athabasca", published 1980, also deals with a sabotage threat against both the Alaska Pipeline and the Athabasca tar sands in Canada.

The pipeline has also inspired various forms of artwork. The most notable form of art unique to the pipeline are pipeline maps—portions of scrap pipe cut into the shape of Alaska with a piece of metal delineating the path of the pipeline through the map.^[130] Pipeline maps were frequently created by welders working on the pipeline, and the maps were frequently sold to tourists or given away as gifts.^[131] Other pipeline-inspired pieces of art include objects containing crude oil that has been transported through the pipeline.^[132]Migrant Workers take the majority of jobs created by the pipeline, this causes dispute and hostility between migrant communities and local Inuit odamlar. However, many local Inuit rely on the pipeline and oil industry for income. It is also a source of heat and energy for locals.

Texnik ma'lumotlar

The pipeline simply rests on its supports; it is not actually welded or otherwise affixed in place. This is necessary because the air temperature swings by over 150 °F (83 °C) from winter to summer, causing extreme heat expansion: the length of the pipeline changes by over 5 miles over the course of a year.^[133] The pipeline was constructed 11 miles "too long" to account for this.^[134]

Oil going into the Trans-Alaska Pipeline comes from one of several oil fields on Alaska's North Slope. The Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, the one most commonly associated with the pipeline, contributes oil,^[18] kabi Kuparuk,^[135] Alp tog'lari,^[136] Endikot va Ozodlik oil fields, among others.^[137] Oil emerges from the ground at approximately 120 °F (49 °C) and cools to 111 °F (44 °C) by the time it reaches Pump Station 1 through feeder pipelines that stretch across the North Slope.^[138] North Slope crude oil has a o'ziga xos tortishish kuchi of 29.9 API at 60 °F (16 °C).^[139] Pipeline flow rate has been steady from 2013 to 2018, hovering just over half a million barrels per day. The minimum flow year was 2015 which averaged 508,446 barrels per day (80,836.5 m³/d),^[140] which is less than its theoretical maximum capacity of 2.14 million barrels per day (340,000 m³/ d)^[141] or its actual maximum of 2.03 million barrels per day (323,000 m³/d) in 1988.^[142] From Pump Station 1, the average time taken by the oil to travel the entire length of the pipeline to Valdez has increased from 4.5 days to 18 days from 1988 to 2018.^[143]

The minimum flow through the pipeline is not as clearly defined as its maximum. Operating at lower flows will extend the life of the pipeline as well as increasing profit for its owners.^[144] The 2012 flow of 600,000 bbd is significantly less than what the pipeline was designed for. Low flowrates require that the oil move slower through the line, meaning that its temperature drops more than in high-flow situations. A freeze in the line would block a pig in the line, which would force a shutdown and repairs.^[144] A 2011 engineering report by Alyeska stated that, to avoid freezing, heaters would need to be installed at several pump stations. This report noted that these improvements could bring flow as low as 350,000 bbd, but it did not attempt to determine the absolute minimum. Other studies have suggested that the minimum is 70,000 to 100,000 bbd with the current pipeline. Alyeska could also replace the 48" pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Fairbanks with a 20" pipeline and use rail the rest of the way, which would allow as little as 45,000 bbd.^[144]

Nasos stantsiyalari maintain the momentum of the oil as it goes through the pipeline.^[145] Pump Station 1 is the northernmost of 11 pump stations spread across the length of the pipeline. The original design called for 12 pump stations with 4 pumps each, but Pump Station 11 was never built. Nevertheless, the pump stations retained their intended naming system. Eight stations were operating at startup, and this number increased to 11 by 1980 as throughput rose.^[146] As of December 2006, only five stations were operating, with Pump Station 5 held in reserve.^[147] Pump Stations 2 and 7 have a capacity of moving 60,000 gallons/minute (227,125 l/min), while all other stations have a capacity of 20,000 gal/min (75,708 l/min).^[148] The pumps are natural-gas or liquid-fueled turbines.^[141]

Because of meanders and thermal and seismic accommodations, the amount of 48-inch (1,200 mm) diameter welded steel pipeline between the pipe stations and the end of the line is 800.3 miles (1,288.0 km), while the linear distance between the Prudhoe Bay and Valdez station endpoints is 639.34 miles (1,028.92 km).^[149] The pipeline crosses 34 major streams or rivers and nearly 500 minor ones. Its highest point is at Atigun Pass, where the pipeline is 4,739 feet (1,444 m) above sea level. The maximum grade of the pipeline is 145%, at Thompson Pass in the Chugach Mountains.^[149] The pipeline was created in 40 and 60-foot (12.2 and 18.3-meter) sections. Forty-two thousand of these sections were welded together to make a double joint, which was laid in place on the line. Sixty-six thousand "field girth welds" were needed to join the double joints into a continuous pipeline.^[150] The pipe is of two different thicknesses: 466 miles (750 km) of it is 0.462 inches (1.17 cm) thick, while the remaining 334 miles (538 km) is 0.562 inches (1.43 cm) thick.^[25] More than 78,000 vertical support members hold up the aboveground sections of pipeline,^[151] and the pipeline contains 178 valves.^[152]

