Qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish to'g'risidagi Gaaga konvensiyasi - Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict

Qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish to'g'risidagi Gaaga konvensiyasi

Gaaga konventsiyasiga muvofiq madaniy boyliklarning o'ziga xos belgisi (Moviy qalqon ).
Imzolangan	1954 yil 14-may; 66 yil oldin (1954-05-14)
Manzil	Gaaga
Samarali	1956 yil 7-avgust; 64 yil oldin (1956-08-07)
Imzolovchilar	http://www.unesco.org/eri/la/convention.asp?KO=13637&language=E
Tomonlar	133[1]
Depozitariy	Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Ta'lim, fan va madaniyat masalalari bo'yicha tashkiloti bosh direktori[1]
Tillar	Ingliz, frantsuz, rus va ispan tillari[1]
Ogohlantirish: O'zgacha belgi qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida ishlatiladigan himoya belgisidir va undan foydalanish xalqaro huquq bilan cheklangan

The Qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish to'g'risidagi Gaaga konvensiyasi birinchi xalqaro shartnoma faqat himoya qilishga qaratilgan madaniy boyliklar qurolli to'qnashuvda. Bu imzolangan Gaaga, Gollandiya, 1954 yil 14-mayda va 1956 yil 7-avgustda kuchga kirgan. 2018 yil sentyabr holatiga ko'ra, uni 133 shtat ratifikatsiya qilgan.^[2]

1954 yilgi Konventsiyaning qoidalari 1954 va 1999 yillarda tuzilgan ikkita protokol bilan to'ldirildi va aniqlandi. Uchala kelishuv Xalqaro gumanitar huquqning bir qismi bo'lib, u keyingi kelishuvlar shaklida, avvalo, urushning yo'l qo'yilgan vositalari va usullarini belgilaydigan qoidalarni o'z ichiga oladi. janglarda qatnashmagan shaxslarni iloji boricha kengroq himoya qilishga qaratilgan. Ning bu qismlaridan farqli o'laroq Xalqaro gumanitar huquq, himoya qilish to'g'risidagi bitimlar madaniy boyliklar Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti (BMT) homiyligida tuzilgan; The Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Ta'lim, fan va madaniyat masalalari bo'yicha tashkiloti (YuNESKO) muvofiqlikni tarqatish va monitoring qilish uchun birinchi navbatda javobgardir. Qurolli mojaro paytida madaniy boyliklarning muhofazasi va hurmat qilinishini ta'minlashga qaratilgan qoidalardan tashqari, ushbu bitimlar tinchlik davrida xavfsizlik choralarini ko'rishni ham nazarda tutadi. 2018 yil iyun oyidan boshlab 1954 yilgi Gaaga konvensiyasiga 132 ta davlat a'zo bo'lib, 1954 va 1999 yillardagi protokollarga mos ravishda 109 va 77 ta davlatlar qo'shildi. Gaagada joylashgan Blue Shield International bu borada xalqaro muvofiqlashtirish sohasida faol ishlaydi. madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish uchun harbiy va fuqarolik tuzilmalariga.

Konvensiyaning etakchi tamoyillari va uni tuzish, tarqatish va hurmat qilish motivlari preambulada umumlashtirilib, boshqa narsalar qatorida quyidagilar ko'rsatilgan:

"... madaniy boyliklarga etkazilgan har qanday zarar, qaysi odam bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, butun insoniyatning madaniy merosiga zarar etkazishi, chunki har bir xalq dunyo madaniyatiga o'z hissasini qo'shadi ..."^[3]

Ishtirok etuvchi davlatlar

Ushbu bo'lim kengayishga muhtoj. Siz yordam berishingiz mumkin unga qo'shilish. (2018 yil dekabr)

Shartnomaning ishtirokchisi

Imzolangan, ammo tasdiqlanmagan

2018 yil sentyabr oyidan boshlab^[yangilash], 133 davlatlar shartnomaning ishtirokchilari.^[4] Hozirgi kunda Birinchi protokolga 110 ta ishtirokchi-davlat kiradi.^[5] Ikkinchi protokolda 82 ta ishtirokchi davlat mavjud.^[6]

Madaniy boyliklar

Ushbu Konventsiyaning maqsadlari uchun "madaniy boylik" atamasi kelib chiqishi yoki egaligidan qat'iy nazar quyidagilarni qamrab oladi:

(a) har bir xalqning madaniy merosi uchun katta ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan ko'chma yoki ko'chmas mulk, masalan, diniy yoki dunyoviy bo'lsin, me'morchilik, san'at yoki tarix yodgorliklari; arxeologik joylar; umuman olganda tarixiy yoki badiiy qiziqish uyg'otadigan binolar guruhlari; san'at asarlari; qo'lyozmalar, kitoblar va badiiy, tarixiy yoki arxeologik qiziqishning boshqa ob'ektlari; shuningdek ilmiy to'plamlar va kitoblar yoki arxivlarning muhim to'plamlari yoki yuqorida ko'rsatilgan mulk nusxalari;

b) asosiy va samarali maqsadi (a) kichik bandida belgilangan ko'chma madaniy boyliklarni saqlash yoki namoyish qilishdan iborat bo'lgan binolar, masalan, muzeylar, yirik kutubxonalar va arxivlar omborlari va boshpana berishga mo'ljallangan qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida; (a) kichik bandida belgilangan ko'char madaniy boylik;

(c) "yodgorliklarni o'z ichiga olgan markazlar" deb nomlanadigan (a) va (b) kichik bandlarda belgilangan ko'p miqdordagi madaniy boyliklarni o'z ichiga olgan markazlar.^[7]

Madaniy boyliklar bir guruh odamlar yoki jamiyat madaniy merosining namoyon bo'lishi va ifodalanishi. Bu jamiyat tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan va avloddan-avlodga o'tadigan turmush tarzi, shu jumladan, xalqning urf-odatlari, ularning odatlari, joylari, ob'ektlari, badiiy harakatlari va qadriyatlari ifodasidir. Qurolli to'qnashuv yoki bosib olish davrida madaniy boyliklarni muhofaza qilish katta ahamiyatga ega, chunki bunday mulk jamoalarning hayoti, tarixi va o'ziga xosligini aks ettiradi; uning saqlanib qolishi jamoalarni tiklashga, shaxsiyatni tiklashga va odamlarning o'tmishini ularning bugungi va kelajagi bilan bog'lashga yordam beradi.

Tarix

The 1899 va 1907 yillardagi Gaaga konvensiyalari 1954 yilgi Gaaga konventsiyasidan oldin.^[8] 1899 yildagi ko'p tomonlama kelishuv va 1907 yildagi biroz o'zgartirilgan keyinchalik tuzilgan 27-moddada hujum qiluvchi tomonga tarixiy yodgorliklarni, diniy, notijorat, badiiy yoki ilmiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan ta'lim muassasalari va muassasalarini iloji boricha zaxira qilish amri berilgan. qamal va bombardimon. Hujumga uchragan tomon tegishli binolarni belgilashga chaqiriladi. 56-moddada, shuningdek, ushbu ob'ektlarni musodara qilish, yo'q qilish yoki buzilishiga umumiy taqiq mavjud edi. Biroq, davomida Birinchi jahon urushi, ushbu birinchi Gaaga konventsiyalarini qabul qilish "hamma ishtirok etish" deb nomlangan band bilan keskin cheklangan edi. Unda ta'kidlanishicha, urush yoki qurolli to'qnashuvlar yuz berganda ushbu Shartnoma ushbu mojaroga aloqador barcha davlatlar Konventsiyaning ishtirokchilari bo'lgan taqdirdagina amal qilishi kerak.

