Kamarupaning madaniy rivojlanishi - Cultural Development of Kamarupa

Ushbu maqola ohang yoki uslub aks ettirmasligi mumkin entsiklopedik ohang Vikipediyada ishlatilgan. Vikipediyani ko'ring yaxshiroq maqolalar yozish uchun qo'llanma takliflar uchun. (2012 yil iyun) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

A qismi seriyali ustida
Kamarupa tarixi
Hukmron sulolalar
Varman sulolasi (Milodiy 350-650) Pushyavarman 350–374 Samudravarman 374–398 Balavarman 398–422 Kalyanavarman 422–446 Ganapativarman 446–470 Mahendravarman 470–494 Narayanavarman 494–518 Butivarman 518–542 Chandramuxavarman 542–566 Stitavarman 566–590 Susthitavarman 590–595 Supratisthitavarman 595–600 Bxaskaravarman 600–650 Avantivarman Noma'lum
Mlechxa sulolasi (Milodiy 650-900) Salasthamba 650–670 Vigrahastambha 670–680 Palaka 680–695 Kumara 695–710 Vajra 710–725 Xarshavarman 725–745 Balavarman II 745–760 Salambha 795–815 Harjjaravarman 815–832 Vanamalavarman 832–855 Jayamala 855–860 Balavarman III 860–880 Tyagasimha 890–900
Pala sulolasi (Milodiy 900–1100) Braxma Pala 900–920 Ratna Pala 920–960 Indra Pala 960–990 Pala-ga boring 990–1015 Xarsha Pala 1015–1035 Dharma Pala 1035–1060 Jaya Pala 1075–1100

A qismi seriyali ustida
Assam tarixi
Proto-tarixiy Pragjyotisha Shohligi Danava sulolasi Bhauma sulolasi Sonitpura Shohligi
O'rta asrlar Kamarupa qirolligi Varman sulolasi Davaka sulolasi Mlechxa sulolasi Pala sulolasi
Oxirgi O'rta asr Sutiya qirolligi Dimasa - Kachari qirolligi Kamata qirolligi Ahom Shohligi Koch qirolligi Baro - Bxuyan Moamoria isyoni
Zamonaviy Mustamlakachi Assam Assam viloyati
Zamonaviy Assam harakati
Kategoriyalar
Arxitektura Saroylar Qal'alar

Qismi bir qator ustida
Assam madaniyati
Tarix Proto-tarixiy Pragjyotisha Shohligi Klassik Kamarupa qirolligi O'rta asrlar Dimasa - Kachari qirolligi Kamata qirolligi Sutiya qirolligi Baro-Bxuyan Ahom Shohligi Zamonaviy Mustamlakachi Assam Assam viloyati
Odamlar Assam xalqi Ahoms • Braxmanlar • Kaybartas • Kalitas • Musulmonlar • Sixlar • Sutiyas Qabilalar Bodos • Deuris • Dimasas • Karbis • Misinlar • Rabhas • Rajbongshis • Choy qabilalari
Tillar Mayor Asamiya (va lahjalar; Kamrupi • Golpariya) Ssenariy Kichik Bodo Karbi Yo'qolib ketdi Ahom[1]
An'analar Bihu Gamosa Kirtanlar - Namgarlar Lagundeoni Pujalar Satralar Xorai Zikir
Oshxona Poitabhat Jolpan Masor Tenga Narikol'or Laru Til'or Laru Pita Bilahir top Assam choyi
Bayramlar Ali Ai Ligang Ambubachi Mela Men-Dam-Men-Phi Bihu Durga Puja Sahitya Sabhas
Din Mayor Hinduizm[2][3] An'anaviy - Sanatana Dharma Panentheistic - Ekasarana Dharma Polyteistik - Shaktizm Boshqalar Ahom • Batuizm • Nasroniylik • Islom • Sihizm
San'at Kamarupaning madaniy rivojlanishi
Adabiyot Tarix Boshlanish Orunodoi davri Jonaki davr Arxivlar Charyapadlar Kota Ramayana Orunodoy Jonaki Hemkosh Kodom Koli Janrlar She'riyat Romanlar Xalq adabiyoti Institutlar Assam Sahitya Sabha Mukofotlar Assam Ratna Assam Sahitya Sabha mukofoti Assam vodiysi adabiy mukofoti Kamol Kumari nomidagi fond mukofoti Krishnakanta Handique mukofoti
Musiqa va ijro san'ati Musiqa Ijro san'ati
OAV Kino Joymoti - birinchi kinofilm
Belgilar Gerb

Kamarupa eng qudratli va dahshatli shohlik edi Shimoliy-sharqiy Hindiston uchta sulola tomonidan boshqarilgan (Varmanlar, Mlechchha va Palas ) ularning poytaxtlaridan Pragjyotishpura, Haruppeshvara va Durjaya. Ushbu uchta poytaxtdan uning madaniyati va ta'siri butun mintaqaga tarqaldi.

Dastlabki rivojlanish

Xuanzang VII asrda qayd etilganidek, Kamarupa aholisi ibodat qilgan devas va ishonmadim Buddizm. Ta'qib qilishdan qo'rqib, xudojo'ylik marosimlarini yashirincha bajaradigan bir necha buddaviylar bo'lgan. Shilabhadra u erda buddizm tarqalib ketganligini aytgan.

Bxaskaravarman Shiva tutelar xudosi bilan amalga oshirilgan ishlarni davolashdi shramanalar hurmat bilan.

Biroq, bu yozuv fath qilinganidan keyin darhol yozilgan bo'lishi ehtimoldan yiroq emas Karnasuvarna, Bxaskaravarman Xuanzang yoki Shri Xarsha bilan uchrashishdan kamida o'ttiz yil oldin. Buddizmning ta'siri Kamarupada Bhaskaravarman taxtni egallashga kelishidan ancha oldin sezilgan. Ga ko'ra Rajatarangini Amritaprabhaning otasi bo'lgan beshinchi asrning Kamarupan qiroli, o'zi Buddist edi, chunki uning diniy vakili Tibet buddisti. Gap shundaki, buddizm juda erta davrlarda Kamarupaga tarqaldi, ammo u keng xalq tomonidan e'tiqod sifatida qabul qilinmadi. Edvard Albert Geyt, uning ichida Assam tarixi, yozadi: "Ilgari buddizm bir paytlar Assamda katta modaga ega edi, deb o'ylar edilar, ammo bu nuqtai nazar noto'g'ri bo'lganga o'xshaydi. Eski yozuvlar va yozuvlarda bu dinning izi yo'q".

Yuqoridagi bayonot tekshiruvdan o'tmaydi, chunki yuqorida aytib o'tilganidek, Budda qonuni Bhaskaravarmanning o'zi yozgan. Shunga o'xshash eslatmalar yozuvlarida ham mavjud Indra Pala va Dharma Pala. Indra Palaning birinchi yozuvida "nomi bilan bog'liq sasana yoki nizom haqida so'z boradi.Tatagata "Bu Buddani anglatmasligi mumkin emas. Bu podshoh tomonidan berilgan erlarga yaqin joyda chaitya yoki mavjud bo'lgan ko'rinadi stupa, Buddaning ba'zi qoldiqlari ustiga, uning foydasiga oldingi shoh tomonidan ehson qilingan. Bu erda mavjud bo'lgan kuchli an'analarga murojaat qilish kerak Nepal va Tibet ta'siriga parinirvana Buddaning sodir bo'lganligi Kusinagara, Kamarupadagi shaharcha. Lorens Vaddell uni zamonaviy shaharcha bilan aniqlaydi Sualkuchi, g'arbdan to'qqiz mil uzoqlikda Guvaxati va janubdan sakkiz mil uzoqlikda joylashgan Hayagriva Madhava ibodatxonasi hali ham tashrif buyuradigan Butan Buddistlar. Biroq, Kusinagara klanning bosh shahri edi Mallas modemning biron bir qismi bilan bog'lana olmaydiganlar Assam. Vaddellning identifikatsiyasi noto'g'ri ekanligi aniq. Ehtimol, Kusinagara yoki Kosinagara, Kosi shahrining sharqiy qirg'og'ida joylashgan bo'lib, u Nepal tepaliklaridan chiqqan. Shuning uchun u, ehtimol, Nepal chegarasida, zamonaviy tuman doirasidagi shaharcha bo'lgan Purnea Qadimgi davrlarda Pragjyotisha tarkibiga kiritilgan. Shuning uchun Tibet an'analari asossiz emas edi.

