Fil - Elephant

Fillar Vaqtinchalik diapazon: Plyotsen - hozirgi PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D. C P T J K Pg N
Ayol Afrikalik buta fili yilda Mikumi milliy bog'i, Tanzaniya
Ilmiy tasnif
Qirollik:	Animalia
Filum:	Chordata
Sinf:	Sutemizuvchilar
Buyurtma:	Proboscidea
Oila:	Elephantidae
Subfamila:	Elephantinae
Guruhlar kiritilgan
Loxodonta Anonim, 1827 yil Elephas Linney, 1758 †Paleoloksodon Matsumoto, 1925 yil
Kladistik jihatdan kiritilgan, ammo an'anaviy ravishda taksonlar chiqarib tashlangan
†Mammut Bruklar, 1828 yil †Primelephas Maglio, 1970 yil

Fillar ning sutemizuvchilaridir oila Elephantidae va mavjud bo'lgan eng katta quruqlikdagi hayvonlar. Uch turlari hozirda tan olingan: Afrikalik buta fili, Afrikalik o'rmon fili, va Osiyo fili. Elephantidae - bu ordenning omon qolgan yagona oilasi Proboscidea; yo'q bo'lib ketgan a'zolarga mastodonlar. Elephantidae oilasiga shuningdek yo'q bo'lib ketgan bir nechta guruhlar kiradi, jumladan mamontlar va to'g'ri tishlangan fillar. Afrikalik fillar kattaroq quloqlari va orqa tomoni botiq, osiyolik fillarning quloqlari kichikroq, orqa tomoni qavariq yoki tekis. Barcha fillarning o'ziga xos xususiyatlari uzoqni o'z ichiga oladi probozis magistral, tishlar, katta quloq qovoqlari, massiv oyoqlari va qattiq, ammo sezgir terisi. Magistral nafas olish, og'ziga oziq-ovqat va suv olib kelish va narsalarni ushlash uchun ishlatiladi. Kesish tishlaridan olingan tishchalar qurol sifatida ham, narsalarni harakatlantirish va qazish uchun ham xizmat qiladi. Katta quloq qovoqlari tana haroratini doimiy ravishda ushlab turishda hamda aloqada bo'lishda yordam beradi. The ustun o'xshash oyoqlar o'zlarining og'irligini ko'taradi.

Fillar har tomonga tarqalib ketgan Saxaradan Afrikaga, Janubiy Osiyo va Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo va turli xil yashash joylarida, shu jumladan savannalar, o'rmonlar, cho'llar va botqoqlar. Ular o'txo'r va ular mavjud bo'lganda suv yaqinida qoladilar. Ular deb hisoblanadi asosiy tosh turlari, ularning atrof-muhitga ta'siri tufayli. Fillar a bo'linish-termoyadroviy jamiyat, unda bir nechta oilaviy guruhlar ijtimoiylashish uchun birlashadi. Urg'ochilar (sigirlar) oilaviy guruhlarda yashashga moyil bo'lib, ular buzoqlari bilan bitta urg'ochi yoki naslga ega bo'lgan bir nechta urg'ochi ayollardan iborat bo'lishi mumkin. Buqalarni o'z ichiga olmaydigan guruhlarni (odatda) eng keksa sigir boshqaradi matriarx.

Erkaklar (buqalar) balog'at yoshiga etgach, oilaviy guruhlarini tark etishadi va yolg'iz yoki boshqa erkaklar bilan yashashi mumkin. Voyaga etgan buqalar asosan turmush o'rtog'ini izlashda oilaviy guruhlar bilan aloqa qilishadi. Ular ko'paygan holatga kirishadilar testosteron va ma'lum bo'lgan tajovuz musht, bu ularga daromad olishga yordam beradi ustunlik reproduktiv muvaffaqiyat bilan bir qatorda boshqa erkaklar ustidan. Buzoqlar oilaviy guruhlarida diqqat markazida bo'lib, uch yil davomida onalariga suyanadi. Fillar yovvoyi tabiatda 70 yilgacha yashashi mumkin. Ular teginish, ko'rish, hidlash va ovoz bilan aloqa qilishadi; fillar foydalanadi infratovush va seysmik aloqa uzoq masofalarga. Fil aql-idroki bilan solishtirildi primatlar va turfa. Ular bor ko'rinadi o'z-o'zini anglash va ko'rsatish uchun ko'rinadi hamdardlik o'lgan va o'lgan oila a'zolari uchun.

Afrikalik fillar ro'yxatiga kiritilgan zaif va Osiyo fillari xavf ostida tomonidan Tabiatni muhofaza qilish xalqaro ittifoqi (IUCN). Fil populyatsiyasiga eng katta tahdidlardan biri bu fil suyagi savdosi, hayvonlar kabi brakonerlik ularning fil suyaklari uchun. Yovvoyi fillarga boshqa tahdidlar kiradi yashash joylarini yo'q qilish va mahalliy aholi bilan ziddiyatlar. Fillar sifatida ishlatiladi ishlaydigan hayvonlar Osiyoda. Ilgari, ular urushda ishlatilgan; bugungi kunda ular ko'pincha bahsli ravishda hayvonot bog'larida namoyish etiladi yoki ko'ngil ochish uchun foydalaniladi sirklar. Fillar juda taniqli va ular san'at, folklor, din, adabiyot va boshqalarda namoyish etilgan ommaviy madaniyat.

Etimologiya

"Fil" so'zi asosida Lotin fillar (genetik fil) ("fil"), ya'ni Lotinlashtirilgan shakli Yunoncha bςn (fillar) (genetik ἐλέφapos (fillar^[1]), ehtimolHind-evropa ehtimol til Finikiyalik.^[2] Bu tasdiqlangan Mikena yunon kabi elektron pochta (genitiv) e-re-pa-to) ichida Lineer B heceli skript.^[3][4] Mikena yunonida bo'lgani kabi, Gomer yunoncha so'zni ma'nosida ishlatgan fil suyagi, lekin vaqtidan keyin Gerodot, u shuningdek hayvonga tegishli edi.^[1] "Fil" so'zi paydo bo'ladi O'rta ingliz kabi olyfaunt (c.100) va qarz olingan Qadimgi frantsuzcha olifant (12-asr).^[2]

Taksonomiya va filogeniya

Fillar oilasiga tegishli Elephantidae, Buyurtma doirasida qolgan yagona oila Proboscidea bu yuqori tartibga tegishli Afroteriya. Ularning eng yaqinlari mavjud qarindoshlar sireniyalar (dugonglar va manatees ) va ziraklar, ular bilan baham ko'rishadi qoplama Paenungulata superorder ichida Afroteriya.^[8] Fillar va sireniyalar qo'shimcha ravishda guruhda to'plangan Teteriya.^[9]

Fillarning uch turi tan olinadi; The Afrikalik buta fili (Loxodonta afrika) va o'rmon fili (Loxodonta siklotisi) ning Saxaradan Afrikaga, va Osiyo fili (Elephas maximus) ning Janubiy va Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo.^[10] Afrikalik fillarning quloqlari kattaroq, bel qismi konkav, ajinlar terisi, qorin qiyshaygan va magistral uchida barmoqlarga o'xshash ikkita kengaytma bor. Osiyo fillari kichikroq quloqlarga ega, bo'rtiq yoki orqa tomoni tekis, terisi silliqroq, gorizontal qorin vaqti-vaqti bilan o'rtada osilib turadi va magistralning uchida bitta kengaytma bor. Teshikdagi tizmalar tishlar Osiyo filida torroq, afrikaliklar esa olmos shaklida. Osiyo filida ham bor dorsal uning boshidagi tepaliklar va ba'zi joylari depigmentatsiya uning terisida.^[11]

Afrikalik fillar orasida o'rmon fillari kichikroq va yumaloqroq quloqlarga ega bo'lib, buta fillariga qaraganda ingichka va tekisroq tishlarga ega va ularning o'rmon hududlari bilan chegaralangan. g'arbiy va Markaziy Afrika.^[12] Filning ikkala turi ham an'anaviy ravishda bir xil tur deb hisoblangan Loxodonta africana, ammo molekulyar tadqiqotlar ularning alohida turlar maqomini tasdiqladi.^[13][14][15] 2017 yilda DNK ketma-ketligini tahlil qilish shuni ko'rsatdi L. siklotis yo'q bo'lib ketganligi bilan chambarchas bog'liqdir Paleoloksodon antiqa davri, undan ko'ra L. afrika, ehtimol, jinsga putur etkazadi Loxodonta bir butun sifatida.^[16]

Evolyutsiya va yo'q bo'lib ketgan qarindoshlar

180 dan ortiq yo'q qilingan a'zolar va uchta yirik evolyutsion nurlanishlar Proboscidea buyrug'i qayd etilgan.^[17] Dastlabki probozidlar, afrikalik Eriterium va Fosfatriy kech Paleotsen, birinchi nurlanish haqida xabar berdi.^[18] The Eosen kiritilgan Numidoterium, Meriiterium, va Baritiyum Afrikadan. Ushbu hayvonlar nisbatan kichik va suvda bo'lgan. Keyinchalik, kabi avlodlar Phiomia va Paleomastodon o'rnidan turdi; ikkinchisi ehtimol o'rmonlarda va ochiq o'rmonzorlarda yashagan. Oligotsen davrida probosid xilma-xilligi pasaygan.^[19] Ushbu davrning diqqatga sazovor turlaridan biri edi Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi ning Afrika shoxi, keyinchalik bir nechta turlarning ajdodi bo'lishi mumkin.^[20] Ning boshlanishi Miosen paydo bo'lishi bilan ikkinchi diversifikatsiyani ko'rdi deinotirlar va mammutidlar. Birinchisi bilan bog'liq edi Baritiyum va Afrika va Evrosiyoda yashagan,^[21] ikkinchisi esa kelib chiqishi mumkin Eritreum^[20] va Shimoliy Amerikaga tarqaldi.^[21]