Rus advokati, rassomi va yozuvchisi Nikolas Rerich, Rossiyada Birinchi Jahon urushi paytida madaniy boyliklarning yo'q qilinishiga guvoh bo'lgan va Oktyabr inqilobi, 30-yillarning boshlarida qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish bo'yicha mustaqil shartnomani ishlab chiqishni boshladi. O'n yildan so'ng, Ikkinchi Jahon urushi boshlanishidan oldin, u o'z g'oyasini rus podshosi Nikolay II ga ham murojaat qilgan^{[tushuntirish kerak ]}. Uning tashabbusi bilan Parij universiteti Oliy xalqaro tadqiqotlar instituti xodimi Jorj Chklaver 1929 yilda tegishli loyihani tuzdi. Ushbu taklif keyinchalik Xalqaro muzey idorasi tomonidan muhokama qilindi. Millatlar Ligasi 1931 va 1932 yillarda Bryugjada va 1933 yilda Vashingtonda bo'lib o'tgan shaxsiy konferentsiyalarda. 1933 yilda Buenos-Ayresda bo'lib o'tgan Amerika davlatlarining ettinchi xalqaro konferentsiyasi loyihani qabul qilishni tavsiya qildi. Keyinchalik Panamerika Ittifoqi Kengashi 1935 yil 15 aprelda Oq uyda Shimoliy, Markaziy va Janubiy Amerikaning 21 shtati tomonidan imzolangan "badiiy va ilmiy muassasalar va tarixiy yodgorliklarni muhofaza qilish to'g'risida" shartnomani taqdim etdi.^[8] Imzolagan davlatlardan o'ntasi ham ratifikatsiya qilish yo'li bilan ishtirok etishdi, ulardan birinchisi 1935 yil 13-iyulda Qo'shma Shtatlar va oxirgi bo'lib 1937-yil 20-fevralda Kolumbiya edi. Shartnoma, shuningdek Rerich shartnomasi uning tashabbuskoridan so'ng, 1935 yil 26-avgustda kuchga kirdi.

Rerich shartnomasida 1899 va 1907 yillardagi Gaaga konventsiyalarining 27 va 56-moddalarining umumiy qoidalari bilan taqqoslaganda sakkizta maqola va bir nechta muhim yangiliklar mavjud edi. Bir tomondan, shartnoma tarixiy yodgorliklar, muzeylar, ilmiy va badiiy sanoatlar uchun betaraflik maqomini o'rnatdi. muassasalar, shuningdek, ta'lim va madaniyat muassasalari. Urush paytida tibbiyot xodimlari va taqqoslanadigan muassasalarning betarafligi bilan taqqoslanadigan ushbu huquqiy pozitsiya mojaroda qatnashgan barcha tomonlarning ushbu tovarlarga nisbatan hurmat-ehtiromiga va shu tariqa ularni himoya qilishga olib keldi. Tomonlar Shartnoma bo'yicha himoya qilishni talab qilgan yodgorliklar va joylarning ro'yxatlarini Panamerika ittifoqiga yuborishlari kerak va ular ularni barcha ishtirokchi davlatlarga yuborishlari kerak.

The Tinchlik bayrog'i - Rerich paktini himoya qilish emblemasi

Bundan tashqari, Shartnoma madaniy ob'ektlarni markalash uchun himoya fondi belgilab qo'ydi, oq fonda qizil doirada uchta qizil nuqta. Dastlabki ramziylikni hisobga olgan holda, uni ishlab chiqqan Nikolas Rerich uchta nuqtaning san'at, fan va dinning ramzi sifatida insoniyatning eng muhim uchta madaniy faoliyati sifatida ahamiyatini tasvirlab berdi, aylana esa ushbu uch jihatni bog'laydigan element sifatida o'tmishi, hozirgi va kelajak. Ushbu ramz "Tinchlik bayrog'i" deb ham nomlangan bo'lib, Rerich shartnomasi asosida Pax Cultura nomi bilan harakatga o'xshash Jeneva konvensiyalari "Qizil madaniyat xoch" sifatida.

Biroq, Rerich shartnomasini qabul qilish AQSh va Markaziy va Janubiy Amerika davlatlari bilan cheklangan. Bir necha yil o'tgach boshlangan Ikkinchi Jahon Urushining geosiyosiy yo'nalishi Evropa va Osiyodagi birorta ham davlat emas, bu shartnomani imzolagan yoki tasdiqlagan. Garchi u tomonlar va Amerika Shtatlari Tashkiloti (OAS) o'rtasidagi munosabatlarda o'z kuchini saqlab qolsa va Panamerika Ittifoqi ketma-ket depozitariya vazifasini bajarishda davom etsa ham, Rerich shartnomasi muhim amaliy ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan. AQSh 1999 yilgi Gaaga konvensiyasining ikkinchi protokoli ishtirokchisi bo'lmaganligi sababli, Rerich pakti hanuzgacha madaniy mulkni muhofaza qilish sohasida shartnoma majburiyati sifatida ahamiyat kasb etadi. Shunga qaramay, himoya yorlig'i o'rnatilishi va markaziy xalqaro muassasa tomonidan muhofazaga loyiq madaniy boyliklarning ro'yxatlari boshqarilishi bilan ushbu shartnoma qurolli to'qnashuvlarda madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish sohasida muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan ikkita muhim printsipni joriy etdi. Bugun.

Rerich shartnomasi imzolanganidan atigi to'rt yil o'tgach, Niderlandiya hukumati yangi konventsiya loyihasini taqdim etdi, uning loyihasida Millatlar Ligasi Xalqaro muzey idorasi ham sezilarli ishtirok etdi. Biroq, boshlanishi Ikkinchi jahon urushi o'sha yili ushbu taklifni ishlab chiqish va amalga oshirish bo'yicha barcha qadamlarning oldini oldi. Urush tugagandan so'ng, 1948 yilda Niderlandiya yana uch yil oldin tashkil etilgan YuNESKOga taklif kiritdi. 1951 yilda YuNESKO Bosh konferentsiyasida yangi konvensiyani tayyorlash uchun hukumat ekspertlari qo'mitasini tuzish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi. Bir yil o'tgach, ushbu qo'mita loyihani Bosh konferentsiyaga taqdim etdi va u keyinchalik muhokama qilish uchun milliy hukumatlarga yubordi. 1954 yil 21 apreldan 14 maygacha Gaaga shahrida 56 davlat ishtirokida xalqaro konferentsiya bo'lib o'tdi, u yakuniy versiyasini ishlab chiqdi va uni "Qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni muhofaza qilish to'g'risida Gaga konvensiyasi" deb qabul qildi. .^[8] Shartnoma 1956 yil 7 avgustda kuchga kirdi. 1948 yildan keyin Genotsid konvensiyasi Genotsid jinoyatining oldini olish va jazolash to'g'risida, bu xalqaro gumanitar huquq sohasidagi ikkinchi muhim kelishuv bo'lib, uni yaratish va amalga oshirishda Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti katta rol o'ynadi.