Bhaskaravarman o'z yozuvida yorug'likni ochib bergan deyishadi Oriy din Aryadxarma to'plangan zulmatni yo'q qilish orqali uning shohligida Kali yoshi. Bu erda ham Budda qonuniga tegishli ma'lumotni aniqlay olishiga amin emasman. Bu shunday bo'lishi mumkin Arya Dharma buddist yoki degan ma'noni anglatadi Braxmancha mamlakatda yashagan ko'plab Tibet-Burman qabilalarining qabilaviy e'tiqodidan farqli o'laroq. Bxaskaravarman va uning salaflari edi Sayvalar va buddistlar emas yoki Jaynas va, shuningdek, yaxshi deb hisoblanadi Kshattriyalar, ularga tabiiy ravishda homiylar va himoyachilar sifatida qarashgan Braxmanlar. Qo'shni Magadha imperiyasida xuddi shunga o'xshash hukmdorlar Mouryas va Guptalar yoki buddistlar yoki buddizmning homiylari edilar. Mourya imperatori Ashoka buddistlik e'tiqodini targ'ib qilish uchun o'zining missionerlik g'ayrati bilan Braxmanlarni ta'qib qilish muddatiga etmasdan o'z imperiyasida ushbu tamoyilni ommalashtirish uchun qo'lidan kelgan barcha ishni qilgan bo'lishi kerak. Shuning uchun erta davrda juda ko'p braxmanlar Kamarupaga ko'chib kelgan. Vidya Vinod ta'kidlaganidek, Kamarupadagi bitta qishloqda 200 dan ortiq oilani topish mumkin Braxmanlar taxminan 500 yilda mil.

VII-X asrlar oralig'ida Salastambha sulolasining shohlari, o'zlarining diniy e'tiqodlarida, avvalgilariga, ya'ni avlodlariga qaraganda ko'proq pravoslav bo'lganlar. Pushyavarman. Ushbu shohlarning yozuvlarida buddaviylik e'tiqodiga oid hech qanday ma'lumot topilmadi. Ushbu shohlar Vanamala yozuvida eslatib o'tilgan "Kameswara Maha Gauri" tutelar xudolariga sig'inuvchilar edi. Ularning kapitali ancha o'sgan Braxmaputra Tezpur modemida. Shu sababli ular boshqa ma'badga ega bo'lish zarurligini topdilar Kamaxya ularning poytaxti yaqinida. Vanamala yozuvida eslatib o'tilgan Silghat yaqinidagi Kamakuta tepaligidagi ikkinchi Kamaxya ibodatxonasi tashkil etilgan. Ushbu yozuvda mamlakatdagi ko'p sonli ibodatxonalar va Yajnas ijro etilgan turli joylardan tortishuvlar sadosi eslatib o'tilgan. Vanamalaning o'zi Xatakesvaraning katta ma'badini tikladi. Ushbu tizim Siva ibodatxonalarida hanuzgacha saqlanib kelinmoqda Xajo va Dubi Kamrup va u Tantrik tizimining bir qismi bo'lishi mumkin.

Nima bo'lishidan qat'iy nazar, aholi orasida braxmanlik marosimlari keng tarqalgan bo'lsa-da, shubhasiz buddaviylik ham rivoj topgan, chunki "Sankara Digvijaya" da braxmanlar tiklanishining taniqli rahbari Sankaracharya to'qqizinchi boshida aytilgan. milodiy asrda mag'lub bo'lish uchun Kumarupaga kelgan Abxinava Gupta, ta'kidlangan buddist olim, tortishuvlarda.^[4] Abhinava Gupta, ehtimol Kamarupaga tegishli yoki hech bo'lmaganda IX asrda u erda gullab-yashnagan. Taxminan o'sha paytda yoki biroz oldinroq, Braxmanlarning yana bir etakchisi Kumarila Bhatta gullab-yashnagan Hindiston. Ba'zilar uning Kamarupaning fuqarosi ekanligiga ishonishadi.^[5] Ikkala qarama-qarshi maktablarning taniqli ikki etakchisi Abhinava Gupta va Kumarila Bhatta Kamarupada bir vaqtning o'zida gullab-yashnaganligi, Kamarupada oldingi podshohlarning hukmronligi davrida ham braxmanizm, ham buddizm tarafdorlari bo'lganligini aniq ko'rsatib turibdi. Salastambha chizig'i.

Buddani shubhasiz aks ettiradigan va X yoki XI asrlarga tayinlanishi mumkin bo'lgan toshlar va terra-kotta plakatlardagi haykaltarosh tasvirlar Guvahatidagi qazishmalar natijasida topilgan. Ulardan biri Abxay mudrasini aks ettiruvchi ingichka tosh taxta ustidagi Buddaning alohida tasviridir. Ikkinchisi - Budda tasviri tushirilgan terra-kotta tabletkalari. To'g'ri, bu ikkala rasm ham ko'chma xarakterga ega va ularni ba'zi buddistlar qirollik tashqarisidan osongina olib kelishgan. Guvahati shahrida topilgan va xuddi shu shtamp bilan taassurot qoldirgan Buddaning tamg'a surati tushirilgan terra-kotta plakatlar Bengaliya va Biharda juda ko'p topilgan. Ko'rinib turibdiki, bular buddistlarning ziyorat qilish joylarida sotilgan, ammo Guvahatida paydo bo'lishi shundan dalolat beradiki, Kamarupada buddistlar bo'lgan. Guvaxatidagi qazishmalardan yana bir muhim topilma - bu to'rtta yuzi va sakkizta qo'li bilan xudo tasvirini o'z ichiga olgan va boshida chayitani Tiara sifatida tasvirlangan katta va og'ir tosh taxta. Tasvir plitaning markazida o'yilgan bo'lib, uning butun atrofida toshga chuqur o'yilgan lotus barglari bor. Plitaning bir tomoni singan. Xudoning o'tirgan holati odamantin (vajrasana). Ehtimol, bu davr buddaviy ma'budasi Mahapratisaraning vakili Tantrik Buddizm. Buddaviylarning Sadhanamala asariga ko'ra, Mahapratisarada boshdan yuqorida Chaytya bo'lishi kerak. Hozir rasm shunchalik zanglaganki, uni ishonch bilan talqin qilishning iloji yo'q. Qanday bo'lmasin, tasvirni o'yib ishlangan tosh plitasi, albatta, ko'chma emas.

Salastambha sulolasining o'rnini sulolasi egallagan Braxma Pala va poytaxt Guvahati yaqiniga olib tashlangan, xuddi shu tutelar xudolari, Indra Pala yozuvida "Mahn Gauri Kamesvara" deb nomlangan, shohlar unga sig'inishni davom ettirdilar. Indrapalaning birinchi yozuvida uning bobosi deb yozilgan Ratna Pala mamlakatda ko'plab Siva ibodatxonalarini tashkil etdi va uning hukmronligi davrida Braxmanlar uylari qirol tomonidan taqdim etilgan boyliklarga, joylar bilan to'la edi. Yajnas Qurbonlik qilingan ko'plab qurbongohlar bo'lgan va osmonni ko'plab uylar tutun qoplagan. Indra Palaning o'zi haqida u yaxshi bilganligi haqida aytilgan Tantralar. Shuning uchun Tantrikizm shohlikka allaqachon kirib kelganligi aniq. Ushbu tizim buddizmning Mahayana IX asrda Magadhaning Pala hukmdorlari davrida rivojlangan maktab. Buddistlar universitetini asos solgan Pala qiroli Dharma Pala edi Vikramashila Tantrik ta'limotining mashhur markaziga aylandi. Tantrikizm ushbu markazdan ehtimol Kamarupa va Tibetga tarqaldi. Babu Nandalal Dey yozadi:^[6]

Milodning birinchi asrida Nagarjunaning asl buddizmga kiritgan va Mahayana tizimi nomi bilan mashhur bo'lgan takomillashtirish, Gupta davrining boshlarida braxmanlik ta'limotining tiklanishida yangi bosqichni boshlagan va VIII asrdan boshlab asta-sekin Tantrikizmga aylangan. Pala shohlari Magadha va Gauda ustidan hukmronlik qilishni boshladilar. Budda va Bodhisvattalar obrazlariga ayol energiyalari (Sakti) va boshqa buddaviy xudolari bilan sig'inish modaga aylandi, bu monarxlar hukmronligi davom etar ekan, hali ham tasavvuf va sehrgarlikka aylandi. Tho mantra yogacharyas sehrli marosimlar va sirli amaliyotlarga bo'lgan mashhurlikni ajoyib ishlarni bajarish bilan saqlab qoldi. Hinduizm ham o'sha davr ruhini singdirgan va buddist Tantrik marosimlari uning tizimiga singib ketgan.

