Terrorizm ta'rifi - Definition of terrorism

Bo'yicha universal kelishuv mavjud emas terrorizmning ta'rifi.^[1][2] Turli xil huquqiy tizimlar va davlat idoralari turli xil ta'riflardan foydalanadilar terrorizm. Bundan tashqari, hukumatlar kelishilgan va qonuniy majburiy ta'rifni shakllantirishdan bosh tortdilar. Qiyinchiliklar bu atama siyosiy va hissiy jihatdan zo'rlanganidan kelib chiqadi.^[3] 1994 yildan beri Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh assambleyasi terrorizmning quyidagi siyosiy tavsifidan foydalangan holda terroristik harakatlarni qoraladi:

Terrorchilik holatini qo'zg'atish uchun mo'ljallangan yoki hisoblangan jinoiy harakatlar, siyosiy maqsadlarda bir guruh shaxslar yoki alohida shaxslar har qanday holatda ham asossiz, siyosiy, falsafiy, mafkuraviy, irqiy, etnik, diniy yoki boshqa har qanday tabiatning mulohazalari ularni oqlash uchun talab qilinishi mumkin.^[4]

In Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, terrorizm 22-bobning 38-bobida AQSh Kodeksining 2656f-bandida "submilliy guruhlar yoki yashirin agentlar tomonidan nojo'ya maqsadlarga qarshi sodir etilgan qasddan qilingan, siyosiy motivli zo'ravonlik" deb ta'riflangan.^[5]

Umuman olganda, terrorizm tasniflanadi^{[kim tomonidan? ]} kabi:

• Siyosiy, diniy, g'oyaviy yoki ijtimoiy maqsadlarni amalga oshirishda zo'ravonlik yoki zo'ravonlik tahdididan foydalanish
• Tomonidan sodir etilgan harakatlar nodavlat aktyorlar (yoki tomonidan yashirin xodimlar o'z hukumatlari nomidan xizmat qilish)
• Darhaqiqat jabrlanganlarga qaraganda ko'proq ta'sir ko'rsatadigan va shuningdek, jamiyatning keng doirasidan iborat maqsadlarga qaratilgan harakatlar
• Ikkalasi ham mala banita (ya'ni qonunchilik tomonidan noqonuniy deb topilgan jinoyat) va mala in se (ya'ni, axloqsiz yoki noto'g'ri bo'lgan jinoyat)

Zo'rlik yoki zo'ravonlik tahdidining quyidagi mezonlari odatda terrorizm ta'rifidan tashqariga chiqadi:^[6][7]

• Urush vaqti (shu jumladan, a urush e'lon qildi ) yoki tinchlik davri tomonidan sodir etilgan zo'ravonlik harakatlari milliy davlat qonuniyligi yoki noqonuniyligidan qat'i nazar, boshqa millat davlatiga qarshi va tegishli tartibdagi kuchlar yoki qonuniy kuchlar tomonidan amalga oshiriladi jangchilar bunday milliy davlatlarning
• Ning oqilona harakatlari o'zini himoya qilish kabi kuch ishlatish o'ldirish, ushlash yoki jazolash jinoyatchilar odamlar hayotiga yoki mol-mulkiga tahdid soluvchi
• Kabi urushdagi qonuniy maqsadlar dushman jangchilar va dushmanning ajralmas qismini tashkil etuvchi strategik infratuzilma urush harakati kabi mudofaa sanoati va portlar
• Garovga etkazilgan zarar, shu jumladan tasodifiy zarar etkazish jangovar bo'lmagan urush paytida qonuniy maqsadlarga hujum qilish yoki hujum qilishga urinish paytida maqsadlar

Terrorizm ta'rifi bo'yicha umumiy konsensusga erishilmaganligi uchun juda ko'p sabablar mavjud. Uchun brifing qog'ozida Avstraliya parlamenti, Angus Martin "xalqaro hamjamiyat hech qachon qabul qilingan terrorizmning keng qamrovli ta'rifini ishlab chiqishda hech qachon muvaffaqiyatga erishmaganligini ta'kidladi. 1970 va 1980 yillarda Birlashgan Millatlar asosan kontekstda zo'ravonlik ishlatish to'g'risida turli xil a'zolar o'rtasidagi fikrlarning xilma-xilligi sababli tashkil etilgan atamani aniqlashga urinishlar milliy ozodlik to'g'risidagi nizolar va o'z taqdirini o'zi belgilash."^[8] Ushbu kelishmovchiliklar a ni tuzishga imkon bermadi Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya terrorizmning yagona, hamma narsani qamrab oladigan, qonuniy majburiy, jinoyat-huquqiy ta'rifini o'zida mujassam etgan.^[9] Ayni paytda, xalqaro hamjamiyat qatorini qabul qildi tarmoq konvensiyalari terroristik faoliyatning har xil turlarini belgilaydigan va jinoiy javobgarlikka tortadigan.

Jeffrey Record tomonidan 2003 yildagi tadqiqot Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari armiyasi ning 109 ta ta'rifini hisoblagan manbaga (Shmid va Jongman 1988) iqtibos keltirgan terrorizm jami 22 ta turli xil elementlarni qamrab olgan.^[10] Yozuv davom etdi:

Terrorizm bo'yicha mutaxassis Valter Laqyur 100 dan ortiq ta'riflarni hisoblab chiqdi va "umumiy umumiy xususiyat - bu terrorizm zo'ravonlik va zo'ravonlik tahdidini o'z ichiga oladi" degan xulosaga keldi. Shunga qaramay, terrorizm zo'ravonlik va zo'ravonlik tahdidi bilan bog'liq yagona korxona emas. Urush, majburiy diplomatiya va bar xonasida janjallar ham shunday.^[11]

Etimologiya

1795 yil 30-yanvarda "terrorizm" so'zi ishlatilgan The Times, ingliz tilida erta ko'rinish. Qismda shunday deyilgan: "Bizning erkinligimizni ag'darish uchun bir nechta tizim mavjud. Fanatizm har qanday ishtiyoqni kuchaytirdi; Royalizm hali ham umidlarini uzmagan va Terrorizm har qachongidan ham jasurroq".

"Terrorizm" atamasi frantsuz tilidan olingan terrorizm, dan Lotin: terror, "katta qo'rquv", "qo'rquv", lotincha fe'l bilan bog'liq terrere, "qo'rqitish". The terror cimbricus jangchilarining yaqinlashishiga javoban Rimda vahima va favqulodda holat bo'lgan Cimbri miloddan avvalgi 105 yilda qabila.

Frantsuzlar Milliy konventsiya 1793 yil sentyabrda "terror kun tartibidir" deb e'lon qildi. 1793-94 yillar davri deb yuritiladi La Terreur (Terror hukmronligi ). Maksimilien Robespyer, etakchi Frantsiya inqilobi 1794 yilda "Terror adolatdan boshqa narsa emas, tezkor, qattiq, egilmas" deb e'lon qildi.^[12]The Jamoat xavfsizligi qo'mitasi "Terror" siyosatini tatbiq etgan agentlar "Terroristlar" deb nomlangan.^[13] "Terrorizm" so'zi birinchi marta ingliz tilidagi lug'atlarda 1798 yilda "sistematik foydalanish" ma'nosida qayd etilgan terror siyosat sifatida ".^[14]

Terror hukmronligi Frantsiya hukumati tomonidan o'rnatilgan bo'lsa-da, zamonaviy davrda "terrorizm" odatda nodavlat siyosiy faollar tomonidan odamlarni siyosiy sabablarga ko'ra o'ldirilishini, ko'pincha ochiq bayonot sifatida anglatadi. Ushbu ma'no 1870-yillarda rus radikallaridan kelib chiqqan. Sergey Nechayev, kim asos solgan Xalq repressiyasi (Narodnaya rasprava) 1869 yilda o'zini "terrorchi" deb ta'riflagan.^[15] Nemis radikalist yozuvchisi Johann Most so'zlarning zamonaviy ma'nosini ommalashtirishga 1880-yillarda "terrorchilarga maslahat" tarqatishda yordam berdi.^[16]

Ga binoan Mayra Uilyamson: "" Terrorizm "ning ma'nosi o'zgargan. Terror davrida terrorizm rejimi yoki terrorizm tizimi yaqinda tashkil etilgan inqilobiy davlat tomonidan xalq dushmanlariga qarshi qo'llaniladigan boshqaruv vositasi sifatida ishlatilgan. Endi bu atama" terrorizm "odatda sodir etgan terroristik harakatlarni tavsiflash uchun ishlatiladi nodavlat yoki submilliy sub'ektlar davlatga qarshi. "^[17]

Xalqaro huquqda

Xalqaro jinoyat huquqida terrorizmni aniqlash zarurati

Ben Shoul "amaliy va printsipial dalillarning kombinatsiyasi xalqaro huquqda terrorizmni aniqlash uchun ishni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi", deb ta'kidladi^[18] huquqbuzarliklarni qoralash zarurligini o'z ichiga oladi inson huquqlari, himoya qilish uchun davlat davlat va xususiy zo'ravonlikni farqlash, xalqaro tinchlik va xavfsizlikni ta'minlash uchun maslahat siyosati.