Gaaga konventsiyasi

Gaaga konvensiyasida ishtirok etuvchi davlatlarning tinchlik davrida ham, mojaro paytida ham bajarishi kutilayotgan turli xil taqiq va majburiyatlari ko'rsatilgan.

Umuman olganda, Gaaga konvensiyasi ishtirokchi davlatlardan tinchlik davrida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish uchun himoya choralarini ko'rishni talab qiladi. Bunday chora-tadbirlar zaxiralarni tayyorlash, ko'chma madaniy boyliklarni olib tashlashga tayyorgarlik va madaniy boyliklarning muhofazasi uchun mas'ul vakolatli organlarni tayinlashni o'z ichiga oladi.

Ishtirok etuvchi davlatlar mojaro va bosib olinish davrida nafaqat o'z hududlarida, balki boshqa ishtirokchi davlatlar hududida joylashgan madaniy boyliklarga hurmat ko'rsatishni o'z zimmalariga oladilar. Bunda ular madaniy boyliklarni va uning atrofini qurolli to'qnashuvlar yuz berganda uni yo'q qilish yoki zarar etkazishi mumkin bo'lgan maqsadlarda ishlatishdan tiyilishga rozilik bildiradilar. Ishtirokchi davlatlar, shuningdek, bunday mulkka qarshi qaratilgan har qanday dushmanlik harakatlaridan tiyilishga rozilik bildiradilar.

Konventsiya, shuningdek, milliy harbiy kuchlar tarkibida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga oladigan maxsus bo'linmalar tashkil etishni talab qiladi. Bundan tashqari, ishtirokchi davlatlar Konvensiyani buzganlik uchun jinoiy jazo choralarini qo'llashlari va keng jamoatchilik, madaniy meros sohasi mutaxassislari, harbiy va huquqni muhofaza qilish idoralariga ushbu Konventsiyani targ'ib qilishni o'z zimmalariga olishlari shart.

Gaaga konventsiyasining muvaffaqiyatli amalga oshirilishiga misol sifatida Fors ko'rfazi urushi bo'lib, unda koalitsiya kuchlarining ko'plab a'zolari (ular Konventsiyaning tarafi bo'lgan yoki AQSh misolida Konvensiyaning ishtirokchisi bo'lmagan) Konventsiya qoidalari, xususan madaniy boyliklar mavjud bo'lgan joylarni "olovsiz nishonlar ro'yxati" ni tuzish orqali.

Madaniy boyliklarni muhofaza qilish

Ishtirokchi-davlatlarning tinchlik davrida madaniy boyliklarni muhofaza qilish majburiyati 3-moddada keltirilgan.

"Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonlar tinchlik davrida o'zlarining hududlarida joylashgan madaniy boyliklarni qurolli mojaroning kutilayotgan oqibatlaridan himoya qilish uchun tayyorgarlik ko'rishni o'zlariga ma'qul ko'rgan choralarni ko'rish orqali o'z zimmalariga oladilar."^[9]

Madaniy boyliklarga hurmat

Gaaga konventsiyasi barcha ishtirokchi davlatlarning o'zlarining milliy merosiga va boshqa ishtirokchi davlatlarning merosiga nisbatan rioya qilishlari kerak bo'lgan minimal hurmat darajasini belgilaydi. Shtatlar madaniy boyliklarga tajovuz qilmaslik, ko'chma mulkni kelib chiqish hududidan olib chiqib ketmaslik yoki o'zlashtirishga majburdirlar. Faqatgina "harbiy zarurat" holatlari ushbu majburiyatdan voz kechishni oqlaydi. Shu bilan birga, ishtirokchi davlat boshqa Tomonning o'zi himoya choralarini ko'rmaganligi sababli Konventsiya qoidalarini e'tiborsiz qoldirishga haqli emas.

Bu Gaaga konvensiyasining 4-moddasida ko'rsatilgan:

4-modda:

(1) Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonlar o'z hududida va boshqa Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonlar hududida joylashgan madaniy boyliklarga hurmat ko'rsatishni o'z zimmalariga oladilar, mulkni va uning atrofini yoki uni himoya qilish uchun foydalaniladigan asboblarni har qanday ishlatishdan bosh tortadilar. qurolli to'qnashuvlar yuz berganda uni yo'q qilish yoki zarar etkazishi mumkin bo'lgan maqsadlar; va bunday mulkka qarshi qaratilgan har qanday dushmanlik harakatlaridan saqlanish orqali.

(2) Ushbu moddaning I xatboshida ko'rsatilgan majburiyatlardan faqat harbiy zarurat shu tarzda voz kechishni talab qiladigan hollarda bekor qilinishi mumkin.

(3) Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonlar, bundan tashqari, madaniy boyliklarga qarshi har qanday o'g'irlik, talon-taroj qilish yoki noqonuniy foydalanishni va har qanday buzg'unchilik harakatlarini taqiqlash, oldini olish va kerak bo'lganda to'xtatish majburiyatini oladilar. Ular boshqa Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomon hududida joylashgan ko'char madaniy boyliklarni rekvizitsiya qilishdan bosh tortadilar.

(4) Ular madaniy boyliklarni ta'qib qilish yo'li bilan qilingan har qanday xatti-harakatlardan saqlanishlari kerak.

(5) Hech bir Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomon, ushbu moddada nazarda tutilgan boshqa Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonga nisbatan o'z zimmasiga olgan majburiyatlardan ikkinchisi 3-moddada ko'rsatilgan xavfsizlik choralarini qo'llamaganligi sababli qochib qutula olmaydi. '^[10]

Kasb

Gaaga konvensiyasida belgilangan qoidalar mojaro paytida yoki boshqa holatlarda hududni egallab olgan davlatlarga nisbatan ham qo'llaniladi. Konventsiya Ishg'ol etuvchi davlatlarni egallab olingan hududning madaniy boyliklariga hurmat bilan munosabatda bo'lishga va zarur bo'lganda uni saqlash va ta'mirlashda mahalliy milliy hokimiyatni qo'llab-quvvatlashga majbur qiladi. Ushbu majburiyat 5-moddada keltirilgan:

5-modda:

(1) Boshqa Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomonning butun hududini yoki uning bir qismini egallab olgan har qanday Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomon iloji boricha bosib olingan mamlakatning vakolatli milliy organlarini uning madaniy boyliklarini himoya qilish va saqlashda qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.

(2) Agar bosib olingan hududda joylashgan va harbiy harakatlar natijasida zarar ko'rgan madaniy boyliklarni saqlash bo'yicha choralar ko'rish zarurligi isbotlansa va vakolatli milliy organlar bunday choralarni ko'rishga qodir bo'lmasalar, Istilochi Davlat iloji boricha va yaqin joyda bunday vakolatli organlar bilan hamkorlik qilish, saqlash uchun eng zarur choralarni ko'rish.