At the end of the pipeline is the Valdez Marine Terminal, which can store 9.18 million barrels (1,460,000 m³) of oil across eighteen storage tanks.^[153] They are 63.3 feet (19.3 m) tall and 250 feet (76 m) in diameter. They average 85% full at any given time—7.8 million barrels (1,240,000 m³).^[154] Three power plants at the terminal generate 12.5 megawatts each.^[155] Four tanker berths are available for mooring ships in addition to two loading berths, where oil pumping takes place. More than 19,000 tankers have been filled by the marine terminal since 1977.^[156]

Texnik xizmat

This scraper cho'chqa was retired from use in the pipeline and is on display.

The pipeline is surveyed several times per day, mostly by air. Foot and road patrols also take place to check for problems such as leaks or pipe settling or shifting. The pipeline can be surveyed in as little as twenty one days, but most surveys take longer to ensure thoroughness.^[157] These external inspections are only part of standard maintenance, however. The majority of pipeline maintenance is done by pipeline pigs —mechanical devices sent through the pipeline to perform a variety of functions.^[158]

The most common pig is the scraper pig,^[159] which removes mum bu yog'ingarchilik out of the oil and collects on the walls of the pipeline. The colder the oil, the more wax buildup. This buildup can cause a variety of problems, so regular "piggings" are needed to keep the pipe clear.^[160] A second type of pig travels through the pipe and looks for corrosion. Corrosion-detecting pigs use either magnetic or ultrasonic sensors. Magnetic sensors detect corrosion by analyzing variations in the magnit maydon of the pipeline's metal. Ultrasonik sinov pigs detect corrosion by examining vibrations in the walls of the pipeline. Other types of pigs look for irregularities in the shape of the pipeline, such as if it is bending or buckling.^[161] "Smart" pigs, which contain a variety of sensors, can perform multiple tasks.^[162] Typically, these pigs are inserted at Prudhoe Bay and travel the length of the pipeline. In July 2009, a pig launcher was installed at Pump Station 8, near the midpoint of the pipeline.^[162]

A third type of common maintenance is the installation and replacement of qurbonlik anotlari along the subterranean portions of pipeline. These anodes reduce the corrosion caused by elektrokimyoviy action that affect these interred sections of pipeline. Excavation and replacement of the anodes is required as they corrode.^[163]

Voqealar

The massive length and remoteness of the pipeline make it more or less impossible to secure

The pipeline has at times been damaged due to sabotage, human error, maintenance failures, and natural disasters. By law, Alyeska is required to report significant oil spills to regulatory authorities.^[165] The Exxon Valdez neft to'kilishi is the best-known accident involving Alaska oil, but it did not involve the pipeline itself.^[166] Following the spill, Alyeska created a rapid response force that is paid for by the oil companies,^[167] shu jumladan ExxonMobil, which was found liable for the spill.^[168]

An explosion on July 8, 1977, Pump Station No. 8, killed one worker, injured five others, and destroyed the pump station.^[169][170] A Kongress committee later announced the cause was workers not following the proper procedures, causing crude oil to flow into a pump under repair at the time.^[171] In its first two months of operation, from June 20 to August 15, 1977, seven incidents and accidents caused the pipeline to be shut down periodically. The NTSB investigated the system, and made recommendations.^[172][173]

The largest oil spill involving the main pipeline took place on February 15, 1978, when an unknown individual blew a 1-inch (2.54-centimeter) hole in it at Steele Creek, just east of Fairbanks.^[174] Approximately 16,000 barrels (2,500 m³) of oil leaked out of the hole before the pipeline was shut down.^[164] After more than 21 hours, it was restarted.^[175]

The po'lat pipe is resistant to gunshots and has resisted them on several occasions, but on October 4, 2001, a drunken gunman named Daniel Carson Lewis shot a hole into a weld near Livengood, causing the second-largest mainline oil spill in pipeline history.^[176] Approximately 6,144 barrels (976.8 m³) leaked from the pipeline; 4,238 barrels (673.8 m³) were recovered and reinjected into the pipeline.^[177] Nearly 2 acres (8,100 m²) of tundra were soiled and were removed in the cleanup.^[178] The pipeline was repaired and was restarted more than 60 hours later.^[179] Lewis was found guilty in December 2002 of criminal mischief, assault, drunken driving, oil pollution, and misconduct.^[180]