Ikkinchi nurlanish paydo bo'lishi bilan ifodalangan gofotherlar miosenda,^[21] ehtimol evolyutsiyasi Eritreum^[20] va Afrikadan kelib chiqqan bo'lib, Avstraliya va Antarktidadan tashqari barcha qit'alarga tarqaldi. Ushbu guruh a'zolari kiritilgan Gomfoteri va Platybelodon.^[21] Uchinchi nurlanish kech Miosenda boshlanib, fillarning paydo bo'lishiga olib keldi, ular gomfotirlardan tushgan va asta-sekin o'rnini bosgan.^[22] Afrika Primelephas gomfoteroidlar sabab bo'ldi Loxodonta, Mammutus, va Elephas. Loxodonta eng erta Miosen atrofida tarvaqaylab ketgan va Plyotsen chegara esa Mammut va Elephas keyinchalik Pliyotsen davrida ajralib chiqqan. Loxodonta Afrikada qoldi Mammut va Elephas Evroosiyoga tarqaldi va birinchisi Shimoliy Amerikaga etib bordi. Shu bilan birga, stegodontidlar, boshqa bir proboscidean guruhi gomfotirlardan kelib chiqqan bo'lib, butun Osiyo bo'ylab tarqaldi, shu jumladan Hindiston yarim oroli, Xitoy, janubi-sharqiy Osiyo va Yaponiya. Mammutidlar rivojlanish kabi yangi turlarga, masalan Amerika mastodoni.^[23]

Boshida Pleystotsen, fillar yuqori darajani boshdan kechirdilar spetsifikatsiya.^[24] Pleystotsen ham kelganini ko'rdi Palaeoloxodon namadicus, barcha zamonlarning eng katta quruqlikdagi sutemizuvchisi.^[25] Loxodonta atlantika shimoliy va janubiy Afrikada eng keng tarqalgan turiga aylandi, ammo uning o'rnini egalladi Elephas iolensis keyinchalik pleystotsenda. Faqat qachon Elephas Afrikadan g'oyib bo'ldi Loxodonta yana bir bor dominant bo'lib, bu safar zamonaviy turlar shaklida. Elephas kabi Osiyoda yangi turlarga diversifikatsiya qilingan E. hysudricus va E. platitsefus;^[26] ikkinchisi zamonaviy Osiyo filining ajdodlari.^[24] Mammut evolyutsiyasi bir nechta turlarga, shu jumladan taniqlilarga aylandi junli mamont.^[26] Qarama-qarshi nasldan naslga o'tish fillarning turlari orasida keng tarqalgan bo'lib, ba'zi holatlarda uchta ajdod genetik tarkibiy qismiga ega turlar paydo bo'lgan, masalan Paleoloksodon antiqa davri.^[7] In Kech pleystotsen, proboscidean turlarining ko'pi davomida g'oyib bo'ldi To'rtlamchi davr muzligi qaysi o'ldirilgan Dunyo bo'ylab 5 kg (11 funt) dan ortiq vaznga ega bo'lgan nasllarning 50%.^[27]

Proboscideans bir necha evolyutsion tendentsiyalarni boshdan kechirdi, masalan, ularning kattalashishi, bu balandligi 500 sm (16 fut 5 dyuym) gacha bo'lgan ko'plab yirik turlarga olib keldi.^[25] Boshqalar singari megaherbivores yo'q bo'lib ketgan, shu jumladan sauropod dinozavrlar, fillarning katta hajmi, ehtimol ularning ozuqaviy qiymati past o'simliklarda omon qolishlariga imkon berish uchun rivojlangan.^[28] Ularning oyoq-qo'llari uzunlashib, oyoqlari kalta va kengroq bo'lgan.^[6] Dastlab oyoqlar edi o'simlik va rivojlanib raqamli raqam yostiq yostiqchalari va sesamoid suyagi qo'llab-quvvatlash.^[29] Dastlabki probosidlar uzoqroq rivojlangan pastki jag ' va kichikroq kraniumlar ko'proq esa olingan Boshqalarni siljitadigan qisqa mandibular rivojlangan tortishish markazi. Bosh suyagi kattalashdi, ayniqsa kranium, bo'yin esa qisqarib, bosh suyagini yaxshiroq qo'llab-quvvatladi. O'lchamning o'sishi mobil magistralning rivojlanishiga va cho'zilib ketishiga olib keldi. Soni premolar, azizlar va itlar kamaydi.^[6] Yonoq tishlari (tishlar va premolarlar) kattalashib, ixtisoslashdi, ayniqsa fillar o'tishni boshlagandan keyin C3-o'simliklar ga C4 o'tlari Bu ularning tishlarini tishlarning balandligini uch baravar oshirishiga va shuningdek, taxminan besh million yil oldin lamellarning ko'payishiga olib keldi. Faqat so'nggi million yil ichida ular asosan C3 daraxtlari va butalaridan iborat parhezga qaytishdi.^[30][31] Yuqoridagi ikkinchi tish tirnoqlari turlarga qarab tekis, egri (yuqoriga yoki pastga), spiralgacha o'zgarib turadigan tishlarga aylandi. Ba'zi probosidlar tishlarini pastki tish qirralaridan rivojlantirdilar.^[6] Fillar suvda paydo bo'lgan ajdodlaridan ba'zi bir xususiyatlarni, masalan, o'zlarini saqlab qoladi o'rta quloq anatomiya.^[32]

Mittilar turlari

Krit mitti filining skeleti

Probosidlarning bir nechta turlari orollarda yashagan va tajribali ichki mitti. Bu, birinchi navbatda, pleystotsen davrida, ba'zi fillar populyatsiyasi dengiz sathining o'zgarishi bilan ajralib turganda, garchi mitti fillar ilgari Plyotsen davrida bo'lgan. Katta yoki yashashga yaroqli yirtqich populyatsiyaning etishmasligi va resurslarning cheklanganligi sababli bu fillar orollarda kichrayib qolishgan. Aksincha, kemiruvchilar kabi mayda sutemizuvchilar rivojlanadi gigantizm ushbu sharoitda. Mitti probosidlar yashaganligi ma'lum Indoneziya, Kanal orollari Kaliforniya, va bir nechta orollar O'rta er dengizi.^[33]

Elephas celebensis ning Sulavesi kelib chiqishi ishoniladi Elephas planifrons. Paleoloxodon falconeri ning Maltada va Sitsiliya atigi 100 sm (3 fut 3 dyuym) bo'lgan va ehtimol evolyutsiyadan rivojlangan to'g'ri tishlangan fil. To'g'ri tishli filning boshqa avlodlari mavjud edi Kipr. Noma'lum kelib chiqishi bo'lgan mitti fillar yashagan Krit, Sikladlar va Dekodan mitti mamontlar yashaganligi ma'lum Sardiniya.^[33] The Kolumbiyalik mamont mustamlaka qildi Kanal orollari va ga aylandi pigmentli mamont. Ushbu tur 120-180 sm balandlikda (3 fut 11 dyuym - 5 fut 11 dyuym) va 200-2000 kg (400-4400 funt) vaznga ega edi. Kichkina junli mamontlar populyatsiyasi omon qoldi Vrangel oroli, hozirda 4000 yil muqaddam Sibir qirg'og'idan 140 km (87 mil) shimoliy.^[33] 1993 yilda kashf etilgandan so'ng, ular mitti mamontlar deb hisoblangan.^[34] Ushbu tasnif qayta ko'rib chiqildi va 1999 yilda bo'lib o'tgan Ikkinchi Xalqaro Mamont Konferentsiyasidan boshlab bu hayvonlar endi haqiqiy "mitti mamontlar" deb hisoblanmaydi.^[35]

Anatomiya va morfologiya

Hajmi

Afrika va Osiyo fillari o'rtasidagi jismoniy farqlar. 1. Quloq kattaligi 2. Peshona shakli 3. Faqatgina osiyoliklarning tishlari bor 4. Magistral halqalar miqdori 5. Oyoq tirnoqlari soni 6. Quyruq kattaligi 7. Orqa kamar / cho'milish

Afrikalik buta fillari skeleti

Fillar quruqlikda yashovchi eng yirik hayvonlardir. Afrikalik butalar - eng katta turlar, erkaklar bo'yi 304-336 sm (10 fut 0 dan 11 ft 0 dyuym) gacha, tana massasi 5,2-6,9 t (5,7-7,6 kalta tonna), urg'ochilar esa 247 ga teng. Tana massasi 2,6-3,5 t (2,9-3,9 qisqa tonna) bo'lgan elkada -273 sm (8 fut 1 dyuym – 8 fut 11 dyuym). Erkak osiyolik fillarning elkasi balandligi taxminan 261-289 sm (8 fut 7 dyuym - 9 fut 6 dyuym) va 3,5-4,6 t (3,9-5,1 qisqa tonna), urg'ochilar esa 228-252 sm (7 fut 6 dyuym). Yelkasida balandligi 8 fut 3 dyuym va 2.3-3.1 t (2.5-3.4 qisqa tonna). Afrikalik o'rmon fillari eng kichik turlardir, erkaklar odatda elkasi bo'yi 209-231 sm (6 ft 10 in-7 ft 7 dyuym) va 1,7-2,3 t (1,9-2,5 qisqa tonna) balandlikda. Erkak afrikalik butalar odatda urg'ochilarnikidan 23% balandroq, erkaklar osiyolik fillar esa urg'ochilarnikidan atigi 15% balandroqdir.^[25]