Bu qanday Tantrikizm kelib chiqqan. Oxir oqibat u Kamarupaga tarqaldi va o'zi uchun mustahkam tayanch o'rnatdi Kamaxya. Bu ser Edvard Geytning Tantrikizm Assamda paydo bo'lganligi haqidagi taxminlarini rad etadi. Kamarupa podshohlari, ehtimol, Braxma Paladan keyin, Tantrikizmni o'zlarining asosiy qoidalari sifatida qabul qildilar va ushbu shoh homiyligi natijasida Kamaxya tez orada tantrik qurbonliklari, tasavvuf va sehrgarlikning taniqli markaziga aylandi. Tasdiqlangan mistik buddizm tizimi Vajrayana X asrda Kamarupaga yo'l topgan va "Sahajiya kulti" deb nomlangan xalq kutilmagan manbadan tasdiqlangan. Tibet yozuvlaridan ma'lum bo'lishicha, X-XI asrlardagi Tibetdagi taniqli buddaviy professorlarning ba'zilari Kamarupadan qutulgan.

Juzeppe Tuchchi Tibetning ikkita asari asosida "Grub To'b" va "Bka ababs bdun ldan" ta'kidlangan buddist Siddha Minanata Tibetda unga avatar sifatida qarashgan Avalokitesvara, Kamarupadan kelgan baliqchi edi.^[7] Mahamohopadxya Panditning bayonoti Xaraprasad Sastri Minanataning "Nat" yoki to'quvchilar kastiga mansub Bengal fuqarosi bo'lganligi, shubhasiz, noto'g'ri.^[8] Nepaldagi boshqa budda o'qituvchisi Rahula ham Kamarupadan sudra bo'lganligi xuddi o'sha Tibet yozuvlaridan topilgan. Aytishlaricha, u Nagarjunaning shogirdi bo'lgan, ammo uni Mahayana mashhur voizi bilan adashtirmaslik kerak. Rahulaning yo'lboshchisi, ehtimol u aytgan Nagarjuna edi Alberuni u Nagarjuna o'z davridan taxminan 100 yil oldin gullab-yashnaganligini aytdi. Shunday qilib, Nagarjuna ham, Rahula ham X asr o'rtalarida joylashtirilishi mumkin. Nagarjuna ham tabib va ​​alkimyogar bo'lgan. Kamrupi Ayurveda farmakopeyasida hanuzgacha Nagarjuna nomi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan muayyan o'ziga xos davolash vositalari mavjud. Minanata va Rahuladan tashqari, Tibet yozuvlarida tilga olingan boshqa ikki budda o'qituvchisi, ya'ni. Mohidhar va Darik ham ehtimol Kamarupaga tegishli edi. Minanata Akulaviratantra deb nomlanuvchi asarning muallifi bo'lgan va u Sabaratantrada yigirma to'rt kishidan biri sifatida tilga olingan. Kapalika siddalar.^[9]

24 Kapalika siddalaridan biri bo'lgan Minanataning Assamdan qutlaganligi, Kapalikaalar bilan bog'liq bo'lgan qo'zg'olonchi diniy urf-odatlar, ehtimol ularning raqiblari tomonidan ma'lum darajada bo'rttirilib, hech bo'lmaganda Kamarupada modada bo'lgan deb o'ylashga olib keladi. baliqchilar kabi jamiyatning quyi qatlamlari orasida. Ushbu Kapalikalar Sahajiya kulti saylovchilari bilan qanday aloqada bo'lganligi noma'lum. Kapalika mazhabi milodiy to'rtinchi asrda Asanga va Harivarman davrlarida mavjud bo'lganligini ko'rsatuvchi dalillar mavjud. Shubhasiz bu ikkala mazhab ham Tantrik buddizmining oqimlari bo'lgan va ikkalasi ham shunga o'xshash marosimlarni amalga oshirgan. Abxinava Gupta, Sankaracharva Kamarupaga borguncha uni mag'lub etish uchun Tantra vizasi - Tantrasara va Tantraloka haqidagi ikkita taniqli asarning muallifi edi. Ko'rinib turibdiki, IX asrda Abhinava Gupta Kamarupada katta izdoshlarga ega edi va shuning uchun Sankaracharva unga qarshi kurashishni lozim topdi. Ushbu Tantriklar, albatta, oldingi asrdagi Braxman revivalistlari va undan keyingi davrdagi Vaisnava islohotchilari tomonidan eng qora ranglarga bo'yalgan, ammo Tantrik adabiyotining katta qismi hozirda ba'zi birlari obuna bo'lmaydigan olimlar uchun ochiq bo'lib qoldi. Tantrikizmni tamoyil sifatida keng qoralashga. Vakolatli organ Juzeppe Tuchchi bu borada nima demoqchi:^[9]-

Tantrik adabiyotiga shu paytgacha juda kam e'tibor berildi; Tantralarda ba'zi bir istisnolardan tashqari deyarli hech narsa yo'q, ular hind spekulyasiyasining eng tanazzulga uchragan shaklini ifodalaydi degan ba'zi olimlarning keng qamrovli hukmini oqlay olmaydi. Boshqa tomondan, sinchkovlik bilan o'rganib chiqqach, ularda hind tasavvufining tashqi ko'rinishida juda g'alati tuyulishi mumkin bo'lgan eng yuqori ifodalaridan birini ko'rishga yordam berolmayman, asosan ular yozilgan ramziy tilni har doim ham tushunmaydilar. .

Ehtimol, bu mezonning ezoterik ta'limotlari yuksak va ulug'vor bo'lgan, ammo ular aslida Siddxalar deb nomlangan bir necha kishiga tushunarli bo'lgan, shu bilan birga oddiy xalq shu tariqa savdo qila oladigan voizlarning quyi buyrug'i bilan amalga oshirilgan sehr-jodu harakatlarida sirlangan. oddiy odamlarning ishonchliligi to'g'risida va ularni o'z talablariga bo'ysunishga majbur qilish. Shu sababli, bu ezoterik o'qituvchilar va ularning amaliyotlari keyingi davrdagi braxmanlar va vaisnavalar tomonidan hukmron shohlarning yordami bilan emas, balki asosan oddiy odamlarning o'ziga murojaat qilish orqali bostirilgani yaxshi.

Kamrupi buddist voizlarining Tibetdagi ta'siri, tasodifan Tibet va Kamarupa o'rtasidagi erta madaniy aloqani isbotlaydi. Tibetlik buddist olim Stunpa, ehtimol Kamarupa qiroliga ibrat vazifasini bajaruvchi sifatida topilgan Balavarman Men, beshinchi asrning boshlarida. Abxaya mudrani namoyish etuvchi Guvahatidan topilgan Buddaning tasviri, uning aniq mo'g'ul fiziognomiyasi va butun tanani oyoq Bilagiga qadar qoplagan qalin ro'mol bilan Tibet kelib chiqishi shubhasizdir. Yuqorida aytib o'tilganlardan ko'rinib turibdiki, VIII-X asrlar oralig'ida Kamarupada bir qancha taniqli buddaviy olimlar, shuningdek buddaviylik ta'limotlarini tanqid qiluvchilar rivojlangan.