(3) Hukumati qarshilik harakati a'zolari tomonidan ularning qonuniy hukumati deb hisoblangan har qanday Oliy Ahdlashuvchi Tomon, iloji bo'lsa, konventsiyalarning madaniy boyliklarga nisbatan qoidalarini bajarish majburiyatiga e'tiborini qaratadi. '^[10]

Maxsus himoya

Gaaga konventsiyasi ishtirokchilarga dushmanlik harakatlaridan maxsus himoya ostida bo'lgan madaniy boyliklarning daxlsizligini ta'minlashga majbur qiluvchi "maxsus himoya" rejimini o'rnatadi (8 va 9-moddalar).^[10] 8-moddaga binoan ushbu himoya uchta toifadagi madaniy boyliklardan biriga berilishi mumkin: (1) qurolli to'qnashuvlar sodir bo'lganda ko'char madaniy boyliklarni saqlashga mo'ljallangan qochqinlar; (2) yodgorliklarni o'z ichiga olgan markazlar; va (3) juda katta ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan boshqa ko'chmas madaniy boyliklar. Maxsus muhofazani olish uchun madaniy boyliklar, shuningdek, sanoat markazidan yoki hujumdan himoyasiz bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan joydan etarli masofada joylashgan bo'lishi va harbiy maqsadlarda foydalanilmasligi kerak.

Gaaga konventsiyasiga birinchi protokol

Birinchi protokol 1954 yil 14-mayda Gaaga konvensiyasi bilan bir vaqtda qabul qilingan. Ushbu hujjat faqat ko'char madaniy boyliklarga nisbatan qo'llaniladi va ko'char mulkni bosib olingan hududdan olib chiqishni taqiqlaydi, shuningdek tugallangandan so'ng uni asl hududiga qaytarishni talab qiladi. harbiy harakatlar (1-modda).^[11] Bunday mol-mulkning eksport qilinishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik majburiyati bo'yicha ishtirokchi-davlatlar, jangovar harakatlar paytida mol-mulki olib qo'yilgan davlatlarga tovon puli to'lashi mumkin.

Gaaga konventsiyasiga ikkinchi protokol

Madaniy boyliklarga qarshi 1980-yillarning oxiri va 1990-yillarning boshlarida sodir etilgan jinoiy harakatlar Gaga konvensiyasi va uning birinchi protokoli ijrosidagi kamchiliklarni ko'rsatib berdi. "Boylan sharhi" (professor Patrik Boylan boshchiligidagi konvensiyani ko'rib chiqish) natijasida,^[12] Gaaga Konvensiyasiga Ikkinchi Protokol 1999 yil mart oyida Gaagada bo'lib o'tgan Diplomatik Konferentsiyada qabul qilingan. Ikkinchi Protokol Gaaga Konvensiyasining qoidalarini xalqaro gumanitar huquq va madaniy mulkni muhofaza qilish sohasidagi o'zgarishlarni o'z ichiga olgan holda to'ldirish va kengaytirishga qaratilgan. 1954 yildan beri. Konventsiyada madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish va hurmat qilish, shuningdek harbiy harakatlarni amalga oshirish bilan bog'liq qoidalarga asoslanadi; madaniy boyliklarni Gaaga konvensiyasi va uning birinchi protokoli bilan taqqoslaganda ko'proq himoya qilishni ta'minlaydi.

Kengaytirilgan himoya

Kengaytirilgan himoya emblemasi Ozarbayjonning Gobustan arxeologik maydonida namoyish etilgan.

Ikkinchi Protokolning eng muhim xususiyatlaridan biri bu "kuchaytirilgan himoya" rejimidir. Ushbu yangi madaniy boylik toifasi Ikkinchi Protokolning Uchinchi bobida keltirilgan. Kengaytirilgan muhofaza holati, tegishli madaniy boyliklar kengaytirilgan muhofaza ostidagi madaniy boyliklar ro'yxatiga kiritilgandan so'ng, harbiy hujumdan himoyalangan bo'lishi kerakligini anglatadi.^[13] 1954 yilgi Gaaga konvensiyasi davlatlardan "harbiy zarurat" holatlaridan tashqari har qanday madaniy boylikni hujumga aylantirmaslikni talab qilsa, Ikkinchi Protokolda ta'kidlanishicha, kuchaytirilgan himoya ostidagi madaniy boyliklar harbiy maqsadga aylanmasligi kerak. undan foydalanish) "harbiy maqsad" ga aylanadi. Himoyalashning yuqori darajasiga ega bo'lgan madaniy boyliklarga qarshi hujum, agar ushbu hujum "mulkdan foydalanishni tugatishning [shu yo'l bilan] mumkin bo'lgan vositasi" bo'lsa, faqat oqlanishi mumkin (13-modda).^[14]

Kengaytirilgan himoya olish uchun ushbu madaniy boylik Ikkinchi Protokolning 10-moddasida ko'rsatilgan uchta mezonga javob berishi kerak. Uch shart:

(a) bu insoniyat uchun eng katta ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan madaniy meros;

(b) uning alohida madaniy va tarixiy qadr-qimmatini tan oladigan va yuqori darajadagi himoya darajasini ta'minlaydigan tegishli ichki huquqiy va ma'muriy choralar bilan himoyalangan; va

(c) u harbiy maqsadlarda yoki harbiy maydonlarni himoya qilish uchun ishlatilmasa va madaniy boylik ustidan nazoratni amalga oshiruvchi Tomon tomonidan bunday foydalanilmasligini tasdiqlovchi deklaratsiya qilingan bo'lsa.^[14]

Hozirda 8 ta ishtirokchi-davlatning 13 ta madaniy boyliklari Kengaytirilgan himoya ro'yxatiga kiritilgan. Bularga Ozarbayjon, Belgiya, Kambodja, Kipr, Gruziya, Italiya, Litva va Malidagi saytlar kiradi.^[13]

Qurolli nizolar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish qo'mitasi

Ikkinchi Protokolning 24-moddasida 12 kishilik qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish qo'mitasi tashkil etilgan. Uning a'zolari to'rt yil muddatga saylanadi va uning a'zolarini saylashda teng huquqli geografik vakolat hisobga olinadi. Qo'mita yiliga bir marta navbatdagi sessiyada, agar kerak bo'lsa va kerak bo'lganda navbatdan tashqari sessiyalarda yig'iladi.

Qo'mita ishtirokchi davlatlar tomonidan ko'rsatilgan madaniy boyliklarga nisbatan yuqori darajadagi muhofazani taqdim etish, to'xtatib turish va bekor qilish uchun javobgardir. Shuningdek, u davlatlar tomonidan yuborilgan xalqaro yordamga oid so'rovlarni qabul qiladi va ko'rib chiqadi, shuningdek qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish fondidan foydalanishni belgilaydi. Ikkinchi Protokolning 27-moddasiga binoan, Qo'mita Ikkinchi Protokolni amalga oshirish bo'yicha ko'rsatmalarni ishlab chiqish vakolatiga ham ega.