Suyaklar

Filning skeleti 326-351 suyakdan iborat.^[36] Omurgalar qattiq bo'g'inlar bilan bog'langan bo'lib, ular orqa miya egiluvchanligini cheklaydi. Afrikalik fillarda 21 juft qovurg'a bor, Osiyo fillarida esa 19 yoki 20 juft.^[37]

Bosh

Filning bosh suyagi tishlar va bosh bilan to'qnashuvlar yordamida hosil bo'lgan kuchlarga bardosh bera oladigan darajada bardoshlidir. Bosh suyagining orqa qismi tekislanib, yoyilib, miyani har tomonga himoya qiladigan kamar hosil qiladi.^[38] Bosh suyagida havo bo'shliqlari mavjud (sinuslar ) umumiy kuchni saqlagan holda bosh suyagi vaznini kamaytiradi. Ushbu bo'shliqlar bosh suyagining ichki qismini a chuqurchalar - tashqi ko'rinish kabi. Kranium ayniqsa katta bo'lib, butun boshni ushlab turish uchun mushaklarning biriktirilishi uchun etarli joy beradi. Pastki jag 'qattiq va og'ir.^[36] Boshning kattaligi tufayli bo'yin nisbatan qisqa bo'lib, yaxshiroq yordam beradi.^[6] Yo'qligi a ko'z yoshi apparati, ko'zga tayanadi qattiqroq bez uni nam saqlash uchun. Bardoshli nikitatsiya qiluvchi membrana ko'z globusini himoya qiladi. Hayvonniki ko'rish maydoni ko'zlarning joylashishi va cheklangan harakatchanligi bilan buziladi.^[39] Fillar hisobga olinadi dikromatlar^[40] va ular xira yorug'likda yaxshi ko'rishadi, lekin yorqin nurda emas.^[41]

Quloqlar

Fil quloqlari ingichka uchlari bilan qalin asoslarga ega. Quloq qanotlari yoki pinnae, deb nomlangan ko'plab qon tomirlarini o'z ichiga oladi mayda tomirlar. Issiq qon kapillyarlarga oqib, atrofdagi ortiqcha tana issiqligini chiqarishga yordam beradi. Bu pinnalar harakatsiz bo'lganda sodir bo'ladi va hayvon ularni urib ta'sirini kuchaytirishi mumkin. Kattaroq quloq sirtlari ko'proq kapillyarlarni o'z ichiga oladi va ko'proq issiqlik chiqarilishi mumkin. Barcha fillardan afrikalik butalar eng issiq iqlim sharoitida yashaydilar va eng katta quloq qovoqlariga ega.^[42] Fillar past chastotalarda eshitish qobiliyatiga ega va 1da eng sezgir kHz (ga yaqin joyda Soprano C ).^[43]

Magistral

Magistralini ko'targan afrikalik buta fil, ko'pincha karnay chalish paytida o'zini tutadi

Magistral bilan osiyolik fil ichimlik suvi

Magistral yoki probozis, burun va yuqori labning birlashishi, garchi erta bo'lsa ham homila hayot, yuqori lab va magistral ajratilgan.^[6] Magistral cho'zilgan va filning eng muhim va ko'p qirrali qo'shimchasiga aylanish uchun ixtisoslashgan. Unda 150 000 tagacha alohida mavjud mushaklarning mushaklari, suyaksiz va ozgina yog'li. Ushbu juft mushaklar ikki asosiy turdan iborat: yuzaki (yuzaki) va ichki. Birinchisi bo'linadi dorsallar, ventrallar va lateral ikkinchisi esa bo'linadi ko'ndalang va nurli mushaklar. Magistral mushaklari bosh suyagidagi suyak teshigiga ulanadi. The burun septum burun teshiklari o'rtasida gorizontal ravishda cho'zilgan mayda mushak bo'linmalaridan iborat. Kıkırdak burun teshiklarini pastki qismida ajratadi.^[44] Kabi mushak gidrostati, magistral aniq muvofiqlashtirilgan mushaklarning qisqarishi bilan harakat qiladi. Mushaklar bir-biriga qarshi ham, qarshi ham ishlaydi. Noyob proboz nervi - tomonidan hosil qilingan maksiller va yuz nervlari - magistralning ikkala tomoni bo'ylab harakatlanadi.^[45]

Fil magistrallari bir nechta funktsiyalarga ega, shu jumladan nafas olish, olfaktsiya, teginish, tushunish va ovoz chiqarish.^[6] Hayvonning hidlash qobiliyati a ga nisbatan to'rt baravar sezgir bo'lishi mumkin qonli qon.^[46] Magistralning kuchli burish va burama harakatlar qilish qobiliyati unga oziq-ovqat to'plash, boshqa fillar bilan kurashish,^[47] va 350 kg (770 funt) gacha ko'taring.^[6] U ko'zni artish va teshikni tekshirish kabi nozik vazifalar uchun ishlatilishi mumkin,^[47] va urug'ni buzmasdan yerfıstığı qobig'ini yorishga qodir.^[6] Fil o'z tanasi bilan 7 metr balandlikdagi narsalarga etib borishi va loy yoki qum ostida suv qazishi mumkin.^[47] Jismoniy shaxslar magistral bilan ushlaganda yon tomonga ustunlikni ko'rsatishi mumkin: kimdir ularni chapga, boshqalari o'ngga burab qo'yishni afzal ko'rishadi.^[45] Fillar suv ichish uchun ham, tanalariga purkash uchun ham so'rishi mumkin.^[6] Voyaga etgan Osiyo fili magistralida 8,5 L (2,2 AQSh gal) suvni ushlab turishga qodir.^[44] Shuningdek, ular o'zlariga chang yoki o't sepadilar.^[6] Suv ostida bo'lgan paytda fil o'z magistralini a sifatida ishlatadi snorkel.^[32]

Afrikalik fil magistralning uchida barmoqqa o'xshash ikkita kengaytmaga ega bo'lib, uni ushlab, og'ziga ovqat olib keladi. Osiyo filida bittasi bor va u ko'proq oziq-ovqat mahsulotini o'rab, uni og'ziga siqib qo'yishga ishonadi.^[11] Osiyo fillari mushaklarning koordinatsiyasiga ega va murakkab vazifalarni bajara oladi.^[44] Magistralni yo'qotish filning omon qolishi uchun zararli bo'lar edi,^[6] kamdan-kam hollarda, shaxslar qisqartirilganlar bilan omon qolishdi. Bitta fil old oyoqlariga tiz cho'kib, orqa oyoqlariga ko'tarib, lablari bilan o't olib boqayotgani kuzatilgan.^[44] Floppi magistral sindromi magistralning holati falaj degradatsiyasi natijasida kelib chiqqan Afrika tuplarida periferik nervlar va mushaklari uchidan boshlanadi.^[48]

Tishlar

O'lgan balog'at yoshidagi filning yonoq tishlari yopilishi

Osiyo fillari daraxt po'stlog'ini yeyishyapti, uni tishlarini tozalab olish uchun ishlatmoqda.

Fillar odatda 26 tishga ega: the tish kesuvchi deb nomlanuvchi tishlar, 12 bargli premolar va 12 tishlar. Ko'pgina sutemizuvchilardan farqli o'laroq, qaysi sut tishlarini o'stirish va keyin ularni bitta doimiy kattalar tishlari to'plami bilan almashtiring, fillar polifiodontlar ularning hayoti davomida tishlarni aylanish davrlariga ega. Odatda filning hayoti davomida chaynash tishlari olti marta almashtiriladi. Ko'pgina sutemizuvchilar singari vertikal ravishda jag'dan chiqadigan tishlar o'rnini tishlar bosmaydi. Buning o'rniga og'izning orqa qismida yangi tishlar o'sib, oldingilarini itarib oldinga siljiydi. Jag'ning har ikki tomonidagi birinchi chaynash tishi fil ikki yoshdan uch yoshgacha tushganda tushadi. Chaynash tishlarining ikkinchi to'plami to'rt yoshdan olti yoshgacha tushadi. Uchinchi to'plam 9-15 yoshga to'g'ri keladi va to'rtinchi to'plam 18-28 yoshgacha davom etadi. Tishlarning beshinchi to'plami 40-yillarning boshlarida tushadi. Oltinchi (va odatda yakuniy) to'plam filni umrining oxirigacha davom etishi kerak. Fil tishlari ilmoq shaklidagi tish tizmalariga ega, ular afrikalik fillarda qalinroq va olmos shaklida bo'ladi.^[49]

Tishlar

Filning tishlari yuqori jag 'qismidagi ikkinchi tishlar o'zgartirilgan. Ular bargli barglarni almashtiradi sut tishlari 6-12 oyligida va yiliga 17 sm (7 dyuym) atrofida doimiy ravishda o'sib boradi. Yangi ishlab chiqilgan tusk silliqdir emal oxir-oqibat tugaydigan qopqoq. The dentin sifatida tanilgan fil suyagi va uning ko'ndalang kesim olmos shaklidagi maydonlarni yaratadigan "dvigatelni burish" deb nomlanuvchi o'zaro faoliyat chiziq naqshlaridan iborat. Tirik to'qima bo'lagi sifatida, tish nisbatan yumshoq; mineral kabi qattiq kaltsit. Tuskning katta qismini tashqarida ko'rish mumkin; qolgan qismi bosh suyagi uyasida. Tuskning kamida uchdan birida pulpa ba'zilarida esa asablari uchiga qadar cho'zilgan. Shunday qilib, uni hayvonga zarar bermasdan olib tashlash qiyin bo'ladi. Olib tashlanganida, fil suyagi quriy boshlaydi va salqin va nam saqlanmasa yorilib ketadi. Tishlar bir nechta maqsadlarga xizmat qiladi. Ular suv, tuz va ildizlarni qazish uchun ishlatiladi; daraxtlarni burish yoki markalash; yo'lni tozalashda daraxtlar va shoxlarni harakatlantirish uchun. Jang paytida ular hujum qilish va himoya qilish, magistralni himoya qilish uchun ishlatiladi.^[50]