Xuanzangning tarjimai holidan u yashagan paytida topilgan Nalanda Kamarupaning bilimdon mutaxassisi u erda yig'ilgan buddist olimlar va professorlar bilan bahslashishga kirishdi. Xitoylik ziyoratchilarning yozishicha, Bhaskaravarman ilmni yaxshi ko'rar, Kamarupa esa ilm olish joyi bo'lgan. U VII asrning birinchi yarmida Hindistonning boshqa hududlaridan talabalar o'qish uchun Kamarupaga kelganligini aniqladi. VII asrning ikkinchi yarmida gullab-yashnagan taniqli Mudrarakshasam dramasining muallifi Visaxa Datta, ehtimol Teesta va Kausika o'rtasida joylashgan Kamarupaning ushbu qismiga tegishli ekanligi ta'kidlangan.^[10] U Chandrapuri vishayasida joylashgan Nagar Brahmans koloniyasiga tegishli deb taxmin qilish oqilona. Bu uning Datta familiyasi bilan ko'rsatilgan. Shuning uchun Kamrupi mutaxassislari Hindistonning boshqa joylarida ham hurmatga sazovor bo'lishlari ajablanarli emas. Kalinga Ganga qiroli Anantavarmanning mis plastinka yozuvida (Milodiy 922 yil Circe.) Anantavarman unga er bergan Vishnusomacharya ismli Kamrupi panditi haqida so'z boradi.^[11] Bu Brahman Parasara gotrasiga tegishli edi va uning tug'ilgan qishlog'i Kamarupadagi Srangatika edi. Hozir Assamdagi ushbu qishloqni aniqlash mumkin emas yoki Shimoliy Bengal har qanday aniqlik darajasi bilan.

Vanamala va Ratna Pala, ularning poytaxtlarini tavsiflar ekan, ularning ko'plab ilmli odamlarning turar joyi bo'lganligini alohida ta'kidlang, chunki bu shohlar ilm homiysi bo'lganlar. The Kalika Purana, taniqli asar daryolar va tepaliklarning aksariyatining sanskritlangan nomlarini beradi Braxmaputra vodiysi. Bu haqida to'liq ma'lumot beradi Naraka afsona va eski Pragjvotishpur shahri. Bu erda Kamaxya ibodatxonasining alohida fazilati va muqaddasligi haqida to'xtalib o'tilgan. Ehtimol, bu ishda shubha yo'q Yogini Tantra, Kamarupada, ehtimol Narakadan kelib chiqishini da'vo qilayotgan podshohlar hukmronlik qilayotgan paytlarda, poytaxt eski Pragjyotishpura shahri va Kamaxya ziyoratgohida bo'lgan davrda va Tantrikizm hukmronlik qilgan paytda tuzilgan. Shuning uchun u bu ishni taxminiy ravishda X asrga, Narakadan kelib chiqishini da'vo qilgan va avvalgi mlechha sulolasidan ajralib turadigan Braxma Pala sulolasi podshohlari hukmronlik qilayotgan paytda belgilashi mumkin. Kalika Puranada odam qurbonligi uchun mo'ljallangan qilichni muqaddas qilish uchun berilgan mantrani quyidagicha ifodalaydi: -

Asir visasana Khadgastikhnadharo durasadah Srigarbho Vijayaschaiba Dharmapala namastute.

Xitoy ziyoratiga oid hisoblar

VII asrda Syuanzang Kamarupa aholisi gapiradigan til Hindistonning o'rtalarida gaplashadigan til bilan bir darajada farq qilishini aniqladi. Bu shundan dalolat beradiki, o'shanda Kamarupada gaplashadigan til Prakrit proto-Axomiya lahjasi bo'lgan. Bu, ehtimol Maitiliga yaqin bo'lgan sharqiy Prakrit xilma-xilligi edi va bu shubhasiz zamonaviyning ota-onasi edi Kamrupi yoki Assam tili. Xitoy sayohatchilarining hisobotida shuni ham ta'kidlash mumkinki, hatto bunday yoshligidanoq ham, odamlar avstriyalik, dravifiyalik, tibeto-burman lahjalari bilan aralashtirilgan prakrit tilini qabul qilganlar va shuning uchun ba'zi oriylar qirollikda joylashib, o'z madaniyatini tarqatib yuborgan. uning tashrifidan ko'p asrlar oldin.

IX yoki X asrlarda Kamarupa buddistlari doxalarda ishlatiladigan til, albatta, haqiqiy og'zaki til emas edi. Ushbu doxalar, ehtimol, frantsuz tilida tuzilgan Shimoliy-sharqiy Hindiston shu vaqtda.

Vanamala yozuvidan IX asrning o'rtalariga kelib, u pastga tushgan Hataka Siva baland (Himolay cho'qqisi kabi) oq ma'badni tiklaganligi aniqlandi. Ehtimol, ma'bad zilzila natijasida vayron bo'lgan. Ma'lumki, bu ma'bad g'isht va toshlar bilan qayta tiklangan va oq yuvilgan. Balavarman III ning yozuvida Vanamala ko'plab xonalardan iborat va o'ymakorlik bilan bezatilgan ulkan saroy barpo etganligi aytilgan. Yana Ratna-Pala yozuvida uning poytaxti Shri shahrida bu haqda eslatib o'tilgan Durjaya, o'n birinchi asrning o'rtalariga kelib, quyosh diskini minglab shuvalgan minoralar ko'zdan yashirgan. Indra-Pala yozuvida Ratna Pala butun qirollikda Sivoning ko'plab oq ibodatxonalarini qurganligi aytilgan. Ushbu ma'lumotnomalar ushbu podshohlar hukmronligi davrida va undan oldin ham me'morchilik yuksak darajaga etganligini aniq ko'rsatmoqda. Darhaqiqat, birinchi ming yilliklarga oid me'moriy qoldiqlar bugungi kungacha mavjud. Assamda muntazam arxeologik tadqiqotlar olib borilmagan bo'lsa-da, mavjud qoldiqlar hech qanday ahamiyatga ega emas. Guvahati, Tezpur, Xilghat va Bisvanat singari eski shaharlarning saytlarida ko'plab tarqoq qoldiqlarni ko'rish mumkin.

Arxitektura standarti

Varman sulolasining poytaxti, hozirgi Guvaxati atrofida, uch yuz yildan oshiq vaqt poytaxt bo'lishni to'xtatdi.

19-asrning oxirlarida ushbu shaharning sharqiy qismida eski tosh va g'isht bilan o'ralgan devorning asoslari qazilgan bo'lib, yo'l-metallga bo'linadigan toshlarni topish mumkin edi. Yo'l metallini ta'minlash uchun ko'plab o'yilgan va kesilgan toshlar bo'laklarga bo'lindi. Ba'zilar rasmiylar tomonidan emas, balki qadimiy yodgorliklarga qiziqish ko'rsatgan shaxslar tomonidan saqlanib qolgan. Tashkil etilganidan beri Kamarupa Anusandhan Samiti, ushbu tarqoq yodgorliklarning bir qismi to'planib, Jamiyatning kichik muzeyiga joylashtirilgan. Ushbu kollektsiyalar tarkibiga xudoning ba'zi haykaltarosh tasvirlari, kesilgan sakkiz qirrali yoki olti burchakli tosh ustunlar, ustunning o'ymakor tosh ustunlari va toshning tashqi tomonlarini bezash uchun ishlatiladigan fil boshlari, sherlar va odamlarning boshlari tasvirlari tushirilgan mayin o'ymakor panellar kiradi. saroylar yoki ibodatxonalar plintuslari. Yuzning boshi - Pragjyotishaning o'ziga xos xususiyati, chunki shohlar mis plitalarining metall muhrlarida xuddi shu emblemadan foydalanganlar. Guvahati yoki uning yaqinida topilgan Vishnu va Ganesaning toshbo'ron qilingan tasvirlari xuddi shu kabi erta yoshga qaytadi.

