Eshitadigan taxta - Threshing board - Wikipedia

Ispaniyalik xirmon taxtasining yuqori ko'rinishi
Ispaniyalik xirmon taxtasining pastki ko'rinishi

A xirmon taxtasi eskirgan qishloq xo'jaligi asboblari ajratish uchun ishlatiladi yormalar ulardan somon; ya'ni boshoq. Bu to'rtburchaklar va trapetsiya shaklida, old qismi biroz toraygan va yuqoriga burilgan (har xil lamellar bilan yasalgan qalin taxta) chana yoki chana ) va pastki qismi bilan qoplangan litik gevreği yoki ustara - metall pichoqlar kabi.

Bir vaqtlar tomonidan keng tarqalgan bitta shakl O'rtayer dengizi, "taxminan uch-to'rt fut kenglikda va olti fut chuqurlikda (bu o'lchamlar ko'pincha har xil bo'ladi), bir-biriga yig'ilgan, kengligi to'rt dyuymdan ortiq bo'lgan ikki yoki uchta yog'och taxtalardan iborat bo'lib, unda bir nechta qattiq va kesuvchi fintlar siqilgan. Orqa qismda mixlangan katta halqa bor, uni tortadigan arqonni bog'lash uchun ishlatiladi va unga odatda ikkita ot bog'lanadi; va xirmonda o'tirgan odam Uni xirmonga yoyilgan yorma ustiga aylanada aylantiradi. Agar odamga og'irlik kerak bo'lsa, uning ustiga faqat katta toshlar qo'yish kerak. "[1]

Xirmon taxtalarining o'lchamlari har xil edi. Yilda Ispaniya, ularning uzunligi taxminan ikki metrgacha va kengligi bir yarim metrga teng bo'lishi mumkin. Uzunligi yarim metrga, eni esa bir metrga yaqinroq bo'lgan kichikroq xirmonli taxtalar ham bor edi.[2] Xirmon taxtasi taxtalarining qalinligi taxminan besh-olti sm. Shunga qaramay, xirmon taxtalari bugungi kunda buyurtma asosida tayyorlangan yoki bezak yoki esdalik sifatida kichraytirilganligi sababli, ular miniatyuradan tortib ilgari tasvirlangan o'lchamlarga qadar bo'lishi mumkin.[3]

Xirmon taxtasi an'anaviy ravishda xachirlar yoki ho'kizlar tomonidan yoyilgan donalar ustiga tortilgan xirmon. Tarqatilgan o'rim-yig'im atrofida aylanada harakatlanayotganda, tosh yongalar yoki pichoqlar kesilgan somon va qulog'i bug'doy (bu xirmon taxtasi va erdagi toshlar orasida qolgan), shuning uchun urug'ni shikastlamasdan ajratish. So'ngra bosilgan don yig'ilib, ba'zi vositalar yordamida tozalanishga o'rnatildi tanib olish.

An'anaviy xirmon tizimlari

Bog'larni olib kelish uchun tayyorlash xirmon
An'anaviy xirmon Yaqin Sharq
Yig'ish uchun xirmonni supurish urug '
Tozalash urug ' mexanik bilan qoziq mashinasi
Asosiy maqola: xirmon

Kelguniga qadar kombaynlar, donni bitta jarayonda yig'adigan, bosadigan va tozalaydigan an'anaviy usullar, boshoqli donlarni maydalash baklagiller tomonidan tasvirlanganlar edi Katta Pliniy uning ichida Tabiiy tarix, uchta variant bilan: "Hububotni ba'zi joylarda xirmon taxtasi bilan xirmonda bosishadi; boshqalarida ularni otlar poyezdi bosib ketishadi, boshqalarda esa ular flamalar bilan urishadi".[4]

Shu tarzda, Pliniy uchta an'anaviy don usulini nazarda tutadi:

  • Urmoq maydalangan toshga yoki maydalangan bo'lakka qarshi donalar.
  • Trampling xirmonga yoyilgan don; oyoq osti qilish xachir yoki ho'kizlar poezdi tomonidan amalga oshiriladi
  • Bug'doy bilan qoziqlar, urug 'ajralib chiqmaguncha, g'alla uyumini urib tushiradigan an'anaviy yog'och qurol turi somon.

Xirmon taxtasi bilan maydalash

Xirmon taxtasi - bu xirmonning tarixiy shakli bo'lib, uni chekka qishloq xo'jaligi bilan shug'ullanadigan ba'zi mintaqalarda ko'rish mumkin. Bundan tashqari, u vaqti-vaqti bilan saqlanib qolgan folklorik va an'anaviy marosimlarni yodga olish uchun marosim amaliyoti.[5]

Xirmon taxtasi bilan xirmon qilish uchun, avvalo, xirmonli poyalarni xirmonga olib keladi. Ba'zilar bir-birining ustiga yig'ilib, navbat kutib turishadi, boshqalari esa echintirib, quyosh nurlari bilan isitiladigan don yig'indisini hosil qilib aylanaga joylashadilar. Keyin, dehqonlar xirmonni dastani ustiga sudrab, avval bir necha marta aylana, so'ngra sakkiztalikka aylanib, donni yog'och bilan aralashtirdilar. pichan. Ba'zan, bu ish boshqa turdagi xirmonlar bilan bajarilgan: a Plostellum punicum (Lotin; so'zma-so'z "Punic cart") yoki xirmonli arava, har birida metall ko'ndalang tıraşlı rulolar guruhi o'rnatilgan. Ushbu birinchi bosqichda somon quloqdan ajralib chiqadi; yeyiladigan don bilan aralashtirilgan ko'p somon va iflos chang qoladi. Har safar xirmonni sudrab borish ishi takrorlanganda, don yana aralashtiriladi, xirmonning chetiga ko'proq somon harakatlanadi. Agar erga juda ko'p don yoyilgan bo'lsa, uni dumaloq tepalik qilish va iloji bo'lsa, imkon qadar ko'proq somonni olib tashlash uchun uni qoqish va supurish kerak.

Don va somonni ag'darib tashlab, tushlik tanaffusida quritib qo'ygandan so'ng, dehqonlar donning oxirgi qismini somondan ajratish uchun ikkinchi marta xirmonni o'tkazadilar. Keyin, ular tepalik, tirnoq va supurgi yordamida tepalik hosil qilishadi. Bir juft ho'kiz yoki xachir oldingi taxtaga mixlangan ilmoqqa mahkamlangan zanjir yoki kamar yordamida xirmonni tortib oladi; eshaklar ishlatilmaydi, chunki ular xachir va ho'kizlardan farqli o'laroq ular ko'pincha ekin maydonlarida najas olishadi. Haydovchi xirmonda yurib, ham chaqirilgan hayvonlarni boshqaradi, ham xirmon taxtasining og'irligini oshiradi. Agar haydovchining vazni etarli bo'lmasa, taxtaga katta toshlar qo'yiladi. So'nggi paytlarda hayvonlar ba'zan a bilan almashtiriladi traktor; chunki haydovchi endi taxtada o'tirmaydi, toshlarning og'irligi muhimroq bo'ladi. Bolalar o'yin-kulgi uchun xirmonda minishni yaxshi ko'rishadi va fermerlar bunga imkon berishadi, chunki ularning vazni foydali, chunki bolalar juda shov-shuvli emaslar.[6] Ushbu jarayon davomida, dastani haddan tashqari siqib chiqarilsa, xirmon taxtasi orqasiga ikkita katta metall yoy yopishtiriladi; bu o'girilib, xirmon ortida somonlarga hajm beradi.

Xirmon tugagandan so'ng, iflos qoldiqlarni toza, yangi poyalar bilan aralashtirib yubormaslik uchun, xirmonni avval og'irroq materialni siljitish uchun tirnoq bilan, so'ngra bir nechta supurgi bilan tozalash kerak (tor ma'noda: ular odatda "supurgi buta "—Cytisus scoparius - va ular uy supurishlaridan kuchliroqdir[7]). Shuningdek, somon ehtiyotkorlik bilan to'planib, saqlandi, chunki bu yaxshi edi em-xashak uchun chorva mollari. Xirmonning butun jarayoni ingichka changni hosil qiladi nafas olish tizimi va yopishadi tomoq.

Supurish paytida po'stlog'i va somon xirmonning bir qismiga ajratilgan, hanuzgacha to'liq tozalanmagan don, an'anaviy ravishda tanib olish bilan elaklar yoki mexanik tomonidan qoziq mashinasi.[8]

An'anaviy xirmon qurollari (shu jumladan, xirmon taxtasi) asta-sekin tark etilib, o'rniga zamonaviy kombaynlar o'rnatildi. Bu o'zgarish, albatta, ba'zi sohalarda boshqalaridan oldin sodir bo'lgan. Masalan, Ispaniyada bu 1950 va 1960 yillarda sodir bo'lgan.[9]O'sha vaqtga qadar xirmon taxtalari ma'lum bir shahar va qishloqlarda maxsus hunarmandlar bilan tayyorlangan. Yog'ochga ishlov berish oddiy, hattoki qo'pol bo'lsa ham, toshbo'ron qilish va taxtaning pastki qismiga plyonkalarni kiritish otadan bolaga o'tadigan maxsus ko'nikmalarga muhtoj. Ushbu asar uchun eng mashhur Ispaniya shahri, shubhasiz, Kantalexo (Segoviya ), bu erda xirmon taxtalari yasagan ustalar tanilgan brikeros.

Tarix

Neolit ​​va mis davrida kelib chiqishi

Miloddan avvalgi 4-ming yillikda Obsidiya savdosi
Dan o'yib yozilgan planshet Kish, Tanishuv Miloddan avvalgi 3350 yil, har ikki tomonning xirmon taxtalari tasvirlari bilan
Kichik xirmon taxtasi Tunis

Patrisiya C. Anderson (ning Centre d'Etudes Préhistoire, Antiquité et Moyen Age del CNRS ), topilgan arxeologik qoldiqlar, kamida 8000 yillik xirmon taxtalari mavjudligini namoyish etadi Yaqin Sharq va Bolqon. Artefaktlar litik gevreği va, avvalambor obsidian yoki chaqmoqtosh pichoqlar, mikroskopik eskirish turi bilan tanilgan. Uning ishini Jak Chabot yakunladi Center interuniversitaire d'études sur les lettres, les arts et les an'analari, CELAT), kim o'qigan Mitanni (shimoliy Mesopotamiya va Armaniston ). Ikkalasi ham o'z mutaxassisliklari orasida o'qishni hisobga oladi mikroto'lqinli tahlil, bu orqali ma'lum bir toshbo'ron yoki obsidian qismini olish mumkin (eng keng tarqalgan misollarni olish) va u ishlatilgan vazifalarni aniqlash.[10]Konkret ravishda, donni kesish juda xarakterli bo'lib qoladi yaltiroq mikroskopik mineral zarralar borligi sababli (fitolitlar ) o'simliklar poyasida. Shuning uchun olimlar boshqariladigan eksperimental replikatsiya tadqiqotlari va a bilan funktsional tahlillardan foydalanadilar elektron mikroskopni skanerlash sifatida ishlatilgan tosh buyumlarni aniqlashga qodir o'roqlar yoki xirmon taxtalarining tishlari. Xirmon taxtalarida ishlatiladigan bo'laklarning chekka shikastlanishi aniq, chunki bundan tashqari yaltiroq xirmonning tosh yuzasiga urish natijasida xashak taxtasining zarbalari natijasida ular maydalangan yormalarni maydalashga xos bo'lgan aşınma xususiyatiga ega.[11]

Eng samarali arxeologik yodgorlik bu Aratashen, Armaniston: miloddan avvalgi 5000 dan 3000 yilgacha bosib olingan qishloq (Neolitik va Mis asri ). The arxeologik qazishmalar obsidianning urishidan minglab buyumlarni taqdim etganlar (Aratashen ushbu taniqli toshdan yasalgan buyumlarni ishlab chiqarish va sotish markazi bo'lgan). qolganlari arxeologik yozuvlar asosan oddiy kulolchilik buyumlaridan iborat, toshlar va boshqa qishloq xo'jaligi vositalari. Eng yaxshi saqlanib qolgan parchalar orasidan tanlab olingan 200 litik gevreği va pichoqlar namunasini tahlil qilib, o'roqlarda va xirmon taxtalarida ishlatiladiganlarni farqlash mumkin. Obsidianning litik pichoqlari yuqori darajada rivojlangan va standartlashtirilgan usullar yordamida urilgan, masalan, mis uchi bo'lgan "ko'krak pog'onasi".[12] Daryoning boshidan boshlanadi Furot, ushbu sayt joylashgan joyda, hunarmandlar va sotuvchilar o'z mahsulotlarini butun davomida sotishgan Yaqin Sharq.

Xirmon taxtalari muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lishi kerak protohistory Mesopotamiya, chunki ular allaqachon topilgan eng qadimgi yozma hujjatlarda uchraydi: xususan, bir nechta qumtosh erta shahridan planshetlar Kish (Iroq ) bilan o'yib yozilgan mixxat yozuvi piktogrammalar, o'rtalarigacha bo'lgan dunyodagi eng qadimgi yozma yozuv bo'lishi mumkin Miloddan avvalgi 4-ming yillik (Erta Uruk davri ).[13] Ichida saqlangan ushbu planshetlardan biri Ashmolean muzeyi ning Oksford universiteti, ikkala yuzida ham raqamli belgilar va boshqa piktogrammalar yonida xirmon taxtalari rasmlari bor ko'rinadi. Ushbu taxmin qilingan xirmonlar (buning o'rniga chanalar bo'lishi mumkin)[14]) qismlarida yaqin vaqtgacha ishlatilgan xirmonli aravalarga o'xshash shaklga ega Yaqin Sharq bu erda sanoat bo'lmagan qishloq xo'jaligi saqlanib qoldi. Ta'riflar ko'plab mixxat yozuvlarida ham uchraydi gil tabletkalar miloddan avvalgi uchinchi ming yillikdayoq.

A dan taassurot silindr muhri dan Arslantepe-Malatya (kurka ), miloddan avvalgi uchinchi ming yillikka oid marosimlarni ochish tasvirlangan

Markaziy Turkiyada yana bir vakolatxona mavjud. Bu taassurot silindr muhri arxeologik joyidan Arslantepe-Malatya"B ibodatxonasi" yonida paydo bo'lgan. Arxeologik qatlamlar miloddan avvalgi 3374 yilga tegishli dendroxronologiya.[15] Pochta markasida xirmonda o'tirgan, taxtaning pastki qismida litik donalarining aniq tasviri tushirilgan rasm ko'rsatilgan. Asosiy raqam o'tirgan (ehtimol a taxt ) ostida Dossal. Old tomonda haydovchi yoki oxer bor, yaqinida pitchforks bo'lgan dehqonlar bor. M. A. Frangipanening so'zlariga ko'ra, muhr diniy sahnani aks ettirishi mumkin:

«Ushbu muhr [...] (shu) Arslantepe elitalari tomonidan Mesopotamiya muhitida ifodalangan hokimiyat obrazlariga g'oyaviy murojaat qilishini ta'kidlab, marosimlarni xirmon sahnasi sifatida talqin qilishdi »[16]

U xuddi shu joyning devorlariga bo'yalgan yana bir sahnaga o'xshaydi (yuqori martabali kishining tantanali yurishi, qizil va qora ranglarda arxaik chiziqli uslubda bo'yalgan), garchi devorning hozirgi holati aniq tabiatni yashirsa ham u o'tirgan transport vositasidan, haqiqatan ham uni bir juft ho'kiz tortib olganligini ko'rish mumkin. Professor Sherratt ikkala sahnani ham fuqarolik yoki diniy hokimiyatning namoyishi sifatida izohlaydi.[17] O'sha davrda xirmon taxtasi toshbo'ron yoki obsidian bo'laklari yordamida ixtisoslashgan hunarmandlar tomonidan qurilgan zamonaviy va qimmatbaho asbob edi; Quyi Mesopotamiya misolida bular olisdan olib kelingan: Mesopotamiyaning barcha janubida bo'lgani kabi Shumerning allyuvial platosida tosh, hatto toshni ham topish mumkin emas edi.[18]

Bundan tashqari, xirmon uchun tabiiy tosh, tosh toshlar yoki hech bo'lmaganda juda qattiq va siqilgan tuproqdan tashkil topgan, doimiy quruq shamol bilan erning ko'tarilishida joylashgan quyoshli joyda joylashgan va tekis bo'lmagan poydevorli xirmon kerak edi. yomg'ir paytida ko'lmaklar paydo bo'lishiga imkon bering. Shunday qilib, bir xirmon hech kimga mavjud emas edi. Bu qimmat edi, chunki keyingi qismdagi Muqaddas Kitobdan olingan ma'lumotlardan ko'rinib turibdiki. Bundan tashqari, bu qimmatbaho va haydash qiyin bo'lgan qoralama hayvonlarni talab qildi (chunki bu ularni to'g'ri chiziqda yurish bilan bog'liq emas edi). Bularning barchasi shuni anglatadiki, xirmonga ishlov berish vositasi xarajatlarni qoplash uchun katta miqdordagi yig'ilgan donni talab qiladi. Shunday qilib, xirmon taxtasining ko'tarilishi qudratli elitalarning o'ziga xos, murakkab tizimiga aylanadi.

Tilla bezaklar bilan tantanali chanani (ehtimol xirmon taxtasi) kashf etish Pu-Abi maqbarasi, "qirol maqbaralari" dan biri Ur miloddan avvalgi 3-ming yillikdan boshlab,[19] qadimgi vakolatxonalarda haqiqiy xirmon taxtasi va chana (ya'ni yuk tashish uchun echilmagan transport vositasi) o'rtasidagi farqni aniqlashning asosiy muammolarini aniqlab beradi. Biz bilamizki, xirmon taxtasi kechikmasdan paydo bo'ladi Miloddan avvalgi 4-ming yillik (biz ko'rib turganimizdek Atarashen va Arslantepe-Malatya) va shuni ham bilamizki, g'ildirak o'sha ming yillikning o'rtalarida Mesopotamiyada ixtiro qilingan, ammo g'ildirakning ishlatilishi va tarqalishi bir zumda bo'lmagan. Chanalar hech bo'lmaganda miloddan avvalgi 2000 yilgacha bo'g'inli o'q ixtiro qilingunga qadar omon qoldi. Shu vaqt ichida ba'zi transport vositalari duragaylar edi: g'ildiraklari bo'lgan chanalar, to'siqlarni yelkada ko'tarish yoki oddiygina qilib sudrab olib borish uchun uni echib olish uchun.[20] Binobarin - litik po'stlari yaqqol ko'rinib turadigan Arslantepe holatidan tashqari - biz ushbu vakolatxonalarning yuk tashish taxtalari yoki chanalar yoki marosimlar uchun ekanligini aniqlay olmaymiz.

Jeyms Frazer a ga asoslangan ko'plab o'rim-yig'im va terim marosimlarini tuzdi Hububat ruhi. Dan Qadimgi Misr sanoatdan oldingi davrga qadar, bu ruh birinchi boshoqlangan shoxchada yoki ba'zan, oxirgi qismida yashagan ko'rinadi.[21]

Muqaddas Kitob ma'lumotlari

Xirmon haqida birinchi Bibliyada eslatib o'tilgan Ibtido 50:10. Shunday qilib, bu shiypon, bino yoki tom bilan o'ralgan va devorlar bilan o'ralgan har qanday joy emas, balki diametri ellikdan yuz futgacha bo'lgan dumaloq zamin, ochiq havoda, baland joyda va silliq qilingan , bardoshli va toza. Bu erda g'alla bosilib, yig'ib olingan.[22]

Muqaddas Kitobda donni maydalashning to'rtta usuli mavjud (ularning ba'zilari tushuntirilgan) Ishayo 28: 27-28 ):

  • Bilan novda yoki qaltirash. Bu flitches va cummin kabi mayda, nozik urug'lar uchun edi. Bundan tashqari, u oz miqdordagi donni bosish kerak bo'lganda yoki operatsiyani dushmandan yashirish zarur bo'lganda ishlatilgan. Misollar Rut 2:17, Rut kun davomida yig'ib olgan narsalarini "urib yuborganida" va Hakamlar 6:11, Gideon "bosganida (ibroniycha, chabat, bug'doyni Midianitlardan yashirish uchun "vino" tomonidan "mag'lubiyatga uchradi".
  • Bilan charuts, Ibroniycha "xirmonli asbob" uchun. Bu ushbu maqolada muhokama qilinadigan xirmon taxtasi yoki chana.
  • Bilan agalah, Ibroniycha "arava g'ildiragi" uchun. Ushbu turdagi xirmon asboblari, ehtimol, Hikmatlar 22:26. Atama agalah bilan bir xil bo'lishi kerak edi morag, da aytilgan "xirmon vositasi" 2Smuil 24:22, 1 Solnomalar 21:23 va Ishayo 41:15, ba'zilari esa buni qilishadi morag va charuts xuddi shu. Ushbu asbob hozirgacha Misrda nomi bilan tanilgan mowrej. Taxminan yasalgan va to'rtburchaklar ramkada birlashtirilgan chana yoki sudrab shaklida bo'lgan yog'och, temir yoki toshning uch yoki to'rtta og'ir valiklaridan iborat. Roliklar proektsiyalari bilan organning bochkalariga o'xshaydi. Shilinglar bir-biriga parallel bo'lib, o'tkir kvadrat uchlari bo'lgan boshoqlarga tiqilib qolgan. U xuddi shunday ishlatiladi charuts. Haydovchi mashinada o'tiradi va og'irligi bilan uni ushlab turishga yordam beradi. (Rasmiylar o'rtasidagi farqlar to'g'risida kelishib olinmagan charuts, morag, va agalah.)
  • By yurish. Oxirgi rejim - donni shunchaki ot yoki ho'kiz bilan haydash. Qonunlar 25: 4 bunga misoldir. Misrliklar bu usulni samarasiz usulda ko'plab ho'kizlar bilan bosish usulidan foydalanganlar va Sharqda bu usul hanuzgacha qo'llanilmoqda.

Talmudda barcha to'rt usul haqida uzoq vaqt muhokama qilinadi.

Shoh Dovud,
tomonidan Pedro Berruguete

Aftidan tasodifan ikkita tavsiflovchi rivoyat berilgan 2Semuel 24: 10-25 va 1 Solnomalar 21: 9-30 shoh Dovud tog'dagi xirmonni sotib olganligi to'g'risida Moriya (shuningdek, Moriya tog'ining o'zi). Unda Dovud shohning payg'ambari Gadga Egamizning ko'rsatmasi Dovudga "xirmonda Egamizga qurbongoh qurdirishni buyurdi" Arauna The Jebusit " (2Smuil 24: 18-19 va 1 Solnomalar 21: 18-19 ) Dovudning Isroil xalqi boshidan kechirayotgan uch kunlik vabo tugaganida. 1Chronicles hisobotida Moriya tog'ining butun tepaligini sotib olish mavzusi, shuning uchun sotib olish narxi (25-oyat) 2-Shomuil hisobidan farq qiladi.

Ushbu tanlov bir necha sabablarga ko'ra juda muhim:

  • Uni Rabbimiz tanlagan (Dovud emas) (2Smuil 24: 18-19, 1 Solnomalar 21:18 ).[23]
  • Araunaning xirmoni Moriya tog'i deb nomlangan tepalikda joylashgan edi. Bu Ibrohimning o'g'li Ishoqni qurbon qilmoqchi bo'lgan joyi (Ibtido 22: 2 ).
  • The tipologiya xirmonning belgisi Matto 3:12 va Luqo 3:17. Bu shuni anglatadiki, faqat don yig'ilib Xudoning Shohligiga qabul qilinadi, somon esa o'chib bo'lmaydigan olovga tashlanadi.
  • Keyinchalik ushbu tepalikda Sulaymon ibodatxonasi qurilgan (2 Solnomalar 3: 1 ), uning tipologiyasi xirmon tipologiyasining ahamiyatini oshiradi.[24]
Sulaymon ibodatxonasi, ning dastlabki qavatida qurilgan Arauna The Jebusit

Tanlangan joy, Moriya tog'i, Araunaga tegishli edi (yoki, OrnanMoriya tog'idagi xirmonga egalik qilgan va uni boshqargan boy qishloq aholisi Jebusit. Arauna podshohning tashrifidan qo'rqib, mollarini taklif qildi qurbonlik qurbonlik uchun o'tin sifatida xirmon taxtalari va boshqa jihozlar. Shunday bo'lsa-da, Dovud butparastlardan keladigan har qanday sovg'ani rad etdi va buning o'rniga avval ho'kizlar va xirmonni, so'ngra keyinchalik uni o'z ichiga olgan butun Moriya tog'ini sotib olish niyatini tasdiqladi. Agar Dovud Araunaning taklifini qabul qilganida, bu Dovudning o'rniga Arananing qurbonligi bo'lar edi.

Xaridga havolalar sotib olish narxiga qarama-qarshi bo'lib turadi; u 50 ga teng shekel ning kumush ga binoan 2Smuil 24:24 va 600 shekeldan oltin ga binoan 1 Solnomalar 21:25. Biroq, bu qarama-qarshilik faqat yuzada. Ikki ho'kizni va xirmonni sotib olish uchun dastlabki 50 шекel bo'lgan, ammo keyinchalik 600 shekelning narxi Moriya tog'ining mulkini sotib olish uchun to'langan. bunga qo'chimcha ho'kizlarga va xirmonga ichida mavjud va ilgari sotib olingan.[25][iqtibos kerak ]

Umuman olganda, barcha xirmonlar tepaliklarda joylashgan bo'lib, ular turli xil xudolarga qo'shilish uchun emas, balki ularni yutish jarayonida yordam beradigan shamollarga ta'sir qilishlari uchun edi. Shamol xirmon tipologiyasini qo'shadi, chunki shamol Muqaddas Ruhning bir turi (qarang) Yuhanno 3: 8 ).

Xirmonlar haqida Bibliyada so'nggi eslatma Matto 3:12 va Luqo 3:17. "Qavat" atamasi yunoncha halon bu xirmon degan ma'noni anglatadi va bu ikki oyatning importiga mos keladi. Moriya tog'idagi xirmonning tipologiyasi, Sulaymon ibodatxonasi va bu ikki oyat ahamiyatlidir.

"G'alla" so'ziga kelsak, Muqaddas Kitobdagi so'nggi eslatma 1Corinthians 9:10, yana bug'doydan somonni ajratish tipologiyasini ko'rsatmoqda.

Klassik Yunoniston va Rim

Yunoniston va Rimning dastlabki tarixi davomida xirmon taxtasi ishlatilmadi. Tijorat rivojlangandan keyingina (5 va 4-asrlarda Yunonistonda va 2 va 1-asrlarda Rimda sodir bo'lgan) va keyinchalik keng sharqdan ma'lumot uzatilgandan keyingina. V.V.ning so'zlariga ko'ra. Struve, kim qisman, oyatlarini keltiradi Iliada, miloddan avvalgi VIII asrdagi yunonlar donni ho'kizlar bilan oyoq osti qilib ezishgan:[26]

[A] xirmonda arpa bosishi uchun keng qoshli buqalarni bo'yinturug'i - va u tez orada pastroq mollarning oyoqlari ostida mayda jarohatlangan - Axilles otlari ham qalqon va tanalarini oyoq osti qilgan. o'ldirilganlar.
(XX bob ning Iliada )

Karfagen janubi-sharqni mustamlaka qilgan Iberiya yarim oroli miloddan avvalgi III asrda, o'sha davrdagi Rim texnikasidan ancha ustun bo'lgan, rivojlangan qishloq xo'jaligi texnologiyasiga ega edi. Kabi sayohatchilarni hayratda qoldirdi Agatokllar va Regulus va yozuvlari uchun ilhom manbai bo'lgan Varro va Pliniy. Taniqli Karfagen agronomlaridan biri, Mago, Rim Senatining buyrug'i bilan lotin tiliga tarjima qilingan traktat yozgan. Qadimgi rimliklar Tunisni, bugungi kunda asosan cho'lni unumdor landshaft sifatida tasvirlashadi zaytun bog'lari va bug'doy dalalari. Yilda Ispaniya, Karfagenlar bir nechta yangi ekinlarni (asosan mevali daraxtlar ) va ba'zi bir mashinalar xirmon taxtasi kabi, yoki toshli chipli versiya (tribulum lotin tilida) yoki rolikli versiya (xirmonli arava, ularning sharafiga nomlangan plostellum punicum Rimliklarga).[27]

Yilda Rim, xirmon taxtasi o'z ichiga olgan diniy ramziyatsiz faqat iqtisodiy ahamiyatga ega edi qadimgi Isroil. Rim mutaxassislari tomonidan Kato, Varro, Kolumella va Pliniy Elder kabi yozilgan qishloq xo'jaligi risolalari (yuqorida keltirilgan) boshoqlash mavzusiga ta'sir qiladi. Xronologik tartibda:

  • Kato: Davrida Kato oqsoqol - ya'ni miloddan avvalgi II asr - Rim bosib olingan hududlar bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi Gretsiya va Karfagen, qishloq xo'jaligining yuqori darajadagi rivojlanishi Rim an'anaviyligiga tahdid solgan. Katonning kitobi De Agricultureura[28] ekzotik yangiliklarga qarshi edi, masalan, xirmon taxtasi uning turli xil variantlarida, aksincha qo'l mehnatiga asoslangan an'anaviy qishloq xo'jaligi tizimini himoya qildi. Ba'zi yozuvchilar uchun Katoning g'oyalari, bilvosita, parchalanishga olib keldi respublika jamiyat va hatto imperator iqtisodiyoti. Kato xachir yoki ho'kizlar tomonidan oyoq osti qilish orqali terishni afzal ko'rdi. U xirmon taxtasi imperiyada allaqachon tarqalib ketganiga qaramay, uni aniq eslatib o'tmaydi. Shunday qilib, "Katonning hisoboti asosida, u yoki bu dastur yoki takomillashtirish qachon foydalanilganligini aniqlash deyarli mumkin emas".[29]
  • Varro: Katodan farqli o'laroq, Markus Terentius Varro miloddan avvalgi 1-asrda harakat odam emas, balki olim, Xozirafos bo'lgan. Katoga qaraganda kengroq bo'lgan Varro kosmopolit yunon dunyoqarashini Rimning viloyat an'analari bilan birlashtirishga harakat qildi. Uning qishloq xo'jaligi bo'yicha maslahatida Rerum Rusticarum de Agri Cultura[30] Varro faqat ikki marta xirmon taxtalarini eslatib o'z davrining haqiqatini aks ettiradi. U shunday maslahat beradi: "plantatsiyaning (fermer xo'jaligining) o'zida ishlab chiqarilishi mumkin bo'lgan asbob-uskunalarning birortasini sotib olish kerak emas, chunki deyarli to'siq, savat kabi tugallanmagan yog'ochdan qilingan barcha narsalar bilan, xirmon taxtalari, qoziqlar, tirnoqlar ... ";[31] u bu erda namoyish etayotgan o'zini o'zi qondirishga moyilligi keyinchalik Rimga zarar etkazishi mumkin. Varro, shunga qaramay, Kato yangilikka ko'proq ochiqligini ko'rsatmoqda: "mo'l va sifatli hosilni olish uchun poyalarni xirmonga yig'masdan olib borish kerak, shuning uchun don eng yaxshi holatda, va don (kerak bo'lishi) xirmondagi poyalardan ajratib olinishi, bu jarayon boshqa yo'llar bilan bir qatorda juft xachir va xirmon taxtasi. Bu tosh yongalar yoki temir arra bilan jihozlangan yog'och taxta bilan (pastki qismi bilan) yasalgan bo'lib, uni oldidagi shudgor bilan yoki katta qarshi og'irlik bilan bir-biriga qo'shib qo'yilgan juft xachir tortadi va shu tariqa donni donadan ajratib turadi. sopi ... ".[32] Ya'ni, u xirmon taxtalari qanday ishlashini va ushbu innovatsion qurilmaning afzalliklarini juda didaktik tarzda tushuntiradi. Keyin u chaqirilgan variant haqida gapiradi plostellum poenicum (=punikum= Punik = Karfagen), kelib chiqishi biz ilgari ko'rganimizdek, Karfagenlik bo'lgan va ilgari Ispaniyada ishlatilgan (ilgari Karfagen tomonidan boshqarilgan) valiklar va metall arra bilan maydalash vositasi: "Boshqa yo'l uni tishli g'ildiraklar va podshipniklar bilan to'ldirilgan arava yordamida amalga oshiring; ushbu arava nomlangan plostellum punicum, unda o'tirgan va xachirlar tortib olgan moslamani harakatga keltirishi mumkin Hispania Citerior va boshqa joylar. "[33]
  • Kolumella (Lucius Junius Moderatus, eramizning boshlanishi - 60-yillar): asli Hispaniya Baetika; harbiy faoliyatini tugatgandan so'ng, Kolumella yirik mulklarni boshqarish bilan shug'ullangan. Ispaniyalik bu yozuvchi ushbu mavzuga yangi yozuv olib boradi, yozadi xirmonlar: "Xirmonni, agar iloji bo'lsa, uni usta yoki usta tomonidan nazorat qilinadigan tarzda joylashtirish kerak; eng yaxshisi toshbo'ron qilingan narsadir, chunki nafaqat donni tezda bosishga imkon beradi, chunki zamin tuyoq va xirmon taxtalarining zarbalariga yo'l bermaydi, shuningdek, bu don ekinlari yutib olinishdan oldin, toza bo'lib, har doim bosilgan erning xirmonida qolib ketadigan toshlar va mayda donalardan mahrumdir. "[34]
  • Pliniy: Katta Pliniy (23 - 79) faqat biz o'tmishdoshlarimiz yozgan narsalarni to'playdi.[35]

O'rta yosh

Eshik sifatida ishlatiladigan qirg'ich taxtasi.

Yilda G'arbiy Evropa, varvar bosqinlari Evropaning qishloq xo'jaligiga zararli ta'sir ko'rsatdi, bu ko'plab zamonaviy texnikalarni yo'qotishiga olib keldi, ular orasida nemis an'analariga mutlaqo begona bo'lgan xirmon taxtasi. Boshqa tomondan, sharqiy O'rta er dengizi hududlari xirmon taxtasidan foydalanishni davom ettirib, musulmonlar madaniyatiga o'tib, u chuqur ildiz otdi.

Iberiya yarim orolida, Visgotika qirolligi va davomida xristian zonasi Reconquista, xirmon taxtasi juda kam ma'lum bo'lgan (garchi bu haqda xabardorlik hech qachon yo'qolmasa ham)[36]). Degradatsiya nafaqat iqtisodiyotni, balki biz davrni o'rganishimiz kerak bo'lgan manbalarni ham qamrab oldi: olimlar atrofida aylanish qiyin bo'lgan hujjatli bo'shliqqa duch kelishmoqda. Islomda bu aniq Al-Andalus, xirmon taxtasi juda mashhur bo'lib davom etdi, bu nasroniylarning oldinga siljishlarida an'anani tiklashlariga olib keldi Reconquista. Ushbu harakat butun Evropada umumiy tiklanish davriga to'g'ri keladi. Iqtisodiy farovonlik XI asr boshlarida qaytishni boshladi; mutaxassislar ishlov beriladigan erlarning ko'payganligi haqida gapirishadi; qoralama hayvonlardan (oldingi bo'yinturuq tufayli birinchi buqalar, keyinroq otlar tufayli) ko'proq foydalanish jabduqlar yoqasi ); metall dastgohlarning ko'payishi va yaxshilangan metallga ishlov berish; ko'pincha g'ildiraklar bilan mog'orlangan shudgorning ko'rinishi; va suv tegirmonlarining ko'payishi. Chorvachilik taraqqiyot belgisiga aylandi: kam qaram va farovonroq bo'lgan dehqonlar qoramol hayvonlarni va hatto shudgorlarni sotib olish imkoniyatiga ega bo'ldilar. O'zlarining shudgorlari va bir yoki ikkita chorvador hayvonlari bo'lgan dehqonlar feodal tomonidan erkalagan kichik elita bo'lib, ular alohida maqomga ega bo'lishdi. yeoman dehqonlar, juda aniq fermer xo'jaligi ishchisi uning yagona vositasi o'z qo'llari edi.[37] Chizib yuboriladigan hayvonlarning mavjudligi G'arbiy Evropada xirmon taxtasining tarqalishini anglatmaydi.[38] Boshqa tomondan, Ispaniyada sharqona an'analarning og'irligi farqni o'zgartirdi: professor Xulio Karo Baroja Ispaniyada xirmon taxtasi keltirilgan yoki badiiy asarlarda namoyish etilganligini tan oladi. Aniqrog'i, u ba'zilarini eslatib o'tadi Romanesk yengillik Belena (Salamanka ) va Kampisbalos (Gvadalaxara ), ikkalasi ham 12 asrdan.[39] 1265 yilda yozilgan hujjatni qo'shib qo'yish mumkin, unda Dona Mayor ismli ayol (cherkov soliq yig'uvchisi Don Arnalning bevasi va shu tariqa yaxshi mavqega ega bo'lgan kishi) yeparxiya bob ning Salamanka uning merosi Valcuevo, munitsipalitetdagi ferma Valverdon, Salamanka:

Va men, Dña Mayor, mamlakatdagi ushbu ikki qo'shilishni sobori bobida aytilgan va 76 bilan yaxshi saqlanib qolgan holda, o'limimga qoldiraman. butalar bug'doy, 38 tup javdar va 38 tup arpa, har bir bo'yinturuqni va shudgor bilan, shudgor bilan, shudgor bilan va xirmon taxtalari va yaxshi qurilgan mulkka ega bo'lishi kerak bo'lgan barcha hisob-kitoblar bilan.[40]

Ushbu hujjatlar, hech bo'lmaganda, O'rta er dengizi havzasida shu vaqtga qadar doimiy ravishda bo'lgan xirmon taxtalari borligidan dalolat beradi. An'anaviy tarixshunoslik ko'proq o'xshash xususiyatlarga ega ekanligi sababli, qolganlari shunchaki umumlashtirilgan taxminlar G'arbiy Evropa. Qanday bo'lmasin, biron bir maslahat olgan mualliflarning hech biri xirmon taxtasini o'rta asr qishloq xo'jaligining rivojlanishida muhim rol o'ynaydi deb ta'riflamaydilar. Shuning uchun biz frantsuz tarixchisining umidsizligiga qo'shilishimiz kerak Jorj Duby, uning shikoyatida:

Aytilganlarning barchasi orqali biz qishloq xo'jaligi mahsulotlariga texnik taraqqiyotning ta'sirini o'lchash qanchalik qiziqarli bo'lishini ko'rishimiz mumkin. Shunga qaramay, biz bu umiddan voz kechishimiz kerak. 12-asr oxiriga qadar segitar ma'muriyat usullari juda ibtidoiy edi; ular yozishga unchalik ahamiyat bermadilar, hatto raqamlarga ham ozroq ahamiyat berishdi. Hujjatlar hujjatlarga qaraganda aldamchi Karoling davri.[41]

Hozirgi kunda an'anaviy qishloq xo'jaligining ko'plab elementlari yo'qolib ketmoqda va shu sababli turli xil sub'ektlar ushbu madaniy kapitalni saqlab qolish yoki tiklash uchun harakat qilishmoqda. Ular orasida E.A.R.T.H. deb nomlangan xalqaro fanlararo loyiha, Earli Aqishloq xo'jaligi Remnants va Ttexnik Heritma. Ishtirok etuvchi mamlakatlar kiradi Bolgariya, Kanada, Frantsiya, Rossiya, Shotlandiya, Ispaniya, va Qo'shma Shtatlar. An'anaviy qishloq xo'jaligining turli xil elementlari bilan bog'liq bo'lgan keng arxeologik, hujjatli va etnologik jihatlar bo'yicha tergov markazi, turli mamlakatlarda, tarixiy davrlarda va jamiyatlarda ular orasidagi xirmonlar.[42]

Maqolada keltirilgan dalillarning xronologiyasi

Cantalejo shahridan hunarmandlar

Cantalejo daryoning quyilish joyida joylashgan Duraton daryosi va Cega daryosi. Zamonaviy Cantalejo XI asrda paydo bo'lgan, garchi u erda ancha qadimgi va uning bir qismini tashkil etgan me'moriy qoldiqlar mavjud Segoviya Ispaniyadagi viloyat. Boshida u aftidan gullab-yashnagan, ammo XVII asrda erkinligini yo'qotgan va yurisdiktsiyaga aylangan lordlik. Xirmon taxtalarini tayyorlash bo'yicha ixtisoslashgan hunarmandchilik Kantalexoga qachon kiritilganligi to'g'risida aniq ma'lumot yo'q, ammo bu mavzuda yozganlarning barchasi, ehtimol bu 16 yoki 17 asrlarda bo'lganligini ko'rsatadi.[43]

Xirmon taxtalarini ishlab chiqarish chet ellik hunarmandlarning kelishi bilan bir paytga to'g'ri keladi, garchi bu hunarmandlarning nutq shakli ko'plab xorijiy tillarning jihatlarini, xususan Frantsuz. Xirmon taxtalari va shudgor yasovchilar chaqirildi «Brikeros», yasashga ishora qiluvchi frantsuzcha so'z tinderbokslar va gugurt qulflari Frantsiyada chaqirilgan qurollar uchun briketlar, so'zma-so'z arxaik frantsuz tilida: «Petite pièce d'acier do on se sert pour tirer du feu d’un caillou.» (bugun, ning sinonimi briket yoki yonuvchan moddalar, shuningdek, a ga ishora qiladi engilroq ) uchun erta o'qotar qurol (Flintloklar, arquebuslar, mushketlar...). Shuning uchun Iberiya yarim orolida o'qotar qurollarni olib kiruvchi chet el qurolsozlari Kantalexoda muhim koloniya yaratganligi, garchi ularning kelib chiqishini aniqlash qiyin bo'lsa ham[44]

Qanday bo'lmasin, vaqt o'tishi bilan Cantalejo turli xil qishloq xo'jalik anjomlari, shu jumladan, xirmon taxtalari yasash kabi tinch va samarali hunarmandchilikni tanladi. 1950-yillarga kelib, Kantalexo har yili 30000 dan ziyod xirmon taxtasi ishlab chiqaradigan 400 ta ustaxonaga erishdi; Bu shuni ko'rsatadiki, aholining yarmidan ko'pi ushbu kasbga bag'ishlangan. Keyin xirmon taxtalari butun joyga tarqatildi Meseta Markaziy Ispaniya.

Ushbu maqola faqat tsilindrli chiplar bilan yasalgan xirmon taxtalariga qaratilgan, garchi metall tishlar bilan yasalgan yoki boshqa kamroq tarqalgan dizaynlarga ko'ra xirmonli taxtalar bo'lgan.[45]

Yog'och ramka tayyorlash

Yozning oxirida yoki kuzda, tanlov bilan boshlandi qora qarag'aylar, ular kesib tashladilar va "a" deb nomlangan qurilma bilan ehtiyotkorlik bilan silliqlashdi tronzador magistral uzunligi qariyb ikki metr bo'lgan silindrlarga aylanguniga qadar; ushbu jurnal bo'limlari chaqirildi tozas. Shuningdek, ular ko'ndalang bosh kiyim sifatida xizmat qilish uchun uzun, tekis taxtalar tayyorladilar. Ular yog'och qismlarni arra zavodiga olib borishdi, u erda qalinligi taxminan besh santimetr bo'lgan va egri shaklda (xuddi xuddi chang'i ) oxir-oqibat oldida bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan oxirida. Taxtalar bir necha oy davomida quyoshda quritilgan, tez-tez aylantirilgan. Ushbu davrda qishloq o'ziga xos ko'rinishga ega bo'ldi, chunki ko'plab binolarning fasadlari qurituvchi taxtalar bilan qoplangan. Keyinchalik, ular uyumga qo'yildi kastillos, qoziqni yanada barqaror qilish uchun ba'zi bir lamellarni boshqalar bilan kesib o'tish.

  • Qarag'ay tozas, undan lamellar kesilgan

  • Slats aligned, before forming the threshing board

  • Chiseling the slat

Once the slat was in the right conditions, the next process was chiseling: using a bolg'a and chisel to prepare the slots (ujeros) for the chips of flint (chinalar or lithic flakes). The chiseling was done with the slats front-on, guided by pencil-marks so the workman wouldn't err. Before beginning, the workman made sure that the slat had not warped since being cut, as that would make it unusable.

The next pass took place in the mechanical presses; the Spanish language term for these was "cárceles", "jails". The three, four, or five planks had to be perfectly joined: spread with glue and pressed, using small reinforcement jigs, called tasillos (wooden cylinders glued and nailed with a mallet at the edges of a slat), and wedges. When the slats were well-aligned and fixed in place, the cabezales (headers), or crosspieces, were nailed in place with big nails known in Spain as puntas de París (although, at least in the 19th and 20th centuries, they came from Bilbao ).

  • The planks glued, as they are in the cárceles

  • Placing the "headers" (cabezales) with large iron nails

  • Placing of stopgaps in the junctions.

  • The wooden structure completed, but with the cutting stones not yet added

Hook for pulling

Once the basic structure of the threshing board is ready, it must be smoothed. This is first done by "working" it with an adze lengthwise, along the grain. Then the final finishing is done with various specialized carpenter's samolyotlar, on both top and bottom; first going across in a transverse direction, and later lengthwish.

The final phase of the work consisted of covering the junctions of the slats on the top side, which is done with thin strips at the front, tacked on with a board called the "front piece", and on the rest using long thin little boards (tapajuntas or stopgaps). On the front header they attached a strong hook for the barzón, or iron ring with a strap or a long rod for tying on the drafthorses or oxen.

Working the stone flakes

Various hammers traditionally found in the workshop of a briquero

To create the lithic flakes used to cover threshing boards, the briqueros in Cantalejo used a manufacturing technique similar to prehistoric methods of making tools, except that they used metal hammers rather than percussors made of stone, wood, or antler.[46]

The raw materials preferred by these artisans was a whitish flint imported from the province of Gvadalaxara. When they had to repair threshing boards at home, if they did not have any other raw materials, they would use rounded river pebbles, made of homogeneous, high-grade kvartsit, which they selected during their travels. The flint from Guadalajara was extracted from quarries in large blocks, which were split by hand with hammers of various sizes until the stone reached a size small enough to be comfortably held in the hand.

Briquero knapping flint

Taqillatmoq: Once manageable chunks of flint were obtained, knapping to obtain lithic flakes was performed using a very light hammer (called a paxmoq) with a narrow handle and a pointed head. Knapping was considered "men's work." To work quartzite pebbles, they used a hammer with a head that was rounded and slightly wider. During the process of removing stone flakes, they sometimes resorted to a normal hammer to crack the stone and achieve perussion plains inaccessible with the pickaxe alone.

The briquero o'tkazdi stone core in the left hand, protected with a piece of leather and with the palm upward, and struck rapid blows using a pick held in the right hand. The stone flakes would fall into the palm of the right hand, on top of the leather protector, which allowed the worker to evaluate them during fractions of a second: if they were acceptable, the briquero allowed them to fall into a tin; if not, he threw them into a reject pile.[47] This pile was also where the briquero threw used-up stone cores —that is, stone blocks incapable of producing more chips; pieces of stone broken by accident; kortikal flint flakes, useless fragments, and debris.

Woman pounding stone flakes into a threshing board

The working of pebbles was similar to the working of flint, except that with pebbles only the outside layer was chipped off. Thus, the pebbles were essentially "peeled" and discarded (unlike flint stones, whose interiors were worked until they were used up); using only the cortical flakes.

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Litik parcha va Flintknapper

Covering the board with stone flakes was mainly the work of women called enchifleras. The task is monotonous and repetitive. Up to three thousand lithic flakes may be pounded into a large threshing board. In addition, it is necessary to sort the flakes: small ones in the front, medium-sized in the middle, and the largest on the sides and in the back. It is necessary to pound in each flake without damaging its sharp edge, although it was impossible to avoid leaving at least some small mark (a "spontaneous rötuş " in technical terms). The tool used was a light hammer with a cylindrical head and flat or concave ends. The flakes are inserted into the cracks at their thickest part (technically, the percussion zone, that is, the proximal heel of the flake as it is struck off.)

Tarqatish

Detail of stone flakes: in foreground, a flake with a large chip; the others retain a sharp edge.

Threshing boards from Cantalejo captured nearly all the sales in Kastiliya va Leon, Madrid, Kastiliya-La Mancha, Aragon va "Valensiya". They sometimes also reached Andalusiya y Kantabriya.[45] At first, artesans from Cantalejo travelled with large carts loaded with selected threshing boards, winnowing bellows, grain chora-tadbirlar (of different traditional dry units: celemín is a wooden case with 4,6 L, cuartilla has 14 L, and fanega equivalent to 55.5 L...) and other implements for threshing or winnowing, which they peddled from town to town. They also carried flint chips, and tools and supplies for repairing damaged threshing boards and farming implements. In later times, they traveled by train to pre-arranged stations, and then in small trucks. They typically brought their entire families along; combined with their strange manner of speaking and unusual occupation, this gave the briqueros an air of mystery. They began selling threshing boards as soon as the threshing boards were complete, beginning in April and lasting until August. The briqueros would then return to their home town (the Vilorio) to celebrate the festivals of the Maryamni taxmin qilish (August 15) and Sankt-Roch (August 16) with their families.

Gaceriya

Asosiy maqola: Gaceriya

Gaceriya is a slang or argot used by makers and vendors of threshing boards in Kantalexo and some other parts of Spain. It is not a technical vocabulary, but rather a code made up of a small group of words that allows the speakers to communicate freely in the presence of strangers without others understanding the content of the conversation.

Gaceriya was purely verbal, colloquial, and associated with the selling of threshing boards; as a result, it largely disappeared with the mechanization of agriculture. Nevertheless, a number of studies have attempted to record its varied aspects. There are many doubts regarding the origin of the words that make up the vocabulary of Gaceriya, including the word Gaceriya itself, which may derive from the Bask so'z gazo, which means "ugly" or "good-for-nothing".[48] The most commonly accepted opinion is that most of the words derive from Frantsuz, with additions from other languages including Lotin, Basque, Arabcha, Nemis va hatto Kalo.[45] What is certain is that the makers and vendors of threshing boards took words from any area they visited regularly, creating a linguistic mishmash.

Related threshing implements

In general, the term "threshing board" is used to refer to all the different variants of this primitive implement. Technically, we should distinguish at least the two main types of threshing boards: the "threshing sledge," which is the subject of this article, and the "threshing cart."

The "threshing sledge" is the most common type. As its name indicates, it is dragged over the ripe grain, and it threshes using cutting pieces made of stone or metal. This is what is referred to in Ibroniycha kabi morag (מורג) and in Arabcha kabi mowrej. Strictly speaking, the threshing boards of the Yaqin Sharq have characteristics that render them easily distinguishable from those found in Europe. Ustida Iberiya yarim oroli, cutting blades found on the bottom part of the threshing board are arranged on end and in rows roughly parallel to the direction of threshing. Aksincha, mogag va mowrej found to the Middle East have circular holes (made with a special short, wide burg'ulash ) into which are pressed small round, semicircular stones with sharp ridges. (See a detail photo of a Middle-Eastern threshing board ).

As mentioned previously, not all threshing boards are equipped with stones: some have metal knife blades embedded along the full length of the threshing board, and others have smaller blades encrusted here and there. Threshing sledges with metal knives usually have a few small wheels (four to six, depending on the size) with eccentric axes. These wheels protect the blades. They also make the threshing board wobble, causing parts of the board to rise and fall at random in an oscillating motion that improves the effectiveness of the threshing.

Threshing sledge Falastin, 1937[49]
Threshing cart (plostellum punicum) ichida Heliopolis, Misr 1884 yilda[50]

A second model, which the classic sources refer to as plostellum punicum (literally, the "Punic cart"), ought to be called "threshing cart". Although the Carthaginians, heirs of the Phoenicians, brought this model to the Western O'rta er dengizi, this implement was known at least since the second millennium BC, appearing in the Babylonian texts with a name that we can transliteratsiya kabi gīš-bad. Both variants continued to be used well into the 20th century in Europe, and continue to be used in the regions where agriculture has not been mechanized and industrialized. Museums and collectors in Spain retain some threshing carts, which were once highly prized in areas such as the province of Zamora, where they were used to thresh garbanzos.

Shuningdek qarang

  • Stone boat a similar looking sledge but with a smooth bottom

Adabiyotlar

This article draws heavily on the corresponding article Trillo (agricultura) ichida Ispan tilidagi Vikipediya, accessed in the version of 20 November 2006.

  1. ^ Boutelou, Claudio (1806). "Sobre un trillo de nueva invención ("About a threshing board of recent invention")". Semanario de agricultura y artes (ispan tilida). Madrid. XIX: 50 va boshqalar. seq. «…de tres a cuatro pies de ancho y unos seis de largo, variando frecuentemente estas dimensiones, y se compone de dos o tres tablones ensamblados unos con otros, de más de cuatro pulgadas de grueso, en los que se hallan embutidas por su parte inferior muchos pedernales muy duros y cortantes que arrastran sobre las mieses. En la parte anterior hay clavada una argolla para atar la cuerda que le arrastra, y a la que se enganchan comúnmente dos caballerías; y sentado un hombre en el trillo lo conduce dando vueltas sobre la parva extendida en la era. Si el hombre necesita más peso, pone encima piedras grandes».
  2. ^ The big threshing boards were intended for a "yoke" or pair of draft animals (oxen or mules), whereas the smaller ones were indended to be drawn by a single animal
  3. ^ There are specialized original threshing boards for garbanzos, with smaller dimensions than those used for cereal grains; also, at times, instead of stone chips, they have rollers with crammed blades: "threshing carts" («trillo de ruedas») known in antiquity as Plostellum punicum.
  4. ^ «Messis ipsa alibi tribulis in area, alibi equarum gressibus exteritur, alibi perticis flagellatur»|Gaius Plinius Secundus, Naturalis Historia, Liber XVIII (naturae frugum), lxxii - 298; Katta Pliniy, Natural History, Book XVIII (Agriculture), lxxii - 298.
  5. ^ (ispan tilida) La trilla tradicional en Castroviejo, Rioja Alta ("Traditional threshing in Castroviejo, Rioja Alta, Spain").
  6. ^ Lucas Varela, Antonio (2002). Cerramícalo (ispan tilida). Fundación Hernández Puertas de Alaeojs (Valladolid) - Madrid. ISBN  84-607-4578-3.)
  7. ^ Long ago it was customary among children from the Spanish Meseta ) to extract the gummy o'simlik sharbati for chewing, like chewing-gum. Today, we know that the leaves and stalks of skotch supurgi o'z ichiga oladi alkaloidlar (kabi spartein and isosparteine) that, in large amounts, can be poisonous; but in small quantities, are medicinal or, even, narcotic, altering the cardiac rhythm, which explains the popularity of this gummy substance among young people of past generations
  8. ^ The non-industrial agriculture that remains in marginal places of Europe and many underdeveloped Mediterranean areas, and where the threshing board and other traditional implements remain customary, preserve an ancestral vocabulary that forms part of the heritage of these countries. Almost all of this vocabulary is in danger of extinction.
  9. ^ Martínez Ruiz, José Ignacio (2005). "La fabricación de maquinaria agrícola en la España de Postguerra" (PDF) (ispan tilida). VIII Congreso de la Asociación Española de Historia Económica, Sesión B3, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Olingan 9 iyul 2006., p. 6.
  10. ^ Anderson, Patricia C.; Chabot, Jacques; van Gijn, Annelou (2004). "The Functional Riddle of 'Glossy' Canaanean Blades and the Near Eastern Threshing Sledge". O'rta er dengizi arxeologiyasi jurnali. 17 (1, June): 87. doi:10.1558/jmea.17.1.87.56076. (p. 87-130)
  11. ^ Benito del Rey, Luis y Benito Álvarez, José-Manuel (1994). "La taille actuelle de la pierre à la manière préhistorique. L'exemple des pierres pour Tribula à Cantalejo (Segovia - Espagne)". Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française (frantsuz tilida). Tome 91 (Numéro 3, mai–juin).CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola) (p. 222 and footnote 10)
  12. ^ (frantsuz tilida) «Grande béquille pectorale»: Pelegrin, Jak (1988). "Débitage expérimental par pression, "du plus petit au plus grand"". Technologie Préhistorique. Notes et monographies techniques (25). ISBN  2-222-04235-6. (p. 46)
  13. ^ Clairborne, Robert (1974). Yozuvning tug'ilishi. Time-Life Inc. ISBN  0-8094-1282-9. p. 10.
  14. ^ Sledges were as vehicles for freight before the invention of wheel.
  15. ^ Grafik on the Cornell University web site.
  16. ^ Frangipane, M. A. (1997). "4th millennium temple palace complex at Arslantepe-Malatya. North-South relations and the formation of early state societies in the northern regions of greater Mesopotamia". Paleorient. 23 (1).. p. 64-65
  17. ^ Sherratt, Andrew (2005). "ArchAtlas, an electronic atlas of archaeology Animal traction and the transformation of Europe". P. Pétrequin. Proceedings of the Frasnois Conference. Sheffild, Angliya (p. 19–21).
  18. ^ Hamblin, Dora Jane (1973). Birinchi shaharlar. Time-Life Inc. ISBN  0-8094-1301-9. 90-bet.
  19. ^ Wooley, Leonard (1934). Ur Excavations II, The Royal Cemetery. London-Philadelphia. 73-bet va boshqalar. seq.
  20. ^ Hamblin, Dora Jane (1973). Birinchi shaharlar. Time-Life Inc. ISBN  0-8094-1301-9.
  21. ^ Frazer, Jeyms Jorj (1922, reprint of 1995). Oltin bog '. Touchstone edition. ISBN  0-684-82630-5. Sana qiymatlarini tekshiring: | yil = (Yordam bering) (p. 488 and followings)
  22. ^ Freeman, James M. (1874). Handbook of Manners and Customs of the Bible. p. 59.
  23. ^ In 1 Samuel 14:18-19 we find the order concerning the rearing of an altar, as well as the indication of the site, as brought directly by the Prophet Gad. In 1 Chronicles 21:18-19, we find from whom Gad got his commission. In the later stages of Israel's history we find angels employed in communicating the divine will to the prophets.
  24. ^ For a more complete study of biblical typology, refer to Habershon, Ada R. Study of the Types, ISBN  0-8254-2850-5
  25. ^ In 2 Samuel 24:24, the reference is to the immediate purchase of the two oxen and wooden threshing cart only for 50 shekels of silver. David's exact words in verse 21 are as follows: "To buy the threshing floor from you, in order to build an altar to the Lord" (NASB). The market price for the two oxen and the cart would scarcely exceed the 50 shekels of silver under the market values then prevailing. In 1 Chronicles 21:25, however, we are told that David paid the much larger price of 600 shekels of gold (about 180 times the price of 50 shekels of silver). But on closer examination of 1 Chronicles 21:25, the reference is to the purchase of not the two oxen and threshing cart which was earlier purchased, lekin the entire site containing them. The Hebrew for the sentence "And David gave to Ornan for the place" is far more inclusive than a mere threshing floor. Neither in the 5th century BC nor in any other period in ancient history would a threshing floor have fetched such a price as 600 shekels of gold. Consequently, it is safely concluded that Araunah (or Ornan), the owner of the threshing floor (and the oxen and threshing cart), possessed the entire area of Mount Moriah, and that David purchased this entire real estate for 600 shekels of gold in addition to the 50 shekels of silver for the threshing cart and two oxen. Moreover, the difference in price was the result of David's afterthought to purchase the entire site rather than just the threshing floor earlier purchased, and the record in 1 Chronicles 21:25 was written from a standpoint of the transaction's final result, since its record was made chronologically later than that of 2 Samuel 24:24, even though the epochs of the two prices probably occurred within a year of each other. And the afterthought resulted from David's realization of an advantageous opportunity to purchase Mount Moriah (a hilltop) for religious and governmental purposes.
  26. ^ Struve, V. V. (1979). Historia de la Antigua Grecia (in Spanish) (Third ed.). Madrid: Akal Editor. ISBN  84-7339-190-X. p. 115
  27. ^ Blázquez, José María (1983). "Capítulo XVI, Colonización cartaginesa en la península Ibérica". Historia de España antigua. Tomo I: Protohistoria (Ispan tilida) (Ikkinchi nashr). Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra. ISBN  84-376-0232-7. (página 421)
  28. ^ "LacusCurtius • Cato — De Agricultura". penelope.uchicago.edu. Olingan 22 dekabr 2015.
  29. ^ (ispan tilida) «[resulta] casi imposible definir, sobre la base de la exposición de Catón, cuando entró en uso tal o cual instrumento, cuándo fue aplicado tal o cual perfeccionamiento»: Kovaliov, Sergei I. (1979). Roma tarixi (Uchinchi nashr). Madrid: Akal Editor. ISBN  84-7339-455-0. p. 178
  30. ^ (lotin tilida) Rerum Rusticarum de Agri Cultura online in the original Latin
  31. ^ Varro, Rerum Rusticarum… Liber primus, XII: «Quae nasci in fundo ac fieri a domesticis poterunt, eorum nequid ematur, ut fere sunt quae ex viminibus et materia rustica fiunt, ut corbes, fiscinae, tribula, valli, rastelli…»
  32. ^ Varro, Rerum Rusticarum… Liber primus, LII. «Quae seges grandissima atque optima fuerit, seorsum in aream secerni oportet spicas, ut semen optimum habeat; e spicis in area excuti grana. Quod fit apud alios iumentis iunctis ac tribulo. Id fit e tabula lapidibus aut ferro asperata, quae cum imposito auriga aut pondere grandi trahitur iumentis iunctis, discutit e spica grana;…»
  33. ^ Varro, Rerum Rusticarum… Liber primus, LII. «…aut ex axibus dentatis cum orbiculis, quod vocant plostellum poenicum; in eo quis sedeat atque agitet quae trahant iumenta, ut in Hispania citeriore et aliis locis faciunt.»
  34. ^ De Re Rustica, cap VI: «Area, si competit, ita constituenda est, ut vel a domino vel certe a procuratore despici possit. Eaque optima est silice constrata, quod et celeriter frumenta deteruntur, non cedente solo pulsibus ungularum tribularumque, et eadem ventilata mundiora sunt, lapillisque carent et glaebulis, quas per trituram fere terrena remittit area.»
  35. ^ Naturalis Historia, Liber XVIII (naturae frugum), lxxii - 298.
  36. ^ Seviliyalik Isidor uning ichida Etimologiyalar (Libro XVII: La agricultura), simply repeats what the classical sources had to say on this theme, indicating his merely slight familiarity with the technology.
  37. ^ Dubi, Jorj (1974). The early growth of the European economy. Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century. Ithaka, Nyu-York: Kornell universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  0-8014-9169-X..
  38. ^ The threshing board, as we have had occasion to repeat throughout this article, was expensive, as were the conditions of its use, only the wealthy laborers and the nobility could afford a threshing board and a plow. Its use was, perhaps, another lordly taqiqlash, and thus a mark of a qullik. Boshqa tomondan, qaltirash was a cheap, simple tool, which anyone could get hold of and which supposed a certain independence and freedom.
  39. ^ Caro Baroja Julio (1983). Tecnología popular española. Editorial Nacional, Colección Artes del tiempo y del espacio, Madrid. ISBN  84-276-0588-9. p. 98
  40. ^ Diocesan archive of Salamanca: «Et yo, donna Mayor, devo dexar a mia muerte estas duas yugadas de heredat devandichas al cabildo bien allinadas, con quatro kafiçes de trigo, et un kafiz de centeno, et un kafiz de cevada pora semiente cada yugada, et con reias, et con arados, et con timones, et con trillos et con todo appayamiento que heredade bien allinnada deve aver»
  41. ^ Georges Duby, op. keltirish. page 249: «A través de cuanto hemos dicho se ve el interés que tendría la medición de la incidencia del progreso técnico en el rendimiento de la empresa agrícola. Sin embargo, hay que renunciar a hacerla. Antes de fines del siglo XII, los métodos de la administración señorial son todavía muy primitivos; conceden poca importancia a la escritura y menos aún a las cifras. Los documentos son más decepcionantes que los de la época carolingia»
  42. ^ E.A.R.T.H., rasmiy sayt.
  43. ^ González Torices, José Luis y Díez Barrio, Germán (1991). "Capítulo IV, La Trilla". Aperos de madera (ispan tilida). Ámbito Ediciones, for the Junta de Kastilya va Leon. pp. 135–161. ISBN  84-86770-48-3.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
    • Caro Baroja Julio (1983). Tecnología popular española (ispan tilida). Madrid: Editorial Nacional, Colección Artes del tiempo y del espacio. p. 98. ISBN  84-276-0588-9.
  44. ^ There are similar cases in other parts of Europe. Masalan, ichida Angliya, "a new industry was born at Brendon, Suffolk nearly 200 years ago when men who may well have been immigrants to the town began the knapping of gunflints whose effectiveness was proved on the field of Waterloo." See that web-site
    Yozuvchi A. J. Forrest still knew flintknappers fifty years ago and wrote a book about this unusual industry, which flourished in times of war and survived thanks to exports to distant parts of the Britaniya imperiyasi; the last documented exports were sent to Kamerun 1947 yilda.Forrest, A. J. (1983). Masters of Flint. Terens Dalton. ISBN  0-86138-016-9.
    Something similar may have occurred in Cantalejo, but without the military power of Great Britain or its empire, the Spanish briqueros had to adapt their production to the national market, agriculture.
  45. ^ a b v Siguero, Amparo (1984). "Los trilleros". Revista de Folklore (ispan tilida). Tomo: 04a (número: 41): 175–180. Kaja Espaniya. Fundación Joaquín Diaz. Tashqi havola | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
    • Benito del Rey, Luis y Benito Álvarez, José-Manuel (1995). "Trilleros, en busca del eslabón perdido (I, II y III)". La Frontera del Duero (ispan tilida). Año 1 (Números 1, 2 y 3). Depósito Legal, AV 121-1995.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  46. ^ Benito del Rey, Luis y Benito Álvarez, José-Manuel (1994). "La taille actuelle de la pierre à la manière préhistorique. L'exemple des pierres pour Tribula à Cantalejo (Segovia - Espagne)". Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française. Tome 91 (Numéro 3, mai–juin).CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola) (p. 214-222)
  47. ^ The activity is rhythmic and very rapid, too fast for an inexperinced observer to determine whether a chip is adequate or not to use in a threshing board -- whether it is too small, or too large, or has the proper shape.
  48. ^ Cuesta Polo, Marciano, coord. (1993). Glosario de Gacería (ispan tilida). Ayuntamiento de Cantalejo, Segoviya.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola) p. 5
  49. ^ VV.AA. (1937). The Story of the Bible. Amalgamated Press.
  50. ^ Episkop Vincent, John H. (1884). Galiley odamining erdagi izlari. N.D. Thompson Publishing Co.

Tashqi havolalar

Bilan bog'liq ommaviy axborot vositalari Threshing boards Vikimedia Commons-da