Odatda odamlar kabi o'ng yoki chap qo'l, fillar odatda o'ng yoki chap tusked. Asosiy tusk deb nomlangan dominant tus, odatda ko'proq eskirgan, chunki u dumaloq uchi bilan qisqaroq. Afrikalik fillar uchun tishlar erkaklar va ayollarda mavjud bo'lib, har ikki jinsda ham bir xil uzunlikda bo'lib, 300 sm gacha (9 fut 10 dyuym),^[50] ammo erkaklarga qaraganda qalinroq bo'ladi.^[51] Avvalgi davrlarda, og'irligi 200 funtdan (90 kg dan ortiq) bo'lgan fil tishlari odatiy hol emas edi, ammo bugungi kunda 45 kilogrammdan ortiq vaznni ko'rish kamdan-kam uchraydi.^[52]

Osiyo turlarida faqat erkaklar katta tishlarga ega. Ayol osiyoliklar juda kichik tishlarga ega yoki umuman yo'q.^[50] Tuskless erkaklar mavjud va ular Shri-Lanka fillari orasida keng tarqalgan.^[53] Osiyo erkaklarida tishlar afrikaliklarnikidek bo'lishi mumkin, ammo ular odatda ingichka va engilroq; qayd etilganlarning eng kattasi 302 sm (9 fut 11 dyuym) uzunlikda va 39 kg (86 lb) og'irlikda bo'lgan. Afrikada fil suyagi uchun ov qilish^[54] va Osiyo^[55] olib keldi tabiiy selektsiya qisqaroq tishlar uchun^[56][57] va tusklessness.^[58][59]

Teri

Terini loy bilan qoplagan afrikalik o'rmon fili

Filning terisi odatda juda qattiq, orqa va bosh qismlarida qalinligi 2,5 sm (1 dyuym). Og'iz atrofidagi teri, anus va quloqning ichki qismi ancha ingichka. Fillar odatda kulrang teriga ega, ammo afrikalik fillar rangli loyga botganidan keyin jigarrang yoki qizg'ish rangga o'xshaydi. Osiyo fillarida, ayniqsa peshona va quloqlarda va atrofdagi joylarda ba'zi bir depigmentatsiya joylari mavjud. Buzoqlarning jigarrang yoki qizg'ish sochlari bor, ayniqsa bosh va orqada. Fillarning etuklashishi bilan sochlari qorayib, siyrakroq bo'lib qoladi, lekin sochlar va sochlarning zich kontsentratsiyasi quyruqning uchida ham, iyagida ham qoladi, jinsiy a'zolar va ko'z va quloq teshiklari atroflari. Odatda Osiyo filining terisi afrikalik hamkasbiga qaraganda ko'proq sochlar bilan qoplangan.^[60]

Media-ni ijro etish

Afrikalik fillarning yovvoyi tabiatdagi videosi

Fil loyni terisini himoya qilib, quyoshdan himoya qiladi ultrabinafsha yorug'lik. Filning terisi qattiq bo'lsa-da, juda sezgir. Muntazam ravishda loy vannalar uni kuyishdan, hasharotlar chaqishidan va namlikni yo'qotishdan himoya qilish uchun filning terisi jiddiy zarar ko'radi. Hammomdan keyin fil odatda tanasiga changni purkash uchun magistraldan foydalanadi va bu himoya qobig'iga quriydi.

Fillar pastligi sababli teridan issiqlikni chiqarishda qiynaladi hajm va sirt nisbati, bu odamnikidan bir necha baravar kichik Ularning oyoqlarini yuqoriga ko'targanliklari, ehtimol ular tagliklarini havoga chiqarish uchun qilinganligi kuzatilgan.^[60]

Oyoqlar, harakatlanish va holat

Osiyo pili yurmoqda

Hayvonning vaznini ushlab turish uchun filning oyoq-qo'llari boshqa sutemizuvchilarga qaraganda vertikal ravishda tana ostiga joylashtirilgan. Oyoq-qo'llarning uzun suyaklari bor suyak suyagi o'rniga medullar bo'shliqlari. Bu hali ham ruxsat berayotganda suyaklarni kuchaytiradi gemopoez.^[61] Oldingi va orqa oyoqlari ham filning vaznini ko'tarishi mumkin, garchi 60% old tomondan ko'tariladi.^[62] Oyoq suyaklari bir-birining ustiga va tanasi ostiga qo'yilganligi sababli, fil uzoq vaqt davomida ko'p energiya sarf qilmasdan turib turishi mumkin. Fillar oldingi oyoqlarini aylantirishga qodir emaslar ulna va radius o'rnatilgan talaffuz; manusning "palmasi" orqaga qarab turadi.^[61] The pronator quadratus va pronator teres qisqartirilgan yoki yo'q.^[63] Filning dumaloq oyoqlari ostida yumshoq to'qimalar yoki "o'tiradigan joy" mavjud manus yoki pes, hayvonning vaznini taqsimlaydigan.^[62] Ular a kabi ko'rinadi sesamoid, a ga o'xshash qo'shimcha "toe" ulkan panda Qo'shimcha "bosh barmog'i", bu vaznni taqsimlashga ham yordam beradi.^[64] Old va orqa oyoqlarda beshta tirnoqni topish mumkin.^[11]

Fillar oldinga ham, orqaga ham harakat qilishlari mumkin, lekin qila olmaydi trot, sakramoq, yoki chopmoq. Quruqlikda harakatlanayotganda ular faqat ikkita yurishdan foydalanadilar: yurish va yugurishga o'xshash tezroq yurish.^[61] Yurishda oyoqlar sarkaç vazifasini bajaradi, oyoq erga ekilgan paytda kestirib, elkalari ko'tarilib tushadi. "Havo fazasi" bo'lmagan holda, tez yurish yugurishning barcha mezonlariga javob bermaydi, garchi fil boshqa yugurayotgan hayvonlar singari oyoqlarini ishlatsa ham, kestirib, elkalari yiqilib, so'ng oyoqlari erga ko'tarilayotganda ko'tariladi.^[65] Tez harakatlanadigan fillar old oyoqlari bilan "yugurish" kabi ko'rinadi, ammo orqa oyoqlari bilan "yurishadi" va 25 km / soat (16 milya) tezlikka erishishlari mumkin.^[66] Ushbu tezlikda, boshqalari to'rtburchak gallopga yaxshi kiradi, hatto oyoq uzunligini hisobga oladi. Bahorga o'xshash kinetika fillar va boshqa hayvonlar harakati o'rtasidagi farqni tushuntirishi mumkin edi.^[66] Harakatlanish paytida o'tiradigan joylar kengayib, qisqaradi va juda og'ir hayvon harakatidan kelib chiqadigan og'riq va shovqinni kamaytiradi.^[62] Fillar suzishga qodir. Ular olti soat davomida suzish paytida pastki qismga tegmasdan qayd etilgan va 48 km (30 milya) masofani bosib o'tib, 2,1 km / soat (1 milya) tezlikda harakat qilgan.^[67]

Organlar

Bankadagi Afrika fil yuragi

Filning miyasi 4,5-5,5 kg (10-12 funt) ni tashkil qiladi, inson miyasida 1,6 kg (4 funt). Fil miyasi umuman kattaroq bo'lsa-da, u mutanosib ravishda kichikroq. Tug'ilganda filning miyasi allaqachon kattalar vaznining 30-40 foizini tashkil qiladi. The miya va serebellum yaxshi rivojlangan va vaqtinchalik loblar juda katta, ular yon tomonga chiqib ketadi.^[68] Filning tomog'ida, keyinchalik foydalanish uchun suv to'plashi mumkin bo'lgan sumka bor ekan.^[6] The gırtlak fil sutemizuvchilardan ma'lum bo'lgan eng kattasi. The vokal burmalar uzun va ularga yaqin biriktirilgan epiglot tayanch. Filning ovozli burmalarini odamnikiga taqqoslaganda fillar uzunroq, qalinroq va tasavvurlar maydoni kattaroqdir. Bundan tashqari, ular 45 darajaga burilib, odamning tovush burmalaridan ko'ra oldinga joylashtirilgan.^[69]

Filning yuragi 12-21 kg (26-46 funt) ga teng. Ikkita uchi bor tepalik, sutemizuvchilar orasida g'ayrioddiy xususiyat.^[68] Bundan tashqari, qorinchalar yurakning yuqori qismiga yaqin joyda ajralib turing, ular sireniyalar bilan bo'lishadigan xususiyat.^[70] Tik turganida filning yuragi daqiqada taxminan 30 marta uradi. Boshqa ko'plab hayvonlardan farqli o'laroq, fil yotganda yurak urishi daqiqada 8 dan 10 gacha tezlashadi.^[71] Tananing ko'p qismidagi qon tomirlari keng va qalin bo'lib, yuqori qon bosimiga dosh bera oladi.^[70] O'pka diafragma, va nafas olish asosan diafragma suyagining kengayishiga emas, balki suyakka asoslangan.^[68] Birlashtiruvchi to'qima o'rnida mavjud plevra bo'shlig'i. Bu hayvon tanasi suv ostida bo'lganida va uning tanasi havo uchun sirtini sindirib tashlaganida bosim farqlarini engishga imkon berishi mumkin,^[32] garchi bu tushuntirish so'roq qilingan bo'lsa ham.^[72] Ushbu moslashuvning yana bir mumkin bo'lgan vazifasi shundaki, u hayvonga magistral orqali suv so'rib olishga yordam beradi.^[32] Fillar asosan magistral orqali nafas oladi, garchi bir oz havo og'zidan o'tadi. Ularda orqa ichak fermentatsiyasi va ularning yo'g'on va ingichka ichaklari birgalikda uzunligi 35 m (115 fut) ga etadi. Fil ovqatining ko'p qismi bir kungacha davom etadigan jarayonga qaramay, hazm bo'lmay qoladi.^[68]