Taklif etilgan Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining muzokaralarini muvofiqlashtirgan Karlos Diaz-Paniagua Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya, o'z navbatida xalqaro huquqda terrorchilik faoliyatiga aniq ta'rif berish zarurligini ta'kidlab o'tdi: "Jinoyat qonuni uchta maqsadga ega: xatti-harakatlarning taqiqlanganligini e'lon qilish, uning oldini olish va jamiyatning noqonuniy xatti-harakatlari uchun qoralashini ifoda etish. Terrorizmda jinoyatchilikning ramziy, me'yoriy roli alohida ahamiyat kasb etadi.Terroristik harakatlarni jinoiy javobgarlikka tortish jamiyatning ularga qarshi nafratini ifoda etadi, ijtimoiy tazyiq va sharmandalikni keltirib chiqaradi va ularni sodir etganlarni qoralaydi, bundan tashqari, qadriyatlarni yaratish va tasdiqlash, jinoiylashtirish uzoq muddatda terrorizmga to'siq bo'lib xizmat qilishi mumkin, chunki bu qadriyatlar o'zlashtirilgan ".^[19] Shunday qilib, xalqaro jinoyat huquqi shartnomalar terroristik harakatlarning oldini olish, qoralash va jazolashga intilayotganlar, aniq ta'riflarni talab qiladi:

Jinoyat-huquqiy shartnomada jinoyatning ta'rifi bir nechta rol o'ynaydi. Avvalo, bu jamiyatning taqiqlangan harakatlarni qoralashini ifodalashda ramziy, me'yoriy rolga ega. Ikkinchidan, bu kelishuvni osonlashtiradi. Davlatlar o'zlarining ichki yurisdiksiyasini amalga oshirish bilan bog'liq masalalarda qat'iy majburiyatlarni qabul qilishni istamasliklari sababli, ushbu majburiyatlar doirasini cheklaydigan jinoyatning aniq ta'rifi shartnomani kamroq xarajat qiladi. Uchinchidan, shartnomaning sud va politsiya hamkorligi bo'yicha majburiyatlarini bir hilda qo'llash uchun sub'ektiv asos yaratadi. Ushbu funktsiya ekstraditsiya shartnomalarida alohida ahamiyatga ega, chunki ekstraditsiya berish uchun aksariyat huquqiy tizimlar jinoyat uchun ham so'ralayotgan davlatda, ham so'ralayotgan davlatda jazolanishini talab qiladi. To'rtinchidan, bu davlatlarga o'zlarining inson huquqlari majburiyatlariga muvofiq shartnomada belgilangan huquqbuzarliklarni jinoiy javobgarlikka tortish va jazolash bo'yicha ichki qonunchilikni qabul qilishga yordam beradi. Printsipi nullum crimen sine lege xususan, davlatlar qaysi biron bir shaxsni xuddi shu harakatlarni sodir etganligi uchun jinoiy javobgarlikka tortilishidan yoki jazolanishidan oldin qaysi harakatlarning taqiqlanishini aniq belgilashni talab qiladi.^[20]

Shoul shu ma'noda atamaning umumiy kelishilgan, har tomonlama ta'rifini yo'qotib qo'yganini ta'kidladi:

Hozirgi kunda "terrorizm" da huquqiy nutq talab qiladigan aniqlik, xolislik va aniqlik yo'q. Jinoyat qonunchiligi ayblanuvchiga nisbatan xurujni oldini olish uchun hissiy holatlardan qochishga intiladi va noaniq yoki sub'ektiv atamalardan orqaga tortmaslik printsipiga mos kelmaydi. Agar qonunda muddat tan olinishi kerak bo'lsa, oldindan aniqlik adolat asosida juda muhimdir va ta'rifni davlatlarning bir tomonlama talqinlariga qoldirish etarli emas. Huquqiy ta'rif, elastik, siyosiy kontseptsiyaning qolgan qismidan kelishilgan huquqiy ma'nolarni ajratib, terrorizmni mafkuraviy botqoqdan qutqarishi mumkin edi. Oxir oqibat, buni zolim rejimlarga qarshi qonuniy zo'ravonlik qarshilikini jinoiy javobgarlikka tortmasdan va bu zulmga sherik bo'lmasdan qilish kerak.^[21]

To'liq ta'rifga to'siqlar

Diaz-Paniagua ta'kidlaganidek, "terrorizmga qarshi samarali huquqiy rejimni yaratish uchun, bir tomondan, terroristik faoliyatga nisbatan eng kuchli ma'naviy mahkumlikni ta'minlaydigan ushbu jinoyatning keng qamrovli ta'rifini shakllantirish kerak bo'ladi". , qonuniy deb topilishi kerak bo'lgan harakatlarni hukm qilmasdan, jinoiy faoliyatni ta'qib qilishga ruxsat berish uchun etarli aniqlikka ega.^[22] Shunga qaramay, zo'ravonlikni siyosiy maqsadlarda davlatlar tomonidan yoki o'z taqdirini o'zi belgilash va inqilobiy guruhlar tomonidan ishlatilishining qonuniyligi masalasida xalqaro miqyosdagi katta kelishmovchiliklar tufayli, bu hali mumkin emas. "^[23] Shu ma'noda, M. Cherif Bassiouni eslatmalar:

"terrorizm" ni hamma narsani qamrab oladigan va bir ma'noda belgilash juda qiyin, hatto imkonsizdir. Printsipial qiyinchiliklardan biri, ushbu maqsadni amalga oshirish vositasi sifatida terrorni ilhomlantiruvchi zo'ravonlikni qabul qilish yoki rad etish bilan bog'liq asosiy qadriyatlarga bog'liq. Ushbu masalalar bo'yicha aniq va ma'lum bo'lgan turli xil qarashlar xalqaro miqyosda qabul qilingan "terrorizm" deb nomlangan aniq ta'rifni keltirib chiqaradi, bu deyarli imkonsiz ish. Shuning uchun ta'rifni qidirish va xalqaro miqyosda kelishilgan holda, bu befoyda va keraksiz harakat bo'lishi mumkin.^[24]

Diplomat va olim Sami Zeydan terrorizmni ta'riflashdagi mavjud qiyinchiliklar zamiridagi siyosiy sabablarni quyidagicha izohladi:

Terrorizm ta'rifi bo'yicha umumiy kelishuv mavjud emas. Terrorizmni ta'riflashning qiyinligi uning pozitsiyalarni egallash xavfi bilan bog'liq. Hozirgi vaqtda atamaning siyosiy qiymati uning qonuniy qiymatidan ustun turadi. Terrorizm siyosiy ma'nosiga qarab, ma'lum bir davrda ma'lum bir davlatlarning manfaatlariga mos keladigan o'zgarishlarga osonlikcha tushib qoladi. Tolibon va Usama bin Laden bir paytlar Sovet Ittifoqining Afg'onistonni bosib olishiga qarshi turganda, ularni ozodlik kurashchilari (mujohidlar) deb atashgan va ularni Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi qo'llab-quvvatlagan. Endi ular xalqaro terroristik ro'yxatlarning yuqori qismida. Bugungi kunda Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti falastinliklarni o'z erlarini Isroil tomonidan noqonuniy bosib olinishiga qarshi kurashayotgan va uzoq vaqtdan beri qonuniy qarshilik ko'rsatgan ozodlik kurashchilari deb biladi, shu bilan birga Isroil ularni terrorchilar deb biladi [...] Hozirgi ustunlikning aksi terrorizmning huquqiy qiymati ustidan siyosiy xarajatlar qimmat bo'lib, terrorizmga qarshi kurash tanlangan, to'liqsiz va samarasiz bo'lib qoladi.^[25]

Xuddi shu nuqtai nazardan, Jeyson Burk, radikal haqida yozadigan britaniyalik muxbir Islomchi faoliyati, dedi:

Terrorizmni aniqlashning bir qancha usullari mavjud va ularning barchasi sub'ektivdir. Ko'pchilik terrorizmni qandaydir "sabab" ni ilgari surish uchun "jiddiy zo'ravonlik ishlatish yoki tahdid qilish" deb ta'riflaydi. Ba'zi bir davlatlar aniq murojaat qilgan guruh turlari ("submilliy", "nodavlat") yoki sabab (siyosiy, mafkuraviy, diniy). Boshqalar shunchaki portlovchi moddalar, o'qotar qurollar yoki boshqa qurollar bilan qurollangan odamlar tomonidan o'ldirilgan yoki mayib bo'lgan begunoh fuqarolar bilan to'qnashganda ko'pchilik odamlarning instinktiga tayanadi. Hech biri qoniqtirmaydi va ushbu atamani ishlatish bilan bog'liq jiddiy muammolar davom etmoqda. Terrorizm - bu oxir-oqibat, taktika. Shunday qilib, "terrorizmga qarshi urush" atamasi bema'ni ma'noga ega. Bu munozarali va qiyin bahslarni o'rganish uchun bu erda bo'sh joy yo'qligi sababli, mening afzalligim, umuman olganda, unchalik yuklanmagan "jangari" atamasiga tegishli. Bu bunday harakatlarni kechirishga urinish emas, shunchaki ularni aniqroq tahlil qilish.^[26]