The pipeline was built to withstand earthquakes, forest fires, and other natural disasters. The 2002 yil Denali zilzilasi occurred along a fault line that passed directly underneath the pipeline.^[181] The slider supports in that particular 1,900-foot section of the pipeline, right over the fault line, were designed to accommodate the ground slipping 20 feet horizontally and 5 vertically. In this 7.9 magnitude earthquake, the ground shifted 14 feet horizontally and 2.5 vertically. The pipeline did not break, but some slider supports were damaged, and the pipeline shut down for more than 66 hours as a precaution.^[179][182] In 2004, wildfires overran portions of the pipeline, but it was not damaged and did not shut down.^[183][184]

In May 2010, as much as several thousands of barrels were spilled from a pump station near Fort Greely during a scheduled shutdown. A relief valve control circuit failed during a test of the fire control system, and oil poured into a tank and overflowed onto a secondary containment area.^[185]

A leak was discovered on January 8, 2011, in the basement of the booster pump at Pump Station 1. For more than 80 hours, pipeline flow was reduced to 5 percent of normal. An oil collection system was put in place, and full flow resumed until the pipeline was again shut down while a bypass was installed to avoid the leaking section.^{[186][187][188]}

Future of the pipeline

The pipeline terminal in Valdez

The temperature along the length of the line, as of early 2019. This visually demonstrates the effects of heaters at each Pump Station that increase the temperature.

Decline in oil production has posed a serious problem for the pipeline.^[189] As the flow rate slows, oil spends longer in the pipeline, which allows it to cool much further while travelling to Valdez. It cannot be allowed to fall below freezing (32 °F), otherwise the pipeline could seize up, crack, and rupture, as the water content would separate from the oil and freeze in place.^[143] A "Low Flow Impact Study" conducted by the pipeline operators, Alyeska, concluded in June 2011 that the minimum flow for the pipeline as it currently existed was 300,000 to 350,000 barrels per day in the winter.^[190]

However, this minimum flow rate is a legally contentious figure, since the taxable value of the pipeline is largely dependent on how long it will continue to be operable.^[190] Later in 2011, the Alaska Superior Court ruled that this low flow study Alyeska conducted was invalid, and ruled in favor of an internal BP study.^[144] The BP study concluded that with the installation of heaters along the pipeline route, the minimum flow could be lowered to 70,000 barrels per day (11,000 m³/ d).^[190] This court ruling increased ninefold the taxed property value of the pipeline.^[191] A study by the National Resources Defence Council that was also cited in this court case put specific numbers to this suggestion, and concluded that an investment of $0.8 billion in shoring up the pipeline could extend its lifespan long enough to extract an additional $28 billion of oil from existing wells alone.^{[190][144][192]} This NRDC study additionally explained: "This is a lowerminimum throughput level than what is implied in Alyeska’s Low Flow Impact Study (LoFIS). We did not use the minimum throughput level implied by LoFIS because we have serious reservations about the assumptions used in the study and the LoFIS does not provide adequate data to support its claims."^[192]

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System Renewal Environmental Impact Statement estimated in 2010 that flow levels would be workable through at least 2032^[193] due to ongoing exploration outside ANWR. Improvements that allow low flow-rates could extend its lifespan as far as 2075.^[144]

By law, Alaska is required to remove all traces of the pipeline after oil extraction is complete. No date has been set for this removal, but plans for it are being updated continuously.^[194]

Shuningdek qarang

• Alyaska gaz quvuri, taklif qilingan
• Boeing RC-1, a proposed cargo aircraft to transport the oil from Alaska
• Canol quvur liniyasi
• Dalton shosse, which parallels the northern section of the pipeline
• Prudhoe Bay neftining to'kilishi

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

• Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. The Facts: Trans Alaska Pipeline System (PDF). Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., 2007.
• Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. Trans Alaska Pipeline System The Facts 2016 (PDF). Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., 2016.
• Banet, Arthur C. "Oil and Gas Development on Alaska's North Slope: Past Results and Future Prospects" (PDF). Bureau of Land Management, March 1991.
• Berry, Mary Clay. Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims. Indiana universiteti matbuoti, 1975 yil.
• Coates, Peter A. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline Controversy. University of Alaska Press, 1991.
• Koul, Dermot. Quvur liniyasining ajoyib hikoyalari. Kenmore, Washington; Epicenter Press, 1997.
• McGrath, Ed. Inside the Alaska Pipeline. Millbrae, California; Celestial Arts, 1977.
• Mead, Robert Douglas. Journeys Down the Line: Building the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Doubleday, 1978.
• Naske, Claus M. and Slotnick, Herman E. Alyaska: 49-davlat tarixi. Norman, Oklahoma; University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. Second edition.
• Roscow, James P. 800 Miles to Valdez: The Building of the Alaska Pipeline. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.; Prentice-Hall Inc., 1977.
• Wickware, Potter. Crazy Money: Nine Months on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Nyu York; Random House, 1979 yil.
• Less oil may spell problems for pipeline The Anchorage Daily News, Last Modified: December 27, 2009