Erkak filning moyaklari buyraklar yaqinida joylashgan.^[73] Filniki jinsiy olatni uzunligi 100 sm (39 dyuym) va diametri 16 sm (6 dyuym) ga etishi mumkin. To'liq tiklanganda S shaklida va Y shaklida bo'ladi teshik. Ayol yaxshi rivojlangan klitoris 40 sm gacha (16 dyuym). Vulva ko'pgina sutemizuvchilarda bo'lgani kabi dumning yonida emas, balki orqa oyoqlari orasida joylashgan. Hayvonning katta ekanligi sababli homiladorlik holatini aniqlash qiyin bo'lishi mumkin qorin bo'shlig'i. Ayolniki sut bezlari oldingi oyoqlari orasidagi bo'shliqni egallab oling, bu esa emizuvchi buzoqni ayol tanasiga etib boradi.^[68] Fillarning noyob a'zosi bor vaqtinchalik bez, boshning ikkala tomonida joylashgan. Ushbu organ jinsiy xatti-harakatlar bilan bog'liq bo'lib, erkaklar undan suyuqlik chiqaradi musht.^[74] Ayollar vaqtinchalik bezlardan sekretsiya bilan ham kuzatilgan.^[46]

Tana harorati

Tana yadrosi harorati o'rtacha 35,9 ° S (96,6 ° F), odamnikiga o'xshaydi. Barcha sut emizuvchilar singari, fil ekstremal ekologik sharoitga javoban o'z haroratini o'rtacha darajadan bir necha darajaga ko'tarishi yoki tushirishi mumkin.^[68]

Xulq-atvor va hayot tarixi

Ekologiya va faoliyat

Media-ni ijro etish

Maysa boqayotgan osiyolik fil

Afrikalik buta fili prehezil magistralini em-xashak uchun ishlatmoqda

Afrikalik buta fili quruq kabi turli xil yashash joylarida uchraydi savannalar, cho'llar, botqoqlar va ko'l qirg'oqlari va dengiz sathidan balandlikdagi tog'li hududlarga qadar balandliklarda qor chizig'i. O'rmon fillari asosan yashaydi ekvatorial o'rmonlar lekin kiradi galereya o'rmonlari va ekotonlar o'rmonlar va savannalar orasida.^[12] Osiyo fillari asosan quruq joyda yashovchi o'tlar, kam daraxtli o'simliklar va daraxtlar aralashgan joylarni afzal ko'rishadi tikanli daraxtlar janubiy Hindiston va Shri-Lankada va doim yashil o'rmonlar yilda Malaya.^[75] Fillar o'txo'r va barglar, novdalar, mevalar, po'stloq, o't va ildizlarni iste'mol qiladi.^[12] Ular steril ichak bilan tug'iladi va o'simliklarni hazm qilish uchun onasining najasidan olingan bakteriyalarni talab qiladi.^[76] Afrikalik fillar asosan brauzerlar Osiyo fillari esa asosan o'tloqlar. Ular kuniga 150 kg (330 lb) ovqat va 40 L (11 US gal) suv iste'mol qilishi mumkin. Fillar suv manbalari yaqinida qolishga moyil.^[12] Asosiy ovqatlanish bahslari ertalab, tushdan keyin va kechqurun bo'lib o'tadi. Kunning ikkinchi yarmida fillar daraxtlar tagida dam olishadi va tik turib qotib qolishlari mumkin. Uyqu tunda hayvon yotayotganda sodir bo'ladi.^[61][77] Fillar kuniga o'rtacha 3-4 soat uxlashadi.^[78] Erkaklar ham, oilaviy guruhlar ham odatda kuniga 10–20 km (6–12 milya) harakat qiladilar, ammo 90–180 km (56–112 milya) gacha bo'lgan masofalar qayd etilgan. Etosha Namibiya viloyati. Fillar mavsumiy ko'chib o'tishga oziq-ovqat, suv, mineral moddalar va juftlarni izlash uchun boradi.^[79] Da Chobe milliy bog'i, Botsvana, podalar 325 km (202 milya) masofani bosib o'tib mahalliy daryolar quriganida daryoga tashrif buyurishadi.^[80]

Katta o'lchamlari tufayli fillar atrof-muhitga katta ta'sir ko'rsatadi va hisobga olinadi asosiy tosh turlari. Daraxtlarni va daraxtzorlarni yulib tashlash odatlari savannani o'tloqlarga aylantirishi mumkin; qurg'oqchilik paytida suv qazishganda, boshqa hayvonlar foydalanishi mumkin bo'lgan quduqlarni yaratadilar. Ular cho'milganda va suvga cho'mganda suv sathlarini kattalashtirishi mumkin. Da Elgon tog'i, fillar tomonidan ishlatiladigan g'orlarni qazish tuyoqlilar, gyraks, yarasalar, qushlar va hasharotlar.^[81] Fillar muhim ahamiyatga ega urug'larni tarqatuvchilar; Afrikalik o'rmon fillari urug'larni yutadi va axlatga soladi, na ta'siri, na ijobiy ta'siri nihol. Urug'lar odatda katta masofalarga katta miqdorda tarqaladi.^[82] Osiyo o'rmonlarida katta urug'larga fil va kabi ulkan o'txo'rlar kerak karkidon transport va tarqatish uchun. Ushbu ekologik joyni keyingi eng katta o'txo'rlar to'ldirishi mumkin emas tapir.^[83] Fillarning ko'pi iste'mol qiladigan ovqat hazm bo'lmagani uchun, ularning go'ngi boshqa hayvonlarni, masalan, oziq-ovqat bilan ta'minlashi mumkin go'ng qo'ng'izlari va maymunlar.^[81] Fillar ekotizimlarga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin. Da Murchison Falls milliy bog'i Ugandada fillarning ko'pligi o'rmonzorlarga bog'liq bo'lgan kichik qushlarning bir nechta turlariga tahdid solgan. Ularning og'irligi tuproqni ixchamlashtirishi mumkin, bu esa yomg'ir yog'ishiga olib keladi qochib ketmoq, olib boradi eroziya.^[77]

Yashash joyidagi o'rmon fili. U muhim urug 'tarqatuvchi hisoblanadi.

Fillar odatda boshqa o'txo'rlar bilan tinch-totuv yashaydilar, bu odatda ularga to'sqinlik qiladi. Fillar va karkidonlarning ba'zi agressiv o'zaro aloqalari qayd etilgan. Da Aberdare milliy bog'i, Keniya, karkidon filning buzog'iga hujum qildi va guruhdagi boshqa fillar tomonidan o'ldirildi.^[77] Da Xluxluve - Umfolozi qo'riqxonasi, Janubiy Afrika, tanishtirgan yosh etim fillar 90-yillarda 36 karkidonning hayotiga zomin bo'lgan, ammo yoshi kattaroq erkaklarning kiritilishi bilan yakun topgan.^[84] Voyaga etgan fillarning kattaligi ularni deyarli daxlsiz qiladi yirtqichlar,^[75] voyaga etgan fillarning o'lja bo'lishiga oid kamdan-kam xabarlar mavjud yo'lbarslar.^[85] Buzoqlar o'lja bo'lishi mumkin sherlar, dog'lar va yovvoyi itlar Afrikada^[86] va Osiyodagi yo'lbarslar.^[75] Sherlari Savuti, Botsvana, qurg'oqchil mavsumda, asosan, balog'at yoshiga etmagan yoki kichik yoshdagi bolalarni fillarni ovlashga odatlangan va odatda to'rt yoshdan o'n bir yoshgacha bo'lgan balog'atga etmagan bolalarni va 15 yoshga to'lgan buqani o'ldirish bilan 30 sherning mag'rurligi qayd etilgan. istisno holatda.^[87][88] Fillar yo'lbarslar kabi kattaroq yirtqichlarning va kichikroq yirtqichlarning qichqirig'ini ajratib turgandek ko'rinadi qoplonlar (buzoqlarni o'ldirish qayd etilmagan); ular leoparlarga nisbatan kamroq qo'rqinchli va tajovuzkorroq munosabatda bo'lishadi.^[89] Fillar, ayniqsa, parazitlarning ko'p soniga ega nematodalar, boshqa o'txo'rlarga nisbatan. Buning sababi, aksariyat parazit yuklari bo'lgan ko'plab odamlarni o'ldiradigan yirtqich bosimning pastligi.^[90]