"Terrorizm" atamasining siyosiy va emotsional mazmuni uning huquqiy nutqda ishlatilishini qiyinlashtiradi. Shu ma'noda, Shoul ta'kidlaydi:

Vaqt o'tishi bilan "terrorizm" ning o'zgaruvchan va qarama-qarshi ma'nosiga qaramay, atamaning o'ziga xos semantik kuchi, uning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri belgisidan tashqari, u o'zi qaratilgan shaxslarni, shu jumladan siyosiy muxoliflarni qoralash, delegitizatsiya qilish, obro'sizlantirish va odamsizlashtirish qobiliyatidir. Bu atama mafkuraviy va siyosiy jihatdan yuklangan; pejorativ; axloqiy, ijtimoiy va qadr-qimmatni baholashni nazarda tutadi; va "silliq va juda shafqatsiz". Terrorizm ta'rifi bo'lmagan taqdirda, zo'ravonlik qilmish vakili uchun kurash bu uning qonuniyligi uchun kurashdir. Kontseptsiya qanchalik chalkash bo'lsa, shunchalik u fursatparvarlik bilan o'zlashtirishga imkon beradi.^[27]

Tarixiy nuqtai nazardan, terrorizmning mazmuni bo'yicha tortishuv shu vaqtdan beri paydo bo'lgan urush qonunlari birinchi marta 1899 yilda kodlangan Martens Klauz o'rtasidagi nizo uchun murosali so'z sifatida kiritilgan Buyuk kuchlar kim ko'rib chiqdi frank-shinavandalar bolmoq noqonuniy jangchilar qo'lga olinish paytida qatl etilishi kerak va ularni qonuniy jangchilar deb hisoblashlari kerak bo'lgan kichik davlatlar.^[28][29]

Yaqinda 1977 yil 1949 yil 12-avgustdagi Jeneva konventsiyalariga qo'shimcha va Xalqaro qurolli to'qnashuvlar qurbonlarini himoya qilishga oid protokol, vaziyatlarda qo'llaniladi 1-modda. 4-band "... bu erda xalqlar mustamlaka hukmronligi va begona istiloga qarshi va irqchi rejimlarga qarshi kurashmoqda ...", qonuniy kurashchi kim yoki kim emasligi masalasini hal qiluvchi ko'plab noaniqliklarni o'z ichiga oladi.^[30] Ushbu qiyinchiliklar Pamala Grisetni: "terrorizmning ma'nosi shaxs yoki millat falsafasida singib ketgan. Shunday qilib, terrorizmning" to'g'ri "ta'rifini aniqlash sub'ektivdir" degan xulosaga keldi. ^[31]

Tarmoqli yondashuv

Ta'sirchan huquqiy hujjatni ishlab chiqish tartib xalqaro terrorizmni oldini olish va jazolash - terrorizmning yagona, hamma narsani qamrab oluvchi ta'rifi ustida ishlash o'rniga xalqaro hamjamiyat shuningdek, terrorchilarning faoliyatiga tegishli bo'lgan huquqbuzarliklarni aniqlashga va ularning ayrim toifalariga qarshi kurashish uchun shartnomalarni ishlab chiqishga qaratilgan "..." sektorli "yondashuvni qabul qildi".^[32] Ushbu yondashuvdan keyin tuzilgan shartnomalarda terroristik harakatlarning emas, balki ularning noqonuniy xususiyatlariga e'tibor qaratilgan niyat:

Umuman olganda, "tarmoq" konventsiyalari ba'zi huquqbuzarliklar ko'rib chiqilishi mumkin degan taxminni tasdiqlaydi o'zlarida har qanday "terroristik" niyat yoki maqsaddan qat'i nazar, xalqaro ahamiyatga molik jinoyatlar sifatida. Darhaqiqat, "sektoral yondashuv" ning asosiy afzalligi shundaki, u "terroristik harakatlar" ning "terrorizmini" aniqlash zaruriyatidan xalos qiladi ... "Tarmoqli" yondashuvga amal qilinar ekan, terrorizmni ta'riflashga hojat yo'q; agar tegishli huquqbuzarliklarni jazolash muayyan "terroristik" niyat mavjudligiga bog'liq bo'lsa, ta'rif zarur bo'ladi; ammo bu qarshi samarali bo'lishi mumkin, chunki bu ularning bostirilishini noo'rin cheklashiga olib keladi.^[32]

Ushbu yondashuvdan so'ng xalqaro hamjamiyat quyidagi sektorni qabul qildi terrorizmga qarshi kurash konventsiyalar, uchun ochiq ratifikatsiya barcha davlatlar:

• 1963 yil Samolyot bortida sodir etilgan jinoyatlar va boshqa ba'zi harakatlar to'g'risida Konventsiya
• 1970 yil Samolyotlarni noqonuniy olib qo'yishga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi konventsiya
• 1971 yil Fuqaro aviatsiyasi xavfsizligiga qarshi noqonuniy xatti-harakatlarga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi konventsiya
• 1979 yil Yadro materialini jismoniy himoya qilish to'g'risidagi konventsiya
• 1988 yil Xalqaro fuqaro aviatsiyasiga xizmat ko'rsatadigan aeroportlarda noqonuniy zo'ravonlik harakatlarini to'xtatish to'g'risidagi protokol
• 1988 yil Dengiz kemalari xavfsizligiga qarshi noqonuniy xatti-harakatlarga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi konventsiya
• 1988 yil Kontinental tokchada joylashgan turg'un platformalarning xavfsizligiga qarshi noqonuniy xatti-harakatlarga qarshi kurash protokoli
• 1991 yil Identifikatsiya maqsadida plastik portlovchi moddalarni markalash to'g'risidagi konventsiya
• 1997 yil Terroristik bombalarni bostirishga qarshi xalqaro konventsiya.
• 1999 yil Terrorizmni moliyalashtirishga qarshi kurash bo'yicha xalqaro konventsiya
• 2005 yil Yadro terrorizmiga qarshi kurash bo'yicha xalqaro konventsiya

Ushbu shartnomalarni tahlil qilib, Endryu Byrnes quyidagilarni kuzatdi:

Ushbu konventsiyalar - bularning barchasi Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti o'zining antiterror choralari doirasi sifatida tavsiflangan bo'lib, uchta asosiy xususiyatga ega:

(a) ularning barchasi asosiy siyosiy yoki mafkuraviy maqsadlarga ishora qilmasdan aniqlangan terroristik harakatlarning o'ziga xos turini "tezkor ta'rifi" ni qabul qildilar yoki motivatsiya qilmish ijrochisining - bu aks ettirilgan Kelishuv hamma manfaatlariga shunchalik jiddiy tahdid soladigan ba'zi bir harakatlar bo'lganki, ularni bunday motivlarga asoslanib oqlab bo'lmaydi;

(b) ularning barchasi e'tiborni harakatlarga qaratgan nodavlat aktyorlar (shaxslar va tashkilotlar) va davlat terrorizmga qarshi kurashda faol ittifoqchi sifatida qaraldi - davlatning o'zi terrorchi aktyor degan savol asosan bir tomonda qoldirildi; va

(c) ularning barchasi a jinoyat qonuni muammoni hal qilish uchun ijro etuvchi model, bunga muvofiq davlatlar qo'rqish va ushbu jinoyatlarni sodir etganlikda ayblanganlarni javobgarlikka tortish.^[33]

Byrnesning ta'kidlashicha, "majburiy xalqaro shartnomalardagi terrorizm muammolarini hal qilishda ushbu harakatga xos yondoshuv nisbatan yaqin vaqtgacha davom etgan. Garchi terrorizmni har qanday shaklda siyosiy qoralash davom etgan bo'lsa-da," terrorizm "deb ta'riflashga muvaffaqiyatli urinish bo'lmagan. Bu keng ma'noda qonuniy maqsadlar uchun qoniqarli edi, shuningdek kelishilgan va ishlay oladigan umumiy ta'rifni ishlab chiqish zaruriyati, maqsadga muvofiqligi va maqsadga muvofiqligi to'g'risida ba'zi bir shubha mavjud edi. "^[34] Shunga qaramay, 2000 yildan beri Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh assambleyasi taklif qilingan narsa ustida ishlamoqda Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya.