Pandu ibodatxonasida beshta toshdan yasalgan figuralar mavjud bo'lib, ularning to'rttasi Ganesani, bittasi esa Durga ayol xudosini anglatadi. Quyidagi ochiq qoyada yana ikkita raqam kesilgan Braxmaputra daryo, janob Dikshitning so'zlariga ko'ra, quyosh xudosi va Indrani mos ravishda.^[12] Kamaxya tepaligining g'arbiy yonbag'rida ham toshdagi ko'plab so'qmoqlarni ko'rish mumkin. Shixara tipidagi ibodatxonalarning miniatyuralari, unda kichik lingalar tasvirlangan, shuningdek, lingalar va figuralar yoki Ganesani o'z ichiga olgan toshlar. Kamaxya ibodatxonasining g'arbiy qismida zamonaviy ibodatxona joylashgan bo'lib, Gantakarna nomi bilan mashhur bo'lib, uning tagida eski ibodatxonalarning tosh parchalari qurilgan. Janob Dikshit ta'riflaganidek, ushbu qismlardan biri

bu chiroyli o'yilgan friz bo'lib, unda guruh bir qator gulchambarlarni va hayvonlarning juda ruhiy tasvirlari paydo bo'lgan pastki siljish ishini aks ettiradi. Bufalo, kiyik, sher va yo'lbarsning atigi to'rtta hayvonlar figuralari mavjud, ammo ularda namoyon bo'lgan san'at sifati Assamda beqiyos.

Bu, shubhasiz, qadimiy haykaltaroshlik san'atidir.

Janob R. D. Banerji bu o'ymakorliklar milodiy VII yoki VIII asrlarga tegishli deb o'ylaydi.^[13] Tezpurda yoki unga yaqin joylashgan xarobalar ancha keng va xilma-xil. Doktor Bloch Guvaxati va Tezpur modem fuqarolik stantsiyalari "ikkita qadimiy shahar qoldiqlarini o'z ichiga olgan" katta tepaliklar ustida turgan deb taxmin qildi. 1906 yilda Tezpurdagi komissar o'rinbosari ofisiga qo'shimchalar kiritish uchun poydevor qazish paytida ekskavatorlar qadimiy tosh binoning qoldiqlari ustiga tushishdi. Ko'p sonli o'yma va haykaltarosh toshlar topildi. Ularning aksariyati bezatish maqsadida Evropa ofitserlari va choy ekuvchilar klubining birikmalariga o'tkazildi. Keyinchalik ularning ba'zilari Koul bog'iga olib kelingan va u erda joylashtirilgan. Janob R. D. Banerji, Sharqiy doiraning boshlig'i, Hindistonning arxeologik tadqiqotlari, 1924-25 yil yillik hisobotida quyidagicha yozilgan: -

Tezpurdagi istirohat bog'idagi qoldiqlarni va O'sha erda joylashgan Ekuvchilar uyushmasida yoki klubida saqlanib qolganlarni o'rganib chiqsam, o'ymakorliklar tarixning uch xil davriga tegishli va shuning uchun hech bo'lmaganda uchta alohida binoga tegishli bo'lishi kerak. Birinchi guruhning eng haykaltaroshlari - Ekuvchilar klubiga kiraverishda ikkita ustun ustunlari va hozirda jamoat bog'ida yotgan tosh eshik romining og'ir lentasi. Ushbu ustunlardan birining o'qi o'n oltita qirrali bo'lib, yuqori uchi keng tasma bilan bezatilgan, tepasida kirtimuxalar, pastki qismida esa dentil bilan. Ushbu tasmaning ustki qismida dumaloq va Bombay prezidentining G'arbiy Chalukyan ustunlarining yuqori qismlari kabi torna bilan o'ralgan ko'rinadi. Ikkinchi ustunda o'qning yuqori qismi dodekagonali bo'lib, tepasiga yaqin uchta ko'tarilgan gorizontal chiziqlarga bo'linib, ularning ikkitasida kirtimuxalar, uchinchisida esa olmos shaklidagi rozetlar bor. Uslubga ko'ra, ularning ikkalasi ham xuddi shu davrga tegishli bo'lib, ular bitta binodan kelgan ko'rinadi. Jamoat bog'idagi tosh eshik ramkasining lintellari ham o'sha davrga tegishli va ehtimol o'sha binoga tegishli. U ikki xil qismga bo'lingan. Yuqori qismi beshta miniatyura ibodatxonasini aks ettiradi, ularning har birida Siva fallik emblemasi joylashgan. Pastki qismida u tirgaklardagi bezaklarning davomini ko'radi, ya'ni. Ikkita vertikal tasma o'z ichiga burchakli burmalarni o'z ichiga olgan va rozetkalardan tashkil topgan yana ikkitasi, lintel soffitida davom etadi. Lintelning pastki qismining markazida Ganesaning miniatyura tasvirini o'z ichiga olgan kichik joy bor. Bu uch me'moriy namunaga tegishli bo'lgan ma'bad milodning X asrining oxirida qurilganligi o'ymakorlik tabiatidan ko'rinib turibdiki, lintelning uzunligi 6 '10' va nafas olish 1 "5 1/2. Ikkinchi guruh Tezpurdagi haykallar komissar o'rinbosari idorasi qurilgan xarobalardagi ulkan ibodatxonadan olingan namunalardan iborat.Tezpurdagi Planter Club kirish eshigining har ikki tomonida eshik eshigi va asosiy kirish eshigining lintellari joylashgan. Lintelning kattaligi eshik ramkasining o'lchamini va shuning uchun muqaddas darvozaning asosiy kirish eshigini aniqlashga imkon beradi. Ulkan lintel uzunligi 10 '3' va nafas olish uchun r '8' dir. Uchtasi bor ustiga ko'tarilgan panellar, biri o'rtada, ikkitasi bittadan va ularning har biri o'rtada kattaroq, ikkala tomoni kichikroq bo'lakka bo'lingan, chap panelda markaziy joylashuvda Brahmaning tik turgan figurasi joylashgan. har ikki tomon xizmatchisi bilan markaziy panelda ikkita xizmatchi bilan birga Surya figurasi joylashgan bo'lib, o'ng tomonda joylashgan panelda yon tomonning har birida xizmatchi bilan birga turgan Siva tasviri mavjud. Ushbu ko'tarilgan panellar orasidagi bo'shliq markaziy panelning chap tomonida uchtasi va o'ng tomonda oltita teshikka bo'lingan. Ularda aniqlab bo'lmaydigan oltita ilohiy raqamlar mavjud. Barcha nişler bir-biridan balandligi dumaloq pilaster bilan z 'ajratilgan, lintelning o'zi balandligi 2' 7 1/2.

Umumiy amaliyotga ko'ra Hindu ibodatxonalar, ma'badning tosh eshiklari ramkasining markaziy joyi yoki panjarasi paneli odatda ma'badning raisi xudo tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan. Shuning uchun bu ulkan ma'bad Surya yoki Quyosh xudosiga bag'ishlanganligi aniq ko'rinadi. Ushbu eshik panjarasining sillasi ham ulkan o'lchamlarga ega va o'rtada ikkita sher statant bilan o'ralgan guldastani ko'rsatadi. Har bir uchida erkak va ayolni o'z ichiga olgan va bitta inson qiyofasini o'z ichiga olgan chuqurroq burchakda kichikroq va torroq o'rindiqning yon tomoni joylashgan. Afsuski, bu ulkan eshik ramkasining tiqinlari hali ochilmagan. Jamoat bog'idagi katta jamb ancha keyingi davrga tegishli ko'rinadi. Shuning uchun eshik ramkasining balandligini to'g'ri chiqarish mumkin emas, lekin lintel va sill uzunligidan ko'rinib turibdiki, bu eshik ramkasining balandligi 15 'dan kam bo'lmasligi mumkin edi. Agar muqaddas darvozaga kiradigan tosh eshikning balandligi 15 'bo'lsa, u holda palataning ichki qismi balandligi 20' dan 25 'gacha bo'lishi kerak edi. 100 'dan oshgan bo'lishi kerak bo'lgan asl ma'bad. Tezpur shahridagi jamoat bog'idagi o'ymakor toshlarning aksariyati eshik ramkalari yuqorida bayon qilingan ulkan ma'badning poydevorlari va torli yo'llaridan olingan. Ip-manbalar har xil shakldagi va kattalikdagi kirtimuxalar bilan bezatilgan rozet va g'aroyib suzib yuruvchilarni o'z ichiga olgan cho'kib ketgan panellar bilan bezatilgan. Ularning ba'zilari, ehtimol, metall qisqichlar yoki dublonlar bilan tutib turilgan ulkan poytaxtlarning qismlari.