Ijtimoiy tashkilot

Ayol fillar butun hayotlarini mahkam bog'lanishda o'tkazadilar matrilineal oilaviy guruhlar, ularning ba'zilari o'ndan ortiq a'zolardan, shu jumladan uchta onadan va ularning qaramog'idagi avlodlaridan iborat bo'lib, ular tomonidan boshqariladi. matriarx ko'pincha bu eng katta ayol.^[91] U o'limigacha guruh rahbari bo'lib qolmoqda^[86] yoki u endi rol uchun kuchga ega bo'lmasa;^[92] hayvonot bog'i fillari bo'yicha o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, matriarx vafot etganda najas darajasi kortikosteron Tirik qolgan fillarda ('stress gormoni') keskin ko'paygan.^[93] Uning muddati tugagach, matriarxning to'ng'ich qizi uning o'rnini egallaydi; bu uning singlisi hozir bo'lgan taqdirda ham sodir bo'ladi.^[86] Bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, yosh matriarxlar katta yoshdagilarga qaraganda jiddiy xavfga etarlicha ta'sir ko'rsatmaydi.^[94] Mavjud manbalar uchun juda katta bo'lganidan keyin oilaviy guruhlar ajralishi mumkin.^[95]

Ayol filning ijtimoiy doirasi kichik oila birligi bilan tugashi shart emas. Fillarda bo'lsa Amboseli milliy bog'i, Keniya, ayolning hayoti boshqa oilalar, klanlar va subpopulyatsiyalar bilan o'zaro aloqalarni o'z ichiga oladi. Oilalar birlashishi va bir-biri bilan bog'lanishi mumkin, odatda ikkita oilaviy guruhdan iborat bo'lgan bog'lanish guruhlari deb nomlanadi. Quruq mavsumda fillar oilalari birlashishi va klan deb nomlanuvchi boshqa bir ijtimoiy tashkilotni tashkil qilishi mumkin. Ushbu klanlar tarkibidagi guruhlar kuchli bog'lanishni hosil qilmaydi, ammo ular boshqa klanlarga qarshi quruq mavsum oralig'ini himoya qiladilar. Klanda odatda to'qqizta guruh mavjud. The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations.^[91]

Some elephant populations in India and Sri Lanka have similar basic social organisations. There appear to be cohesive family units and loose aggregations. They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units". In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups and possibly clans. Family groups tend to be small, consisting of one or two adult females and their offspring. A group containing more than two adult females plus offspring is known as a "joint family". Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units, and do not have any social organisation higher than a family or bond group.^[91] Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one adult female with one to three offspring. These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings.^[91]

The social life of the adult male is very different. As he matures, a male spends more time at the edge of his group and associates with outside males or even other families. At Amboseli, young males spend over 80% of their time away from their families when they are 14–15. When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males. The former is typical of bulls in dense forests. Asian males are usually solitary, but occasionally form groups of two or more individuals; the largest consisted of seven bulls. Larger bull groups consisting of over 10 members occur only among African bush elephants, the largest of which numbered up to 144 individuals. Bulls only return to the herd to breed or to socialize, they do not provide prenatal care to their offspring but rather play a fatherly role to younger bulls to show dominance.^[96]

Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for dominance or mates, and will form long-term relationships.^[97] A ustunlik ierarxiyasi exists among males, whether they range socially or solitarily. Dominance depends on the age, size and sexual condition,^[96] and when in groups, males follow the lead of the dominant bull. Young bulls may seek out the company and leadership of older, more experienced males,^[97] whose presence appears to control their aggression and prevent them from exhibiting "deviant" behaviour.^[98] Adult males and females come together for reproduction. Bulls associate with family groups if an estetik cow is present.^[96]

• 

  A family of African bush elephants: note the protected position of the calves in the middle of the group

• 

  Lone bull: Adult male elephants spend much of their time alone or in single-sex groups

• 

  Male elephants sparring

Sexual behaviour

Musth

Bull in musth

Adult males enter a state of increased testosteron sifatida tanilgan musht. In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at the age of 15, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25. At Amboseli, bulls under 24 do not go into musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 do. Young bulls appear to enter musth during the dry season (January–May), while older bulls go through it during the wet season (June–December). The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid secreted from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face. He may urinate with his penis still in his g'ilof, which causes the urine to spray on his hind legs. Behaviours associated with musth include walking with the head held high and swinging, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling and waving only one ear at a time. This can last from a day to four months.^[99]

Males become extremely aggressive during musth. Size is the determining factor in agonistik encounters when the individuals have the same condition. In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger. A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank. Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other. Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring with the tusks. Serious fights are rare.^[99]

Juftlik

Bull mating with a member of a female group

Fillar ko'pburchak selektsionerlar,^[100] va copulations are most frequent during the peak of the wet season.^[101] A cow in oestrus releases chemical signals (feromonlar ) in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate. A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmenlarning javobi, which requires the male to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and bring it to the vomeronazal organ.^[102][103] The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks with a 4–6-week follikulyar faza and an 8- to 10-week luteal faza. While most mammals have one surge of luteinizan gormon during the follicular phase, elephants have two. The first (or anovulatory) surge, could signal to males that the female is in oestrus by changing her scent, but ovulyatsiya does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge.^[104] Fertility rates in cows decline around 45–50 years of age.^[92]

Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males.^[105] Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females actively seek to be guarded by them, particularly older ones.^[106] Thus these bulls have more reproductive success.^[96] Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths.^[107] For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby to provide support and reassurance.^[108] During copulation, the male lays his trunk over the female's back.^[109] The penis is very mobile, being able to move independently of the pelvis.^[110] Prior to mounting, it curves forward and upward. Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or ejaculatory pause.^[111] Elephant sperm must swim close to 2 m (6.6 ft) to reach the egg. By comparison, human sperm has to swim around only 76.2 mm (3.00 in).^[112]

Gomoseksual xatti-harakatlar is frequent in both sexes. As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting. Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting and "championships" may form between old bulls and younger males. Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity where they are known to masturbate one another with their trunks.^[113]

Tug'ilish va rivojlanish

An African forest elephant mother bathing with her calf

Homiladorlik in elephants typically lasts around two years with interbirth intervals usually lasting four to five years. Births tend to take place during the wet season.^[114] Calves are born 85 cm (33 in) tall and weigh around 120 kg (260 lb).^[108] Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur.^[115][116] The relatively long pregnancy is maintained by five corpus luteums (as opposed to one in most mammals) and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk.^[115] As such, newborn elephants are oldindan and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd.^[117] A new calf is usually the centre of attention for herd members. Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks. For the first few days, the mother is intolerant of other herd members near her young. Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups. Allomothers are typically two to twelve years old.^[108]

For the first few days, the newborn is unsteady on its feet, and needs the support of its mother. It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its eyesight is poor. It has little precise control over its trunk, which wiggles around and may cause it to trip. By its second week of life, the calf can walk more firmly and has more control over its trunk. After its first month, a calf can pick up, hold, and put objects in its mouth, but cannot suck water through the trunk and must drink directly through the mouth. It is still dependent on its mother and keeps close to her.^[117]

For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on milk from its mother for nutrition, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water. At the same time, improvements in lip and leg coordination occur. Calves continue to suckle at the same rate as before until their sixth month, after which they become more independent when feeding. By nine months, mouth, trunk and foot coordination is perfected. After a year, a calf's abilities to groom, drink, and feed itself are fully developed. It still needs its mother for nutrition and protection from predators for at least another year. Suckling bouts tend to last 2–4 min/hr for a calf younger than a year and it continues to suckle until it reaches three years of age or older. Suckling after two years may serve to maintain growth rate, body condition and reproductive ability.^[117]

Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight. The former are jinsiy jihatdan etuk by the age of nine years^[108] while the latter become mature around 14–15 years.^[96] Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes.^[118][119] Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age.^[49] Lin Vang, a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years.^[120]

Yirtqichlar

A full grown elephant has no natural predators due to their massive size, sherlar, yo'lbarslar, sirg'alar, wild dogs va hatto timsohlar will attack calves. Mothers always keep a close eye on thair calves, but they also get watched by the other females in the herd. When a predator is near, the adult females gathers together with the calves in the centre and charge if the predator doesn't back down. Bulls are powerful and aggressive to be threatened towards a predator and serve extra protection to the herd nearby.

Aloqa

Asian elephants greeting each other by inter-twining their trunks

Touching is an important form of communication among elephants. Individuals greet each other by stroking or wrapping their trunks; the latter also occurs during mild competition. Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to discipline younger ones. Individuals of any age and sex will touch each other's mouths, temporal glands, and genitals, particularly during meetings or when excited. This allows individuals to pick up chemical cues. Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication. When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them. If a calf wants to rest, it will press against its mother's front legs and when it wants to suckle, it will touch her breast or leg.^[121]

Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations. Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears. They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as throwing dust and vegetation. They are usually bluffing when performing these actions. Excited elephants may raise their trunks. Submissive ones will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that accept a challenge will position their ears in a V shape.^[122]

Elephants produce several sounds, usually through the gırtlak, though some may be o'zgartirilgan by the trunk.^[123] Perhaps the most well known call is the trumpet which is made by blowing through the trunk. Trumpeting is made during excitement, distress or aggression.^[111][123] Fighting elephants may roar or squeal, and wounded ones may bellow.^[124] Rumbles are produced during mild arousal^[125] and some appear to be infrasonik.^[126] These calls occur at frequencies less than 20 Hz.^[127] Infrasonic calls are important, particularly for long-distance communication,^[123] in both Asian and African elephants. For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, bilan sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB va 10-15 soniya davom etadi.^[126] For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, with a possible maximum range of around 10 km (6 mi).^[128]

