Qurol - Firearm

Bu maqola uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang tomonidan ishonchli manbalarga iqtiboslarni qo'shish. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan materialga qarshi chiqish va olib tashlash mumkin. Manbalarni toping: "Qurol"  – Yangiliklar  · gazetalar  · kitoblar  · olim  · JSTOR (2018 yil mart) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

A AQSh dengiz kuchlari dengizchi otishma a MK 18 Mod 1 karbin nishonga.

A qurol har qanday turi qurol shaxs tomonidan osonlikcha olib o'tilishi va ishlatilishi uchun mo'ljallangan.^[1][2][3] Ushbu atama turli mamlakatlarda qonuniy ravishda aniqlanadi (qarang) Huquqiy ta'riflar ).

Birinchi ibtidoiy qurollar 10-asrda paydo bo'lgan Xitoy, qachon bambuk o'z ichiga olgan naychalar porox va granulalar portativ qilish uchun nayzalarga snaryadlar o'rnatildi yong'in nayzasi,^[4] bir kishi tomonidan boshqariladigan, keyinchalik bu yaxshi samara bergan De'anni qamal qilish 1132 yilda. XIII asrda xitoyliklar metall barreli ixtiro qildilar qo'l to'pi, keng ko'rib chiqilgan^{[kim tomonidan? ]} barcha qurollarning haqiqiy ajdodi. Texnologiya asta-sekin qolgan qismlarga tarqaldi Sharqiy Osiyo, Janubiy Osiyo, Yaqin Sharq va Evropa. Odatda ishlatiladigan eski qurol qora kukun yoqilg'i sifatida, ammo zamonaviy o'qotar qurollardan foydalaniladi tutunsiz kukun yoki boshqa yonilg'i quyish moslamalari. Aksariyat zamonaviy qurollar (bundan mustasno silliq teshik ov miltiqlari ) bor miltiqlangan bochkalarni aylantirish uchun snaryad parvoz barqarorligini oshirish uchun.

Zamonaviy o'qotar qurollarni ularni tasvirlash mumkin kalibrli (ya'ni teshik diametri). Tabancalar va miltiqlar uchun bu millimetr yoki dyuymda (masalan, 7.62 mm yoki .308 dyuymda) yoki ularning o'qotar qurollarida berilgan. o'lchov (masalan, 12 ga. va 20 ga.). Ular, shuningdek, ishlatiladigan harakatlar turi bilan tavsiflanadi (masalan. muzzleloader, brehrloader, qo'l, murvat, nasos, revolver, yarim avtomatik, to'liq avtomatik odatdagi deportatsiya vositalari bilan birgalikda (ya'ni qo'lda yoki mexanik o'rnatish). Keyinchalik tasniflashda ishlatiladigan bochkaning turiga (ya'ni miltiqli) va bochkaning uzunligiga (masalan, 24 dyuym), otish mexanizmiga (masalan, o'qqa tutilgan) murojaat qilish mumkin. gugurt qulfi, g'ildirak g'ildiragi, toshbo'ron, yoki perkussiya qulfi ), dizaynning asosiy maqsadiga (masalan, ov qilish miltiq) yoki ma'lum bir o'zgarish uchun odatda qabul qilingan nomga (masalan, Gatling qurol ).

Otish qurollari nishonga o'qotar qurollarni qaratadi qo'l-ko'zni muvofiqlashtirish, ikkalasini ham ishlating temir manzaralari yoki optik diqqatga sazovor joylar. To'pponchalarning aniq diapazoni odatda 100 metrdan oshmaydi (110 yd; 330 fut), aksariyat miltiqlar temirning diqqatga sazovor joylaridan foydalangan holda 500 metrgacha (550 yd; 1600 fut) yoki optik nigohlar yordamida uzoqroq masofalarga to'g'ri keladi. (Qurol bilan o'q uzish xavfli va o'limga olib kelishi mumkin, ularning aniq chegaralaridan tashqarida bo'lishi mumkin; xavfsizlik uchun minimal masofa aniqlik uchun belgilangan masofadan ancha katta). Maqsad qurilgan snayper miltiqlari va materielga qarshi miltiqlar 2000 metrdan ko'proq masofaga to'g'ri keladi (2200 yd; 1,2 milya).

Turlari

Qurol - bu a bochkada qurol-yarog ' bir yoki bir nechtasini ishga tushirish orqali maqsadlarga zarar etkazadigan snaryadlar tomonidan ishlab chiqarilayotgan yuqori bosimli gazni tez sur'atlarda kengaytirilishi bilan boshqariladi ekzotermik yonish (deflagratsiya ) kimyoviy yoqilg'i, tarixiy jihatdan qora kukun, hozir tutunsiz kukun.^[5][6][7]

Harbiy xizmatda o'qotar qurollar portativligi bo'yicha "og'ir" va "engil" qurollarga bo'linadi piyoda askarlar. Yengil qurol - bu shaxs tomonidan osongina olib o'tilishi mumkin bo'lgan qurol piyoda askarlar (ya'ni "odam ko'chiradigan"), garchi ular hali ham bir nechta shaxsni talab qilishi mumkin (ekipaj tomonidan xizmat ko'rsatiladi ) optimal operatsion imkoniyatlarga erishish. Og'ir qurol - bu piyoda tashish uchun juda katta va og'ir yoki unga nisbatan beqaror bo'lgan qurollar orqaga chekinmoq va shu tariqa a qo'llab-quvvatlashini talab qiladi qurol platformasi (masalan, a sobit o'rnatish, g'ildirakli arava, transport vositasi, samolyot yoki suv idishi ) taktik jihatdan bo'lish mobil yoki foydali.