Ushbu qismlarning ba'zilarining markazida ilohiy figuralarni o'z ichiga olgan dumaloq pilasterlar tomonidan yonbag'irlangan joy mavjud. Ushbu uyalarning birida, boshida mato parchasini ushlab turgan, semiz urg'ochi ayolning erga cho'kib yotganini topsa, urg'ochi chap qo'lida hayrat bilan qo'llarini ushlagancha turibdi. Xuddi shu turdagi ikkinchi namunada qo'lida lira tutgan ma'buda, aniqrog'i ilohiyot ma'budasi Sarasvati tasvirlangan. Uchinchi namunada taniqli Kamalatmika yoki Gajalakshmi guruhi mavjud bo'lib, ular ko'pincha Bengaliyada va Assamda Kamale-Kamini nomi bilan tanilgan bo'lib, unda ikkita fil magistrallarida joylashgan vazalardan xudo boshiga suv quyishadi. To'rtinchi namunada Hindistonning shimolidagi ushbu turdagi rasmlarda keng tarqalgan taniqli odatiy holatda o'tirgan Siva va Durga figuralari mavjud. Plintus qoliplari sxemalari shuni ko'rsatadiki, Assamning o'rta asr me'morlari Hindistonning shimoliy qismidagi boshqa viloyatlarda bo'lgani kabi bir xil motif va figuralarni ishlatgan. Ushbu bezaklarning ba'zilari relyefda ma'baddan ma'lum bo'lgan arabesk asarlari orasiga o'rnatilgan olmos shaklidagi va dumaloq rozet shaklida ko'rinadi. Orissa.

Tezpurdagi jamoat bog'idagi kollektsiyaning eng ajoyib namunasi, bu plintus qoliplarining yuqori qismidan olingan plita. U har birida erkak yoki urg'ochi, ikkita urg'ochi yoki ikkita erkakni o'z ichiga olgan dumaloq pilasterlar yordamida bir qator cho'kib ketgan panellarga bo'linadi. O'ngdan boshlab, sher bilan jang qilayotgan bir erkak, fleyta o'ynab o'tirgan erkak va uning yonida raqs tushayotgan ayol, ikkita erkak konchuk chig'anoqlarida o'ynayotgani, erkak baraban o'ynayotgani va uning yonida raqs tushayotgan ayol, ayol lirada o'ynash va boshqasi uning o'ng tomonida raqsga tushgan, erkak barabanda o'ynab, boshqasi chap tomonida raqsga tushishgan Ushbu plita, muqaddas devorning pastki chetiga o'xshash bir qator o'xshash panellarning bir qismini tashkil etgan. Unda yana bir plitada Markaziy Hindiston ibodatxonalarida, xususan Reva shtati va u yerdagi ibodatxonalarda keng tarqalgan Chaytya-deraza naqshining an'anaviy tasviri bor. Xajuraxo. Cho'kib ketgan panellarning ichki qismi butunlay markazda yarim rozetka bilan geometrik naqshlar bilan qoplangan. Tezpurdagi haykallarning ikkinchi guruhi XII asrda qurilgan ibodatxonaga tegishli A. D. agar keyinchalik bo'lmasa. Toshlarning kattaligi ma'badning juda katta hajmga ega ekanligini va juda baland shpil bilan ta'minlanganligini ko'rsatadi.

Tezpur shahridagi jamoat bog'ida bir nechta keyingi ibodatxonaga tegishli bo'lgan ikkita namunalar mavjud. Ulardan biri baland eshik eshigi, ikkinchisi juda qo'pol inson yoki ilohiy siymolar egallagan uchta cho'kib ketgan paneli bo'lgan plita. Barcha to'plamda faqat bitta dumaloq naqshlangan sher, ehtimol filda o'yilgan. Arslonning an'anaviy vakili shuni ko'rsatadiki, Assam vodiysi aholisi hayvonlarning shohi bilan unchalik tanish emas edi. Janob Banerji ta'kidlaganidek, "Assam - bu Hindistonning arxitektura va haykaltaroshlik tarixi deyarli noma'lum bo'lgan yagona viloyatidir".

Shu sababli, u ushbu mavzu bo'yicha vakolatli organning hisobotida uzoq kotirovka jabhasini taqdim etdi. Ammo janob Banerjining Tezpur shahridagi xarobalar faqat ibodatxonalarni anglatadi degan taxminlari to'g'rimi yoki yo'qmi, shubhali. Kutchery majmuasida qazilgan tosh binoning qoldiqlari u IX asrda u qurgan Vanamala saroyiga tegishli bo'lishi mumkin. Ammo janob Banerji bilan u aytgan binolardan biri XII asrda barpo etilganligi bilan rozi bo'lolmaydi, chunki X asrning oxirlarida poytaxt Xaruppesvara, ehtimol, tashlab ketilgan edi. Braxma Pala. Shuning uchun Tezpurdagi binolar to'qqizinchi asrga tegishli bo'lishi kerak. Further, the lofty temple the ruins of which he has described in the quotation given above and which, he conjectures was a sun-temple, may be the Himalaya like temple of Hataka Sulin which Vanamala is said to have recrected. In his report for the year 1925-26. Mr. Banerji gives a full description of the Bamuni Hill ruins to the east of Tezpur town. In his opinion the remains belong to a group of seven shrines. U yozadi:

Six of these shrines are situated in a large rectangular enclosure, namely, one in each of its four corners and two large ones in the centre, while the seventh stands to the cast. The pavements inside the garbhagrihas of both of the larger shrines in the middle of the enclosure are still intact. One of these central temples was originally smaller in size than the other. The larger temple faces the north and an antarala with a circular sculptured door-step intervenes between its sanctum and its mandapa, which must have been gigantic in size. The shaft of a pillar seen in the debris measures 10' 8" in length and I' 8" in diameter. I may also mention a cross-shaped bracket which measures 4' 6' x 4' 9" and a huge lintel ornamented with horned kirttimukhas which measures 6' 8" in length and 1' 8' in breadth. An image of Nataraja measuring 2' t" in height and 1' 6' in breadth, with one head and six hands was discovered among the ruins. Another lintel measures 12' 1' X 3' 6' x 2' 5". The doorjambs of the larger temple are lying on the top of the ruins and measure 5'4" in length and 2'4' in breadth. Each of them is decorated with a raised hand on each side with a row of miniature temples superimposed in the centre. The band on the left jamb hears a meandering creeper pattern and that on the right a row of rosettes alternately square and round. There are three miniature shrines in each horizontal row in the centre. There is a large panel bordered by two round pilasters with a trefoil arch on the top in the centre and an exactly similar panel or recessed corner on each side. The smaller panels contain male or female attendant figurines. The central panels contain the figures of the Man-lion, Parasurama, Balarama, Boar and Ramachandra incarnations of Vishnu. Many of the faces of the square brackets bear oblong panels with basreliefs. One of them bears the figure of a male and a female dancing side by side.