Media-ni ijro etish

Rumble visualised with acoustic camera

From various experiments, the elephant larynx is shown to produce various and complex vibratory phenomena. Davomida jonli ravishda situations, these phenomena could be triggered when the vocal folds and vocal tract interact to raise or lower the fundamental frequency.^[127] One of the vibratory phenomena that occurred inside the larynx is alternating A-P (anterior-posterior) and P-A traveling waves, which happened due to the unusual larynx layout. This can be characterized by its unique glottal opening/closing pattern. When the trachea is at pressure of approximately 6 kPa, fonatsiya begins in the larynx and the laryngeal tissue starts to vibrate at approximately 15 kPa. Vocal production mechanisms at certain frequencies are similar to that of humans and other mammals and the laryngeal tissues are subjected to self-maintained oscillations. Two biomechanical features can trigger these traveling wave patterns, which are a low fundamental frequency and in the vocal folds, increasing longitudinal tension.^[69]

At Amboseli, several different infrasonic calls have been identified. A greeting rumble is emitted by members of a family group after having been separated for several hours. Contact calls are soft, unmodulated sounds made by individuals that have been separated from their group and may be responded to with a "contact answer" call that starts out loud, but becomes softer. A "let's go" soft rumble is emitted by the matriarch to signal to the other herd members that it is time to move to another spot. Bulls in musth emit a distinctive, low-frequency pulsated rumble nicknamed the "motorcycle". Musth rumbles may be answered by the "female chorus", a low-frequency, modulated chorus produced by several cows. A loud postcopulatory call may be made by an oestrous cow after mating. When a cow has mated, her family may produce calls of excitement known as the "mating pandemonium".^[125]

Elephants are known to communicate with seismics, vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it. They appear to rely on their leg and shoulder bones to transmit the signals to the middle ear. When detecting seismic signals, the animals lean forward and put more weight on their larger front feet; this is known as the "freezing behaviour". Elephants possess several adaptations suited for seismic communication. The cushion pads of the feet contain cartilaginous nodes and have similarities to the acoustic fat found in dengiz sutemizuvchilar kabi tishli kitlar and sirenians. Noyob sfinkter -like muscle around the quloq kanali constricts the passageway, thereby dampening acoustic signals and allowing the animal to hear more seismic signals.^[129] Elephants appear to use seismics for a number of purposes. An individual running or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at great distances.^[130] When detecting the seismics of an alarm call signalling danger from predators, elephants enter a defensive posture and family groups will pack together. Seismic waveforms produced by locomotion appear to travel distances of up to 32 km (20 mi) while those from vocalisations travel 16 km (10 mi).^[131]

Aql va idrok

Media-ni ijro etish

Elephant rolling a block to allow it to reach food

Elephants exhibit mirror self-recognition, an indication of o'z-o'zini anglash va bilish that has also been demonstrated in some maymunlar va delfinlar.^[132] One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs. This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later.^[133] Elephants are among the species known to use tools. An Asian elephant has been observed modifying branches and using them as flyswatters.^[134] Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of shimpanze. Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory. This could have a factual basis; they possibly have kognitiv xaritalar to allow them to remember large-scale spaces over long periods of time. Individuals appear to be able to keep track of the current location of their family members.^[41]

Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel hissiyot. They appear to show interest in the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related.^[135] As with chimps and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups. This has been interpreted as expressing "concern";^[136] however, others would dispute such an interpretation as being antropomorfik;^[137][138] The Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour (1987) advised that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion".^[139]

Tabiatni muhofaza qilish

Holat

Distribution of elephants

Afrikalik fil

Osiyo fili

African elephants were listed as zaif tomonidan Tabiatni muhofaza qilish xalqaro ittifoqi (IUCN) in 2008, with no independent assessment of the conservation status of the two forms.^[140] In 1979, Africa had an estimated minimum population of 1.3 million elephants, with a possible upper limit of 3.0 million. By 1989, the population was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Central Africa, 110,000 in sharqiy Afrika, 204,000 in janubiy Afrika, and 19,000 in g'arbiy Afrika. About 214,000 elephants were estimated to live in the rainforests, fewer than had previously been thought. From 1977 to 1989, elephant populations declined by 74% in East Africa. After 1987, losses in elephant numbers accelerated, and savannah populations from Kamerun ga Somali experienced a decline of 80%. African forest elephants had a total loss of 43%. Population trends in southern Africa were mixed, with anecdotal reports of losses in Zambiya, Mozambik va Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa.^[141] Conversely, studies in 2005 and 2007 found populations in eastern and southern Africa were increasing by an average annual rate of 4.0%.^[140] Due to the vast areas involved, assessing the total African elephant population remains difficult and involves an element of guesswork. The IUCN estimates a total of around 440,000 individuals for 2012 while Yo'l harakati estimates as many as 55 are poached daily.^[142][143]

African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found, but 70% of their range exists outside protected areas. Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities. As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translokatsiya. Keng ko'lamli cullings ceased in 1988, when Zimbabwe abandoned the practice. In 1989, the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Yo'qolib ketish xavfi ostida bo'lgan yovvoyi fauna va flora turlarining xalqaro savdosi to'g'risida konventsiya (CITES), making trade illegal. Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000. In some countries, sport ovi of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzaniya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies.^[140] 2016 yil iyun oyida Keniyaning birinchi xonimi, Margaret Kenyatta, helped launch the East Africa Grass-Root Elephant Education Campaign Walk, organised by elephant conservationist Jim Nyamu. The event was conducted to raise awareness of the value of elephants and rhinos, to help mitigate human-elephant conflicts, and to promote anti-poaching activities.^[144]

In 2008, the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as xavf ostida due to a 50% population decline over the past 60–75 years^[145] while CITES lists the species under Appendix I.^[145] Asian elephants once ranged from Suriya va Iroq (the subspecies Elephas maximus asurus ), to China (up to the Sariq daryo )^[146] va Java. It is now extinct in these areas,^[145] and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented.^[146] The total population of Asian elephants is estimated to be around 40,000–50,000, although this may be a loose estimate. It is likely that around half of the population is in India. Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in the G'arbiy Gatlar appears to be increasing.^[145]

Tahdidlar

African elephant carcass ratio as of 2015^[147]

Men with elephant tusks at Dar es Salom, Tanzaniya, v. 1900 yil

The brakonerlik of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence.^[145] Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use rivalled that of gold.^[148] The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century.^[140] This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan.^[148] Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks.^[149] CITES approved an international ban on ivory that went into effect in January 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not badly affected.^[148] Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malavi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local elephant populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from elephants that had been culled or died of natural causes.^[149]

The ban allowed the elephant to recover in parts of Africa.^[148] In January 2012, 650 elephants in Bouba Njida milliy bog'i, Cameroon, were killed by Chad raiders.^[150] This has been called "one of the worst concentrated killings" since the ivory ban.^[149] Asian elephants are potentially less vulnerable to the ivory trade, as females usually lack tusks. Still, members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar milliy bog'i Hindistonda.^[145] China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015, and in September 2015, China and the United States said "they would enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory" due to causes of extinction.^[151]

Other threats to elephants include yashash joylarini yo'q qilish va parchalanish.^[140] The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations. Because they need larger amounts of land than other simpatik terrestrial mammals, they are the first to be affected by human encroachment. In extreme cases, elephants may be confined to small islands of forest among human-dominated landscapes. Elephants cannot coexist with humans in agricultural areas due to their size and food requirements. Elephants commonly trample and consume crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result. Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation.^[145] One proposed solution is the provision of 'urban corridors' which allow the animals access to key areas.^[152]

Association with humans

Ishlaydigan hayvon

Working elephant as transport

Elephants have been ishlaydigan hayvonlar chunki hech bo'lmaganda Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi^[153] and continue to be used in modern times. There were 13,000–16,500 working elephants employed in Asia in 2000. These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10–20 years old when they can be trained quickly and easily, and will have a longer working life.^[154] Ular bo'lgan traditionally captured with traps and lassos, but since 1950, tinchlantiruvchi vositalar ishlatilgan.^[155]

Individuals of the Asian species have been often trained as working animals. Asian elephants perform tasks such as hauling loads into remote areas, moving logs to rivers and roads, transporting tourists around milliy bog'lar, pulling wagons, and leading religious processions.^[154] Shimolda Tailand, the animals are used to digest coffee beans for Qora fil suyagi qahvasi.^[156] They are valued over mechanised tools because they can work in relatively deep water, require relatively little maintenance, need only vegetation and water as fuel and can be trained to memorise specific tasks. Elephants can be trained to respond to over 30 commands.^[154] Musth bulls can be difficult and dangerous to work with and are chained and semi-starved until the condition passes.^[157] In India, many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse. They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960.^[158]

In both Myanmar and Thailand, o'rmonlarni yo'q qilish and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live.^[159][160]

The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa. The taming of African elephants in the Belgiya Kongosi began by decree of Belgiya Leopold II during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre.^[161]

Urush

Zama jangi tomonidan Anri-Pol Motte, 1890

Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war. They were equipped with armour to protect their sides, and their tusks were given sharp points of iron or brass if they were large enough. War elephants were trained to grasp an enemy soldier and toss him to the person riding on them or to pin the soldier to the ground and impale him.^[162]

One of the earliest references to war elephants is in the Indian epic Mahabxarata (written in the 4th century BC, but said to describe events between the 11th and 8th centuries BC). They were not used as much as horse-drawn chariots by either the Pandavas yoki Kauravas. Davomida Magadha Kingdom (which began in the 6th century BC), elephants began to achieve greater cultural importance than horses, and later Indian kingdoms used war elephants extensively; 3,000 of them were used in the Nandas (5th and 4th centuries BC) army while 9,000 may have been used in the Mauryan army (between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC). The Arthashastra (written around 300 BC) advised the Mauryan government to reserve some forests for wild elephants for use in the army, and to execute anyone who killed them.^[163] From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Fors^[162] and east to Southeast Asia.^[164] The Persians used them during the Ahamoniylar imperiyasi (between the 6th and 4th centuries BC)^[162] while Southeast Asian states first used war elephants possibly as early as the 5th century BC and continued to the 20th century.^[164]