Keng qamrovli konvensiyalar

The xalqaro hamjamiyat terrorizmga qarshi ikkita keng qamrovli shartnoma ustida ishlagan Millatlar Ligasi 'Hech qachon kuchga kirmagan terrorizmning oldini olish va jazolash to'g'risida 1937 yilgi Konventsiya va Birlashgan Millatlar "taklif qildi Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya, bu hali yakunlanmagan.

Millatlar Ligasi

1930-yillarning oxirlarida xalqaro hamjamiyat terrorizmni aniqlashga birinchi urinish qildi. 1.1-moddasi Millatlar Ligasi 1937 yilgi Terrorizmning oldini olish va jazolash to'g'risidagi konventsiya,^[35] hech qachon kuchga kirmagan, "terrorizm harakatlari" "davlatga qarshi qaratilgan va muayyan shaxslar yoki bir guruh shaxslar yoki keng jamoatchilik ongida terror holatini yaratish uchun mo'ljallangan yoki hisoblangan jinoiy harakatlar" deb ta'riflanadi. 2-modda, agar ular boshqa davlatga qarshi qaratilgan bo'lsa va 1-moddada keltirilgan ta'rif ma'nosida terrorchilik aktlarini tashkil etgan bo'lsa, quyidagilar:

1. O'lim yoki tanaga og'ir zarar etkazish yoki erkinlikni yo'qotishga olib keladigan har qanday qasddan qilingan harakatlar:

a) Davlat rahbarlari, davlat rahbarining imtiyozlaridan foydalanadigan shaxslar, ularning merosxo'r yoki tayinlangan vorislar;

b) yuqorida ko'rsatilgan shaxslarning xotinlari yoki erlari;

v) davlat funktsiyalari bo'yicha mas'ul bo'lgan yoki davlat lavozimlarini egallab turgan shaxslar, agar ular jamoat sifatida ularga qarshi qaratilgan bo'lsa.

2. Boshqa Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonga tegishli yoki uning vakolatiga bo'ysunadigan jamoat mulki yoki jamoat maqsadiga mo'ljallangan mol-mulkni qasddan yo'q qilish yoki ularga zarar etkazish.

3. Jamiyat a'zolarining hayotiga xavf tug'dirish uchun hisoblangan har qanday qasddan qilingan harakatlar.

4. har qanday urinish jinoyat ushbu moddaning yuqoridagi qoidalariga muvofiq.

5. Ishlab chiqarish, olish, egalik qilish yoki etkazib berish qo'llar, o'q-dorilar, portlovchi moddalar yoki ushbu moddaga tegishli har qanday huquqbuzarlik har qanday mamlakatda komissiya nazorati uchun zararli moddalar.^[36]

Tavsiya etilgan Xalqaro terrorizm bo'yicha keng qamrovli konventsiya

2000 yildan beri Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh assambleyasi muzokaralar olib boradi a Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya. 2002 yildan beri muzokaralar stoliga qo'yilgan terrorizm jinoyatining ta'rifi quyidagicha:

1. Har qanday shaxs ushbu Konventsiya ma'nosida huquqbuzarlik sodir etsa, agar u har qanday yo'l bilan, noqonuniy va qasddan:

(a) har qanday odamga o'lim yoki jiddiy tan jarohati; yoki

b) jamoat uchun jiddiy zarar yoki xususiy mulk shu jumladan jamoat foydalanish joyi, davlat yoki hukumat ob'ekti, jamoat transporti tizimi, infratuzilma ob'ekti yoki atrof-muhit; yoki

(c) ushbu moddaning 1 (b) bandida ko'rsatilgan mol-mulkka, joylarga, inshootlarga yoki tizimlarga etkazilgan zarar, bu katta iqtisodiy yo'qotishlarga olib keladi yoki olib kelishi mumkin, agar xatti-harakatning mohiyati tabiati yoki mazmuni bo'yicha aholini qo'rqitish yoki hukumatni majburlash yoki xalqaro tashkilot har qanday xatti-harakatni qilish yoki qilmaslik.^[37]

Muzokarachilar orasida ushbu ta'rifning o'zi munozarali emas; muzokaralardagi tanglik, bunday ta'rifga tegishli bo'lishi mumkinligi to'g'risida qarama-qarshi fikrlar o'rniga paydo bo'ladi qurolli kuchlar davlatning va to o'z taqdirini o'zi belgilash harakatlar. Talif Din vaziyatni quyidagicha tavsifladi: "Shartnoma loyihasidagi muhim masalalar bir qator munozarali, ammo asosiy masalalar, jumladan," terrorizm "ta'rifi atrofida bo'lib o'tdi. Masalan," terroristik tashkilot "ni" ozodlik harakati "dan nimasi ajratib turadi? Va siz milliy qurolli kuchlarning, hattoki ular terrorchilik harakatlarini sodir etgan deb hisoblansa ham, ularni chiqarib tashlaysizmi? Agar yo'q bo'lsa, bu qanchaga to'g'ri keladi "davlat terrorizmi '?"^[38] Ko'pgina g'arbiy delegatsiyalar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan muzokaralar koordinatori ushbu muammolarni hal qilish uchun quyidagi istisnolarni taklif qildi:

1. Ushbu Konvensiyadagi hech narsa davlatlarning, xalqlarning va shaxslarning xalqaro huquq bo'yicha boshqa huquqlari, majburiyatlari va majburiyatlariga, xususan Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Ustavining maqsadlari va tamoyillariga va xalqaro gumanitar huquqga ta'sir qilmaydi.

2. ning faoliyati qurolli kuchlar qurolli to'qnashuv paytida, chunki ushbu qonunlar bilan tartibga solinadigan xalqaro gumanitar huquq bo'yicha ushbu atamalar ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi.

3. Davlatning harbiy kuchlari o'zlarining rasmiy vazifalarini bajarishda amalga oshiradigan faoliyati, chunki ular boshqarilsa boshqa xalqaro huquq qoidalariga binoan ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi.

4. Ushbu maqolada hech narsa qonuniy ravishda boshqa noqonuniy xatti-harakatlarni ma'qullamaydi yoki qilmaydi va boshqa qonunlarga muvofiq ta'qib qilishni istisno etmaydi.^[39]

Davlat a'zolari Islom konferentsiyasini tashkil etish o'rniga quyidagi istisnolarni taklif qildi:

2. Qurolli mojaro paytida "tomonlarning" faoliyati, shu jumladan "chet elliklarni ishg'ol qilish holatlarida", chunki ushbu qonunlar bilan tartibga solinadigan xalqaro gumanitar huquq bo'yicha ushbu atamalar ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi. Davlatning harbiy kuchlari o'zlarining rasmiy vazifalarini bajarishda "xalqaro huquqqa muvofiq ravishda" amalga oshiradigan faoliyati ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi.^[39]

Tarmoq konvensiyalari

Terrorizmga qarshi turli xil sektorlar konvensiyalar terroristik faoliyatning alohida toifalari sifatida belgilaydi.

Terroristlarni bombalash to'g'risidagi konventsiya

1997 yil 2.1-modda Terroristik bombalarni bostirishga qarshi xalqaro konventsiya belgilaydi jinoyat terroristik hujumni quyidagi tarzda amalga oshirish:

Agar ushbu shaxs noqonuniy ravishda va qasddan portlovchi yoki boshqa halokatli vositani jamoat foydalanish joyiga, davlatga yoki hukumat muassasasiga, jamoat transportiga, unga yoki unga qarshi etkazib bergan bo'lsa, joylashtirsa, chiqarib tashlasa yoki portlatsa, har qanday shaxs ushbu Konventsiya ma'nosida jinoyat sodir etadi. tizim yoki infratuzilma ob'ekti:

a) o'limga yoki og'ir tan jarohati etkazish maqsadida; yoki

b) bunday vayronagarchilik katta iqtisodiy zararga olib keladigan yoki olib kelishi mumkin bo'lgan joyni, inshootni yoki tizimni keng qirg'in qilish maqsadida.^[40]

19-modda konventsiya doirasidan davlatning ayrim faoliyat turlarini aniq chiqarib tashladi qurolli kuchlar va of o'z taqdirini o'zi belgilash harakatlar quyidagicha:

1. Ushbu Konvensiyadagi hech narsa xalqaro huquqqa, xususan, Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Ustavining maqsadlari va tamoyillariga va xalqaro gumanitar huquqga muvofiq davlatlarning va shaxslarning boshqa huquqlari, majburiyatlari va majburiyatlariga ta'sir qilmaydi. Qurolli mojaro paytida qurolli kuchlarning faoliyati, chunki ushbu qonunlar bilan tartibga solinadigan xalqaro gumanitar huquq bo'yicha ushbu atamalar ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi va davlatning harbiy kuchlari tomonidan amalga oshiriladigan harakatlar rasmiy vazifalar, chunki ular xalqaro huquqning boshqa qoidalari bilan tartibga solinadigan bo'lsa, ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi.^[41]