The kichik to'plam faqat foydalanadigan engil o'qotar qurollar kinetik snaryadlar va bitta piyoda askar tomonidan to'liq quvvat bilan ishlay oladigan darajada ixcham (individual xizmat ko'rsatuvchi) "deb ham yuritiladikichik qurollar", a giponim bu erda "o'qotar qurol" so'zi ko'pincha a sinonim umumiy foydalanishda. Bunday qurollarga quyidagilar kiradi qurol kabi revolverlar, avtomatlar va derringerlar va uzun qurollar kabi miltiqlar (kabi ko'plab subtiplarni o'z ichiga oladi) materiallarga qarshi miltiqlar, snayper miltiqlari /belgilangan nishon miltiqlari, jangovar miltiqlar, avtomatlar va karbinalar ), ov miltiqlari, avtomatlar /shaxsiy mudofaa qurollari va otryad avtomatik qurol /engil pulemyotlar.^[8]

Dunyo orasida qurol ishlab chiqaruvchilar, eng yaxshi qurol ishlab chiqaruvchilar Braunlash, Remington, Colt, Ruger, Smit va Vesson, Vahshiylik, Mossberg (AQSH), Gekler va Koch, SIG Sauer, Uolter (Germaniya), UBZUB (Chex Respublikasi), Glock, Steyr-Mannliker (Avstriya), FN Herstal (Belgiya), Beretta (Italiya), Norinko (Xitoy), Tula qurollari va Kalashnikov (Rossiya), sobiq eng yaxshi ishlab chiqaruvchilar esa Mauzer, Springfild qurol-yarog ' va ostida Rock Island Armory Armscor (Filippinlar).^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

2018 yildan boshlab^[yangilash] The Kichik qurollarni o'rganish global miqyosda tarqatilgan bir milliarddan ortiq o'qotar qurol borligini, ulardan 857 millioni (85 foizga yaqini) mavjudligini xabar qildi fuqarolik qo'llar.^[9][10] Birgina AQSh tinch aholisiga 393 million (46 foizga yaqin) fuqarolik qurolidagi qurol-yarog 'to'g'ri keladi.^[10] Bu "har 100 aholiga 120,5 ta o'qotar qurol" ni tashkil etadi.^[10] Dunyo qurolli kuchlar butun dunyo bo'ylab qurol-yarog 'qurollarining 133 millionga yaqini (taxminan 13 foizi) ustidan nazoratni amalga oshiradi, shundan 43 foizdan ortig'i ikki mamlakatga tegishli: Rossiya Federatsiyasi (30,3 million) va Xitoy (27,5 million).^[9] Huquqni muhofaza qilish idoralari butun dunyo bo'ylab qurol-yarog 'qurollarining taxminan 23 millionini (taxminan 2 foizini) nazorat qilish.^[9]

Konfiguratsiya

Qo'l qurollari

A Colt yagona harakat armiyasi revolver

A Glock 17 yarim avtomatik avtomat

Qo'l qurollari - bu bitta qo'l bilan ishlatilishi mumkin bo'lgan qurollar va barcha qurollardan eng kichigi. Biroq, "qo'l qurol" ning huquqiy ta'rifi mamlakatlar va mintaqalarda turlicha. Masalan, Janubiy Afrika qonunchiligida "qurol" deganda bir qo'l bilan ushlanib, bo'shatib beriladigan to'pponcha yoki revolver tushuniladi.^[11] Avstraliyada qurol to'g'risidagi qonunchilikda to'pponchani qurolga ega shaxs yoki yashirin bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan qurol deb hisoblaydi; yoki bir qo'li bilan ko'tarilishi va ishdan bo'shatilishi mumkin; yoki 65 sm (26 dyuym) dan oshmasligi kerak.^[12] Qo'shma Shtatlarda, Sarlavha 18 va ATF to'pponchani qisqa bo'lgan o'qotar qurol deb biladi Aksiya va bitta qo'l yordamida ushlab turish va otish uchun mo'ljallangan.^[13][14]

Qurol qurollarining ikkita keng tarqalgan turi mavjud: revolverlar va yarim avtomatik avtomatlar. Revolverlarda aylanadigan silindrda bir qator otash kameralari yoki "zaryad teshiklari" mavjud; silindrdagi har bir kameraga bitta o'rnatilgan patron yoki to'lov. Yarim avtomatik to'pponchalarda bochkaning orqa tomoniga ishlangan bitta mahkam o'q otish kamerasi va jurnali bor, shunda ular bir martadan ko'proq o'q otish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin. Triggerning har bir bosimi patronni yoqadi, kartridjning energiyasidan foydalanib, mexanizmni ishga tushiradi, shunda keyingi kartrij darhol otilishi mumkin. Bu "ga qarshiikki tomonlama harakat "revolverlar, xuddi shu uchini tetikning tortilishi bilan bog'langan mexanik ta'sir yordamida amalga oshiradi.