Qurolli nizolar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish jamg'armasi

Ikkinchi protokolning 29-moddasida qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish jamg'armasi tashkil etilgan. Uning maqsadi "tinchlik davrida amalga oshiriladigan tayyorgarlik yoki boshqa choralar" uchun moliyaviy yoki boshqa yordam berishdir. Shuningdek, "qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish bo'yicha favqulodda, vaqtinchalik yoki boshqa choralar" yoki jangovar harakatlar tugashi bilan bog'liq ravishda moliyaviy yoki boshqa yordam ko'rsatiladi. Jamg'arma Ikkinchi Protokolga qatnashgan davlatlarning ixtiyoriy badallaridan iborat.^[15] 2016 yilda Favqulodda vaziyatlar va himoya choralarini o'rnatishda yordam so'rab murojaat qilganliklari sababli, Liviya va Maliga tegishli ravishda 50,000 va 40,000 AQSh dollari miqdorida mablag 'Liviya va Maliga berildi.^[16]

Sanktsiyalar va individual jinoiy javobgarlik

Ikkinchi Protokolning to'rtinchi bobida madaniy boyliklarga nisbatan jiddiy buzilishlar uchun qo'llaniladigan sanktsiyalar ko'rsatilgan va individual jinoiy javobgarlik qo'llanilishi shartlari belgilab qo'yilgan. Bu 1954 yilda Gaaga konvensiyasi qabul qilinganidan buyon samarali jinoiy ta'qib qilish yo'li bilan jazodan ozod qilish bilan kurashishga qaratilgan sa'y-harakatlarning kuchayganligini aks ettiradi. Ikkinchi protokolda besh jinoiy javobgarlik belgilanadigan "jiddiy qonunbuzarliklar" aniqlanadi^[14]

1. madaniy boyliklarni kuchaytirilgan muhofaza ostidagi hujumning ob'ektiga aylantirish;
2. harbiy harakatlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun madaniy boyliklardan kuchaytirilgan himoya ostida yoki uning atrofidagi joylardan foydalanish;
3. Konventsiya va ushbu Protokol asosida muhofaza qilinadigan madaniy boyliklarni keng darajada yo'q qilish yoki o'zlashtirish;
4. Konventsiya va ushbu Protokol bo'yicha himoya qilinadigan madaniy boyliklarni hujum ob'ekti qilish; va
5. Konventsiya bilan muhofaza qilinadigan madaniy boyliklarga qarshi o'g'irlik, o'ldirish yoki o'zlashtirish yoki vandalizm harakatlari.

Shtatlar ushbu qonunbuzarliklarni o'zlarining ichki qonunchiligiga binoan jinoiy javobgarlikka tortish uchun tegishli qonunlarni qabul qilishlari, ushbu huquqbuzarliklar uchun tegishli jazolarni belgilashlari va ushbu huquqbuzarliklar bo'yicha yurisdiktsiyani (shu jumladan, besh jiddiy qoidabuzarliklarning uchtasi uchun moddada belgilangan) 16 (1) (c)).^[17]

Madaniy boyliklarga qarshi jinoyatlar uchun javobgarlikka tortishning misoli Prokuror v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi Xalqaro jinoyat sudi tomonidan 2016 yil 27 sentyabrda chiqarilgan. Al Mahdiy diniy tarixiy obidalar va binolarga qarshi hujumlarni qasddan boshqarishda ayblanib, harbiy jinoyatda ayblanib, aybiga iqror bo'lgan va to'qqiz yilga ozodlikdan mahrum qilingan.^[18] Al Mahdi Ansar Eddin guruhining (Al-Qoida bilan bog'liq guruh) a'zosi va 2012 yilda Malining Timbuktu shahridagi to'qqizta maqbarani va bitta masjidni buzish va yo'q qilishda hammuallif bo'lgan.^[18]

Harbiy qo'llanma

Madaniy boyliklarni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha harbiy qo'llanma

2016 yilda YuNESKO Sanremo xalqaro gumanitar huquq instituti bilan hamkorlikda "Madaniy boyliklarni muhofaza qilish: harbiy qo'llanma" qo'llanmasini nashr etdi. Ushbu qo'llanmada Ikkinchi Protokolda keltirilgan qoidalar va majburiyatlar ko'rsatilgan va ushbu qoidalarni butun dunyo bo'ylab harbiy kuchlar qanday amalga oshirishi kerakligi to'g'risida amaliy ko'rsatmalar berilgan. Shuningdek, ushbu majburiyatlarga nisbatan eng yaxshi harbiy amaliyotlar to'g'risida takliflar mavjud. Bu faqat qurolli to'qnashuvni tartibga soluvchi xalqaro qonunlarga tegishli bo'lib, tabiiy ofatlar kabi boshqa holatlar bilan bog'liq holda ko'rsatiladigan harbiy yordamni muhokama qilmaydi.

Ikkinchi jahon urushida madaniy boyliklarning yo'q qilinishi

Natsistlar va "tanazzulga uchragan san'at"

Jan Metzinger "s En Canot (Im Boot) deb tasniflangan ko'plab asarlardan biri edi degeneratsiya san'ati va fashistlar tomonidan musodara qilingan.

Boshchiligidagi natsistlar partiyasi Adolf Gitler 1933 yilda Germaniyada tanazzulga uchragan mag'lubiyatdan keyin Germaniyada hokimiyat tepasiga keldi va keyingi yillardagi ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy qiyinchiliklar Birinchi jahon urushi. Ikkinchi jahon urushi bir vaqtlar buyuk Germaniya davlatining shon-shuhratini qaytarishga qaratilgan edi. Ko'pgina Evropa xalqlarining madaniy boyliklari va ular tarkibidagi muhim etnik va ijtimoiy guruhlar fashistlar Germaniyasining qurboniga aylandilar. Natsistlar partiyasi Uchinchi reyx, urush paytida G'arbiy Evropa san'atining 20 foizga yaqinini musodara qildi.^[19] Oxiriga kelib Ikkinchi jahon urushi, fashistlar partiyasi bosib olingan millatlardan minglab buyumlarni, san'at asarlarini va artefaktlarni talon-taroj qilgan va to'plagan, ko'plarini yo'q qilgan yoki yashirincha saqlagan.

Birinchi jahon urushidan keyingi nemis xalqining mashaqqatlarini tasvirlaydigan va antisemitizm va fashizm qo'rquvini yanada ifoda etgan rassomlar bilan fashistlar partiyasi va Gitlerning o'zi tez orada san'atning xavfli kuchini anglab etishdi va badiiy mahsulotni ishlab chiqarishni to'xtatishga kirishdilar. natsistlar tomonidan tasdiqlangan uslubga rioya qilish uchun ham rassomlar, ham jamoatchilik.^[20]

Natsistlar mafkurasining mohiyati ustunlik g'oyasi edi Aryan poygasi va u ishlab chiqargan barcha narsalar; Natsistlar kampaniyasining maqsadi nemis bo'lmagan madaniyatlarni zararsizlantirish edi va bu madaniy ahamiyatga ega san'at va eksponatlarni yo'q qilish orqali amalga oshirildi. Bu Evropadagi yahudiy jamoalarida eng yaxshi tasvirlangan; madaniy va shaxsiy mulklarni musodara qilishni asoslash va tartibga solishga imkon beradigan bir qator qonunlarni ishlab chiqish orqali. Germaniya ichida nemis yahudiylarining madaniy boyliklarini talon-taroj qilish Germaniya davlat kollektsiyasidagi nemis bo'lmagan san'at asarlarini musodara qilish bilan boshlandi. Bundan tashqari, yahudiy bo'lgan rassomlar va natsistlar mafkurasiga mos kelmaydigan yoki unga tahdid soladigan badiiy asarlar degeneratsiya san'ati. Xuddi shu nom bilan taniqli ko'rgazma bilan yakunlangan tanazzulga uchragan san'at asarlari, mavzusi, rassomi yoki san'ati yahudiy bo'lgan yoki anti-fashistlarning his-tuyg'ularini ifoda etgan va Uchinchi Reyxga qarshi shafqatsiz bo'lgan narsalar edi.^[20]

Fashistlarning kitoblarini yoqish.