Terrorizmni moliyalashtirish bo'yicha konventsiya

1999 yilgi Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining 2.1 moddasi Terrorizmni moliyalashtirishga qarshi kurash bo'yicha xalqaro konventsiya (Terrorizmni moliyalashtirish to'g'risidagi konventsiya) terrorizmni moliyalashtirish jinoyati "har qanday shaxs tomonidan sodir etilgan jinoyat" deb ta'riflaydi, u "har qanday usul bilan, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki bilvosita, noqonuniy va qasddan foydalanishi kerak bo'lgan maqsadlarda yoki bilimda mablag 'beradigan yoki to'playdigan" har qanday shaxs "tomonidan sodir etilgan jinoyat. ular fuqaroga yoki vaziyatda jangovar harakatlarda faol qatnashmaydigan boshqa shaxsga o'limga yoki tanaga og'ir shikast etkazishga qaratilgan "harakat" ni amalga oshirish uchun to'liq yoki qisman ishlatilishi kerak. qurolli to'qnashuvlar, agar bunday xatti-harakatning maqsadi tabiati yoki kontekstiga ko'ra aholini qo'rqitish yoki hukumatni yoki xalqaro tashkilotni har qanday xatti-harakatni qilishga yoki undan voz kechishga majbur qilish bo'lsa. "

Yadroviy terrorizm to'g'risidagi konventsiya

2005 yil Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Yadro terrorizmiga qarshi kurash bo'yicha xalqaro konventsiya yadroviy terrorizm jinoyatiga quyidagicha ta'rif beradi:

2-modda

1. Har qanday shaxs ushbu Konventsiya ma'nosida huquqbuzarlik sodir etsa, agar u ushbu shaxs noqonuniy va qasddan: (a) egalik qilsa radioaktiv material yoki qurilmani ishlab chiqaradi yoki egalik qiladi:

(i) o'limga yoki og'ir tanani o'ldirishga qasd qilish bilan jarohat; yoki

(ii) mol-mulkka yoki shaxsga jiddiy zarar etkazish niyatida atrof-muhit;

b) har qanday yo'l bilan radioaktiv material yoki moslamadan foydalanadi yoki yadro inshootidan radioaktiv material chiqaradigan yoki chiqishga xavf soladigan tarzda foydalanadi yoki shikast etkazadi:

i) o'limga yoki og'ir tan jarohati etkazish maqsadida; yoki

(ii) mulkka yoki atrof-muhitga katta zarar etkazish niyatida; yoki

(iii) jismoniy yoki yuridik shaxsni majburlash maqsadida, a xalqaro tashkilot yoki biron bir ishni qilish yoki qilmaslik uchun davlat.^[42]

Konventsiyaning 4-moddasi konventsiyaning qo'llanilishidan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri chiqarib tashlangan yadro qurollari davomida qurolli to'qnashuvlar ammo, ushbu qurollardan foydalanish qonuniyligini tan olmagan holda:

1. Ushbu Konvensiyadagi hech narsa, davlatlar va shaxslarning xalqaro huquq bo'yicha boshqa huquqlari, majburiyatlari va majburiyatlariga, xususan Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Ustavi va xalqaro gumanitar huquqning maqsadlari va tamoyillariga ta'sir qilmaydi.

2. ning faoliyati qurolli kuchlar qurolli mojaro paytida, chunki ushbu atamalar xalqaro gumanitar huquqda tushunilgan bo'lib, ushbu qonun bilan tartibga solinadigan ushbu Konventsiya tomonidan amalga oshirilmaydi va amalga oshiriladigan faoliyat harbiy davlat kuchlari o'zlarining rasmiy vazifalarini bajarishda, chunki ular xalqaro huquqning boshqa qoidalari bilan tartibga solinadigan bo'lsa, ushbu Konventsiya bilan tartibga solinmaydi.

3. Ushbu moddaning 2-bandining qoidalari qonuniy ravishda boshqa qonunga xilof harakatlarni kechirish yoki qilish yoki boshqa qonunlarga binoan ta'qib qilishni istisno qilish sifatida talqin qilinmaydi.

4. Ushbu Konventsiya hech qanday tarzda ushbu masalani ko'rib chiqmaydi va uni talqin qilish mumkin emas yadro qurolidan foydalanish yoki undan foydalanish tahdidining qonuniyligi davlatlar tomonidan.^[43]

BMTning boshqa qarorlarida terrorizm ta'riflari

Jinoyat qonuni bilan parallel ravishda kodifikatsiya harakatlar, ba'zilari Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining organlari terrorizmga oid keng siyosiy ta'riflarni ilgari surdilar.

BMT Bosh assambleyasining qarorlari

BMT Bosh Assambleyasining 51/210 sonli rezolyutsiyasiga ilova qilingan 1996 yilgi Xalqaro terrorizmni yo'q qilish choralari to'g'risidagi deklaratsiyani to'ldirish to'g'risida 1996 yilgi Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining deklaratsiyasida terrorizm faoliyati quyidagicha ta'riflangan:^[44]

Siyosiy, falsafiy, mafkuraviy, irqiy, etnik, diniy va boshqa har qanday narsalardan qat'i nazar, siyosiy maqsadlar uchun bir guruh shaxslar yoki alohida shaxslar terrorchilik holatini qo'zg'atish uchun mo'ljallangan yoki hisoblangan jinoiy harakatlar asossizdir. ularni oqlash uchun chaqirilishi mumkin bo'lgan boshqa tabiat.

Antonio Kassese ushbu va boshqa shunga o'xshash BMT deklaratsiyalari tili "terrorizmning maqbul ta'rifini belgilaydi", deb ta'kidladi.^[45]

BMT Xavfsizlik Kengashi

2004 yilda, Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Xavfsizlik Kengashining 1566-sonli qarori terroristik harakatlarni quyidagicha qoraladi:

jinoyatchilik harakatlari, shu jumladan oddiy odamlarga nisbatan, o'lim yoki tanaga og'ir shikast etkazish yoki garovga olish maqsadida qilingan, keng jamoatchilikda yoki bir guruh shaxslarda yoki alohida shaxslarda terrorchilik holatini keltirib chiqarish maqsadida, aholini qo'rqitish. yoki hukumatni yoki xalqaro tashkilotni terrorizmga oid xalqaro konvensiyalar va bayonnomalarda belgilangan va belgilangan doiradagi huquqbuzarliklarni tashkil etuvchi har qanday xatti-harakatlarni qilishga yoki ulardan voz kechishga majbur qilish, hech qanday sharoitda siyosiy, falsafiy fikrlar bilan oqlanmaydi. , mafkuraviy, irqiy, etnik, diniy yoki shunga o'xshash boshqa xususiyatlar.

Tahdidlar, chaqiriqlar va o'zgarishlarga bag'ishlangan yuqori darajadagi panel

Shuningdek, 2004 yilda, a Tahdidlar, chaqiriqlar va o'zgarishlarga bag'ishlangan yuqori darajadagi panel mustaqil ekspertlardan tashkil topgan va tomonidan chaqirilgan Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh kotibi taklif qilingan matnda davlatlarni o'zaro kelishmovchiliklarni bir chetga surib, qabul qilishga chaqirdi Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya, quyidagi siyosiy "terrorizm tavsifi":

terrorizm masalalari bo'yicha mavjud konventsiyalar, Jeneva konvensiyalari va Xavfsizlik Kengashining 1566-sonli qarori (2004) tomonidan belgilab qo'yilgan harakatlardan tashqari, o'limga yoki tanaga jiddiy shikast etkazishga qaratilgan harakatlar. tinch aholi yoki jangovar bo'lmaganlar, agar bunday harakatning maqsadi, tabiati yoki mazmuni bo'yicha, aholini qo'rqitish yoki Hukumatni yoki xalqaro tashkilotni har qanday xatti-harakatni qilishga yoki undan voz kechishga majbur qilish bo'lsa.^[46]

Keyingi yil Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh kotibi Kofi Annan Yuqori darajadagi Panelning terrorizm ta'rifini ma'qulladi va davlatlardan o'zaro kelishmovchiliklarni bir chetga surib, ushbu ta'rifni o'sha yil oxirigacha taklif qilingan terrorizm bo'yicha keng qamrovli konventsiya doirasida qabul qilishni so'radi. U aytdi:

"Davlat terrorizmi" deb nomlangan munozaralarni chetga surish vaqti keldi. Davlatlar tomonidan kuch ishlatilishi xalqaro qonunlar asosida allaqachon puxta tartibga solingan. Va ishg'olga qarshi turish huquqi uning asl ma'nosida tushunilishi kerak. U tinch aholini qasddan o'ldirish yoki mayib qilish huquqini o'z ichiga olmaydi. Men terrorizmni ta'riflash uchun yuqori darajadagi Panelning da'vosini to'la-to'kis qo'llab-quvvatlayman, bu shuni aniq ko'rsatadiki, mavjud konvensiyalarda ilgari surilgan harakatlardan tashqari, har qanday harakatlar terrorizmni tashkil etadi, agar u o'limga yoki tanaga jiddiy shikast etkazishga qaratilgan bo'lsa yoki aholini qo'rqitish yoki hukumatni yoki xalqaro tashkilotni har qanday xatti-harakatni qilishga yoki undan voz kechishga majbur qilish maqsadida jangovar bo'lmaganlar. Men ushbu taklif aniq ma'naviy kuchga ega ekanligiga ishonaman va dunyo rahbarlarini uning ortida birlashishga va Bosh assambleyaning oltmishinchi sessiyasi tugashidan oldin terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya tuzishga chaqiraman.^[47]

Ushbu terrorizm ta'rifini keng qamrovli konvensiyaga kiritish taklifi rad etildi. Biroz Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotiga a'zo davlatlar tahdidlar, chaqiriqlar va o'zgarishlarga qarshi yuqori darajadagi hay'at tomonidan tavsiya etilgan va Bosh kotib tomonidan tasdiqlangan ta'rifga talablarga javob bermaslik uchun talablar etishmasligini ta'kidladi. jinoyat qonuni asbob. Muvofiqlashtirgan Karlos Diaz-Paniagua muzokaralar taklif qilinganlarning Xalqaro terrorizmga qarshi keng qamrovli konventsiya, terrorizmning jinoyat qonunchiligiga keng qamrovli ta'rifi kiritilishini ta'kidladi shartnoma "qonuniy aniqlik, aniqlik va jinoiy xatti-harakatlarning adolatli belgilariga ega bo'lishi kerak - bularning barchasi inson huquqlarini himoya qilishning asosiy majburiyatidan kelib chiqadi".^[48]

Yevropa Ittifoqi

The Yevropa Ittifoqi San'atda qonuniy / rasmiy maqsadlarda terrorizmni belgilaydi. Ning 1 Terrorizmga qarshi kurash bo'yicha doiraviy qaror (2002).^[49] Bu shuni nazarda tutadiki, terroristik huquqbuzarliklar - bu asosan shaxslarga va mol-mulkka nisbatan jiddiy jinoyatlardan iborat bo'lgan ro'yxatda keltirilgan ayrim jinoiy jinoyatlar;

... ularning tabiati yoki kontekstidan kelib chiqib, quyidagi maqsadlar bilan sodir etilgan mamlakatga yoki xalqaro tashkilotga jiddiy zarar etkazishi mumkin: aholini jiddiy qo'rqitish; yoki nohaq hukumatni yoki xalqaro tashkilotni har qanday xatti-harakatni amalga oshirishga yoki undan voz kechishga majburlash; yoki mamlakat yoki xalqaro tashkilotning asosiy siyosiy, konstitutsiyaviy, iqtisodiy yoki ijtimoiy tuzilmalarini jiddiy ravishda beqarorlashtirish yoki yo'q qilish.

Shimoliy Atlantika Shartnomasi Tashkiloti

NATO AAP-06 NATO atamalari va ta'riflari lug'atining 2019 yil nashrida terrorizmni "hukumatlar yoki jamiyatlarni majburlash yoki qo'rqitish maqsadida shaxslarga yoki mol-mulkka qarshi kuch yoki zo'ravonlikni noqonuniy ishlatish yoki tahdid qilish, qo'rquv va terrorizmni vujudga keltirish, yoki" aholi ustidan nazoratni qo'lga kiritish, siyosiy, diniy yoki mafkuraviy maqsadlarga erishish ". ^[50]

Milliy qonunchilikda

Argentina

Argentinalik Milliy qayta tashkil etish jarayoni 1976 yildan 1983 yilgacha davom etgan diktatura "terrorchi" ni "nafaqat bomba o'rnatgan va qurol olib yuradiganlar, balki xristian va boshqa qarama-qarshi g'oyalarni tarqatuvchilar ham" deb ta'riflagan. g'arbiy tsivilizatsiya ".^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Braziliya

2016 yilda Braziliya o'tdi terrorizm harakatlarini belgilaydigan va jazo tayinlaydigan qonun terroristik harakatlarni sodir etganligi, rejalashtirgani, imkon bergani, homiylik qilgani, rag'batlantirgani va ishtirok etgani uchun. Loyihada ksenofobiya, kamsitish yoki irq, rang, etnik axloq va din nuqtai nazaridan kelib chiqqan holda ijtimoiy va umumiy terrorizmni vayron qiluvchi odamlar, mulk, infratuzilma yoki jamoat tinchligini qo'zg'atadigan bir qator harakatlar ro'yxati keltirilgan. Qonun yaratilgandan ko'p o'tmay Federal Politsiya Hashtag operatsiyasi Rio-2016 Olimpiadasi oldidan terakt rejalashtirishda gumon qilingan o'n bir kishini hibsga oldi.

Frantsiya

1986 yilda, Frantsiya o'zining birinchi "terrorizmga qarshi" qonunini qabul qildi.^[51] 2016 yildan beri amalda bo'lgan "terrorizm aktlari" ning frantsuzcha huquqiy ta'rifi frantsuz tilida mavjud Kod pénal, maqola 421. Maqola quyidagidan boshlanadi:

Terrorizm xatti-harakatlari, agar ular qasddan qilingan bo'lsa, yoki biron bir shaxs yoki jamoaviy korxona bilan bog'langan bo'lsa va qo'rqitish yoki terror qilish yo'li bilan jamoat tartibini jiddiy ravishda buzmoqchi bo'lsa: 1º hayotga yoki shaxsiy daxlsizlikka qasddan qilingan tajovuzlar; samolyot, kema yoki boshqa transport vositalarini olib qochish; 2º o'g'irlash, tortib olish, yo'q qilish, buzish, yomonlashish; kompyuterlashtirilgan ma'lumotlarning buzilishi; ... [va boshqalar.]^[52]

Hindiston

The Hindiston Oliy sudi qabul qilingan Aleks P. Shmid Terrorizmning 2003 yildagi qarorida (Madan Singh va Bihar shtatiga qarshi) ta'rifi, "terrorizm harakatlarini" tinchlik davrida harbiy jinoyatlar ekvivalenti "deb ta'riflagan".^{[53][shubhali – muhokama qilish]}Hozir bekor qilindi Terroristik va buzg'unchilik faoliyati (oldini olish) to'g'risidagi qonun terrorizmning quyidagi ta'rifini ko'rsatdi:

Kimki qonunda belgilanganidek Hukumatni engib o'tish yoki odamlarda yoki odamlarning biron bir qismida terrorizmni uyushtirish yoki odamlarning biron bir qismini chetlashtirish yoki turli qatlamlar o'rtasidagi uyg'unlikka salbiy ta'sir qilish niyatida bo'lsa, biron bir ish yoki narsani using bombs, dynamite or other explosive substances or inflammable substances or lethal weapons or poisons or noxious gases or other chemicals or by any other substances (whether biological or otherwise) of a hazardous nature in such a manner as to cause, or as is likely to cause, death of, or injuries to, any person or persons or loss of, or damage to, or destruction of, property or disruption of any supplies or services essential to the life of the community, or detains any person and threatens to kill or injure such person in order to compel the Government or any other person to do or abstain from doing any act, commits a terrorist act.

Pokiston

The Pakistan Anti-Terrorism (Amendment) Ordinance, 1999 states:

A person is said to commit a terrorist act if he,

(a) in order to, or if the effect of his actions will be to, strike terror or create a sense of fear and insecurity in the people, or any section of the people, does any act or thing by using bombs, dynamite or other explosive or inflammable substances, or such fire-arms or other lethal weapons as may be notified, or poisons or noxious gases or chemicals, in such a manner as to cause, or be likely to cause, the death of, or injury to, any person or persons, or damage to, or destruction of, property on a large scale, or a widespread disruption of supplies of services essential to the life of the community, or threatens with the use of force public servants in order to prevent them from discharging their lawful duties; yoki

(b) commits a scheduled offence, the effect of which will be, or be likely to be, to strike terror, or create a sense of fear and insecurity in the people, or any section of the people, or to adversely affect harmony among different sections of the people; yoki

(c) commits an act of gang rape, child molestation, or robbery coupled with rape as specified in the Schedule to this Act; yoki

(d) commits an act of civil commotion as specified in section &A."^[54]

Saudiya Arabistoni

Saudi Interior Ministry issued a set of anti-terrorist laws in 2014. According to Article 1 and 2:

“Calling for atheist thought in any form, or calling into question the fundamentals of the Islamic religion on which this country is based” and anyone who questions the King or the government or supports any group, party, organization other than that of the ruling elite inside or outside the Kingdom is a terrorist.^[55][56]

Suriya

After the United States attack on Abu Kamol, the Syrian Foreign Minister Valid Muallem defined terrorism as "Killing civilians in international law means a terrorist aggression."^[57]

kurka

The definition of "Terrorism" in Article 1 of Anti-Terror Law 3713 is: "Terrorism is any kind of act done by one or more persons belonging to an organization with the aim of changing the characteristics of the Republic as specified in the Constitution, its political, legal, social, secular and economic system, damaging the indivisible unity of the State with its territory and nation, endangering the existence of the Turkish State and Republic, weakening or destroying or seizing the authority of the State, eliminating fundamental rights and freedoms, or damaging the internal and external security of the State, public order or general health by means of pressure, force and violence, terror, intimidation, oppression or threat."^[58]

Birlashgan Qirollik

Birlashgan Qirollikning Terrorizm to'g'risidagi qonun 2000 yil defined terrorism as follows:

(1) In this Act "terrorism" means the use or threat of action where:

(a) the action falls within subsection (2),

(b) the use or threat is designed to influence the government or to intimidate the public or a section of the public and

(c) the use or threat is made for the purpose of advancing a political, religious or ideological cause.