1818 yilda revolver ixtiro qilinishi bilan bir nechta o'qni ushlab turishga qodir qurollar mashhur bo'ldi. Avtomatik yuklaydigan to'pponchalarning ma'lum bir dizaynlari 1870-yillardan boshlangan va Birinchi Jahon urushi oxiriga kelib asosan harbiy dasturlarda revolverlarni almashtirgan. 20-asrning oxiriga kelib harbiylar, politsiya va tinch aholi tomonidan muntazam ravishda olib yuriladigan qurollarning aksariyati yarim avtomatik edi. , revolverlar hali ham keng qo'llanilgan bo'lsa-da. Umuman aytganda, harbiy va politsiya kuchlari yarim avtomat to'pponchalardan yuqori jurnal hajmi va shunchaki bo'sh jurnalni olib tashlash va yuklangan jurnalni qo'yish bilan tezda qayta yuklash qobiliyati tufayli foydalanadilar. Revolverlar to'pponcha ovchilari orasida juda keng tarqalgan, chunki revolver patronlari odatda shunga o'xshash kalibrli yarim avtomatik to'pponcha patronlariga qaraganda kuchliroqdir (ular uchun mo'ljallangan o'zini himoya qilish ) va revolver dizaynining mustahkamligi, soddaligi va chidamliligi tashqi makon uchun juda mos keladi. Revolverlar, ayniqsa .22 LR va 38 Special / 357 Magnum ham keng tarqalgan yashirin qurol Ushbu amaliyotga imkon beradigan yurisdiktsiyalarda, chunki ularning sodda mexanikasi ularni ishonchli va shu bilan birga ko'plab avtoulovlardan kichikroq qiladi. Ikkala dizayn ham egasining niyatiga qarab fuqarolik qurol egalari orasida keng tarqalgan (o'zini himoya qilish, ov qilish, nishonga o'q uzish, musobaqalar, yig'ish va hk).

Uzoq qurollar

Uzoq avtomat, odatda, quroldan kattaroq va har ikkala qo'l bilan ushlab turish va otish uchun mo'ljallangan har qanday o'qotar qurol bo'lib, yaxshiroq barqarorlik uchun kestirib yoki elkasidan mahkamlanadi. Uzoq qurollar odatda 10 dan 30 dyuymgacha (250 dan 760 mm gacha) bochkaning uzunligiga ega (ko'plab yurisdiktsiyalarda bochkaning minimal uzunligiga cheklovlar mavjud; maksimal uzunlik odatda amaliy ahamiyatga ega), qabul qilgich va qo'zg'atuvchi guruh bilan bir qatorda yog'och, plastmassa, metall yoki kompozitga o'rnatilgan Aksiyaoldingi, orqa tutqichni va ixtiyoriy ravishda (lekin odatda) elka o'rnatishni tashkil etuvchi bir yoki bir nechta qismlardan tashkil topgan. dumba. Uyg'onish davridan 19-asrning o'rtalariga qadar erta uzun qurollar odatda silliq qurollardan iborat bo'lib, ular bir yoki bir nechta to'pni o'qqa tutishgan. mushketlar yoki arquebus kalibrga va otish mexanizmiga qarab.

Miltiq va miltiq

Springfild qurol-yarog ' M1903 miltig'i

Eng zamonaviy uzun qurollar ham miltiqlar yoki ov miltiqlari. Ikkalasi ham mushukning vorislari bo'lib, o'zlarining ota qurollaridan ajralib turadigan yo'llar bilan ajralib turadilar. Spiral oluklar uchun miltiq shunday nomlangan (miltiqlar ) uning bochkasining ichki (teshik) yuzasiga ishlov berilib, giroskopik stabillashadigan spinni o'qlar u olov. Shotgunlar asosan silliq teshik bir qator o'q otish uchun mo'ljallangan qurol otilgan har bir tushirish paytida; pellet o'lchamlari odatda 2 mm # 9 birdhot va 8,4 mm # 00 (ikki marta) bootshot orasida. Shotgunlar, shuningdek, bitta qattiq snaryadlarni otishga qodir slugs yoki mutaxassislik (ko'pincha "kamroq o'limga olib keladi ") kabi turlar loviya sumkalari, ko'z yoshartuvchi gaz yoki buzilish davri. Vintovkalar har bir otish paytida bitta zarba nuqtasini hosil qiladi, ammo uzoq masofa va yuqori aniqlik bilan; ov miltiqlari esa juda kam masofa va aniqlik bilan zarba nuqtalarining klasterini hosil qiladi. Biroq, ov miltig'ining ta'sir doirasi kattaroq aniqlikni qoplashi mumkin, chunki otish tarqaladi parvoz paytida; binobarin, ovda ov miltig'i odatda tez uchadigan ov qushlari uchun ishlatiladi.