Yahudiy kollektsiyalari urush davomida eng ko'p talon-taroj qilindi. Nemis yahudiylariga o'zlarining shaxsiy mol-mulklari to'g'risida xabar berishga buyruq berildi, keyinchalik ular mamlakat tomonidan xususiylashtirildi. Yahudiylarga tegishli san'at galereyalari o'zlari joylashgan san'at asarlarini sotishga majbur bo'ldilar. Natsistlar o'zlarining sa'y-harakatlarini Germaniyadagi barcha san'at tabiatan oriy bo'lishini ta'minlashga jamladilar, bu jamiyat uchun zararli deb hisoblangan yahudiy san'ati emas, balki Germaniya davlatining qudrati haqida gapirdi. Nemis muzeylari va kollektsiyalarini "tozalash" ishida musodara qilish qo'mitalari Germaniyada 16000 ga yaqin buyumlarni musodara qildi.^[21] Qolgan ekspluatatsiya qilinmagan san'at katta gulxanlarda yo'q qilindi. Urush davom etar ekan, fashistlar partiyasining elitasi turli Evropa mamlakatlarida madaniy boyliklarni musodara qilishga buyruq berdi.

Sharqiy Evropada fashistlarning talon-tarojlari

Zamonaviy Amber xonasi

In Sovet Ittifoqi, Natsistlarning madaniy ahamiyatga ega san'atni talon-taroj qilish eng yaxshi tasvirlangan Uchinchi Reyxniki o'ldirish Ketrin saroyi yaqin Sankt-Peterburg va uning mashhuri Amber xonasi 1700 yillarning boshlariga to'g'ri keladi. 1941 yil oktyabr oyida fashistlar Sovet Ittifoqining g'arbiy qismini egallab olishdi va g'arbdan san'at xazinalarini olib tashlashni boshladilar. To'liqligi Amber xonasi ga olib tashlandi Königsberg va u erda rekonstruksiya qilingan. 1945 yil yanvarda, rus qo'shinlari shaharga qarab ilgarilab borar ekan, Amber xonasini boshqa joyga ko'chirishga buyruq berildi, ammo keyinchalik uning taqdiri noaniq. Urushdan keyingi ruslarning hisobotida, "barcha faktlarni umumlashtirib, shuni aytish mumkinki, Amber xonasi 1945 yil 9 va 11 aprel kunlari orasida shaharni egallash uchun jang paytida vayron qilingan". Biroq, aniq dalil bo'lmasa, uning taqdiri haqidagi boshqa nazariyalar hozirgi kungacha davom etmoqda.^[22] Nemis donorlarining moliyaviy yordami bilan rus hunarmandlari 1990-yillarda yangi Amber xonasini qayta qurishdi. Yangi xonani Rossiya prezidenti bag'ishladi Vladimir Putin va Germaniya kansleri Gerxard Shreder Sankt-Peterburg shahrining 300 yilligida.

Ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyin

Xulosasi bilan Ikkinchi jahon urushi va keyingi mag'lubiyat Eksa kuchlari, natsistlar rahbariyati tomonidan ma'qullangan, madaniy ahamiyatga ega buyumlarni olib tashlashga va boshqa ko'plab odamlarni yo'q qilishga olib keladigan vahshiyliklarni kelajak avlodlarda yuzaga kelishiga yo'l qo'yib bo'lmadi. Bu g'alaba qozondi Ittifoq kuchlari urush davrida madaniy ahamiyatga ega buyumlarning kafolatlarini ta'minlash uchun qoidalarni yaratish. Natijada, imzosiga rioya qilgan holda Rerich shartnomasi 1935 yilda Amerika Shtatlari tomonidan urush davrida yodgorliklar va san'at asarlarini muhofaza qilish bo'yicha keng qamrovli konvensiyani ishlab chiqishga urinishlar qilingan. 1939 yilda Xalqaro muzeylar idorasi tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan konventsiya loyihasi Niderlandiya tomonidan hukumatlarga taqdim etildi. Ikkinchi Jahon urushi boshlanishi munosabati bilan konventsiya loyihasi boshqa choralar ko'rilmasdan to'xtatildi. Urush tugashi bilan yangi taklif taqdim etildi YuNESKO 1948 yilda Gollandiya tomonidan. Bosh konferentsiya YuNESKO 1951 yilda konventsiya tayyorlash uchun hukumat ekspertlari qo'mitasini chaqirishga qaror qildi. Ushbu qo'mita 1952 yilda yig'ilib, keyinchalik Bosh konferentsiyaga o'z loyihalarini taqdim etdi. Konventsiya va boshqa Hujjatlarni ishlab chiqqan va qabul qilgan hukumatlararo konferentsiya 1954 yil 21 apreldan 14 maygacha Gaaga shahrida bo'lib o'tdi, unda 56 davlat vakili bo'lgan. Ushbu xalqaro kelishuvdan so'ng, qurolli to'qnashuvlar paytida madaniy boyliklarni himoya qilish to'g'risidagi Gaaga konvensiyasi 1956 yilda kuchga kirishi kerak edi, chunki madaniy boyliklarni talon-taroj qilish va yo'q qilishni to'xtatish uchun hujjat bilan bog'langan davlatlar kamsitmaslik vositasi bo'lishlari kerak edi. .

Konvensiyani amalga oshirish

Qoidabuzarliklar uchun jazo

The Rim nizomi, 1998 yil iyul oyida qabul qilingan va to'rt yil o'tgach kuchga kirgan Xalqaro jinoiy sud (ICC), 8 (2) moddasida diniy, ma'rifiy, badiiy, ilmiy yoki notijorat xarakterdagi binolarga va tarixiy yodgorliklarga qarshi qasddan qilingan hujumlarni quyidagicha ta'riflaydi: harbiy jinoyatlar ham xalqaro, ham xalqaro bo'lmagan qurolli to'qnashuvlarda.^[23] The International Criminal Court is thus authorised to prosecute such crimes if such an act was committed either by a national of a Contracting Party or on the territory of a Contracting Party. However, it only exercises its competence if the country concerned is unwilling or unable to ensure effective prosecution itself. Since September 2015, Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi has been charged with the destruction of mausoleums in Timbuktu in the first trial before the ICC over the destruction of cultural assets.^[24][25]

Siege of Dubrovnik and the Mostar Bridge

The Old City of Dubrovnik

Article 3 of the Statute of the Sobiq Yugoslaviya uchun Xalqaro jinoiy sud also contains provisions that allow the prosecution of violations of the fundamental principles of the Hague Convention of 1954. On the basis of this article, for the first time since the conclusion of the Convention, proceedings were brought in an international court for the destruction of cultural property during an armed conflict.^[26]