(2) Action falls within this subsection if it:

(a) involves serious violence against a person,

(b) involves serious damage to property,

(c) endangers a person's life, other than that of the person committing the action,

(d) creates a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public or

(e) is designed seriously to interfere with or seriously to disrupt an electronic system.^[59]

34-bo'lim Terrorizm to'g'risidagi qonun 2006 yil amended sections 1(1)(b) and 113(1)(c) of Terrorizm to'g'risidagi qonun 2000 yil to include "international governmental organisations" in addition to "government".^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Keyingi Independent Reviewers of Terrorism Legislation (most recently in a report of July 2014 ) have commented on the UK's definition of terrorism.

Qo'shma Shtatlar

U.S. Code (U.S.C.)

Title 22, Chapter 38 of the United States Code (regarding the Davlat departamenti ) contains a definition of terrorism in its requirement that annual country reports on terrorism be submitted by the Davlat kotibi ga Kongress har yil. Unda shunday deyilgan:

[T]he term 'terrorism' means oldindan o'ylab qo'yilgan, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents.^[60]

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari kodeksining 18-sarlavhasi (regarding criminal acts and criminal procedure) defines international terrorism as:

(1) [T]he term 'international terrorism' means activities that —

(A) involve violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State, or that would be a criminal violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or of any State;

(B) appear to be intended —

(i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population;

(ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; yoki

(iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, suiqasd, yoki o'g'irlash; va

(C) occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States, or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to intimidate or coerce, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum".^[61]

Commenting on the genesis of this provision, Edvard Pek, former U.S. Chief of Mission in Iroq (ostida Jimmi Karter ) and former ambassador to Mavritaniya dedi:

In 1985, when I was the Deputy Director of the Reagan White House Task Force on Terrorism, [my working group was asked] to come up with a definition of terrorism that could be used throughout the government. We produced about six, and each and every case, they were rejected, because careful reading would indicate that our own country had been involved in some of those activities. […] After the task force concluded its work, Congress [passed] U.S. Code Title 18, Section 2331 ... the US definition of terrorism. […] one of the terms, "international terrorism," means "activities that," I quote, "appear to be intended to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination or kidnapping." […] Yes, well, certainly, you can think of a number of countries that have been involved in such activities. Ours is one of them. […] And so, the terrorist, of course, is in the eye of the beholder.^[62]

AQSh Federal qoidalar kodeksi

AQSh Federal qoidalar kodeksi defines terrorism as "the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85).

AQSh Mudofaa vazirligi

The AQSh Mudofaa vazirligi recently changed its definition of terrorism. Per Joint Pub 3-07.2, Antiterrorism, (24 November 2010), the Department of Defense defines it as "the unlawful use of violence or threat of violence to instill fear and coerce governments or societies. Terrorism is often motivated by religious, political, or other ideological beliefs and committed in the pursuit of goals that are usually political."

The new definition distinguishes between motivations for terrorism (religion, ideology, etc.) and goals of terrorism ("usually political"). This is in contrast to the previous definition which stated that the goals could be religious in nature.

U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency

AQSh Federal favqulodda vaziyatlarni boshqarish agentligi (FEMA) contains a definition of terrorism, which reads:

Terrorism is the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the criminal laws of the United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion, or to'lov. Terrorists often use threats to:

• Create fear among the public.
• Try to convince citizens that their government is powerless to prevent terrorism.
• Get immediate publicity for their causes.

The new definition does not require that the act needs to be politically motivated. The FEMA also said that terrorism "include threats of terrorism; assassinations; kidnappings; samolyotni olib qochish; bomb scares va bombardimonlar; kiberhujumlar (computer-based); va foydalanish kimyoviy, biologik, yadroviy va radiologik qurol " and also states that "[h]igh-risk targets for acts of terrorism include military and civilian government facilities, xalqaro aeroportlar, katta shaharlar, and high-profile diqqatga sazovor joylar. Terrorists might also target large public gatherings, water and food supplies, utilities, and corporate centers. Further, terrorists are capable of spreading fear by sending portlovchi moddalar or chemical and biological agents through the mail."^[63]

U.S. National Counterterrorism Center

AQSh Milliy aksilterror markazi (NCTC) define terrorism the same as United States Code 22 USC § 2656f(d)(2). The Center also defines a terrorist act as a "premeditated; perpetrated by a sub-national or clandestine agent; politically motivated, potentially including religious, philosophical, or culturally symbolic motivations; violent; and perpetrated against a non-combatant target."^[64]

U.S. national security strategy

In September 2002, the U.S. national security strategy defined terrorism as "premeditated, politically motivated violence against innocents."^[65] This definition did not exclude actions by the United States government and it was qualified some months later with "premeditated, politically motivated violence against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".^[66]

AQShning PATRIOT qonuni 2001 y

The AQShning PATRIOT qonuni 2001 y defines domestic terrorism as "activities that (A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the U.S. or of any state; (B) appear to be intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the U.S."

Terrorizm xavfini sug'urtalash to'g'risidagi qonun

Section 102(1)(a) of the Terrorizm xavfini sug'urtalash to'g'risidagi qonun contains a definition of terrorism in order for insurance companies to provide coverage to all prospective policy holders at time of purchase and to all current policyholders at renewal and requires that the federal government pay 90 percent of covered terrorism losses exceeding the statutorily established deductible paid by the insurance company providing the coverage. Unda shunday deyilgan:

(1) ACT OF TERRORISM-

(A) CERTIFICATION- The term 'act of terrorism' means any act that is certified by the Secretary [of Treasury], in concurrence with the Secretary of State, and the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining Bosh prokurori --

(i) to be an act of terrorism;

(ii) to be a violent act or an act that is dangerous to--

(I) human life;

(II) property; yoki

(III) infrastructure;

(iii) to have resulted in damage within the United States, or outside of the United States in the case of--

(I) an air carrier or vessel described in paragraph

(5)(B); yoki

(II) the premises of a United States mission; va

(iv) to have been committed by an individual or individuals as part of an effort to coerce the civilian population of the United States or to influence the policy or affect the conduct of the United States Government by coercion.^[67]

In general insurance policies

Some insurance companies exclude terrorism from general property insurance (e.g. uyni sug'urtalash ). An insurance company may include a specific definition of terrorism as part of its policy, for the purpose of excluding at least some loss or damage caused by terrorism. Masalan, RAC Insurance in Australia defines terrorism thus:

terrorizm – includes but is not limited to the use of force or violence and/or threat, by any person or group of persons done for or in connection with political, religious, ideological or similar purposes including the intention to influence any government and/or to put the public, or any section of the public, in fear.