Miltiq va ov miltiqlari odatda ov qilish uchun ishlatiladi va ko'pincha uy himoyasi, Xavfsizlik xizmati xodimi va huquqni muhofaza qilish. Odatda, katta ov miltiq bilan ovlanadi (garchi ov miltig'idan foydalanish mumkin bo'lsa-da, ayniqsa slugs), qushlar esa ov miltig'idan ovlanadi. Shotgunlar ba'zida uyni yoki biznesni himoya qilish uchun keng zarba maydoni, ko'p jarohat izlari (bukzotdan foydalanganda), qisqaroqligi va devorlarning kirib borishining pasayishi (engilroq o'qni ishlatganda) tufayli afzal ko'riladi, bu esa kutilmagan zarar etkazish ehtimolini sezilarli darajada kamaytiradi, garchi to'pponcha ham keng tarqalgan.

A AQSh dengiz piyodalari otish a Mossberg 500 ov miltig'i

Qayta yuklanish usuli asosida turli xil miltiq va ov miltiqlari mavjud. Vintli va qo'zg'aysan miltiqlari qo'lda boshqariladi. Bolt yoki qo'lni manipulyatsiyasi sarflangan kartrijni olib tashlashga, otish mexanizmini to'ldirishga va yangi kartrijni kiritishga olib keladi. Ushbu ikki turdagi harakatlar deyarli faqat miltiq tomonidan qo'llaniladi. Slaydni harakatga keltiruvchi (odatda "nasosli harakat" deb nomlanadi) miltiq va miltiq qurolni oldinga va orqaga oldinga siljitish orqali qo'lda aylantiradi. Ushbu turdagi harakatlar odatda ov miltiqlari tomonidan qo'llaniladi, ammo bir nechta yirik ishlab chiqaruvchilar ushbu harakatni ishlatadigan miltiqlarni ishlab chiqaradilar.

Ikkala miltiq va ov miltiqlari, shuningdek, hech qanday qayta yuklash mexanizmiga ega bo'lmagan, ammo har bir otishdan keyin qo'lda o'rnatilishi kerak bo'lgan harakatlanadigan navlarga ega. Ikkala miltiq ham, miltiq ham bitta va ikki o'qli navlarga ega; ammo ishlab chiqarish xarajatlari va qiyinligi tufayli ikki o'qli miltiqlar kamdan-kam uchraydi. Ikki o'qli miltiqlar, odatda, hayvonlar xavfli, oralig'i qisqa va tezligi muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan Afrikaning katta ovlari uchun mo'ljallangan. Ushbu o'qotar qurollar uchun juda katta va kuchli kalibrlar normal hisoblanadi.

Miltiqlar Evropada va Qo'shma Shtatlarda hech bo'lmaganda 18-asrdan boshlab miltiq birinchi bo'lib keng ommalashgan paytdan boshlab milliy nishonga olish bo'yicha tadbirlarda qatnashgan. Dastlabki sof "amerikaliklar" ning miltiq otish musobaqalaridan biri 1775 yilda, Daniel Morgan Virjiniya shtatida yaqinlashib kelayotgan qurol uchun o'q otuvchilarni yollash paytida bo'lgan. Amerika inqilobiy urushi. Ba'zi mamlakatlarda miltiqdan o'q uzish hali ham milliy g'urur masalasidir. Kattaroq kalibrdagi ba'zi ixtisoslashgan miltiqlarning aniq masofasi taxminan 1 mil (1600 m) ga teng deb da'vo qilinadi, garchi ularning aksariyati ancha kam. 20-asrning ikkinchi yarmida raqobatbardosh ov miltiqlari, ehtimol miltiqdan ko'ra ko'proq mashhur bo'lib qoldi, bu asosan harakat, tuzoq, sport gillari kabi harakatlar va zudlik bilan qayta aloqa tufayli.

Harbiy foydalanishda yuqori quvvatga ega boltli miltiqlar snayperlar kabi keng tarqalgan, ammo Koreya urushi piyoda askarlar tomonidan ishlatilgan an'anaviy murvatli va yarim avtomatik miltiqlar, taniqli-otashin dizaynlari bilan to'ldirilgan. avtomatik miltiqlar.