The ruins discovered at Parbatia, to the west of Tezpur town, are far more interesting. The following is Mr. Banerji's description of these ruins:

Close to the modern civil station of Tezpur is the small village of Dah Parbatia which possesses the unique distinction of having within its limits the ruins of the oldest temple in Assam. The ruins consist of the remains of a brick-built temple of Siva, of the medieval period, erected upon the ruins of a stone temple of the later Gupta period, circa sixth century A. D. The former collapsed, during the earthquake of 1897, revealing the stone door-frame of the older structure. At some subsequent date the local villagers built a crude, hut on the mound, which had collapsed at the time of my visit. The mound is nearly 20' above the surrounding ground and is entirely covered with large rubber trees and small undergrowth. The door-frame stands in front of a large block of stone with a square cavity in its centre. Most probably the older linga was fixed in this hole. The carving, on the door-frame is characteristic of the style of the early Gupta schools of sculpture, of which so many examples have been discovered at various sites excavated by Sir John Marshall in northern India. The carving on the jambs consists of high reliefs in the lower part and four different vertical bands of carving in the upper. In the lower part of each of the jambs is the figure of a female deity whose divine nature is indicated by the halo behind her head. Each of the goddesses stands with a garland in her hands in an elegant posture and these two figures appear to represent Ganga and Yamuna, so common in doorjambs of ancient Gupta and mediaeval temples. These two larger figures are attended, in each of the jambs, by a number of smaller ones. At the bottom of the jamb on the right are two female figures, one standing with a Chamara and the other kneeling in front, with a flat receptacle containing flowers. A third female figure is seen with a chamara behind or to the right of the main figure. To the left of the halo it find a nayi kneeling and to the right two geese flying towards the main figure. The lower part of the jamb on the left is not so well preserved as that on the right. Here it find a female standing with an indistinct object to the left and another to the right or in front of the main figure, the lower part of which is damaged. On this jamb also is the figure of a saga kneeling to the right of the halo of the main figure and two geese flying to the left of it. The upper part of each of these jambs is separated into four long narrow vertical bands two of which are continued on the lintel. The first of these begins from the head of the naga or of the nagi and consists of a meandering creeper with extremely beautiful ornamental foliage in the interspaces and the second of a straight vertical stem from which issue a number of lotus leaves and other conventional flowers. Two dwarfish figures are observed at the, bottom holding on to the stem. The third band is made up of four super-imposed panels containing human figures standing on oblong bosses bearing ornamental foliage on their surfaces. At the top, each of these hands ends in a vase with ornamental foliage hanging from its corner. A pilaster, square in section, rises from the vase and ends in a cruciform capital, with a sprawling gana on each of its arms. The fourth hand consists of a vertical row of ornamental rosettes. As in the case of the Gupta temples at Bhumra in the Nagod State, Nachna-Kuthara in the Ajaigadh State and at Deogarh in the Jhansi district, the lintel is larger in size than the door-frame, extending a little on each side of the jambs. Two of the inner bands of carving on the jambs are continued as horizontal bands at the bottom of the lintel and exhibit in the centre in high relief a beautiful flying male figure holding a garland in its hands. Above these two ornamental bands is another band in higher relief containing a number of Chaitya-windows so common in the Gupta temples at Bhumra and Deogarh. In this case there are five Chaitya-windows in all, arranged in a row on the surface of the lintel. Three of these windows are large while two are comparatively smaller in size. The one on the extreme right contains the figure of a male seated on a throne, with four hands, two of which are broken. One of the left hands holds a damaru, the peculiar small drum of diva while the' space below the throne shows the waves of the sea. The window between this one and the central one contains a horse-headed male figure, with two hands, kneeling. The central Chaitya-window is the largest of all and has a suparna, the mythical deity half man and half bird, on either side. The Chaitya-window itself is occupied by a figure of diva, in the form of Lakulisa, seated with a rope tied round his leg. A female is holding a cup to his left while another stands to the right. The window between the central one and that on the extreme left contains the figure of a man seated and playing on a flute while over his head is seen the hood of a snake. That on the extreme left contains in its medallion a beautiful image of Surya seated cross-legged holding lotus flowers in both of his hands. The attendant to the left holds a pen and an ink-pot while that on the right holds a staff of the orthodox description. The doorjambs are 5'3' in height and 1'4' in breadth while the lintel measures 3'9' in length and 1'3' in breadth. The artist's sense of proportion, the beautiful symmetry of the figures and ornamental devices and the excellence of execution tend to prove that this door lintel belongs to the same period as the great schools of sculpture which existed at Pataliputra and Benares in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D.

The temple at Parbatia is therefore not only the oldest but the finest piece of architectural work in Kamarupa. This temple must have been built by a predecessor of Bhskar Varman in the fifth or the sixth century A.D. During the clearance of the ruins of this temple a number of terracotta plaques, showing a seated human figure in each, were discovered. According to Mr. Banerji the moulding of the torso and the general technique proves beyond doubt that these plaques cannot be later in date than the sixth century A.D. Two of these plaques reveal the existence of a modified form of the acanthus motif in Assam in this early age. This device has been noticed in some of the Gupta temples of other parts of northern India notably at Bhumra and Nachna Kuthara. Another striking feature of this piece of work is the-pose of the figures of Gangs and Jamuna which seems to be characteristically Greek while in their anatomical correctness these figures resemble Hellenic art more than anything else. Relics of ancient architecture and sculpture are not confined to Guwahati and Tezpur. They are to be found in many other places. Two images were discovered on the Golaghat-Dimapur road. One of them is an image of Vishnu which is now preserved in the museum of the Kamaruppa Anusandhan Samiti. With regard to this image Mr. K. N. Dikshit writes:^[14]

It is a very fine example of the ninth century art of Assam and is inscribed in characters similar to those of the Harjara inscription from Tezpur. The right hands and the feet of the image have broken off, and the halo behind the head is lost. The left upper hand holds the conch and the left lower the gada. Vishnu has all the usual ornaments, the kaustubha and srivatsa symbols, the sacred thread and the long cable-like garland reaching to the knees (vanamala). The expression of the face and the treatment of the lower lip and the crown are characteristic of the late Gupta sculpture. The inscription is engraved on the right side of the image and consists of four lines in very corrupt Sanskrit verse.

Ruins of ancient edifices have been found in Bishnath and also in Negriting. In the last named place the medieval temple was actually built on the mound containing the ancient stone-built temple. Both in Umananda and Aswakranta in Guwahati the medieval temples were built with stones and carved images belonging to more ancient temples. The Ananta-Sayi Vishnu of Aswakranta is a piece of sculpture of very high merit. It belongs probably to the tenth or the eleventh century. Another very fine piece of sculpture, now deposited in the museum of the Kamarupa Anusandhan Samiti, is an image of Vishnu of the Yogaswami variety sculptured on black schist. The image exhibits the Dhyana mudra and is surrounded by ararana devatas such as Durga, Ganesa and Kartikeya with the winged Garuda: below it. With regard to this image Mr. K.N. Dikshit writes that

the presence of Ganesa and Mahishamardini on the right leads to the inference that the idea was to depict Vishnu in the centre of the five gods (Panchadevata). ; The deities on the left one-should have expected to be Siva and Surya, but actually they are different. The upper figure is apparently in the attitude of Hanuman or some attendant of Vishnu while the lower one resembles an 'ascetic seated cross-legged. It is likely that the figure represents the donor as a devotee.

There is a collection of stone images and other architectural fragments preserved at the entrance of the Sub-divisional officer's residence in Sibsagar. These are believed to be the remains of a Vishnu temple, in the neighbourhood, dating approximately from the tenth to the eleventh century A. D. According to Mr. Dikshit

the sculptures follow in the main the artistic traditions of the school represented by the Tezpur and Bamuni Hill temples of Central Assam, which are assigned to the ninth and tenth centuries.

Very probably the ancient temple near Sibsagar was constructed by the Kamarupa kings of the tenth or the eleventh century and it is thus evident that even till the eleventh century the Kamarupa kings exercised their rule as far as the easternmost corner of the Assam valley. Mr. Dikshit also remarks that "the affinities of Assamese art would seem to lie more with the schools of Bihar and Orissa than with the contemporary Pala art of Bengal. This is not unnatural as of the streams of influence that have moulded the culture of Assam, the strongest current has always been from North Bihar and Mid-India".^[15] The cultural affinities between Mithila and Kamarupa have already been alluded.