Qo'shimcha manbalar

• Allen, Lawrence J. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Vol 1: The Beginning. Vol 2: South to Valdez. Sietl; Scribe Publishing Co. 1975 and 1976.
• Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. Alyeska: A 30-Year Journey. Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., 2007.
• Baring-Gould, Michael and Bennett, Marsha. Social Impact of the Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline Construction in Valdez, Alaska 1974–1975. Anchorage; University of Alaska Anchorage, 1976.
• Jigarrang, Tom. Muz ustida yog ': chorrahada Alaskan cho'l. Edited by Richard Pollack. San-Fransisko; Sierra Club Battlebook, 1980.
• Dixon, Mim. What Happened to Fairbanks? The Effects of the Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline on the Community of Fairbanks, Alaska. Social Impact Assessment Series. Boulder, Kolorado; Westview Press, 1978 yil.
• Dobler, Bruce. The Last Rush North. Boston; Little, Brown and Co., 1976.
• Fineberg, Richard A. A Pipeline in Peril: A Status Report on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Ester, Alaska; Alaska Forum for Environmental Responsibility, 1996.
• Hanrahan, John and Gruenstein, Peter. Lost Frontier: The Marketing of Alaska. Nyu York; VW. Norton, 1977.
• Kruse, John A. Feyrbanks jamoatchilik so'rovi. Feyrbanks; Ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy tadqiqotlar instituti, 1976 y.
• LaRoka, Jou. Alaska Agonistes: Neft davri: Alyaskani qanday qilib katta neft sotib oldi. Noyob kitoblar, Inc 2003 yil.
• Lenzner, Terri F. Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasini boshqarish, rejalashtirish va qurish. Vashington, DC; Alyaska quvur liniyasi komissiyasiga hisobot bering.
• Manning, Xarvi. Yig'lagan inqiroz! Alyaskadagi repetitsiya (neft bilan hukumat Alyaskaga nima qilgani va Yerga nima qilgani haqidagi amaliy tadqiq). San-Fransisko; Erning do'stlari, 1974 yil.
• Makginniss, Jou. Ekstremallarga borish. Nyu York; Alfred A. Knopf, 1980 yil.
• Makfi, Jon. Mamlakatga kelish. Nyu-York: Farrar, Straus va Jiroux, 1976 yil.
• Miller, Jon R. Biz bilmasdik: Trans Alyaska quvurini moliyalashtirish. Klivlend: "Arbordeyl" MChJ, 2012 yil.
• Romer, Jon va Yelizaveta. Dunyoning ettita mo''jizasi: zamonaviy tasavvur tarixi. Nyu York; Genri Xolt va Co., 1995 y.
• Simmons, Diane. Bastardlar zulmatda qotib qolsin. Nyu York; Wyndham Books, 1980 yil.
• Strohmeyer, Jon. Haddan tashqari sharoitlar: Katta neft va Alyaskaning o'zgarishi. Nyu York; Simon va Shuster, 1993 yil.
• Bo'ri, Donald E. Katta to'g'onlar va boshqa orzular: oltita kompaniya haqida hikoya. Norman, Oklaxoma. Oklaxoma universiteti matbuoti, 1996 y.
• Yergin, Doniyor. Mukofot: Neft, pul va kuch uchun epik izlanish. Nyu York; Simon & Schuster, 1991 yil.

Video

• Armstrong, Jon. Quvur liniyasi Alyaska. Pelikan filmlari, 1977 yil.
• Devis, Mark. Amerika tajribasi: Alyaska quvur liniyasi. PBS, 18-fasl, 11-qism, 2006 yil 24-aprel.
• Dunyodagi eng qiyin tuzatishlar: Alyaska neft quvuri. National Geographic kanali. 2-fasl, 10-qism. 2009 yil 20-avgust.

Tashqi havolalar

• Alyeska quvur liniyasining veb-sayti
• Alyaska quvur liniyasi - bog'liq Amerika tajribasi epizod
• Trans-Alyaska quvur liniyasini avtorizatsiya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun matni