Karbinlar

Karbin - bu o'qotar qurol bo'lib, uning shakli va ishlatilishi jihatidan miltiqqa o'xshash, ammo odatda shunga o'xshash vaqt oralig'idagi odatdagi "to'liq o'lchovli" ov yoki jangovar miltiqdan qisqaroq yoki kichikroq, ba'zan esa kichikroq yoki unchalik kuchli bo'lmagan patrondan foydalaniladi. Karbinalar harbiylar tomonidan jangda qatnashishi kutilgan rollarda ishlatilgan va foydalaniladi, ammo to'liq o'lchovli miltiq bu askarning asosiy vazifalariga to'sqinlik qilishi mumkin bo'lgan (transport vositalari haydovchilari, dala qo'mondonlari va yordamchi xodimlar, havoda qo'shinlar, muhandislar va boshqalar). Karbinalar huquqni muhofaza qilish idoralarida va fuqarolarning egalari orasida ham keng tarqalgan, bu erda hajmi, maydoni va / yoki elektr quvvati o'xshash bo'lishi mumkin. Karbinalar, xuddi miltiq singari, odatda vaqt va mo'ljallangan bozorga qarab, bir martalik, takrorlanadigan, yarim avtomatik yoki tanlab otiladigan / to'liq avtomatik bo'lishi mumkin. Umumiy tarixiy misollarga quyidagilar kiradi Vinchester modeli 1892 yil, Li-Enfild "O'rmon karbini ", SKS, M1 karbini (kattaroqqa aloqasi yo'q) M1 Garand ) va M4 karbini (oqimning ixcham varianti) M16 miltiq ). Zamonaviy AQSh fuqarolik karabinlari ixcham xususiylashtirishlarni o'z ichiga oladi AR-15, Ruger Mini-14, Beretta Cx4 bo'roni, Kel-Tec SUB-2000, murvatli miltiqlar odatda a texnik shartlariga to'g'ri keladi razvedka miltig'i, va shu jumladan mashhur avtomatlar uchun sotuvdan keyingi konvertatsiya to'plamlari M1911 va Glock modellar.

Avtomat qurollar

MG 42 orqaga tortilgan umumiy maqsadli avtomat bipod

Avtomat to'liq avtomatik qurol, ko'pincha kamar bilan ta'minlangan o'q-dorilarni ishlatish bilan boshqa avtomat qurollarining boshqa sinflaridan ajralib turadi (garchi ba'zi dizaynlarda baraban, pan yoki bunker jurnallari mavjud bo'lsa), odatda miltiqdan ilhomlangan kalibrda 5.56 × 45mm NATO (.223 Remington) uchun a engil avtomat qadar katta .50 BMG yoki ekipaj yoki samolyot qurollari uchun undan kattaroq. Birinchi jahon urushigacha keng tarqalmagan bo'lsa-da, 19-asrning ikkinchi yarmida harbiylar tomonidan dastlabki pulemyotlardan foydalanilgan. 20-asr davomida AQSh qurol-yarog'idagi diqqatga sazovor narsalarga quyidagilar kiradi M2 Browning .50 kalibrli og'ir pulemyot, M1919 Browning .30 kalibrli o'rta avtomat va M60 7.62 × 51mm NATO Vetnam urushi atrofida ishlatilgan umumiy maqsadli avtomat. Ushbu turdagi pulemyotlar dastlab kamida ikki kishi tomonidan boshqariladigan mudofaa qurollari edi, asosan ularni ko'chirish va joylashtirishda qiyinchiliklar, o'q-dorilar va shtativ. Aksincha, zamonaviy engil pulemyotlar kabi FN Minimi ko'pincha bitta piyoda askar tomonidan boshqariladi. Ular o'q-dorilarning katta hajmini va yong'inning yuqori tezligini ta'minlaydi va odatda piyodalar harakati paytida söndürme olovini berish uchun ishlatiladi. Avtomatlarning aniqligi dizayndan tortib to ishlab chiqarish toleransigacha bo'lgan ko'plab omillarga qarab farq qiladi, ularning aksariyati vaqt o'tishi bilan yaxshilandi. Avtomat qurollar ko'pincha transport vositalariga yoki vertolyotlarga o'rnatiladi va Birinchi Jahon Urushidan beri qiruvchi samolyotlar va tanklarda hujum qurollari sifatida ishlatilgan (masalan, havoda jang qilish yoki quruqlikdagi qo'shinlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun o't o'chirish).

Avtomatura ta'rifi AQSh qonunlarida boshqacha. The Milliy qurolga oid qonun va Qurol egalarini himoya qilish to'g'risidagi qonun Qo'shma Shtatlar kodida "avtomat" ni belgilang 26-sarlavha, E subtitr, 53-bob, B kichik bo'lim, 1-qism, 5845-§ kabi: "... o'q otadigan har qanday qurol ... avtomatik ravishda bir martadan ko'proq o'q otadi, qo'lda qayta yuklanmasdan, qo'zg'atuvchining bitta funktsiyasi bilan". Shuning uchun "avtomat" AQSh fuqarolik tilida barcha avtomatik o'qotar qurollarni o'z ichiga olgan holda "avtomat qurol" bilan ko'p ma'noga ega.

Snayper miltiqlari

The Xalqaro Arktika urushi Merganlar miltig'ining ketma-ketligi bir qator mamlakatlar, shu jumladan Buyuk Britaniya, Irlandiya va boshqa mamlakatlarning armiyalarida standart muammo hisoblanadi Germaniya (ko'rsatilgan).