Another instance of the architectural and engineering skill of the people of Kamarupa in ancient times was the construction of stone bridges over rivers. There is still a small stone bridge in the western part of Shimoliy Guvaxati which is called Silsako. Boshqa Silsako (stone bridge) was over a channel of the Barnadi, an important transit point from west. Bridge was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1897. It appears that this bridge was constructed without lime and mortar and such construction was no doubt necessitated by the heavy rainfall in the country and the luxuriant vegetation which attacks all masonry structures in which mortar is used. Hannay, who in 1851 saw and measured the bridge, wrote as follows:^[16]

From the great care taken in the chiselling, squaring and fitting up of the component parts of the whole, as well as the great size and weight, the work is one of great strength and solidity. And this accounts for the good state of preservation in which it find it in the present day; for with the exception of the masonry of the abutment at each end, in which large trees have taken root and displaced the stones, the rest of the structure may be said to be entire. From a fracture in one of the pillars I observed that. the upper blocks were kept in their places by means of iron pins firmly wedged into the lower ones; four apparently through the centre and one on each side of the_square of the shaft, and although not visible, other portions of the work may be iron-clamped; the slabs of the platform were marked with clamping holes and on the edge of the outside slabs are three square holes (3 inches square) which were no doubt intended for the wooden supports of a balustrade. Several frieze-carved blocks are also lying near the end abutment from which I imagine the entrance of each may have been ornamented or these may have been gateways.The design and style of architecture of this bridge evidently belongs to a remote period in the annals of Kamrup and, in its original structure at least, must be co-eval with the erection of the ancient Brahmanical temples the remains of which are found so widely scattered throughout the length and breadth of Assam; the works of its former Brahmanical kings, a race long ago extinct in the annals of modem Hinduism and of whom the present race in Assam know nothing.

Both sculptural and architectural skill degenerated during the medieval period as, until the medieval kings were thoroughly Hinduized, the art lacked royal support and encouragement. The result was that when in the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries the medieval kings set themselves to rebuilding the Hindu temples the Assamese sculptors of the day, known as Silakutis, were hardly equal to the task. Their sculpture was distinctly inferior. The finer images that it now see mounted on some of these post-medieval temples were actually recovered from old ruins. In some instances the medieval kings did not disturb the mound of ruins at all but erected an inferior brick structuxe on the top of it, the scattered old stones being commonly used for steps leading up to the mound. There is clear evidence to prove that quite a good number of carved and sculptured stones, chiselled bases, columns and capitals belonging to an older age found scattered or recovered from old ruins were utilized by architects of more recent times in reconstructing temples demolished either by the subsequent invaders or by earthquakes. Old bricks also have been similarly utilized. Such old bricks and also pottery, belonging to a period much earlier than the advent of the medieval rulers, can also be met with here and there.

The collection of pottery in the museum of the Knmarupa Anusandhan Samiti, recovered from excavations in Guwahati town, includes certain specimens which exhibit the ceramic art of a bygone age may be a very old age, possibly pre-Aryan but here also lies a field of study entirely unexplored. Remains of military fortifications like Garhs and of works of public utility such as embanked roads and tanks, belonging to the ancient period, are still in existence. The large rectangular tank in Guwahati, known as the Dighli tank, is clearly of ancient origin. The Dighli tank in Guwahati is believed to date back to the time of Bhagadatta for, it is said, the tournament of archery, arranged in connection with the marriage of Bhagadatta's daughter Bhanumati, was held on a platform erected over this tank. It is said that a fish was tied aloft at the end of a long pole and the great archer Karna looking at the image on the water aimed overhead and pierced the eye of the fish with his arrow. He thus won the tournament and obtained the hand of Bhanumati but, at his request, she was married to Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas. It is on account of this relationship that Bhagadatta sided with Duryodhana in the Mahabharata war.

The Hajarapukhri in Tezpur is a large tank excavated by Harjaravarman in the ninth century. Masonry buildings, roads and fortifications constructed by the kings of Kamarupa were not confined to modern Assam. They existed also in that part of modern Bengal which was included in the old kingdom of Kamarupa. One can find in the accounts of Buchanan Hamilton and Glazier and also in the contributions to the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in the last century, many references to cities, temples, roads and fortifications erected by these: kings long before the rise of medieval kings.

Warfare technology

It have already alluded to the development of arts and industries during the time of Bhaskaravarman, the extensive use of iron in making weapons of war and armours for men and even elephants and the building of large war-boats which constituted an important arm during the attack on Karnasuvarna both by land and water. Even till the time of the medieval rulers the soldiers of Assam were proficient in naval warfare. Harjaravarman's rock inscription, in the early part of the ninth century, shows that the boats maintained by the king were numerous and, even in so wide a river as the Brahmaputra, regulation of boat traffic was found to be necessary in order to prevent collisions between the royal barges and the boats of fishermen. Vanatnala's inscription states that the royal boats were beautifully carved, painted and decorated and also fitted with musical instruments.

Metal technology

Iron was plentiful as in the adjacent hills iron-ore could be had in abundance and iron-melting by a crude process was known. Of the more precious metals, gold and copper could be obtained within the kingdom-itself. From time immemorial, till very recent times, gold-washing had been practised in the rivers of Assam. The Subansiri (Axomia- Xuwon xiri) derives its name from the gold that it carries. Even the water of the Brahmaputra was known to contain gold for it find a clear mention of it in the inscription of Vanamala wherein it is stated that the river carried the gold dust caused by the friction of huge gold-bearing boulders of the Kailsa mountain. Jaya Pala, the last king of the dynasty of Brahma Pala, offered, according to the Silimpur inscription deciphered by Mr. Basak, to make a gift of gold equal to his own weight to a learned Brahman over and above 900 gold coins.

It is evident therefore that gold was, by no means, a rare metal in the kingdom in the old days. Incidentally, the reference in the Silimpur inscription proves that the Kamarupa kings used to mint gold coins though unfortunately no such coins have yet been discovered. The inscription of Ratna Pala mentions the existence of a copper-mine within the kingdom which the king worked with profit. Evidently copper was used for coinage also. Harjaravarman's ordinance, inscribed on the rock, prescribed a penalty of 100 cowries for infringement of the regulations. This shows that the cowry was a legal tender but it does not mean that metal coins were not then in circulation. In the vicinity of Sadiya existed a temple having a roof made of coppersheets and this temple was dedicated to the goddess Durga called Tamreswari mai. This temple was erected by the premedieval kings.

O'simliklar

Guruch was then, as now, the asosiy hosil. The extent of the lands, granted by the various inscriptions, was stated in terms of the yield of sholi. Xuanzang noticed that kokos va jack trees juda ko'p edi. As a matter of fact coconut thrives within the present districts of Golpara and Kamrup. As regards the cultivation of areca yong'og'i va betel yaprog'i in Kamarupa, it find a mention not only in the Nagaon inscription of Balavarman III but also in the Aphshad inscription of Adityasena (circa 672 A. D.) wherein the betel plants being in full bloom on the banks of the Brahmaputra is stated.

The Nagaon inscription describes the areca nut trees within Pragjyotishpura being wrapped by the betel creepers (pan), a system of growing pan which persists till today. Pragjyotishpur was, even in the ancient times, noted for its betel-nut groves which subsequently gave the name Guwahati to this town. The presents sent by Bhaskaravarman to Sri Harsha, about 606 A.D. included sugar in the form of liquid molasses in earthenware pots. Bu shuni ko'rsatadiki shakarqamish was cultivated even in the most ancient times. The other more important products of the kingdom as stated by Xuanzang, and also mentioned in some of the inscriptions, were Aguru or agaressence, mushk, ipak -fabrics and fillar.

Savdo va savdo

There is evidence to show that from the earliest times the people of Kamarupa traded with the people of other parts of India. This trade was carried on by a class of people called Xodagors and the main trade routes were the river Braxmaputra and the various navigable tributaries feeding it.

It appears that the Xodagors of Kamarupa carried their merchandise in large boats down the Brahmaputra and reached the sea after skirting round the Garo Hills. They crossed this sea and traded in seaports like Tamralipti. The bardic tales relating to Behula mention that Chand Xodagor, whose trier ghor in Soigaon, built of stones, existed till recent times, used to trade in seagoing boats. It is supposed that a gold-mine existed then in this part of India. As a matter of fact, the gold was obtained by washing in the Brahmaputra, Subansiri and other rivers.

In one of the aphorisms of Dak, who is placed about the eighth century A.D., mention is made of the profitable trade with the people of Lanka. Probably this Lanka is not to be identified with Sri Lanka but with the country on the Myanma coast which Xuanzang named Kamalanka and which, according to him, lay to the south-east of Samatata a dafna dengiz. Perhaps traders from Champa, Kamarupa and Vanga visited this coast for purposes of trade.

Shuningdek qarang

• Kamrup
• Kamrupi

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish