Hududiy kuch - Territorial Force

Bilan aralashmaslik kerak Hindiston hududiy kuchlari yoki Armiya rezervi Yangi Zelandiya (hududiy kuch).

Hududiy kuch
1908 yilda Vindzor qal'asida ranglarning taqdimotini bo'yash
Vindzor saroyida qirol Edvard VII tomonidan Hududiy kuchlarning 108 birliklariga ranglar va ko'rsatmalar taqdimoti, 1909 yil 19-iyun.
Faol1908–1921
MamlakatBirlashgan Qirollik
TuriKo'ngilli yordamchi
NishonlarUy himoyasi, G'arbiy front, Gelibolu kampaniyasi, Sinay va Falastin kampaniyasi, Italiya fronti, Mesopotamiya kampaniyasi

The Hududiy kuch ning yarim kunlik ko'ngilli tarkibiy qismi edi Britaniya armiyasi, 1908 yilda ingliz quruqlik kuchlarini murojaat qilmasdan ko'paytirish uchun yaratilgan muddatli harbiy xizmatga chaqirish. Yangi tashkilot 19-asrni birlashtirdi Ko'ngillilar kuchi va yeomaniya buyrug'i bilan birlashgan yordamchiga aylantirildi Urush idorasi va mahalliy tomonidan boshqariladi Tuman hududiy birlashmalari. Hududiy kuch xorijdagi ekspeditsiya operatsiyalarida muntazam armiyani kuchaytirishga mo'ljallangan edi, ammo siyosiy qarama-qarshilik tufayli u uy mudofaasiga topshirildi. A'zolar Buyuk Britaniyaning istalgan joyida xizmat qilishlari uchun javobgar edilar va chet elda xizmat qilishga majbur bo'la olmadilar. Dastlabki ikki oy ichida Birinchi jahon urushi, hududiy birliklar chet elga joylashtirilishiga imkon beradigan hududiylar katta miqdordagi tashqi xizmatga ixtiyoriy ravishda murojaat qilishdi. Ular birinchi harakatlarini ko'rdilar G'arbiy front boshlang'ich paytida 1914 yilgi nemis hujumi va o'sha yilgi kuch doimiy armiyani yo'q qilish bilan kelish o'rtasidagi bo'shliqni to'ldirdi Yangi armiya 1915 yilda. Hududiy birliklar joylashtirildi Gallipoli 1915 yilda va ushbu kampaniya muvaffaqiyatsiz tugaganidan so'ng, Britaniyaning ittifoqdosh kuchlarga qo'shgan hissasining katta qismini ta'minladi Sinay va Falastin kampaniyasi. Urush oxiriga kelib, Hududiy kuchlar chet elga yigirma uchta piyoda diviziyasi va ikkita o'rnatilgan diviziyasini joylashtirdilar. Urushdan keyin u safdan chiqarilgan va 1921 yilda qayta tiklangan Hududiy armiya.

Kuch butun borligi davomida muammolarga duch keldi. Tashkil etilgandan so'ng, avvalgi yordamchi muassasalardagi erkaklarning 40 foizidan kamrog'i unga o'tdi va Birinchi Jahon urushi boshlangunga qadar u doimiy ravishda kuchli edi. Muntazam armiya tomonidan bu samarali harbiy kuch deb hisoblanmagan va chaqiruv tarafdorlari uni kamsitgan. Lord Kitchener Hududiy kuchlarni uy mudofaasiga yo'naltirishni va ko'tarishni tanladi Yangi armiya ni mustahkamlash Britaniya ekspeditsiya kuchlari Frantsiyada (BEF), bu qaror hududlarni xafa qildi. Yangi armiya tayyor bo'lgunga qadar BEF tomonidan etkazilgan katta yo'qotishlarni almashtirish zarurati, Kitchenerni vatanni himoya qilish qobiliyatiga putur etkazgan holda, chet elda hududiy birliklarni joylashtirishga majbur qildi. Chet elda xizmat ko'rsatuvchi qismlarni almashtirish uchun, Hududiy kuchlar ikki baravarga ko'paytirildi, ular ikkinchi qatorni yaratdilar, bu asl, birinchi darajali birliklarning tashkil etilishini aks ettirdi. Ikkinchi qatorli bo'linmalar uy himoyasi uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmalariga oldi va birinchi qatorga almashtirish loyihalarini taqdim etdi. Ikkinchi yo'nalish cheklangan resurslar uchun Yangi Armiya bilan raqobatlashdi va yomon jihozlangan va qurollangan edi. Birinchi qatorga o'rinbosarlarning taqdim etilishi, ikkinchi qatorni hududni yollash va o'qitish uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga olish uchun uchinchi qator ko'tarilgunga qadar uyning mudofaa qobiliyatiga putur etkazdi. Ikkinchi yo'nalishning vazifalari kutilgani sababli yanada murakkablashdi, keyinchalik uning xorijga joylashtirilishi tasdiqlandi.

Muntazam bo'linmalarni jangovar vazifalardan ozod qilish uchun dastlab hududiy bo'linmalar xorijga joylashtirildi. G'arbiy frontda, individual batalyonlar muntazam armiya tarkibiga qo'shilib, harakatga yuborildi va hududlar nemislarning hujumini to'xtatishda muhim rol o'ynagan deb hisoblandi. Birinchi to'liq hududiy bo'linish jangovar zonaga joylashtirilishi uchun Frantsiyaga 1915 yil mart oyida etib kelgan. Hududiy bo'linmalar 1915 yil iyunidan G'arbiy frontda va o'sha yilning oxirlarida Gallipolida hujum operatsiyalarida ishtirok etishni boshladilar. Tuzilishi va yollanishi tufayli Hududiy kuch odatiy armiya va Yangi armiyadan ajralib turadigan o'ziga xos xususiyatga ega edi. 1916 yil boshida majburiy xizmat joriy etilgandan so'ng og'ir talofatlar harbiy xizmatga chaqirilganlar bilan almashtirilgandan keyin bu tobora susayib bordi. Okrug hududiy uyushmalari ma'muriy javobgarlikning ko'p qismidan ozod qilinganida Hududiy kuch alohida muassasa sifatida yo'q bo'lib ketdi. Urush oxiriga kelib, muntazam, hududiy va Yangi Armiya tuzilmalarini bir-biridan ajratish juda kam edi.

Fon

19-asr oxiridagi ko'ngilli askarlarning fotosurati
19-asrning oxirlarida ko'ngillilar 22-Midlseks miltiq ko'ngillilari (Londonning markaziy Reynjersi)

The Britaniya armiyasi 19-asr oxiri garnizonga mo'ljallangan kichik, professional tashkilot edi imperiya va uy sharoitida tartibni ta'minlash, imkoniyati yo'q ekspeditsiya kuchi katta urushda.[1] Uchta ko'ngilli tashkilotlar tomonidan uy vazifalari ko'paytirildi militsiya, Ko'ngillilar kuchi va yeomaniya. Batalyonlar militsiya va ko'ngilli kuchlar doimiy armiya bilan bog'langan polklar 1872 yildan beri va militsiya ko'pincha muntazam armiyaga yollanish manbai sifatida ishlatilgan. Uchala yordamchining xizmat ko'rsatish shartlari chet elda xizmatni ixtiyoriy qildi.[2][3] The Ikkinchi Boer urushi muntazam armiyaning qarshi turish qobiliyatining zaif tomonlarini ochib berdi partizan urushi buni engish uchun qo'shimcha ishchi kuchi kerak edi. Faqatgina yordamchilar yordamchilar edi - 46 mingga yaqin militsionerlar Janubiy Afrikada xizmat qilishdi va yana 74 ming kishi doimiy armiyaga jalb qilindi; ko'ngillilar kuchlarining 20 mingga yaqin erkaklari Janubiy Afrikada faol xizmat qilish uchun ixtiyoriy ravishda; va yeomaniya alohida yadroni ta'minladi Imperial Yeomanry buning uchun 34 mingdan ortiq ko'ngilli.[4][5]

Urush odatdagi kuchlarga jiddiy ziyon keltirdi. Bosqin bosqini fonida matbuotda, Jorj Vindxem, Davlat kotibining urush bo'yicha o'rinbosari, o'tkazib yuborilgan Parlament 1900 yil fevral oyida Britaniya armiyasining mudofaasini kuchaytirish o'rniga, yordamchi kuchlar asosiy mudofaa edi.[6][7][a] Ko'ngillilarning samaradorligi va mashg'ulotlarining past standartlari tufayli yuzaga kelgan shubhali faoliyat hukumatda ham, doimiy armiyada ham yordamchining bunday vazifani bajara olishiga shubha tug'dirdi.[8][9] Urush, shuningdek, inqiroz davrida muntazam armiyani kuchaytirish manbai sifatida chet elda xizmat qilish uchun javobgar bo'lmagan yordamchi kuchlarga ishonish qiyinligini fosh qildi. 1903 yilda Bosh safarbarlik va harbiy razvedka direktori uy mudofaasi kuchlarining haddan tashqari ko'pligi haqida xabar berdi, bu xorijiy kampaniyalarda armiyani kengaytirishga ishonib bo'lmaydi.[10] Bunday kuchlarning foydaliligi Angliya harbiy rejalashtirish tomonidan yanada shubha ostiga qo'yildi; The Qirollik floti bosqindan asosiy himoya vositasini tashkil etdi va 1903 va 1908 yillarda olib borilgan tadqiqotlar, aksincha, xalq tushunchalariga qaramay, bosqinchilik xavfi ahamiyatsiz degan xulosaga keldi.[11]

Islohot harakatlari

Shuningdek qarang: Haldane islohotlari
Richard Xoldeyn
Richard Haldane, Territorial Force me'mori

Birinchi islohot harakatlari 1901 yilda boshlangan Uilyam Sent Jon Brodrik, Urush bo'yicha davlat kotibi. Ular yordamchi kuchlarni tayyorlashni takomillashtirish va yeomraniyani o'zgartirishga mo'ljallangan otliqlar ga o'rnatilgan piyoda askarlar.[12] Brodrikning sa'y-harakatlari hukumatda yordamchi manfaatlarning qarama-qarshiligiga uchradi va ayniqsa iyomaniya o'zgarishga chidamli edi. Yordamchi kuchlar bo'yicha qirollik komissiyasi 1904 yilda ko'ngillilar tashkilotlari mamlakatni himoyasiz himoya qilishga yaroqsiz va yagona samarali echim joriy etish bo'ladi degan xulosaga keldi. muddatli harbiy xizmatga chaqirish.[13][b] Barcha partiyalar tomonidan siyosiy o'z joniga qasd qilish deb hisoblangan ushbu variant darhol rad etildi. Brodrikning vorisi, H. O. Arnold-Forster, shuningdek, uning islohot harakatlariga qarshi bo'lgan qarshilikni engib o'tmadi.[16][17][18] 1905 yil dekabrda a Liberal hukumat olib keldi Richard Xoldeyn urush bo'yicha davlat kotibi sifatida. Uning maqsadi harbiy xizmatga murojaat qilmasdan urushga safarbar etilishi mumkin bo'lgan xalq - "xalq tomonidan tashkil etilgan haqiqiy milliy armiya" haqida edi.[19] Uning echimi Hududiy kuch edi, moliyalashtirildi, o'qitildi va markaz tomonidan boshqarildi Urush idorasi va mahalliy tomonidan ko'tarilgan, ta'minlangan va boshqariladigan Tuman hududiy birlashmalari.[20]

Xeylden qarshiliklarni engib, paslardan o'tib ketishga muvaffaq bo'ldi Hududiy va zaxira kuchlari to'g'risidagi qonun 1907 yil bu kuchni yaratgan, ammo murosasiz bo'lmagan. Fuqarolik, ishbilarmonlik va kasaba uyushma rahbarlariga okrug hududiy birlashmalarini boshqarishda katta rol berish rejasi, harbiy ishlarda fuqarolarning tajovuziga qarshi chiqish sharoitida sezilarli darajada kamaydi. Buning o'rniga uyushmalar raislik qildilar Lord leytenantlar va an'anaviy okrug harbiy elitalari tomonidan boshqariladi.[21][22][23] Militsiya vakillari Haldanening militsiyaning bir qismini doimiy armiya uchun zaxira sifatida ajratish va qolgan qismini hududiy kuchga qo'shish rejalarini qabul qilishdan bosh tortdilar. Ularni ishontirishga qaratilgan uchta urinishdan so'ng, Haldane militsiyani bekor qildi va ularni tuzdi Maxsus qo'riqxona.[24]

Muhimi, Haldenening sa'y-harakatlari uy mudofaasi dengiz flotida bo'lishi va armiyani isloh qilishning asosiy sharti ekspeditsiya qobiliyatini ta'minlash degan asosga asoslangan edi.[25] Muntazam armiyani qayta tashkil etishi natijasida oltita bo'linma ekspeditsiya kuchlari yaratildi va uning rejasi Hududiy kuch safarbarlikdan so'ng olti oylik mashg'ulotlardan so'ng uni kuchaytirish edi. Liberal partiyadagi mavjud yordamchi kuchlar va elementlarning vakillari har qanday tashqi xizmat majburiyatlariga qarshi chiqdilar. Ularning qo'llab-quvvatlashini ta'minlash uchun Haldane sakkiz kun oldin chet eldagi rolini ta'kidlaganiga qaramay, Parlamentda islohotlarini o'tkazishda Hududiy kuchlarning maqsadini uy mudofaasi deb e'lon qildi. So'nggi daqiqadagi o'zgarish kuch uchun butun hayoti davomida katta qiyinchiliklarni keltirib chiqardi.[26][27]

Shakllanish

Shuningdek qarang: Britaniya armiyasining hududiy kuchlari bo'linmalarining ro'yxati 1908 yil
Lord Robertsning ot ustida chizilgan surati
Lord Roberts, Territorial Force-ning ashaddiy tanqidchisi va yaxshi alternativ sifatida chaqiruvning kuchli tarafdori

Hududiy kuch 1908 yil 1-aprelda ko'ngillilar kuchlari va yeomraniyaning birlashishi bilan tashkil etilgan.[c] Ko'ngilli kuchlar batalyonlari Hududiy kuchlarning piyoda qismiga aylandi va ular ilgari ular bilan bog'lanib turadigan muntazam armiya polk muassasalariga yanada yaqinroq birlashtirildi; Masalan, doimiy armiyaning 1, 2 va 3 ko'ngillilar batalyonlari Gloucestershire polki polkning 4, 5 va 6-batalyonlariga (hududiy kuch) aylandi.[28][29][30] Piyoda qo'shinlari 14 ta hududiy tarkibga kirgan bo'linmalar, har uchtasi brigadalar. Yeomaniya polklari 14 ta o'rnatilgan brigadada tashkil etilgan Hududiy kuchning tarkibiy qismiga aylandi. Brigadalar va bo'limlar artilleriya hududiy birliklarini o'z ichiga olgan muntazam armiya saflari bo'ylab ajralmas yordamchi qurollar bilan jihozlangan (jami 182 ta) ot va maydon batareyalar), muhandislar va signallar, ta'minot, tibbiy va veterinariya xizmatlari bilan birga. Har bir hududiy bo'linmaga 81 ta hududiy kompaniyalarni to'ldirgan holda yoki qirg'oq mudofaasida o'ziga xos rol berilgan Qirollik garnizon artilleriyasi qo'zg'almas himoyani boshqarish yoki mobil qism sifatida Markaziy kuch.[31][29] Ta'limni hududiy birliklarga biriktirilgan doimiy armiya xodimlarining doimiy shtabi boshqargan.[32]

Hududiy kuchga chaqirilganlar 17 yoshdan 35 yoshgacha bo'lishi kerak edi. Ular inqiroz davrida majburiy yilga uzaytirilishi mumkin bo'lgan to'rt yillik muddatga chaqirildilar. A'zolar ro'yxatdan o'tishni uch oy oldin ogohlantirish va jarima to'lash bilan tugatishi mumkin. Ishga qabul qilinuvchilar birinchi yilida kamida 40 ta, undan keyin esa yiliga 20 ta mashg'ulotlarda qatnashishlari shart edi. Barcha a'zolar yillik lagerda sakkizdan o'n besh kungacha qatnashishlari shart edi.[33] Ushbu kuch Buyuk Britaniyaning istalgan joyida xizmat qilishi kerak edi. A'zolar chet elda xizmat qilishlari shart emas edi, lekin bunda ixtiyoriy ravishda xizmat qilishlari mumkin edi. Hali ham kuchning asosiy vazifasini ekspeditsiya kuchlarini kengaytirish deb bilgan Xaldey, barcha hududlarning to'rtdan biriga ko'ngilli bo'lishga umid qildi. safarbarlik. Imperatorlik xizmati majburiyati 1910 yilda hududiylarga oldindan ko'ngilli yordam berish uchun joriy qilingan.[26][34] Hududiy bo'linmalarni birlashtirish yoki tarqatish yoki ular o'rtasida a'zolarni o'tkazish noqonuniy edi.[35]

Qabul qilish

Islohotlar yordamchilar tomonidan yaxshi qabul qilinmadi. Militsiyaning chetlashtirilishi Xoldeynning hududiy kuch uchun atigi 314 mingdan ortiq zobit va odamni nishonga olishiga imkon bermadi. Xizmatning yangi shartlari a'zolarga avvalgi yordamchi muassasalar talabiga nisbatan kattaroq majburiyat yukladi. 1908 yil 1-iyungacha kuch 145 mingdan kam chaqirilganlarni jalb qildi. Yangi tashkilotni ilgari yordamchi muassasalarga targ'ib qilish bo'yicha katta sa'y-harakatlarga qaramay, unga mavjud bo'lgan barcha yordamchi tashkilotlarning 40 foizidan kamrog'i yordam berdi.[36]

Okrug hududiy birlashmalari yangi a'zolarni jalb qilish borasidagi sa'y-harakatlari bilan mahalliy hududiy o'ziga xoslikdan faxrlanishini ta'kidladilar va harbiy xizmatga chaqirishni rag'batlantirish uchun hujum ostida bo'lgan mahalliy sahnalar tasvirlaridan foydalandilar.[37] Umuman olganda, kuch, asosan, ishchilar sinfidan yollanganlarni jalb qildi hunarmandlar muntazam armiya saflarini to'ldirgan malakasiz ishchilarga qaraganda. Ba'zi bo'limlarda o'rta va ishchi sinflar birgalikda xizmat qilishdi. Shaharlarning yanada badavlat markazlaridan jalb qilingan bo'linmalarda bilimdonlarning katta qismi bor edi oq xalatli ishchilar. Hududiy zobitlar asosan o'rta sinf edi, ya'ni ba'zi bo'linmalarda zobitlarni ijtimoiy mavqei jihatidan boshqa darajalardan ajratish juda kam bo'lgan.[38][d]

Xaotik hududiy manyovrlarning
"Osmonga shukur, bizda dengiz floti bor". Hududiy kuchlarning millatni bosqindan himoya qilish qobiliyatini zamonaviy idrok etish Punch Birinchi Jahon urushi boshlanishiga uch oy qolmasdan.

Muntazam armiyaning imtiyozli ofitserlar korpusi hududiy zobitlarni ijtimoiy past darajadagi deb hisoblashgan. Territsiyalarning nisbatan tor doiradagi ijtimoiy spektri muntazam armiyaning qattiq, ierarxik intizomiga qaraganda o'z-o'zini tarbiyalashning rasmiy bo'lmagan tizimiga olib keldi va havaskor yordamchiga nisbatan professional xurofotni berdi.[40] Muntazam armiya kuchlarning avvalgilariga qaraganda hududiy qobiliyatlarga ko'proq ishonmas edi. Tayyorgarlik va mushketyorlikning hududiy standartlari shubhali bo'lib, hududiy artilleriya obro'si shunchalik yomon ediki, uni tarqatib yuborish kerak degan chaqiriqlar paydo bo'ldi. Muntazam zobitlar, o'zlarining martaba istiqbollaridan qo'rqib, ko'pincha postlarni hududiy sifatida qarshilik ko'rsatdilar yordamchi.[41][42] The Armiya kengashi olti oylik safarbarlik bo'yicha intensiv mashg'ulotlardan so'ng ham, kuch ikkita hududiy bo'linishni rejalashtirilganidek bitta muntazam bo'linishga teng deb hisoblashi mumkin bo'lgan me'yorga erisha olmasligini taxmin qildi.[43] 1908 va 1914 yillarda armiyaning oltita ekspeditsiya bo'linmasidan ikkitasi Buyuk Britaniyada uy mudofaasi uchun saqlanib qolishi kerakligi to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi, shuning uchun Hududiy kuch tayinlangan rolda samarasiz edi.[41]

Muddatli harbiy xizmatga oid bahs va urushdan oldingi muammolar

1910 yilda, Lord Esher, London okrugi hududiy uyushmasining chaqiruv tarafdorlari raisi Milliy sharh mamlakat kuchsiz ko'ngilli yordamchi va majburiy xizmatni tanlashi kerak edi.[44] Uning fikriga ko'ra, Hududiy kuchlar ko'ngillilar an'anasi uchun so'nggi imkoniyat edi va uning muvaffaqiyatsizligi muddatli harbiy xizmatga yo'l ochadi.[45] Majburiy xizmatni targ'ib qilish Milliy xizmat ligasi (NSL), bosqinga qarshi dengiz mudofaasiga umid bog'lashni va kuchli uy armiyasini zarur deb hisoblagan.[46] 1909 yilda NSL tomonidan homiylik qilingan qonun loyihasida Hududiy kuchlarni chaqirilgan uy armiyasi uchun asos sifatida foydalanish taklif qilingan. Bu muvaffaqiyatsiz tugagach, liga yordamchiga nisbatan tobora ziddiyatli bo'lib qoldi.[47] Bu kuch haddan tashqari yoshligi, samarasizligi va doimiy ravishda kamligi uchun kamsitilgan va mashhur matbuotda "Territorial Fors" deb mazax qilingan.[48][49] NSL prezidenti - avvalgi Kuchlar bosh qo'mondoni, Lord Roberts - unga qarshi kampaniyada xizmat qilayotgan ofitserlarning yordamini jalb qildi va 1913 yilda Armiya Kengashi muddatli harbiy xizmatni qo'llab-quvvatlashini e'lon qildi.[50][51] Hatto kuchning taniqli a'zolari ham majburiy xizmatni ma'qul ko'rishdi va 1913 yil aprelga qadar o'nta okrug hududiy birlashmalari buni qo'llab-quvvatladilar.[52][47]

Okrug hududiy uyushmalari va urush idorasi o'rtasidagi munosabatlar ko'pincha murosasiz edi. Uyushmalar haddan tashqari byurokratiya va etarli mablag 'haqida shikoyat qilar edilar. Harbiy ma'murlar muntazam armiyaga sarflanishi mumkin bo'lgan pulni samarasiz, havaskor yordamchi deb bilgan narsalariga sarf qilishdan afsuslanishdi.[53] Masalan, Urush idorasining sekin javoblari tufayli etarli imkoniyatlarni ta'minlash bo'yicha harakatlar susaytirildi, ular oxir-oqibat yaqinda assotsiatsiyalarning rejalarini tez-tez rad etishdi yoki to'liq moliyalashtirishni talab qilishdan bosh tortishdi. 1909 yilda Gloucestershire uyushma "bizning uyushmamizning aksariyati ishbilarmonlar ekanligi va nima uchun javob berish o'n hafta va undan yuqori vaqtni talab qilishini tushunolmayotganliklari" dan shikoyat qilib, dala tez tibbiy yordam bo'linmasi uchun joy sotib olish taklifiga javob kutganidan keyin.[54] Somerset taklif qilingan yangi burg'ulash zali uchun uchta joyni yo'qotib qo'ydi, chunki urush idorasi rejalarni tasdiqlash uchun juda ko'p vaqt talab qildi va Esseks yangi miltiq qurilishi uchun tasdiq olishdan oldin besh yil kutish kerak edi oraliqlar.[55] Uyushmalar tomonidan yaxshi ob'ektlar samaradorlik, birlik uchun muhim deb baholandi esprit de corps ishga yollash va rasmiylarning parsimonligi va aniq to'siqlari ularni buzayotgani sifatida ko'rildi.[56]

Dastlabki harbiy xizmatga qabul qilish muddati tugagandan so'ng, kuch ko'p sonli odamlarni ushlab tura olmadi va u doimiy ravishda o'z kuchidan mahrum bo'ldi. Bu 1909 yilda 268,000 erkaklarining eng yuqori cho'qqisiga kirdi, chunki bosqinchilik qo'rquvi ishga yollanishning kuchayishiga olib keldi, ammo 1913 yilga kelib ularning soni 246000 dan kam bo'lib, ofitserlar korpusi deyarli 20 foizga obuna bo'lmagan.[57][58][59] 1910 yilda kuchlarning uchdan bir qismi mushketchilik mashqlarining minimal darajasini tugatmagan edi. Faqatgina 155,000 hududiylar 1912 yilda 15 kunlik to'liq lagerni tugatdilar va 6000 atrofida umuman qatnashmadi. 1909 yilda oddiy xodimlarning taxminan 37 foizi 20 yoshgacha bo'lganlar; fikricha Uy kuchlari bosh inspektori, bu mutanosiblik kuchga etarlicha etuk bo'lmadi. 1913 yilda taxminan 40,000 hududlar 19 yoshgacha bo'lganlar, ular chet elda xizmat qilish uchun ixtiyoriy ravishda xizmat qilishlari mumkin bo'lgan minimal yosh. Kuchlarning deyarli etti foizi Imperatorlik xizmatining majburiyatini qabul qilib, ekspeditsiya kuchini mustahkamlash sifatida uning hayotiyligini jiddiy ravishda buzdi.[60][61] Harbiy hokimiyat Hududiy kuchlarni kuchsiz deb hisoblaganligi va tashqi xizmat uchun javobgar bo'lmagan yordamchining ahamiyatini ko'rmaganligi sababli ular doimiy armiyaga sarflanadigan xarajatlarni birinchi o'ringa qo'yib, kuchlarini eskirgan qurol-yarog 'bilan qurollantirdilar.[41]

Birinchi jahon urushi

Shuningdek qarang: Birinchi jahon urushida Britaniya uy armiyasi va 1914–1918 yillardagi Britaniya hududiy kuchlari bo'linmalarining ro'yxati
1914 yil sentyabr oyidagi hududiy kuchlarni yollash plakati
Hududiy 4-batalyon uchun yollash plakati, Dorset polki, 1914 yil sentyabr.

Ning tarqalishi to'g'risida Birinchi jahon urushi, Lord Kitchener Hududiy kuchlarni chetlab o'tib, harbiy hokimiyatning ma'qullashi bilan o'rniga ko'tarildi Yangi armiya doimiy armiyani kengaytirish uchun ko'ngillilar. Uning qarori nafaqat professional xurofotga asoslangan edi - u hududlarni "forma kiyish va askarlarda o'ynashga ruxsat berilgan o'rta yoshdagi professional erkaklar" boshchiligidagi hazil sifatida qabul qildi.[62] - shuningdek, kuch konstitutsiyasida belgilangan cheklovlarni qadrlash to'g'risida. U okrug hududiy uyushmalari ko'p sonli odamlarni jalb qilish va o'qitish vazifasini uddalay olmasliklaridan qo'rqardi. Shuningdek, u shu paytgacha juda oz sonli hududlar tashqi xizmatga ixtiyoriy ravishda qatnashganligi sababli, Hududiy kuchlar chet elda armiyani kengaytirish vositasidan ko'ra uy mudofaasi uchun juda mos bo'lgan deb hisoblardi.[63][64]

Mobilizatsiya va o'qitish

Iyul oyining oxirida hududiy maxsus xizmat bo'limlari sharqiy qirg'oqlarni qo'riqlashni boshladi. Urush e'lon qilinishidan bir kun oldin, 1-London brigadasi London va Sautgempton o'rtasidagi temir yo'l tarmog'ini himoya qilish uchun vzvodlar tomonidan tarqatib yuborilgan.[65] Qolgan hududiy kuchlar 1914 yil 4-avgustda kechqurun safarbar qilindi va yaqinda joylashgan bazalari bo'lgan harbiy qismlar tomonidan urush stantsiyalari tezda ishg'ol qilindi. Masalan, 6 avgustgacha Wessex Division Plimutda to'plangan, qolganlari esa Shimoliy o'lka bo'limi sharqiy qirg'oq mudofaasida pozitsiyalarni egalladi va keyingi kun elementlari Uels divizioni hududida to'plandilar Pembrok Dock.[66] Urush stantsiyalariga o'tishdan oldin bazalar yaqinida to'plangan ba'zi tuzilmalar; The Highland Division Masalan, shimolda joylashgan turli joylarda yig'ilgan Edinburg davom etishdan oldin Bedford, Londonning shimolida. Mudofaa vazifalari ba'zi bo'linishlarning tarqalishiga olib keldi; ning brigadasi G'arbiy minish diviziyasi Masalan, sharqiy qirg'oqni tomosha qilish uchun joylashtirilgan, qolgan qism esa temir yo'llar va qurol-yarog 'fabrikalarini ichki qismda va brigadalarni qo'riqlagan. Sharqiy Angliya bo'limi atrofida tarqalib ketishgan Sharqiy Angliya.[67]

1914 yil 13-avgustda Kitchener chet elga joylashishga tayyorligini bildirdi, u erda erkaklarning 80 foizi (oy oxirida 60 foizgacha kamaygan) Imperial xizmat majburiyatini qabul qilgan.[68] Urushdan oldin past darajadagi iste'molga ega bo'lishiga qaramay, oddiy askarlarning 72 foizi sentyabr oyi oxiriga qadar chet el xizmatiga qatnashishni istashdi.[69] Chet elda joylashtirilgan birinchi to'liq hududiy bo'linmalar imperator garnizonlarini ozod qilish uchun ishlatilgan. The Sharqiy Lankashir divizioni sentyabr oyida Misrga jo'natildi va 1915 yil yanvargacha uchta hududiy bo'linmalar Hindistonga joylashtirildi.[70][e] Hududiy batalyonlar Adanda joylashgan doimiy qo'shinlarni ozod qilishdi, Kipr, Gibraltar va Maltada. Hududiy joylashuvlar tomonidan chiqarilgan qo'shinlardan beshta muntazam armiya bo'linmalari tuzildi.[72] Batalonlar o'rtasida hududlarning majburiyatni qabul qilish darajasi sezilarli darajada farq qilar edi; ba'zilari qabul qilishning 90 foizini yoki undan ko'pini ro'yxatdan o'tkazgan, boshqalari esa 50 foizdan kamini qabul qilishgan. Qiyinchiliklar oddiy askarlar bilan cheklanmagan va ko'plab batalyonlar yangi xizmatga ko'tarilgan yoki uyda qolishni tanlaganlar o'rniga ishga yollangan ofitserlar bilan chet el xizmatiga suzib ketishgan.[73]

1914 yil avgustda safarbarlik bo'yicha xududiy kompaniya paradlari
H Company, 8-batalyon (Hududiy kuch), Nottingem va Derbishir polki, 1914 yil 7-avgustda safarbarlik qildi.

Amaliy standartlarga muvofiq tayyorgarlik ko'rish paytida hududlar qiyinchiliklarga duch kelishdi. 1915 yil yanvarigacha ba'zi artilleriya bo'linmalari jonli o'q-dorilar bilan mashq qilish imkoniyatini qo'lga kirita olmadi. Miltiq, o'q-dorilar va ularni ishlatish doiralari yo'qligi sababli miltiq amaliyoti azob chekdi. Etarli transport bo'lmaganligi sababli, aravalar, shaxsiy transport vositalari va yuk mashinalarining motel to'plami xizmatga topshirildi. Dvigatelsiz transport vositasini tortib olish yoki yeomraniyani o'rnatish uchun ishlatiladigan hayvonlar nasabidan yarim ko'rlardan tortib olingan piton otlarni ko'rsatish.[74][f] Hududiy kuchlar yangi armiya bilan chaqirilganlar uchun raqobatlashdi va Urush idorasi mashg'ulot va jihozlar uchun birinchi o'rinni egalladi.[77] Hududiy bo'linmalarga yuborilgan ko'p sonli armiya shtab-kvartiralari o'zlarining ota-polklariga chaqirildi va hali ham qolgan mutaxassislar 1915 yil yanvarida hududiy zaxira qismlariga o'tkazildi. Mudofaa vazifalari doirasida keng tarqalgan tarkibi uchun mashg'ulotlar qiyin kechdi va eskirgan sakkizinchi hududiy batalyonlarni qayta tashkil etish zarurati bilan hamma uchun murakkab edi.kompaniya armiyaning standart to'rtta batalyoniga tuzilishi.[78]

Ikkinchi satr

15 avgustda okrug hududiy birlashmalari tashqi xizmatga rejalashtirilgan birliklar o'rniga ikkinchi darajali birliklarni yig'ishni boshladi. Ikkinchi qatorning qatorlari imperatorlik xizmatining majburiyatini qabul qila olmagan yoki qabul qilmagan hududlar tomonidan to'ldirildi. Noyabr oyida uyushmalar hududiy jangovar bo'linmalarga zaxira nusxalarini taqdim etish vazifasini ikkinchi darajali bo'linmalarga topshirish uchun uchinchi qator birliklarini ko'tarishni boshladilar. Hududiy batalyonlar qatorga qarab raqamlangan, shunday qilib, masalan, 6-batalyonning uchta yo'nalishi, Gloucestershire polki, 1/6, 2/6 va 3/6-batalyonlarga aylandi. 1915 yil may oyida hududiy bo'linmalar chet elga joylashish tartibiga ko'ra raqamlandi; masalan, Sharqiy Lankashir diviziyasi 42-chi (Sharqiy Lankashir) bo'limga aylandi.[79]

Ikkinchi qatorli bo'linmalar chet elda joylashtiriladi, degan ishonch bilan darhol uchinchi qator uy vazifalarini o'z zimmalariga oladilar deb taxmin qilishdi. Ko'pgina ikkinchi darajali batalyonlar Imperatorlik xizmatining majburiyatini qabul qilmagan askarlarni qabul qilishdan bosh tortdilar, bu amaliyot 1915 yil martigacha faqat uy sharoitida xizmatga kirish huquqi bekor qilingunga qadar rasman sanktsiyalanmagan edi. Ikkinchi qatorli bo'linmalarning chet elga joylashtirilishi 1915 yil o'rtalarida rasmiy ravishda tasdiqlangan. Uchinchi qator tayyor bo'lgunga qadar loyihalarni etkazib berish, Vatanni himoya qilish va joylashtirishga tayyorgarlik ko'rish to'g'risidagi qarama-qarshi talablar ikkinchi qatorga muammo tug'dirdi.[80][81][g] 1915 yil may oyida Kitchener Urush kabinetiga ikkinchi qatorni uy himoyasi uchun ishonchsiz holga keltirish uchun o'qitilgan erkaklar shunchalik tanqid qilinganligini ma'lum qildi. Faqat 1916 yilda Urush idorasi birinchi qatorga o'rinbosarlar yuborilishi uchun ikkinchi qator endi traul qilinmaydi deb va'da berishi mumkin edi. Bu vaqtga kelib, ikkinchi darajali batalyon muassasalari 400 kishigacha qisqartirildi, bu odatda piyoda batalyonida to'liq kuch bilan xizmat qilganlarning yarmidan kamiga to'g'ri keldi. Faol xizmatga ikkinchi darajali shakllanishni tayyorlash uchun o'rtacha 27 oy davom etdi, birinchi qatorda sakkiz oy bo'lsa, ikkinchi qatorda ko'pincha etarli qurol va o'q-dorilar etishmayotgan edi.[83][84] Ikkinchi qator komandirlari orasida tayyorgarlik darajasini va o'zlarining joylashuviga tayyorgarlikni saqlab qolish istagi birinchi qatordagi hamkasblari bilan ishqalanishga olib keldi, ular ikkinchi qatorni eng yaxshi odamlarni ushlab turish va sub-standart o'rnini bosuvchilarni yuborishda ayblashdi birinchi satr.[85]

G'arbiy front

Messines jangida London Shotlandiyalik rasm
1/14 batalyon (London Shotlandiya) Messines jangida, 1914 yil 31 oktyabr

Muntazam armiya Frantsiyadagi ochilish janglari paytida yuqori darajada eskirganida, Kitchener yo'qotishlarni qoplash uchun bosimga duch keldi. Yangi armiya hali tayyor bo'lmaganda, u yana hududlarga qaytishga majbur bo'ldi.[86] Generalning afzalligiga qaramay Yan Xemilton, Ichki kuchlarning Bosh qo'mondoni, hududiy kuchlarni joylashtirilishi uchun G'arbiy front to'liq brigadalar va bo'linmalarda u qismlarga bo'linib joylashtirildi. Qo'shinlarga bo'lgan ehtiyoj juda yuqori bo'lganligi sababli, shaxsiy batalyonlar samaradorlik darajasiga etib borishi bilan yuborilib, oddiy brigadalarga biriktirildi.[87] O'rnatilgan birliklarni tanlashda mantiq kam edi. Ijobiy baholanganlarning ba'zilari uyda qolishdi, yaxshi tayyorgarlik ko'rmagan bo'linmalar joylashtirilganda, ko'pincha etarli uskunalarsiz va shoshilinch kuchga kelgandan keyingina.[88][h] Birinchi kelgan hududiy birlik 1/14 batalyon (London Shotlandiya ), London polki, 1914 yil sentyabrda. Dekabrga qadar yigirma ikkita piyoda batalyoni, etti yeomaniya polki va bitta tibbiy va uchta muhandis bo'linmasi yuborildi.[89]

Dastlab hududiy batalyonlar ajratilgan aloqa liniyasi muntazam armiya brigadalariga tayinlanishidan oldin uch haftagacha vazifalar. 1915 yil fevraldan boshlab mamlakatda 48 piyoda batalyonlari mavjud bo'lib, ular to'g'ridan-to'g'ri o'zlarining mezbon bo'linmalariga jo'natildi.[90][91] Frontga etib borgach, hududlar bir necha kun davomida xandaqqa moslashish davridan oldin safardan o'tib, qo'shimcha mashg'ulotlarda qatnashishardi. Batalyon mahoratli deb hisoblanganda yoki oddiy bo'linmani engillashtirish uchun bosim juda og'irlashganda, hududlarga o'zlarining frontning sektori ajratildi. Brigadaga kelish va xandaqlarni egallab olish o'rtasidagi vaqt olti kundan bir oygacha bo'lgan.[92]

Bo'shliqni to'ldirish

Vayron qilingan uyning tepasida joylashgan Berkshir hududiy snayperlar jamoasi
1915 yil Ypresdagi Qirollik Berkshir polkining 1/4 batalion snayperlar jamoasi

Hududiy hududlar dastlabki nemis hujumining mudofaa janglariga tashlangan Dengizga poyga. Harakatni birinchilardan bo'lib ko'rganlar - London Shotlandiya, 1914 yil 31 oktyabrda 640 talafot ko'rgan Messines jangi. Bu davomida yana harakat edi Ipres jangi Noyabr oyida va feldmarshal Sir tomonidan "Mintaqaviy kuchning qolgan qismiga" ulug'vor etakchi va namuna "sifatida maqtandi. Jon frantsuz, komandiri Britaniya ekspeditsiya kuchlari (BEF).[93][men] Hududiy mashg'ulotlar yakunlanib, bosqinchilik xavfi orqaga chekingach, jangovar teatrlarga to'liq bo'linmalar jalb qilindi. Birinchi bo'lib jo'nab ketdi 46-chi (Shimoliy Midlend) divizioni 1915 yil mart oyida G'arbiy frontga etib keldi. Iyulga qadar barcha 14 ta birinchi qatorli diviziyalar chet elga joylashtirildi.[94][81][89]

The Northumberland brigadasi Nortumbriya diviziyasi 1915 yil 26 aprelda abortli qarshi hujumda qatnashganda o'z qo'mondonligi ostida jang qilgan batalyondan kattaroq birinchi hududiy tuzilishga aylandi. Ypresning ikkinchi jangi. Bu 1954 talafot ko'rdi va frantsuzlarning shaxsiy tabrigiga sazovor bo'ldi. Bo'lim faqat uch kun oldin joylashtirilgan edi; uning boshqa bo'linmalari qismlarga bo'linib boshqa tuzilmalarga biriktirilib, zudlik bilan umidsiz jangga tashlandilar va frantsuzlardan ularning qat'iyatliligi va qat'iyatliligi uchun yanada maqtovga sazovor bo'lishdi. Muntazam ravishda armiya tarkibiga kirgan yana bir qancha hududiy batalyonlar katta talofatlar evaziga Ypresni himoya qilishda alohida kurash olib borishdi.[95][96][j] Uch batalyon Monmutshir polki London polkining uchta bataloni singari vaqtincha birlashgan batalyonga birlashtirildi.[81] Jang maydonlarini birlashtirish harbiy zarurat bo'lib, hududiy birlik yaxlitligini huquqiy himoya qilishga tahdid soladi.[98]

Garchi hududlar mudofaa operatsiyalarida o'zlarining munosibligini isbotlashgan bo'lsa-da, ular biriktirilgan doimiy tuzilmalar komandirlari hali ham ularning qobiliyatlariga ishonishmadi. Muntazamlar hududlarning asosiy vazifasini hujumkor operatsiyalar uchun muntazam batalyonlarni chiqarish deb hisoblashgan. Hududlar xandaklar qurishda va ularga xizmat ko'rsatishda qatnashgan va odatda hujumlarda faqat qo'llab-quvvatlovchi harakatlarni bajargan Neuve Chapelle va Aubers Ridge 1915 yil boshida.[99] Istisno 1/13 batalyon edi (Kensington ), London polki. Aubers Ridge jangi paytida Kensingtonlar yirik hujumning birinchi to'lqinida joylashtirilgan birinchi hududiy batalyonga aylandi va shu kuni o'z maqsadiga erishgan yagona batalyon bo'ldi.[100] Ammo Hududiy kuch 1914 yilgi nemislarning hujumi bilan muntazam armiyada paydo bo'lgan bo'shliqlarni to'ldirdi va frantsuzlar nemislarning oldinga siljishini bu holda to'xtatish mumkin emas edi deb yozgan.[101][102]

Birinchi bo'linish operatsiyalari

51-chi (tog'li) diviziya 1915 yil 15-iyunda Givenchyning ikkinchi harakatida hujumda qatnashdi Artoisning ikkinchi jangi. Diviziya qismlarga bo'linish uchun bir nechta asl batalonlarini yo'qotib qo'ydi va Frantsiyaga kelishidan bir oy oldin, asosan brigadaning brigadaning birikishi bilan kuchga kirdi. 55-chi (G'arbiy Lankashir) divizioni. Bu diviziyaning hujumiga boshchilik qilgan ikkita batalonga qarshi hujumdagi birinchi tajriba edi. Ular nemislarning ikkinchi himoya chizig'iga erishishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi, ammo ularning o'ng tomonidagi doimiy kuchlar hududlari katta yo'qotish bilan nafaqaga chiqishga majbur bo'lmaganda.[103][104] Tomonidan professional tarzda rejalashtirilgan va amalga oshirilgan hujum 47-chi (1/2 London) divizioni ichida bo'lgan bir nechta yutuqlardan biri edi Loos jangi 25-sentabrda, ammo 46-chi (Shimoliy Midlend) divizioniga qarshi muvaffaqiyatsiz hujum natijasida 3,643 yo'qotishlarga duch keldi Hohenzollern Redoubt 13 oktyabrda. General-leytenant serga Duglas Xeyg, komandiri Birinchi armiya, 46-bo'limning muvaffaqiyatsizligi "ba'zi hududiy bo'linmalar hali ham mashg'ulot va intizomga muhtoj" ekanligini namoyish etdi.[105][106][k]

Loos jangida hujum qiladigan hududlar
Loos jangi paytida oldinga siljigan 47-divizion (1/2 London) hududlari

1915 yil yozida Frantsiyaga oltita to'liq hududiy bo'linmalar joylashtirildi. Hali ham doimiy armiya tarkibiga biriktirilgan 52 ta hududiy bo'linmalarning aksariyati o'zlarining ota-ona buyruqlariga qaytarildi. Bu mutaxassislarga o'zlarining xizmat ko'rsatish shartlariga ko'ra noqulay bo'lgan elementni tarkibidan olib tashlashga imkon berdi.[108] Muntazamlar hududlarni harakatlanishda va tiklanishda sust, hujumdan ko'ra statik himoyada yaxshiroq deb topdilar.[109] Shunga qaramay, kadrlar almashinuvi Hududiy kuchlar harbiy ma'muriyatning kutganidan oshib ketganligini ko'rsatdi va hududlar odatdagidek bo'lgan vaqt odatda ikkalasi o'rtasida kuchli do'stlik va o'zaro hurmatga olib keldi.[110] Frantsuzlar 1915 yil fevral oyida o'z qo'mondonlarini o'z hududlari uchun maqtashlari haqida xabar berishdi, ular "tezkor piyoda askarlari samaradorligi me'yorlariga tez etib kelishgan bo'lsa".[111]

Somme jangi

Boshida G'arbiy frontda sakkizta birinchi darajali hududiy bo'linmalar mavjud edi Somme jangi 1916 yil 1-iyulda. Ulardan ikkitasi, 46-chi (Shimoliy Midlend) bo'limi va 56-chi (1/1 London) divizioni, birinchi kuni harakatga kirdi halokatli Gommecourt Salient-ga hujum tomonidan o'tkazilgan diversion operatsiya Uchinchi armiya.[112][113] Yana ikkita hududiy bo'linma 48-chi (Mid Midland) va 49-chi (G'arbiy Riding), boshlang'ich 25 bo'linmasi orasida edi To'rtinchi armiya, which bore the brunt of the fighting during the four and a half months of the Somme offensive. The 49th Division was committed piecemeal on the first day to the fighting around the Shvaben Redubt, and two battalions of the 48th Division were attached to the 4-divizion and participated in the first day's fighting.[114][115] The 48th Division itself went into action on 16 July, and by the end of September the remaining four territorial divisions – the 47th (1/2nd London), 50th (Northumbrian), 51st (Highland) and 55th (West Lancashire) – had relieved battle-weary units and gone into action.[116]

Xandaklardagi hududiy Lyuis pulemyot jamoasi
Territorials of the 48th (South Midland) Division during the Battle of the Somme

Although the 46th Division's poor performance at Gommecourt cemented a perception that it was a failed unit and the 49th Division's standing was little better, the territorials generally emerged from the Somme with enhanced reputations.[117] This was echoed by Brigadier-General C. B. Prowse, a brigade commander in the 4th Division, who commented, "I did not before think much of the territorials, but by God they can fight."[118] The Battle of the Somme marked the high point of the Territorial Force as a recognisable entity distinct from the regular and New Army forces. It suffered some 84,000 casualties during the offensive, and the indiscriminate replacement of these with recruits who had been conscripted into the army rather than volunteering specifically for the Territorial Force marked the beginning of the end for the territorial identity.[119][120]

Second-line deployment

Fourteen second-line divisions were formed during the war, eight of which were deployed overseas. The first to fight in a major battle was the 61-chi (Ikkinchi Janubiy Midlend) divizioni.[121][122] Its constituent units were raised in September and October 1914, and their training was indicative of the difficulties faced by the second line in general. New recruits paraded without uniforms until October and lived at home until the division assembled in January 1915. The infantry was equipped with old Japanese Arisaka rifles, antique Maksim machine-guns and dummy Lyuis qurollari constructed from wood. The divisional artillery, having initially drilled with cart-mounted logs, was equipped first with obsolete French 90 mm cannons, then with outdated 15 pog'onali qurol va 5 dyuymli gubitsalar handed down from the first line. The division was not issued with modern weapons until it began intensive training in March 1916, in preparation for its deployment to France at the end of May. Battalion strengths fluctuated throughout training as men were drafted to first-line units.[75] The division was still only at two-thirds strength when it attacked at the Fromelles jangi in July 1916 alongside the Australian 5th Division. The heavy casualties suffered by the Australians were blamed on the failure of the territorials' assaulting battalions to take a key position.[123]

Gallipoli

Lancashire hududlari Gallipoliga tushayotganda qayiq kemasida tiqilib qolishdi
Fusiliers of the 125th Brigade, 42nd (East Lancashire Division), about to land and go into battle at Gallipoli, May 1915.

By August 1915, four territorial infantry divisions and a yeomanry mounted division, deployed without its horses as infantry, had reinforced British Empire forces engaged in the Gelibolu kampaniyasi.[124] Their landings were chaotic; The 125-chi (Lancashire Fusiliers) brigadasi, for example, landed nearly a week before the other two brigades of the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division. The infantry were rushed into battle without any opportunity to acclimatise, and the 54th (East Anglian) Division did not receive any formal instruction about the nature of the campaign for the first four weeks of its participation in it. Some battalions of the 53rd (Welsh) Division were second-line units and had still been supplying replacement drafts to first-line units, and the division was given only two weeks notice that it was to go to Gallipoli.[125]

The 42nd Division impressed the regulars with its spirit in the Kritiyaning uchinchi jangi 4 iyun kuni. The 155-chi (Janubiy Shotlandiya) brigadasi ning 52-chi (pasttekislik) divizioni assaulted with such determination in July that it overran its objective and came under fire from French allies. The 156-chi (Shotlandiya miltiqlari) brigadasi suffered over 50 per cent casualties in the Gulli Ravine jangi on 28 June, and a battalion of the 54th Division was slaughtered when it advanced too far during an attack on 12 August.[126][124] The same month, the yeomen of the 2-chi divizion suffered 30 per cent casualties during the Scimitar tepaligidagi jang, and had to be relieved by six dismounted yeomanry brigades which landed in October.[127]

The campaign ended in withdrawal in January 1916. Although Hamilton, appointed to command the O'rta er dengizi ekspeditsiya kuchlari in March 1915, praised the courage of the territorials, he criticised the performance of the 53rd and 54th Divisions. His comments failed to recognise the difficulties the two divisions had faced with the loss of many of their trained men transferred to other units before their arrival at Gallipoli.[128][120] Lieutenant-Colonel E. C. Da Costa, GSO1 of the 54th Division, refuted accusations by Lieutenant-General Sir Frederik Stopford, komandiri IX korpus, that the division lacked attacking spirit and was badly led. Da Costa claimed that its poor performance was entirely due to the way it had been "chucked ashore" and thrown into a poorly-coordinated and ill-defined attack.[129]

Egypt, Sinai and Palestine

Xujdagi mas'ul Lady Butler tomonidan rasm
Quddus etkazib berildi – The yeomanry charge at Huj by Lady Butler

Following a successful British defence of the Suvaysh kanali, Misr ekspeditsiya kuchlari (EEF) was formed in March 1916 and went over to the offensive against German and Usmonli kuchlari Sinay va Falastin kampaniyasi. The EEF comprised forces from Britain, Australia, New Zealand and India, and the British contribution was predominantly territorial. Most of the infantry was provided by the four territorial divisions that had fought at Gallipoli. When the 42nd Division was transferred to France in March 1917, it was replaced in July by the second-line 60-divizion (2/2 London). The latter, having already fought during the Doiran jangi yilda Salonika, played a key role in the capture of Jerusalem on 9 December.[130][131]

The yeomanry provided 18 dismounted regiments which fought as infantry and, in 1917, were formed into the 74-bo'lim (Yeomaniya). This division was transferred to France in 1918 along with the 52nd (Lowland) Division.[132][133] Five brigades of yeomanry fought in the mounted role, and in 1917 three of them were formed into the Yeomanry o'rnatilgan diviziyasi. The yeomanry mounted some of the last cavalry charges ever made by British forces; The Hujda to'lov on 8 November 1917 by the 1/1st Warwickshire Yeomanry va 1/1 Qirolichaning o'zining Worcestershire gussarlari, followed five days later with a charge by the 1/1st Royal Bucks Hussars ichida Mug'ar tizmasi jangi.[134] By the end of a campaign in which the EEF had advanced across the Sinai, through Palestine, and into Syria, territorial casualties numbered over 32,000 – 3,000 more than those suffered by British regular, Australian, New Zealand and Indian forces combined.[132]

Kech urush

1917 yildagi Kambray jangida 51-tog'li (tog'li) diviziya askarlari
1/4 batalyon, Gordon Xaylanders, 51st (Highland) Division, at the Kambrey urushi

The much maligned 46th (North Midland) Division redeemed itself in 1918 in a hazardous attack during the Sent-Kventin kanali jangi. The operation was successfully spearheaded by the 137-chi (Staffordshire) brigadasi, which included two battalions that were almost disbanded because of their alleged poor performance at Gommecourt two years earlier.[135][136] The seven untested second-line divisions saw their first actions in 1917.[137] They generally suffered, undeservedly, from poor reputations, although the 58-chi (1/2 London) va 62-chi (2-g'arbiy minish) Divisions were well regarded by the war's end.[138] The 51st (Highland) Division, whose men labelled themselves as "duds" after a slow start, and the two London first-line divisions were among the best in the BEF by 1918.[139][140] A reputation for dependability resulted in the 48th (South Midland) Division being transferred to Italiya to relieve the regular 7-piyoda diviziyasi 1918 yil mart oyida.[141][142] Several territorial divisions overcame poor initial impressions to become effective, dependable formations by the end of the war.[143] The 61st (2nd South Midland) Division, for example, blamed for the failure at Fromelles, was commended by Lieutenant-General Hubert Gou, komandiri Beshinchi armiya, as the best performing of his 11 front-line divisions in the initial onslaught of the German Spring Offensive 1918 yil mart oyida.[144]

As the war progressed, Britain began to struggle with manpower shortages, prompting changes which affected the territorials. The 63-chi (2-chi shimoliy) va 65-chi (2-pasttekislik) Divisions had already been disbanded in July 1916 and March 1917 respectively. The remaining four home-based divisions lost their territorial affiliation when they were reconstituted as part of the O'quv zaxirasi over the winter of 1917/1918.[145] In early 1918, every brigade in the BEF was reduced from four to three battalions. The reductions targeted second-line and New Army units, and resulted in the amalgamation of 44 territorial battalions and the disbandment of a further 21.[146] In July, the 50th (Northumbrian) Division was left with a single territorial battalion when it was reorganised following heavy losses during the Spring Offensive. Its other territorial battalions, having fought in most battles since the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915, were reduced to a cadre or disbanded. All but one battalion in each brigade of the 53rd (Welsh) Division and the 60th (2/2nd London) Division in Palestine were transferred to France and replaced with Indian battalions in 1916.[141][147] The 75-divizion was formed in Egypt in March 1917 with territorial units transferred from India, though it too was subsequently 'indianised'.[148] Several territorial battalions from the 42nd (East Lancashire), 46th (North Midland) and 59-chi (2-Shimoliy Midlend) Divisions were reduced to training cadres, demobilised or disbanded shortly before the war's end.[149] The apparent cull of territorial units added to the grievances harboured by the Territorial Force about its treatment by the military authorities.[141]

Erosion of the territorial identity

1916 yil oktyabr oyida 149-chi (Northumbrian) brigadasi askarlarining guruh fotosurati
Soldiers of 149th (Northumbrian) Brigade. The first territorial brigade to see action in 1915, by the time this picture was taken in October 1916 it had suffered many casualties and been rebuilt with many non-Northumbrians.

Many territorial battalions had strong individual identities based on the geography of their recruitment. The ranks had been filled by men who, at least until direct voluntary recruitment into the Territorial Force ceased in December 1915, had chosen the force in preference to the new or regular armies. They had elected to join local regiments and been imbued with an esprit de corps during their training in those regiments' own second and later third lines.[150][151] The strong sense of locality was reinforced by a shared civilian background – it was not uncommon for territorials to be employed in the same office, mill or factory – and many territorial memoirs betray a sense of family or club. A similar sentiment was exploited in raising the New Army pals battalions, but in the Territorial Force this was reinforced by a pedigree that New Army units did not possess; most territorial units could trace a lineage back to the early or mid 19th century through units of yeomanry or volunteers which had for generations been a part of local communities and social life.[152][153][154]

O'zgarishlar

In the first half of the war, territorial casualties were generally replaced with drafts from a battalion's own reserve. Although there were some cases of replacements being sourced from different regions or non-territorial units, in mid-1916 the ranks of the territorial units were still largely populated by men who had volunteered specifically for service as a territorial in their local regiment.[155] The legal protections for this were stripped away by the Military Service Acts of 1916. These permitted the amalgamation and disbandment of units and the transfer of territorials between them, introduced conscription, and required territorials either to accept the Imperial Service Obligation or leave the force and become liable for conscription.[156][l]

The last recruits to voluntarily enlist in a specific unit of the Territorial Force before the choice was removed, and who had trained in that unit's third line alongside neighbours and colleagues, had been drafted to their front-line units by May 1916.[158] In September 1916, the regiment-based system for training New Army units was centralised into the Training Reserve. Separately, the 194 territorial third-line units were amalgamated into 87 Reserve Battalions. They retained responsibility for supplying replacements to the first- and second-line units, but when unable to do so, replacements were sent from the Training Reserve. The system was organised by region, so even if a battalion did not receive replacements from its own regiment they were generally sourced from an appropriate locality, but it did not guarantee unit integrity.[159][160]

Hududiy identifikatsiyani susaytirganligini ko'rsatuvchi jadval
Dilution of the territorial identity as the war progressed, based on casualties born or residing in a unit's original recruiting area for a sample of territorial battalions.

After the heavy losses sustained during the Somme offensive, dilution of the territorial identity accelerated because of the influx of replacements who had no territorial affiliation.[120] Some units still maintained a regional identity; the 56th (1/1st London) Division, for example, retained its essentially London character despite the fact that the four battalions of its 168th Brigade received replacements from at least 26 different regiments during the battle.[161] Others experienced substantial dilution by the end of the offensive; the 149th (Northumberland) Brigade, for example, received large numbers of replacements from East Anglia, Northemptonshir, London va Midlands. By March 1917, a significant proportion of the men in the second-line 61st (2nd South Midland) Division came from outside the Janubiy Midlend due to the replacement of losses suffered at the Battle of Fromelles. By the end of the year, the same trend could be seen in the first-line 48th (South Midland) Division.[162]

The indiscriminate replacement of casualties prompted rueful comments about the damage being done to the nature of the Territorial Force. Tarixchi C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, 1/4 batalyonda xizmat qilish, Qirollik Berkshir polki, lamented that, by the end of 1916, the battalion had "lost its exclusive Berkshire character which, at the beginning of the war, had been its unique possession". For the 1/6th Battalion, G'arbiy Yorkshir polki, losses during the Battle of the Somme had damaged its "territorial influence".[163] Criticisms of the drafting system were voiced in the Jamiyat palatasi, and territorial representatives expressed concern that the force's unique character was being lost.[164] Military authorities stated their desire to replenish units with replacements from the same regiment or regimental district, but stressed that the Military Service Acts had removed any obligation to do so and that military expediency sometimes necessitated not doing so.[165]

As the availability of men of military age dwindled, it became increasingly difficult to source replacements from some sparsely populated regions. The largely rurally recruited 48th (South Midland) and 54th (East Anglian) Divisions became increasingly diluted as the war progressed, while the more urbanised recruitment areas of the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division allowed it to remain essentially a Lankashir formation throughout.[166] By the war's end, very few battalions still retained more than a handful of men who had embarked with them at the start of the war. The territorial units that fought in 1917 and 1918, subject to the same system of replacements as the rest of the British land forces, bore little resemblance beyond a geographic origin to those that had sailed in 1914 and 1915. By 1918, there was little to differentiate between regular, territorial and New Army divisions.[167][147]

Territorial grievances

Hududiy urush medali fotosurati
Hududiy urush medali

Failure to guarantee the integrity of its units was the most contentious of several grievances felt by the territorials against what they perceived as a hostile and patronising attitude from the military authorities.[168] Territorial officers and specialists such as doctors, vets, drivers, cooks and dispatch riders received less pay than their counterparts in New Army and regular units. Officers were considered junior to their regular counterparts of the same rank, leading some to remove the 'T' insignia from their uniforms as a badge of inferiority, and commanders of second-line brigades and third-line battalions were a rank lower than their regular counterparts.[169][109] Although the Territorial Force provided many officers for the regular army, very few were appointed to higher commands, despite pre-war promises by Haldane that they would be. In 1918, government efforts to defend the military record on senior territorial promotions failed to acknowledge that most were temporary and in home units. Yan Makferson, Under-Secretary of State for War, conceded that just ten territorial officers commanded brigades and only three had been promoted to highest grade of General Staff Officer.[170][m] The territorials received scant recognition for their early enthusiasm. The Army Council refused to grant any special decorations for those who had accepted the Imperial Service Obligation before the war. The Hududiy urush medali, awarded to those who had volunteered for service overseas in the first months of the war, was denied to volunteers who had been held back even though they rendered invaluable service training the rest of the army. Those who served in India received no campaign medal.[171]

The three territorial divisions sent to India in 1914 felt penalised by their early readiness. The men were placed on lower, peacetime rates of pay; gunners had to purchase equipment that should have been issued; officers attending courses were not fully reimbursed for their hotel expenses; va unts-ofitserlar promoted after arrival had to protest before they received the pay increase to which they were entitled.[172] The divisions were still stationed there at the war's end, despite promises made by Kitchener that they would be redeployed to France within a year. Indications that they would be the first to be demobilised proved false when the outbreak of the Uchinchi Angliya-Afg'on urushi forced the government to retain some territorial units in India until 1920.[173][174] The poor treatment of the territorials in India resulted in low support across south-west England and the uy tumanlari, the regions from which the three divisions were recruited, when the Territorial Force was reconstituted after the war.[175]

Tuman hududiy birlashmalari

Londonning Viktoriya stantsiyasidagi ta'tildagi sahna Ko'ngillilar tayyorlash korpusi a'zosi tomonidan boshqariladi
A member of the Volunteer Training Corps directing troops arriving on leave at Victoria Station

The County Territorial Associations experienced a steady erosion of responsibilities as the war progressed. Although disappointed by Kitchener's decision to bypass the Territorial Force, the associations assisted in recruiting the New Army alongside their own work raising and equipping territorial units. The Kambridjeshire, Denbighshire and Sharqiy minish associations, for example, together raised 11 New Army units in December 1914.[151] The associations performed remarkably well in equipping their units, despite the fact that the War Office prioritised New Army units and, in the case of the Lestershir associations, threatened to penalise manufacturers who dealt with any institution other than the War Office. The competitive nature of the system led to supply according to highest bidder rather than military necessity and, in consequence, inflated prices. As a result, the territorials were relieved of responsibility for the purchase and supply of equipment in favour of a centralised system in May 1915.[176][177][178]

In December 1915, direct recruitment into the Territorial Force ceased. The next year, the associations were rendered largely superfluous when administration of several territorial services, including the second- and third-line units and Uyda xizmat ko'rsatish batalyonlari, was taken from them.[151][179] In March 1917, many territorial depots were shut down as a result of War Office centralisation, and later the same year territorial records offices were closed. The Council of County Territorial Associations met in September to discuss the loss of responsibilities and the apparent erosion of the Territorial Force. A delegation in October to Lord Derbi, Secretary of State for War, resulted only in the associations being given responsibility for the Ko'ngillilarni tayyorlash korpusi (VTC). Regarded as a poor substitute for the Territorial Force, the VTC was recruited from those not eligible for active service, mainly due to age. It was widely denigrated as "Grandpa's Regiment" and "George's Wrecks", from the armbands inscribed with the letters "GR" (for Georgius Rex), which was all the uniform the government was initially willing to provide them with.[180]

Urushdan keyingi urush

1920 yilda Uinston Cherchillning portreti
Winston Churchill, architect of the Territorial Army, c.1920

Between August 1914 and December 1915, the Territorial Force had attracted nearly 726,000 recruits, approximately half the number that had volunteered for the New Army over the same period.[181] It had raised 692 battalions by the war's end, compared with 267 regular or reserve battalions and 557 New Army battalions. The force deployed 318 battalions overseas, compared to the New Army's 404, and fielded 23 infantry and two mounted divisions on foreign soil, compared to the New Army's 30 infantry divisions.[182] Seventy-one awards of the Viktoriya xochi, Britain's highest award for valour, were made to territorial soldiers, including two of only three panjaralar ever awarded.[183][n] The territorials had suffered some 577,000 casualties in the period 1914–1920.[185] Compromised in conception and ridiculed in peacetime, the Territorial Force had filled the gap between what was effectively the destruction of the regular army in the opening campaigns of the war and the arrival of the New Armies in 1915.[185]

Demobilisation of the Territorial Force commenced in December 1918, and the debate about its reconstitution was begun.[186] The service rendered by the force during the war and the considerable political influence it possessed ensured its survival, but there was an extended discussion about what role it should play. In the absence of any invasion threat, there was no requirement to maintain a significant force for home defence, and a part-time body of volunteers could have no place in the imperial garrison. With conscription established as the means of expanding the regular army in a major conflict, which the O'n yillik qoida anyway regarded as unlikely, there was no need to maintain a body of volunteers for this role. The only purpose military authorities could find for the Territorial Force was the provision of drafts to reinforce the army in medium-scale conflicts within the empire. Accordingly, the War Office recommended in March 1919 that the force should be liable for service overseas and receive no guarantees about unit integrity.[187]

Uinston Cherchill, the Secretary of State for War responsible for reconstituting the force, considered a mandatory imperial obligation unfair and resisted its imposition. The territorial representatives recognised the necessity of such an obligation, but opposed the force being used simply as a reserve of manpower for the army, rather than operating as a second line in its own brigades and divisions as Haldane had intended. Territorial support for the imperial obligation eventually persuaded Churchill to accept it, and concerns about unit integrity were allayed by "The Pledge", Churchill's promise that the force would be deployed as complete units and fight in its own formations. The final sticking point was resolved by the resurrection of the militia to provide reinforcement drafts to the regular army.[188]

Another issue was military aid to the civil power during the industrial unrest that followed the war. The thinly-stretched army was reluctant to become involved, so Churchill proposed using the territorials. Concerns that the force would be deployed to break strikes adversely affected recruitment, which had recommenced on 1 February 1920, resulting in promises that the force would not be so used. The government nevertheless deployed the Territorial Force in all but name during the miner's strike of April 1921 by the hasty establishment of the Defence Force. The new organisation relied heavily on territorial facilities and personnel, and its units were given territorial designations. Territorials were specially invited to enlist. Although those that did were required to resign from the Territorial Force, their service in the Defence Force counted towards their territorial obligations, and they were automatically re-admitted to the Territorial Force once their service in the Defence Force was completed.[189]

The Territorial Force was officially reconstituted in 1921 by the Hududiy armiya va militsiya to'g'risidagi qonun 1921 yil and renamed in October as the Hududiy armiya. The difficulties posed in the war by an auxiliary that maintained a separate identity from the regular army were still enshrined in the reconstituted auxiliary. They were finally addressed by the Armed Forces (Conditions of Service) Act, passed on the outbreak of the Ikkinchi jahon urushi in September 1939, by which restrictions on territorial terms of service and transfer between units were removed and territorial status was suspended for the duration. The next war would be fought from the start by a single, integrated army.[190]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ At one stage during the Second Boer War, regular forces available for the defence of the homeland comprised just nine cavalry regiments, and six infantry and three guards battalions.[6]
  2. ^ The royal commission took the opposite view to the Imperator mudofaasi qo'mitasi, which had determined in 1903 that invasion was unlikely and had anyway not shared its conclusion with the commission.[14][15]
  3. ^ The former militia battalions were converted to Special Reserve battalions and allocated one to each of the regular army's two-battalion infantry regiments, becoming the regiment's third battalion with the function of training replacement drafts in times of war.[24]
  4. ^ Although yeomanry recruitment was becoming increasingly urban in the early 20th century, it remained essentially the pastime of the wealthy middle class, led by the upper class and landed gentry.[39]
  5. ^ The 43rd (Wessex), 44-chi (Uylar) and second-line 45-chi (2-chi Wessex) Divisions deployed to India between November 1914 and January 1915. During the course of the war, all three shed artillery batteries and infantry battalions to other theatres, mainly the Mesopotamiya kampaniyasi and the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. Some units were detached to Adan, Gibraltar and France, and others were posted to the Andaman orollari, Singapur va Gonkong. By the end of the war, only a handful of the original units remained in each division, though in some cases the departing units were replaced by second-line units and garrison battalions.[71]
  6. ^ A commander in the 61st (2nd South Midland) Division appropriated one of his battalion's six mules as his charger.[75] Old Tom, a sut suzadi horse, continued his habit of stopping automatically at every gate after he was pressed into service as an officer's mount in the 2/5th Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment.[76]
  7. ^ As an example of the difficulties faced by the second-line units, the 178th (2/1st Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade sent so many replacements to France in 1916 that the majority of its men had received only three months training and had never fired a full-bore rifle when it was sent to Ireland during the Fisih bayramining ko'tarilishi. It sent another draft to France in August, resulting in another influx of new recruits to be trained and many months before the brigade would be considered fit for active service.[82]
  8. ^ Because of the pressure to provide troops for the BEF, units were sent as soon as they were perceived to have attained a degree of efficiency, though it is not clear how this was determined. Personal influence, War Office assessments and Hamilton's reports all played a role. Kitchener himself selected the London Scottish to go, based on the battalion's reputation, and the Oxfordshire Hussars owes its early deployment to personal ties with Churchill. Hamilton's input was not always taken into account; he ranked territorial battalions according to their level of efficiency, but some units were deployed before those ranked above them. There was public indignation in Glasgow when the 1/9th Battalion, Highland Light piyoda askarlari, was dispatched to France in November 1914 with nearly 40 per cent of its men recruited only in the three months since the declaration of war.[88]
  9. ^ The London Scottish had fought at Messines with faulty rifles and without support from its own machine-guns, knowledge of the ground over which it fought or contact with brigade. It withdrew only when the professionals on its flanks did, and re-established its line in conformity with them.[93]
  10. ^ Among many notable acts by the territorials, the 1/12th (County of London) Battalion (Reynjers ), London Regiment, were reduced to less than 60 other ranks in a much-admired but futile counter-attack; the 1/9th (County of London) Battalion (Qirolicha Viktoriyaning miltiqlari ), London Regiment, demonstrated tenacious bravery in a successful but costly counter-attack on Tepalik 60; the 1/5th (City of London) Battalion (London o'qotar brigadasi ), London Regiment, twice stood fast in its trenches when the regulars on its flanks fell back; two companies of the 1/8th Battalion, Midlseks polki, put up a "magnificent defence" before being overwhelmed; The 1/4th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment, was praised for a hastily prepared and costly counter-attack; the 1/5th (Cumberland) Battalion, Chegara polki, gained the respect of the regulars by demonstrating "great unconcern" during gas attacks, something which did "much to fortify the confidence of other troops"; and the first-line battalions of the Monmouthshire Regiment distinguished themselves in defence and, for the 1/3rd Battalion, a subsequent counter-attack.[97]
  11. ^ The 46th Division's corps commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Xaking, also blamed the territorials for the failure to capture the Hohenzollern Redoubt, despite having, against the wishes of the division commander, Major-General Edvard Montagu-Styuart-Vortli, dictated a plan of attack that forced the division to assault across open ground in full view of the defenders, based on an over-confident assessment of the effects of the British artillery.[107]
  12. ^ The Military Service Acts stripped several territorial privileges that had been causing difficulties for the military authorities. Until March 1915, territorials were allowed to enlist only for home service, and enough to populate 68 Uyda xizmat ko'rsatish batalyonlari had done so by April 1915. The legislation also extended for the duration the enlistment of more than 159,000 territorials who would otherwise have completed their five years of service in the period 1914–1917.[157][156]
  13. ^ Two territorial units, the 1/28th Rassomlarning miltiqlari va Sud xonalari, were specifically constituted as Ofitserlar tayyorlash korpusi battalions, which between them trained nearly 22,000 officers for the army.[98]
  14. ^ Both recipients of the second award of the Victoria Cross (VC) were territorial surgeons serving with the Qirollik armiyasi tibbiyot korpusi. Leytenant Artur Martin-Lik had earned his first VC during the Second Boer War. Kapitan Noel Godfri Chavasse was awarded both of his, the second posthumously, for actions during the First World War.[184]

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 11
  2. ^ Spiers pp. 187–190
  3. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 13–16
  4. ^ Bkett 2011 yil 200–203 betlar
  5. ^ Hay pp. 175–176
  6. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 205
  7. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 20, 26
  8. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 27
  9. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 206–207
  10. ^ Hay pp. 220–221
  11. ^ Mitchinson 2005 pp. 3–4, 7
  12. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 206–208
  13. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 208–209
  14. ^ Mitchinson 2005 p. 3
  15. ^ Beckett 2011 p. 209
  16. ^ Simkins 2007 p. 24
  17. ^ Spiers pp. 202–203
  18. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 209–212
  19. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 28
  20. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 30, 43–44
  21. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 213–215
  22. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 31–32
  23. ^ Mitchinson 2008 p. 2018-04-02 121 2
  24. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 216
  25. ^ Dennis pp. 5–6
  26. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 215
  27. ^ Dennis pp. 13–14, 19
  28. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 216–217
  29. ^ a b Simkins 2007 p. 16
  30. ^ Daniell pp. 201–202
  31. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 30–31
  32. ^ Mitchinson 2017 p. 19
  33. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 29, 34
  34. ^ Dennis p. 19
  35. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 63
  36. ^ Beckett 2011 p. 217
  37. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 2018-04-02 121 2
  38. ^ Sheffield pp. 13–16
  39. ^ Hay pp. 92, 96, 41–43, 49–50
  40. ^ Sheffield pp. 16–20
  41. ^ a b v Beckett 2011 p. 219
  42. ^ Mitchinson 2008 p. 119
  43. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 70
  44. ^ Simkins 2007 p. 17
  45. ^ Mitchinson 2008 p. 7
  46. ^ Dennis p. 17
  47. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 220
  48. ^ Mitchinson 2005 p. 1
  49. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 59
  50. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 219–220
  51. ^ Beckett 2004 p. 129
  52. ^ Dennis p. 23
  53. ^ Mitchinson 2008 pp. 13–16, 105
  54. ^ Mitchinson 2008 pp. 25, 41–42
  55. ^ Mitchinson 2008 pp. 34–35, 110
  56. ^ Mitchinson 2008 pp. 34, 37
  57. ^ Beckett 2011 p. 221
  58. ^ Dennis p. 25
  59. ^ Mitchinson 2008 p.59
  60. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 221–222
  61. ^ Dennis p. 24
  62. ^ Simkins 2007 p. 41
  63. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 52–53
  64. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 60
  65. ^ Mitchinson 2005 pp. 52–53
  66. ^ Mitchinson 2005 pp. 54–55
  67. ^ Mitchinson 2005 pp. 57–58
  68. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 53–54
  69. ^ Beckett 2011 p. 230
  70. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 54
  71. ^ Becke 2A pp. 47–48, 53–54, 59–60
  72. ^ Simkins 2003 p. 245
  73. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 71–73
  74. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 53–56
  75. ^ a b Becke 2B p. 38
  76. ^ Barnes p. 20
  77. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 39–40
  78. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 63–68
  79. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 57
  80. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 180–181
  81. ^ a b v Mitchinson 2005 p. 99
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  83. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 58–60
  84. ^ Mitchinson 2005 pp. 99–100
  85. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 181–182
  86. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 55
  87. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 58–59, 62
  88. ^ a b Mitchinson 2014 pp. 58–62
  89. ^ a b Beckett 2008 pp. 55–56
  90. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 78–79
  91. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 56
  92. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 79
  93. ^ a b Mitchinson 2014 p. 99
  94. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 62–63
  95. ^ Edmonds & Wynne pp. 262–263
  96. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 107–112
  97. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 108–109
  98. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 235
  99. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 98–101, 107
  100. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 101
  101. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 76
  102. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 115–116
  103. ^ Bewsher pp. 10–12, 18
  104. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 103–106
  105. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 112–115
  106. ^ Edmonds p. 388
  107. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 113–115
  108. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 88–89
  109. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 234
  110. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 87–89
  111. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 116
  112. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 192–193
  113. ^ McCarthy pp. 8, 31–33
  114. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 193
  115. ^ Rawson pp. 30, 33
  116. ^ Rawson pp. 101, 110, 177
  117. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 196
  118. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 83
  119. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 6
  120. ^ a b v Beckett 2011 p. 232
  121. ^ Jeyms p. 132
  122. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 204
  123. ^ Bean pp. 340, 444–445
  124. ^ a b Beckett 2008 pp. 79–80
  125. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 90, 118–121
  126. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 119–121
  127. ^ Mileham pp. 39–40
  128. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 80
  129. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 121–122
  130. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 85–86
  131. ^ Becke 2A p. 41, 2B p. 32
  132. ^ a b Beckett 2008 p. 85
  133. ^ Becke 2A p. 115, 2B pp. 121–122
  134. ^ Mileham pp. 42–47
  135. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 201, 210
  136. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 83–84
  137. ^ Becke 2B pp. 6, 14, 22, 31, 46, 73
  138. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 215, 259
  139. ^ Bewsher p. 30
  140. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 210
  141. ^ a b v Mitchinson 2014 p. 216
  142. ^ Becke 2A p. 83
  143. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 217
  144. ^ Barnes pp. 92, 97
  145. ^ Becke 2B pp. 54, 59, 65, 81, 89, 97
  146. ^ Messenger p. 275
  147. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 233
  148. ^ Becke 2B p. 129
  149. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 259
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  151. ^ a b v Beckett 2008 p. 73
  152. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 71
  153. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 6, 15, 197
  154. ^ Simkins 2007 pp. 82–83
  155. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 185–186, 190–192
  156. ^ a b Beckett 2008 pp. 62–63
  157. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 41
  158. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 214
  159. ^ James pp. 39, 127
  160. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 204–206
  161. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 201–203
  162. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 203–204
  163. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 67
  164. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 63, 68
  165. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 200–201
  166. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 204, 206
  167. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 209–210, 214
  168. ^ Beckett 2004 p. 136
  169. ^ Mitchinson 2014 pp. 42, 45–47, 212
  170. ^ Beckett 2011 pp. 233–235
  171. ^ Dennis pp. 50–53
  172. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 77
  173. ^ Beckett 2011 p. 227
  174. ^ Beckett 2004 p. 135
  175. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 187
  176. ^ Steppler pp. 115–116
  177. ^ Simkins 2007 pp. 272–274
  178. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 40
  179. ^ Mitchinson 2014 p. 50
  180. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 74–75
  181. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 58
  182. ^ Beckett 2004 p. 132
  183. ^ Beckett 2008 pp. 81–82
  184. ^ Beckett 2008 p. 82
  185. ^ a b Beckett 2011 p. 243
  186. ^ Beckett 2011 p. 244
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