From the time of its establishment the city of Dubrovnik was under the protection of the Vizantiya imperiyasi; after the Fourth Crusade the city came under the sovereignty of Venice 1205–1358 CE, and by the Zadar shartnomasi in 1358, it became part of the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom. Following the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the city was annexed by Austria and remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the conclusion of the First World War. From 1918 to 1939 Dubrovnik was part of the Zetska Banovina District that established its Croatian connections. From 1945 to 1990 Croatia would become part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. One of the most striking features of the historic city of Dubrovnik, and that which gives its characteristic appearance are its intact medieval fortifications. Its historic city walls run uninterrupted encircling the Old-City. This complex structure of fortification is one of the most complete depictions of medieval construction in the Mediterranean, consisting of a series of forts, bastions, casemates, towers and detached forts. Within the Old City are many medieval churches, cathedrals, and palaces from the Baroque period, encircled by its fortified wall, which would ensure its listed place by YuNESKO as a world heritage site in 1972. The Old Town is not only an architectural and urban ensemble of high quality, but it is also full of museums and libraries, such as the collection of the Ragusan masters in the Dominican Monastery, the Museum of the History of Dubrovnik, the Icon Museum, and the libraries of the Franciscan and Dominican Monasteries. It also houses the archives of Ragusa, which have been kept continuously since the 13th century and are a very important source for Mediterranean history.^[27] The archives hold materials created by the civil service in the Republic of Ragusa.

The Siege of Dubrovnik was a military engagement fought between the Yugoslaviya xalq armiyasi (JNA) and Croatian forces which defended the city of Dubrovnik and its surroundings during the Croatian War of Independence. The Old Town was specifically targeted by the JNA even though it served no military purpose to bomb this town. At the heart of the bombing efforts by the JNA elite was the complete eradication of the memory of the Croatian people and history by erasing their cultural heritage and destroying their cultural property.^[28] The court's convictions, which among other charges were also based on this article, were issued in February 2001 against Dario Kordić,^[29] a commander of the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) during the war in Bosnia, against Miodrag Jokić,^[30] a senior commander in the navy of the Yugoslav People's Army during the Battle of Dubrovnik in 1991, and against Milan Martić,^[31] a politician and military leader of the internationally unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina. The attacks on the Herzegovinian city of Mostar, which in November 1993 led to the destruction of the Stari most bridge, internationally recognised as an outstanding cultural asset, led to the trial of six defendants before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in April 2006.^[32] Among them is the Croatian General Slobodan Praljak, who is suspected of having ordered the fire on the bridge.

Tarixiy shahar Mostar, spanning a deep valley of the Neretva River, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries as an Ottoman frontier town and during the Avstriya-venger period in the 19th and 20th centuries. Mostar was mostly known for its old Turkish houses and specifically the Eski ko'prik; the Stari Mostar, after which it is named. In the 1990s conflict with the former Yugoslavia, however, most of the historic town and the Old Bridge were destroyed purposely by Croatian Army and their allies. This type of destruction was in step with that of the Old Town of Dubrovnik, where the aim was the eradication of the memory of the people that once occupied the land, an effort reminiscent of the Uchinchi reyx and the Nazi party. The attacks on the Herzegovinian city of Mostar, which in November 1993 led to the destruction of the Stari most bridge, internationally recognised as an outstanding cultural asset, led to the trial of six defendants before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in April 2006. Among them is the Croatian General Slobodan Praljak, who is suspected of having ordered the firing of the bridge.^[33]

Khmer Rouge tribunali

The Khmer Rouge tribunali, established by the United Nations together with the government of Cambodia in July 2006, has the possibility of prosecuting the destruction of cultural assets during the Kxmer-ruj dictatorship from April 1975 to January 1979, with explicit reference to the Hague Convention of 1954, pursuant to Article 7 of the Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers.^[34] During this time, most of the more than 3,300 temples and 130 mosques in Cambodia were severely damaged by the Khmer Rouge. They also destroyed all 73 Catholic churches and many other sites of religious or cultural significance. The Hague Convention of 1954 can be applied in principle, since Cambodia became a party to the Convention in 1962, before the Khmer Rouge came to power, and because Article 19 of the Convention stipulates that even in non-international armed conflicts, each party to the conflict is bound at least by the provisions on respect for cultural property.

However, it is not yet known whether and to what extent trials will be instituted in the court which are based on the destruction of cultural property. A possible problem with the application of Article 7 and thus with the Hague Convention, is that it is a legal requirement to establish the existence of an armed conflict. This would then resemble the definition commonly used in international humanitarian law. Whether such an assessment of the Khmer Rouge dictatorship will be possible, cannot yet be predicted.

IShID tomonidan madaniy merosni yo'q qilish

Deliberate destruction and theft of cultural heritage has been conducted by the Iroq va Shom Islom davlati 2014 yildan beri Iroq, Suriya va kamroq darajada Liviya. Vayronagarchilik IShID nazorati ostidagi turli ibodat joylari va qadimiy tarixiy eksponatlarni nishonga olgan. Iroqda Mosulning qulashi in June 2014 and February 2015, ISIL has plundered and destroyed at least 28 historical religious buildings.^[35] The valuable items from some buildings were looted in order to smuggle and sell them to finance ISIL activities.^[35]

Although Libya, Syria and Iraq ratified the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict in 1957, 1958 and 1967 respectively,^[36] it has not been effectively enforced.

International acceptance and partnering organisations

As of June 2018, 131 states have become party to the Hague Convention of 1954 and 109 states to the first protocol. 77 states have become party to the Second Protocol of 1999.^[37]

Of the five permanent members of the Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Xavfsizlik Kengashi, France became a party in 1957. Russia is contracting party in legal succession of the Soviet Union, which also became party in 1957. the People's Republic of China ratified the convention in 2000 and the United States acceded in 2009. The United Kingdom signed the Agreement in 1954 and ratified the Convention and acceded to the Protocols in 2017.

The main reason for the long period between signature and ratification by the United States were the reservations of the AQSh Mudofaa vazirligi davomida Sovuq urush, that the Convention's obligations regarding the possible use of nuclear weapons could not be fulfilled.^[38] The Joint Chiefs of Staff, to which the commanders-in-chief of all units of the American armed forces belong, unanimously declared itself in 1995 in favour of voluntary compliance with the Convention. On 6 January 1999, then US President Bill Clinton recommended that the US Senate ratify both agreements. In his opinion, they were not only in accordance with the principles and methods of the American Armed Forces, but were even based on them in essential aspects. After the Senate approved accession in September 2008, the US Ambassador to UNESCO, Stephen Engelken, handed over the instrument of ratification to Kichirō Matsuura, Secretary-General of UNESCO on 13 March 2009. On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Convention on 14 May 2004, the Government of the United Kingdom declared its intention to become a party to the Convention and the two Protocols.^[39] This was due to the conclusion of the Second Protocol of 1999, which, in the view of the British government, eliminated essential weaknesses and ambiguities of the 1954 Convention. A draft law containing ratification of the Convention, the two protocols and criminal law provisions was announced by the UK government in November 2006.