Mergan miltig'ining ta'rifi harbiylar, politsiyachilar va fuqarolik kuzatuvchilari o'rtasida bahsli, ammo odatda "mergan miltig'i" ni yuqori quvvatli, yarim avtomatik / murvatli harakat, aniq miltiq standartdan ko'ra aniqroq masofa deb ta'riflaydi. miltiq. Ular ko'pincha o'z dasturlari uchun mo'ljallangan. Masalan, politsiya snayperi miltig'i harbiy miltiqdan farq qilishi mumkin. Politsiya snayperlari odatda nishonni o'ta masofadan emas, balki o'rta masofadan nishonga olishadi. Bundan tashqari, ular qisqa doirada bir nechta maqsadlarga ega bo'lishi mumkin va shuning uchun murvat bilan harakat qilishdan ko'ra yarim avtomatik model afzalroq. Ular milspek miltiqlariga qaraganda ixchamroq bo'lishi mumkin, chunki politsiya nishonlari ko'proq ko'chirishga muhtoj bo'lishi mumkin. Boshqa tomondan, harbiy miltiq tana zirhini yoki o'rta engil qopqoqni engish uchun yuqori quvvatli patrondan foydalanishi ehtimoli ko'proq. Ular tez-tez (lekin juda ko'p emas) murvat bilan harakat qilishadi, chunki ularni qurish va saqlash osonroq. Bundan tashqari, kamroq harakatlanuvchi va umumiy qismlar tufayli ular noqulay sharoitlarda ancha ishonchli. Bundan tashqari, ular maqsadlarni uzoqroq egallash uchun yanada kuchli ko'lamga ega bo'lishi mumkin. Umuman olganda, snayper birliklari shu paytgacha hech qachon taniqli bo'lmagan 1-jahon urushi, nemislar o'zlarining foydaliligini jang maydonida namoyish qilishganda. O'shandan beri ular qaytarib bo'lmaydigan tarzda urushga singib ketishdi. Snayper miltiqlariga misollar Aniqlik Xalqaro AWM, Sako TRG-42 va CheyTac M200. Ixtisoslashgan snayper patronlariga quyidagilar kiradi .338 Lapua Magnum, .300 Winchester Magnum va .408 CheyTac turlar.

Avtomatlar

Chexoslovakiya 7,65 mm avtomat Skorpion vz. 61 1959 yilda ishlab chiqilgan.

Suomi M31 70 dumaloq barabanli jurnal biriktirilgan avtomat, 20 va 50 dumaloq quti jurnallari.

Avtomat - bu o'q otadigan, odatda boshqa avtomat qurollardan kichikroq bo'lgan, jurnal bilan oziqlanadigan qurol avtomat - kalibrli o'q-dorilar; shu sababli ma'lum avtomatlarga ham murojaat qilish mumkin avtomat avtomatlar, xususan. kabi to'pponcha o'lchamidagi dizaynlarni nazarda tutganda Skorpion vz. 61 va Glock 18. Taniqli misollar Isroil Uzi va Heckler & Koch MP5 ishlatadigan 9 × 19 mm Parabellum kartrij va amerikalik Tompson avtomati qaysi olov .45 ACP. Avtomat qurollar kichik o'lchamlari va yuqori quvvatli miltiqlarga nisbatan cheklangan darajada kirib borganligi sababli, odatda qurollar, harbiy qismlar va politsiya kuchlari tomonidan binolar ichida, shahar joylarida yoki xandaq majmualarida kabi yaqin atrofdagi kelishuvlar uchun afzaldir.

Avtomatlar dastlab karbinalar kattaligida bo'lgan. Ular to'pponcha o'q-dorilarini o'qqa tutishgani uchun ular uzoq masofadan foydalanishni cheklashgan, ammo yaqin janglarda avtomat o'q-dorilarning engilroq orqaga tortilishi tufayli to'liq avtomatik ravishda boshqariladigan usulda foydalanish mumkin. Shuningdek, ular urush paytida juda arzon va oddiy bo'lib, xalqqa o'z armiyasini tezda qurollantirishga imkon beradi. 20-asrning ikkinchi yarmida avtomatlar ba'zi katta qurollardan biroz kattaroq bo'lguncha miniatyuraga aylantirildi. 20-asrning oxirida eng ko'p ishlatiladigan avtomat Heckler & Koch MP5 edi. MP5 aslida Heckler & Koch tomonidan "mashina tabancasi" deb nomlangan (MP5 so'zining ma'nosi) Maschinenpistol 5(yoki Machine Pistol 5), ammo ba'zilari ushbu belgini MAC-10 va undan kichikroq avtomatlar uchun saqlab qo'ysa ham Glock 18, o'lchamlari va shaklidagi to'pponchalar.