In his 326 B.C. Indian campaign, Buyuk Aleksandr confronted elephants for the first time, and suffered heavy casualties. Among the reasons for the refusal of the rank-and-file Macedonian soldiers to continue the Indian conquest were rumors of even larger elephant armies in India.^[165] Alexander trained his foot soldiers to injure the animals and cause them to panic during wars with both the Persians and Indians. Ptolomey, who was one of Alexander's generals, used corps of Asian elephants during his reign as the ruler of Egypt (which began in 323 BC). Uning o'g'li va vorisi Ptolomey II (who began his rule in 285 BC) obtained his supply of elephants further south in Nubiya. From then on, war elephants were employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the klassik davr. The Greek king Pirus used elephants in his attempted invasion of Rome in 280 BC. While they frightened the Roman horses, they were not decisive and Pyrrhus ultimately lost the battle. The Karfagen umumiy Gannibal took elephants across the Alp tog'lari during his war with the Romans and reached the Po vodiysi in 217 BC with all of them alive, but they later succumbed to disease.^[162]

Overall, elephants owed their initial successes to the element of surprise and to the fear that their great size invoked. With time, strategists devised counter-measures and war elephants turned into an expensive liability and were hardly ever used by Romans and Parfiyaliklar.^[165]

Zoos and circuses

Elephants were historically kept for display in the menejerlar ning Qadimgi Misr, Xitoy, Gretsiya va Rim. The Romans in particular pitted them against humans and other animals in gladiator voqealar. In zamonaviy davr, elephants have traditionally been a major part of hayvonot bog'lari va sirklar dunyo bo'ylab. In circuses, they are trained to perform tricks. The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a major attraction in the Barnum va Beyli sirklari.^[166] These animals do not reproduce well in captivity, due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles. Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses. After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975, the number of African elephants in zoos increased in the 1980s, although the import of Asians continued. Subsequently, the US received many of its captive African elephants from Zimbabwe, which had an overabundance of the animals.^[167] As of 2000, around 1,200 Asian and 700 African elephants were kept in zoos and circuses. The largest captive population is in North America, which has an estimated 370 Asian and 350 African elephants. About 380 Asians and 190 Africans are known to exist in Europe, and Japan has around 70 Asians and 67 Africans.^[167]

Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy. Proponents of zoos argue that they offer researchers easy access to the animals and provide money and expertise for preserving their natural habitats, as well as safekeeping for the species. Critics claim that the animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress.^[168] Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotipik xatti-harakatlar in the form of swaying back and forth, trunk swaying, or route tracing. This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos.^[169] Elephants in European zoos appear to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts at only 17 years, although other studies suggest that zoo elephants live as long those in the wild.^[170]

The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; The Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining insonparvarlik jamiyati has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals.^[171] In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kennet Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus. Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was reprimanded for using an electric shock device, known as a hot shot or electric prod, on an elephant. Despite this, he denied that any of these practices harm elephants.^[172] Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment. Ralf Xelfer is known to have relied on gentleness and reward when training his animals, including elephants and lions.^[173] Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016.^[174]

• 

  African elephants at the Barselona hayvonot bog'i

• 

  Circus poster, c. 1900 yil

Hujumlar

Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans.^[175] In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s. Because of the timing, these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive.^[176][177] In parts of India, male elephants regularly enter villages at night, destroying homes and killing people. Elephants killed around 300 people between 2000 and 2004 in Jarxand ichida esa Assam, 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006.^[175]Local people have reported their belief that some elephants were drunk during their attacks, although officials have disputed this explanation.^[178][179] Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village a second time in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the killing of about 200 elephants by locals.^[180]

Madaniy tasvirlar

In many cultures, elephants represent strength, power, wisdom, longevity, stamina, leadership, sociability, nurturance and loyalty.^{[181][182][183]} Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and exotic uniqueness. For instance, a "oq fil " is a byword for something expensive, useless, and bizarre.^[184] "Iborasixonada fil " refers to an obvious truth that is ignored or otherwise unaddressed.^[185] Ning hikoyasi ko'rlar va fil teaches that reality can be observed from different perspectives.^[186]

Elephants have been represented in art since Paleolit marta. Africa, in particular, contains many rock paintings and engravings of the animals, especially in the Sahara va janubiy Afrika.^[187] In Asia, the animals are depicted as motiflar yilda Hindu va Buddist shrines and temples.^[188] Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first-hand experience of them.^[189] The qadimgi rimliklar, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted anatomically accurate elephants on mozaika yilda Tunis and Sicily. Boshida O'rta yosh, when Europeans had little to no access to the animals, elephants were portrayed more like fantasy creatures. They were often depicted with horse- or bovine-like bodies with trumpet-like trunks and tusks like a boar; some were even given hooves. Elephants were commonly featured in motifs by the stonemasons of the Gotik cherkovlar. As more elephants began to be sent to European kings as gifts during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinchi. Despite this, some Europeans continued to portray them in a more stylised fashion.^[190] Maks Ernst 's 1921 syurrealist rasm, Elephant Celebes, depicts an elephant as a silos with a trunk-like hose protruding from it.^[191]

Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs. The Mbuti xalqi of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants.^[188] Similar ideas existed among other African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reenkarnatsiya qilingan fillar kabi. Milodning 10-asrida odamlar Igbo-Ukvu, yaqin Niger deltasi, o'zlarining rahbarlarini fil tishlari bilan ko'mdilar.^[192] Hayvonlarning diniy ahamiyati faqat totemik Afrikada^[193] ammo Osiyoda juda muhim ahamiyatga ega. Sumatrada fillar chaqmoq bilan bog'liq bo'lgan. Xuddi shunday hinduizmda ham ular momaqaldiroq bilan bog'liq Airavata, barcha fillarning otasi, chaqmoqni ham, kamalakni ham anglatadi.^[188] Hindlarning eng muhim xudolaridan biri, fil boshli Ganesha, oliy xudolarga tenglashtiriladi Shiva, Vishnu va Braxma.^[194] Ganesha yozuvchilar va savdogarlar bilan bog'langan va u odamlarga muvaffaqiyatlar berib, ularning xohish-istaklarini qondirishi mumkinligiga ishonishadi.^[188] Buddizmda, Budda a bo'lganligi aytiladi oq fil inson sifatida reenkarnatsiya qilingan.^[195] Yilda Islomiy an'ana, qachon 570 yil Muhammad tug'ilgan deb tanilgan Fil yili.^[196] Rimliklar fillarni o'zlarini dindor deb hisoblashgan, ular quyosh va yulduzlarga sig'inishlariga ishonganlar.^[188]

Fillar G'arbda hamma joyda uchraydi ommaviy madaniyat ekzotik timsollar sifatida, ayniqsa, chunki - kabi Jirafa, begemot va karkidon - G'arb tomoshabinlariga tanish bo'lgan o'xshash hayvonlar yo'q.^[184] Ning belgisi sifatida fildan foydalanish AQSh Respublikachilar partiyasi bilan boshlandi 1874 yilgi multfilm tomonidan Tomas Nast.^[197] Xarakter sifatida fillar odatda bolalarning hikoyalarida uchraydi, ular odatda namunali xulq-atvor namunalari sifatida namoyish etiladi. Ular odatda ideal insoniy qadriyatlarga ega bo'lgan odamlar uchun surrogatlardir. Ko'pgina hikoyalarda yakkalanib qolgan fillarning yaqin jamoaga qaytishi haqida hikoya qilinadi, masalan "Filning bolasi" Rudyard Kipling "s Faqat shunday hikoyalar, Disney "s Dumbo, va Ketrin va Bayron Jeksonnikidir Saggy Baggy Elephant. Boshqa fil qahramonlari insoniy fazilatlar berilgan o'z ichiga oladi Jan de Brunhoff "s Babar, Devid Makki "s Elmer va Doktor Seuss "s Xorton.^[184]

• 

  Fil va ko'r rohiblar haqidagi masal; tomonidan tasvirlangan Hanabusa qichima. (Ukiyo-e yog‘och kesish, 1888)

• 

  Tosh o'ymakorligi fil. Milodiy 7. Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu. (YuNESKO Jahon merosi ob'ektlari )

• 

  "Uchun kesilgan rasmFilning bolasi "tomonidan Rudyard Kipling

Shuningdek qarang

• Hayvon izi
• Asalarichilik panjaralari odamlar bilan ziddiyatni minimallashtirish uchun fillarning asalaridan qo'rqishidan foydalaning
• Cho'l fili
• Fillar qabristoni
• Motty, Osiyo va Afrika fillarining asirga olingan gibridi
• Milliy fillar kuni (Tailand)

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Karrington, Richard (1958). Fillar: ularning tabiiy tarixi, evolyutsiyasi va insoniyatga ta'siri haqida qisqacha ma'lumot. Chatto va Vindus. OCLC  911782153.
• Nans, Syuzan (2013). Ko'ngilochar fillar: Hayvonlar agentligi va Amerika tsirkining biznesi. Baltimor, MD: Jons Xopkins universiteti matbuoti, 2013 yil.
• Saks, Jon Godfri (1872). "Ko'zi ojizlar va fil" da Vikipediya. Jon Godfrey Saksning she'rlari.
• Uilyams, Xitkot (1989). Muqaddas fil. Nyu-York: Uyg'unlik kitoblari. ISBN  978-0-517-57320-4.

Tashqi havolalar

• ElephantVoices - fillarning aloqasi haqida ma'lumot