YuNESKO

Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Ta'lim, fan va madaniyat masalalari bo'yicha tashkiloti (YuNESKO ), a legally independent specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris, and is the most important international institution in the field of dissemination and implementation of the protection of cultural property in armed conflicts. It acts as depositary of the Hague Convention of 1954 and its two Protocols and administers the "International Register of Cultural Property under Special Protection".

Blue Shield International

Karl fon Xabsburg, a Blue Shield International fact-finding mission in Libya

Bunga qo'chimcha, Blue Shield International (formerly the International Committee of the Blue Shield, ICBS; in French Comité International du Bouclier Bleu, CIBB) has existed since 1996. Its mission is to improve international cooperation in the field of cultural heritage protection and to support local and regional activities.^[40] The Second Protocol of 1999 explicitly mentions in Articles 11 and 27 the consultative role of the International Committee of the Blue Shield in the implementation of the Agreement.^[41] Since the International Committee was founded in 1996, national Blue Shield Committees have been established in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Brazil, Chile, Curaçao, Denmark, France, Georgia, Guatemala, Haiti, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Madagascar, Macedonia, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Senegal, Spain, the Czech Republic, Ukraine and the US,^[42] bilan solishtirish mumkin Xalqaro Qizil Xoch va Qizil yarim oy harakati. The Association of the National Committees of the Blue Shield (ANCBS) was established on September 28, 2006 as the umbrella organization for the national committees. ANCBS and ICBS merged in 2016,^[43] to become the Blue Shield. International activities are now represented by Blue Shield International, who also work to coordinate and support the work of the national committees.

While in many wars the freedom of movement of United Nations personnel is significantly restricted due to security concerns, Blue Shield is regarded as particularly suitable due to its structure to act flexibly and autonomously in armed conflicts.^[44] Despite the partial dissolution of state structures and the very unclear security situation resulting from the wars and unrest in Iraq, Syria, Mali, Egypt and Libya, the employees of Blue Shield and its national organizations then carried out very robust undertakings to protect the cultural assets there.^[45] This concerns in particular the collection of cultural assets to be protected, the compilation with local experts of "no-strike lists" (which preserve the coordinates of important cultural monuments), the linking of civil and military structures and the training of local military personnel with regard to the protection of cultural assets. From Blue Shield's point of view, it is not enough to develop and adopt international law norms such as the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict or the Doha Statement of the Conference of 'Ulamâ on Islam and Cultural Heritage'. It is necessary to implement these standards effectively on a global scale.^[46] This also concerns the prevention of the illicit trade in antiquities and stolen cultural assets to finance military conflicts.^[47] As a result of the destruction of cultural assets by armed conflict, war and unrest in Iraq, Syria, Mali or Afghanistan, but also by earthquakes such as in Haiti or Nepal, cooperation has developed between Blue-Shield and national armed forces such as the US Army or the British Army.^[48]

Other civil society structures

The "International League of National Societies for the Protection of Cultural Property", based in the Swiss city of Freiburg, was also established in May 1997 as an international umbrella organisation.^[49] Through the activities of these national and international organisations and associations, which also include the protection of cultural property against disasters in times of peace, fuqarolik jamiyati structures will play an increasing role in the field of cultural property protection and support the work of state and international institutions.

One example of international cooperation in the protection of cultural assets was the temporary storage of art treasures from the National Museum in Kobul, Afg'oniston, Shveytsariyada. The art objects, which were severely threatened in the National Museum both by the Afg'onistonda fuqarolar urushi (1996–2001) that lasted until 1995 and by the subsequent rule of the Toliblar regime, were moved to a so-called "Afghanistan Museum in Exile" in the Swiss town of Bubendorf in 1999 with the consent of all parties to the conflict. The exhibition, which was supported primarily by the voluntary work of Swiss citizens and exiled Afghans, as well as by donations of around 1.5 million Swiss francs and supervised by the Swiss Afghanistan Institute based in Bubendorf, was open to the public from October 2000 to October 2006 and was visited by around 50,000 people during this time. In March 2007, the objects were returned to Kabul under the direction of UNESCO and with the support of the German Air Force. According to the spokesman of the Bubendorf Museum, this was the largest return of art objects since the end of the Second World War.^[50]

In contrast, the Iraqi National Museum in Bag'dod was heavily plundered and damaged from 8 to 12 April 2003, some three weeks after the start of the Iroq urushi. The museum was reopened only three years earlier on 28 April 2000, nine years after its closure as a result of the Second Gulf War. Later investigations carried out by a US commission in collaboration with museum staff found evidence of at least three independent incidents.^[51] According to the Commission's findings, the looting was sometimes spontaneous and indiscriminate. However, a number of indications also pointed out that the thieves had a good knowledge of the museum and expert knowledge of the cultural assets on display. Although particularly valuable objects were kept in the cellar of the museum in the run-up to the war, considerable losses were also incurred here. The Commission corrected initial estimates of some 170,000 stolen works of art to 11,000–15,000 stolen objects. By the time the study results were published in 2005, about 5,000 of them had been recovered in various ways.

Shuningdek qarang

• Milliy meros sayti
• Roerich pact
• Moviy qalqon

Izohlar

Ushbu maqola umumiy ro'yxatini o'z ichiga oladi ma'lumotnomalar, lekin bu asosan tasdiqlanmagan bo'lib qolmoqda, chunki unga mos keladigan etishmayapti satrda keltirilgan. Iltimos yordam bering takomillashtirish tomonidan ushbu maqola tanishtirish aniqroq iqtiboslar. (2010 yil sentyabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Adabiyotlar

• Yodgorliklar va yodgorliklar bo'yicha xalqaro kengash — Contains the full text of the Treaty
• Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict - 1954 (information by UNESCO)
• "Implementing the 1954 Hague Convention and its Protocols: legal and practical implications" Patrick J Boylan, City University London, UK Feb 2006
• "THE DESTRUCTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY DURING ARMED CONFLICT" ASSER INSTITUTE 2004 yil 16-dekabr
• The Blue Shield International website
• U.S. Committee of the Blue Shield
• " International Humanitarian Law - Treaties & Documents" 2005
• " UNESCO "

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Patrick J. Boylan, Review of the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property for the Protection in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague Convention of 1954), Paris, UNESCO (1993), Report ref. CLT-93/WS/12.
• Jiri Toman, La protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé - Commentaire de la Convention de la Haye du 14 mai 1954, Paris, (1994).
• Fabio Maniscalco, Jus Praedae, Naples (1999).
• Fabio Maniscalco (ed.), Protection of Cultural Heritage in war areas, monographic collection "Mediterraneum", vol. 2 (2002).
• Fabio Maniscalco, World Heritage and War - monographic series "Mediterraneum", vol. VI, Naples (2007).
• Nout van Woudenberg & Liesbeth Lijnzaad (ed.). Protecting Cultural Property in Armed Conflict - An Insight into the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, publ. Martinus Nixof. Leiden - Boston (2010)
• Piter Barenboim, Naim Sidiqi, Bruges, the Bridge between Civilizations: The 75 Anniversary of the Roerich Pact, Grid Belgium, 2010. ISBN  978-5-98856-114-9