Avtomatik miltiqlar

Avtomatik miltiq - bu bitta piyoda askar tomonidan ishlatiladigan, miltiq patronlari uchun joylashtirilgan va avtomatik ravishda otish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lgan, jurnal bilan oziqlanadigan qurol. The M1918 Browning Avtomatik miltiq ushbu turdagi birinchi AQSh piyoda qurollari bo'lgan va odatda odatda to'ldirilgan rolni bostirish yoki qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun ishlatilgan. engil avtomat. Boshqa dastlabki avtomatik miltiqlarga quyidagilar kiradi Fedorov Avtomat va Huot Avtomatik miltiq. Keyinchalik nemis kuchlari Sturmgewehr 44 davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi, kamaytirilgan quvvatni otayotgan engil avtomat "oraliq kartrij ". Ushbu dizayn" uchun asos bo'lishi kerak edi "avtomat "farqli o'laroq, avtomat qurollarning kichik klassi"jangovar miltiqlar odatda an'anaviy "to'liq quvvatli" miltiq patronini o'qqa tutadi.

Avtomat miltiqlar

The AK-47 eng ko'p ishlab chiqarilgan va ishlatiladigan narsalardan biridir avtomatlar dunyoda.

Yilda Ikkinchi jahon urushi, Germaniya StG 44 va qurol-yarog 'texnologiyasini birinchi o'ringa olib chiqdi, natijada qurol qurolga aylanib, qurol-yarog' quroliga aylandi. Avtomat odatda a dan kichikroq jangovar miltiq Amerika M14 kabi, ammo qurolni aniqlaydigan asosiy farqlar olovni tanlash qobiliyati va unchalik katta bo'lmagan kuchga ega miltiqdan foydalanish oraliq kartrij.

Sovet muhandisi Mixail Kalashnikov ishlab chiqarish uchun standart 7.62 × 54mmR rus jangovar miltiq turidan olingan unchalik kuchli bo'lmagan 7.62 × 39 mm patron yordamida nemis kontseptsiyasini tezda moslashtirdi. AK-47, dunyodagi eng ko'p ishlatiladigan qurolga aylandi. Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan ko'p o'tmay Avtomatik Kalashnikov AK-47 avtomati Sovet Ittifoqi va uning Sharqiy blokdagi ittifoqchilari, shuningdek, Xitoy, Shimoliy Koreya va Shimoliy Vetnam kabi davlatlar.

Qo'shma Shtatlarda avtomatning dizayni keyinchalik paydo bo'ldi; Ikkinchi Jahon M1 Garandining o'rnini yangi uchun joylashtirilgan yana bir Jon Garand dizayni egalladi 7.62 × 51mm NATO patron; tanlov-olov M14, AQSh harbiylari tomonidan 1960 yilgacha ishlatilgan. To'liq avtomatik rejimda ishdan chiqarilganda M14 ning sezilarli darajada orqaga qaytishi muammo sifatida qaraldi, chunki u aniqlikni pasaytirdi va 1960-yillarda uning o'rniga Evgeniy Stoner "s AR-15 Shuningdek, bu AQSh harbiylari tomonidan ishlatilgan .30 kalibrli patronlardan Vetnam urushining boshigacha unchalik kuchli bo'lmagan, ammo ancha engilroq va engil orqaga qaytish .223 kalibrli (5,56 mm) oraliq kartrij. Keyinchalik harbiylar AR-15 ni "M16 M16 ning fuqarolik versiyasi AR-15 nomi bilan mashhur bo'lib kelmoqda va harbiy versiyaga o'xshaydi, ammo B.A.T.F.E. AQSh-dagi qoidalarga binoan, u to'liq avtomatik olovga imkon beradigan mexanizmga ega emas.

Ikkala M16 va AK-47 modellarining variantlari bugungi kunda ham xalqaro miqyosda keng qo'llanilmoqda, ammo boshqa avtomatik miltiqlarning konstruktsiyalari bundan buyon joriy qilingan. M16A2 ning kichikroq versiyasi M4 karbini, AQSh va NATO tanklari va transport vositalari ekipajlari, havo kemalari, yordamchi xodimlar va bo'sh joy cheklangan boshqa stsenariylarda keng qo'llaniladi. The IMI Galil, AK-47 harakatiga asoslangan Isroil tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan qurol Isroil, Italiya, Birma, Filippin, Peru va Kolumbiya tomonidan qo'llanilmoqda. Shveytsariya qurollari Shveytsariya ishlab chiqaradi SIG SG 550 Frantsiya, Chili va Ispaniya tomonidan ishlatilgan avtomat va boshqalar Steyr Mannlicher ishlab chiqaradi AUG, a bullpup boshqa millatlar qatorida Avstriya, Avstraliya, Yangi Zelandiya, Irlandiya va Saudiya Arabistonida ishlatiladigan miltiq.

Zamonaviy dizaynlar ixcham qurollarni otashin quvvatni saqlashni talab qiladi. Bullpup dizayni, jurnalni tirgakning orqasiga o'rnatib, an'anaviy avtomatning aniqligi va olov kuchini avtomatning ixcham kattaligi bilan birlashtiradi (garchi avtomatlar hanuzgacha ishlatilayotgan bo'lsa ham); misollari frantsuzlar FAMAS va inglizlar SA80.