^[68]

Ijtimoiy

Sifatida Bryus Xofman has noted: "terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. (...) Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization 'terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism."^[3] For this and for political reasons, many news sources (such as Reuters ) avoid using this term, opting instead for less accusatory words like "bombers", "militants", etc.^[69][70]

The term has been depicted as carrying racist, ksenofobik and ethnocentric connotations when used as an ethnic slur aimed at Arablar or Middle Easterners, or at someone of Arab or Greater Middle Eastern descent or when used by white supremacists.^{[71][72][73][74][75][76]}

Timeline of political definitions

Listed below are some of the historically important understandings of terror and terrorism, and enacted but non-universal definitions of the term:

• 1795. "Government intimidation during the Reign of Terror in France." The general sense of "systematic use of terror as a policy" was first recorded in English in 1798.^[77]
• 1916. Gustav LeBon: "Terrorization has always been employed by revolutionaries no less than by kings, as a means of impressing their enemies, and as an example to those who were doubtful about submitting to them...."^[78]
• 1937. League of Nations convention language: "All criminal acts directed against a State and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public."^[79]
• 1987. A definition proposed by Iran at an international Islamic conference on terrorism: "Terrorism is an act carried out to achieve an inhuman and corrupt (mufsid) objective, and involving [a] threat to security of any kind, and violation of rights acknowledged by religion and mankind."^[80]
• 1988. A proposed academic consensus definition:

Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators.^[81]

• 1989. Qo'shma Shtatlar: premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents.^[82]
• 1992. A definition proposed by Aleks P. Shmid to the United Nations Crime Branch: "Act of Terrorism = Peacetime Equivalent of War Crime."^[79]
• 2002. Yevropa Ittifoqi:

. . . given their nature or context, [acts which] may seriously damage a country or an international organisation where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population.^[83]

• 2003. India: Referencing Schmid's 1992 proposal, the Hindiston Oliy sudi described terrorist acts as the "peacetime equivalents of war crimes."^[84]
• 2005. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Bosh assambleyasi 's statement with relation to terrorism:

Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

• 2008. Carsten Bockstette, a German military officer serving at the Jorj C. Marshal Evropa xavfsizligini o'rganish markazi, proposed the following definition: "political violence in an assimetrik ziddiyat that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent qurbonlik va yo'q qilish jangovar maqsadlar (sometimes iconic symbols)."^[85]
• 2014. Contained in a Saudi Arabia terrorism law taking effect 1 February 2014, the following definition has been criticized by Xalqaro Amnistiya va Human Rights Watch tashkiloti for being overly broad:

Any act carried out by an offender in furtherance of an individual or collective project, directly or indirectly, intended to disturb the public order of the state, or to shake the security of society, or the stability of the state, or to expose its national unity to danger, or to suspend the basic law of governance or some of its articles, or to insult the reputation of the state or its position, or to inflict damage upon one of its public utilities or its natural resources, or to attempt to force a governmental authority to carry out or prevent it from carrying out an action, or to threaten to carry out acts that lead to the named purposes or incite [these acts].^[86][87]

• 2016. Brazilian anti-terrorism law.

Terrorism consists in the practice, by one or more individuals, of the acts listed in this article for reasons of xenophobia, discrimination or prejudice of race, color, ethnicity and religion, when commited with the objective of provoking social or generalized terror, exposing people, property, the public peace or the public safety.

Scholars and recognized experts on terrorism

Numerous scholars have proposed working definitions of terrorism. Bryus Xofman, a well-known scholar, has thus noted that:

It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, "Political terrorism: A Research Guide," Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definition of terrorism in a effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schimd was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the "search for an adequate definition is still on" Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. "Ten years of debates on typologies and definitions," he responded to a survey on definitions to conducted by Schmid, "have not enhanced our knowledge of the subject to a significant degree." Laqueur's contention is supported by the twenty-two different word categories occurring in the 109 different definition that Schmid identified in survey. At the end of this exhaustive exercise, Schmid asks "whether the above list contains all the elements necessary for a good definition. The answer," he suggests" is probably 'no'." If it is impossible to define terrorism, as Laqueur argues, and fruitless to attempt to cobble together a truly comprehensive definition, as Schmid admits, are we to conclude that terrorism is impervious to precise, much less accurate definition? Not entirely. If we cannot define terrorism, then we can at least usefully distinguish it from other types of violence and identify the characteristics that make terrorism the distinct phenomenon of political violence that it is.^[88]

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. U quyidagilarni taklif qiladi:

The Bag'dod bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is:

• ineluctably political in aims and motives;
• violent – or, equally important, threatens violence;
• designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target;
• conducted either by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) or by individuals or a small collection of individuals directly influenced, motivated, or inspired by the ideological aims or example of some existent terrorist movement and/or its leaders;

va

• perpetrated by a subnational group or nonstate entity.^[89]

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the Jorj C. Marshall Evropa xavfsizligini o'rganish markazi, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states.^[85]

In this sense, after surveying the various academic definitions of terrorism, Vallis concluded that:

Most of the formal definitions of terrorism have some common characteristics: a fundamental motive to make political/societal changes; the use of violence or illegal force; attacks on civilian targets by 'nonstate'/'Subnational actors'; and the goal of affecting society. This finding is reflected in Blee's listing of three components of terrorism:

1. Acts or threats of violence;
2. The communication of fear to an audience beyond the immediate victim, and;
3. Political, economic, or religious aims by the perpetrator(s).^[90]

Academics and practitioners may also be categorized by the definitions of terrorism that they use. Max Abrahms has introduced the distinction between what he calls "terrorist lumpers" and "terrorist splitters." Lumpers define terrorism broadly, brooking no distinction between this tactic and guerrilla warfare or civil war. Terrorist splitters, by contrast, define terrorism narrowly, as the select use of violence against civilians for putative political gain. As Abrahms notes, these two definitions yield different policy implications:

Lumpers invariably believe that terrorism is a winning tactic for coercing major government concessions. As evidence, they point to substate campaigns directed against military personnel that have indeed pressured concessions. Salient examples include the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, the U.S. withdrawal from Lebanon in 1984, and the French withdrawal from Algeria in 1962. Significantly, terrorist splitters do not regard these substate campaigns as evidence of terrorism's political effectiveness. Rather, they contend that disaggregating substate campaigns directed against civilian targets versus military ones is critical for appreciating terrorism's abysmal political record.^[91]

Shuningdek qarang

• -izm
• Terrorizmni etiketlash bilan bog'liq tortishuvlar
• Bandenbekämpfung

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

• Bockstette, Carsten (2008 yil dekabr). Jihodchilar terrorizmidan strategik aloqalarni boshqarish usullaridan foydalanish, George C. Marshall Evropa xavfsizligini o'rganish markazi № 20, p. 1-28 ISSN  1863-6039
• Burgess, Mark. Terrorizmning qisqacha tarixi, Mudofaa haqida ma'lumot markazi.
• Byrnes, Endryu (2002). Apokaliptik qarashlar va qonun: 11 sentyabr merosi - Endryu Byrnesning ANU yuridik maktabida fakultetning "ochilish va valediktoriya ma'ruzalari seriyasi" ga bag'ishlangan prof., 2002 yil 30-may.
• Diaz-Paniagua, Karlos Fernando (2008), Terrorizm to'g'risida muzokaralar olib borish: 1997-2005 yillarda BMTning to'rtta antiterror shartnomasi bo'yicha muzokaralar dinamikasi, T.f.n. dissertatsiya, Nyu-York shahar universiteti, 2008 yil iyul, AAT 3296923
• Kassese, A. (2002), Xalqaro huquq, Oksford universiteti matbuoti, 2002, ISBN  0-19-925939-9
• Krensha, Marta, Kontekstdagi terrorizm
• Gardam, Judit Geyl (1993). Xalqaro gumanitar norma sifatida noharbiy immunitet, Martinus Nixof ISBN  0-7923-2245-2.
• Griset, Pamala L. va Mahan, Syu (2003). Terrorizm istiqbolda, SAGE, 2003 yil ISBN  0-7619-2404-3, ISBN  978-0-7619-2404-3
• Hoffman, Bryus (1998). "Terrorizm ichida"Columbia University Press 1998 yil ISBN  0-231-11468-0.
• Hoffman, Bryus (2006),Terrorizm ichida, 2-nashr, Columbia University Press, 2006 yil. ISBN  0-231-12699-9, ISBN  978-0-231-12699-1.
• Xon, Ali (Washburn universiteti - yuridik fakulteti. 1987). Xalqaro terrorizm nazariyasi, Konnektikutdagi qonunlarni ko'rib chiqish, jild. 19, p. 945, 1987 yil
• Novotny, Daniel D. (2007). "Terrorizm nima?" ichida: Linden, Edvard V., ed. Terrorizmga e'tiboringizni qarating 8, ch. 2, 23-32 betlar. (ISBN  1-60021-315-4).
• Primoratz, Igor (2007/2011). "Terrorizm". Stenford falsafa entsiklopediyasi (Yozgi 2013 yilgi nashr), Edvard N. Zalta (tahrir).
• Yozuv, Jefri (2003 yil dekabr). Terrorizmga qarshi global urushni cheklash, 2003 yil 1-dekabr ISBN  1-58487-146-6.
• Smelser, Nil J.; va boshq. (2002). Terrorizm: xulq-atvor va ijtimoiy fanlarning istiqbollari, Milliy akademiyalar matbuoti, 2002 yil, ISBN  0-309-08612-4, ISBN  978-0-309-08612-7
• Tisxerst, Rupert. Martens moddasi va qurolli to'qnashuv qonunlari 1997 yil 30 aprel, Xalqaro Qizil Xoch sharhi, № 317, p. 125-134 ISSN  1560-7755

Tashqi havolalar

• Kirish eslatmasi tomonidan A. Rohan Perera va protsedura tarixi eslatmasi ustida Xalqaro terrorizmni yo'q qilish bo'yicha chora-tadbirlar to'g'risida deklaratsiya va unga 1996 yil qo'shilgan deklaratsiya ichida Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining xalqaro huquq audiovizual kutubxonasining tarixiy arxivi