Shaxsiy mudofaa qurollari

FN P90 PDW

Yaqinda ishlab chiqilgan o'qotar qurollar sinfi shaxsiy mudofaa quroli yoki PDW, bu oddiy so'zlar bilan aytganda a avtomat miltiq patronlariga o'xshash ballistik ko'rsatkichlarga ega o'q-dorilarni otish uchun mo'ljallangan. Avtomat ixcham o'lchamlari va o'q-dorilarning hajmi bilan maqbul bo'lsa-da, uning to'pponchalari patronlarida miltiq o'qining kirish qobiliyati yo'q. Aksincha, miltiq o'qlari engil zirhlarni teshib qo'yishi mumkin va aniq o'q otish osonroq, ammo a karbin masalan, Colt M4 avtomatdan kattaroq va / yoki uzunroq bo'lib, yaqin atrofda harakat qilishni qiyinlashtiradi. Ko'plab qurol-yarog 'ishlab chiqaruvchilari tomonidan taqdim etilgan yechim - bu o'lchamiga va umumiy konfiguratsiyasiga ko'ra avtomat quroliga o'xshash qurol, ammo u qurol-yarog' uchun kuchli qurolni (ko'pincha qurol uchun maxsus ishlab chiqilgan) o'qqa tutadi va shu bilan karbina va avtomatning afzalliklarini birlashtiradi. . Bu shuningdek PDW-larda kamdan-kam ishlatiladigan laqabni oldi - avtomat karbinlari. The FN P90 va Heckler & Koch MP7 PDWlarning eng mashhur namunalari.

Jangovar miltiqlar

Belgiyalik FN SCAR-H

Jangovar miltiqlar - miltiqning yana bir kichik turi, odatda quyidagicha ta'riflanadi selektiv yong'in to'liq quvvatli miltiq patronlarini ishlatadigan miltiqlar, ularning misollariga 7.62x51mm NATO, 7.92x57mm Mauser va 7.62x54mmR. Ular avtomatlarga o'xshash maqsadlarga xizmat qiladi, chunki ularning ikkalasi ham quruqlikdagi piyoda askarlarda ishlaydi. Biroq, ba'zilar qo'shimcha tortishuvlarga qaramay, jangovar miltiqlarni kuchliroq patronlari tufayli afzal ko'rishadi. Ba'zi yarim avtomatik snayper miltiqlari jangovar miltiqlardan tuzilgan.

Funktsiya

Qurol-yarog ', shuningdek, uning ishlash tsikli yoki uni yuklash, o'q otish va tushirish tsiklini tavsiflovchi "harakat" bilan tasniflanadi.

Qo'lda

Qurol qurolining dastlabki evolyutsiyasi, qo'lda o'q otish qurollarining ko'p turlari mavjud. Ularni ikkita asosiy toifaga bo'lish mumkin: bitta o'q va takrorlash.

Yagona o'q otish qurolini tashqi mexanizm yoki ketma-ket qadamlar bilan qayta yuklash yoki zaryad qilishdan oldin jihozlangan bochkada faqat bir marta otish mumkin. Takroriy o'qotar qurolni bir necha marta o'qqa tutish mumkin, ammo uni tirgakning har keyingi tortilishi bilan atigi bir marta otish mumkin. Triggerlar o'rtasida o'qotar qurolning harakatini ichki mexanizm orqali qayta tiklash yoki zaryadlash kerak.

Lever harakat

Qo'lga tushirilgan qurol, eski kartrijni chiqarib yuborish uchun orqaga va orqaga tortilib, keyin yangi turga o'rnatiladi.

Nasos harakati

Nasos harakat qurollari asosan ov miltig'idir. Nasos harakati foydalanuvchi qo'lni siljitganda hosil bo'ladi (odatda ushlagich) va u eskisini haydab chiqarishda kameraga yangi tur olib keladi.^[15]

Yarim avtomatik

Yarim avtomatik, o'z-o'zidan yuklanadigan yoki "avtomatik yuklovchi" o'qotar qurol - bu qurolni oziqlantirish moslamasida yoki jurnalida patronlar mavjud bo'lmaguncha, uni bitta zaryadsizlantirishdan keyin yana o'q otish uchun tayyorlash uchun zarur bo'lgan barcha amallarni bajaradigan qurol. Avtomatik yuklagichlar tirgakning har bir tortilishi bilan bir martadan o'q otishadi. Ba'zi odamlar bu atamani "to'liq avtomatik" qurol bilan aralashtirib yuborishadi. (Keyingisiga qarang.) Ba'zi bir yarim avtomat qurollar harbiy uslubdagi o'qotar qurollarga o'xshab ketishi mumkin, ammo ular to'g'ri tarzda tasniflanmagan, "hujum qurollari" bu o'q otish kuchi bosilguncha o'q uzishni davom ettiradi.

Avtomatik

An avtomatik qurol, yoki "to'liq avtomatik", "to'liq avtomatik" yoki "to'liq avto" odatda patron bosilganda (va jurnal tugamaguncha) o'z jurnalidan patronlarni yuklashni va o'qqa tutishni davom etadigan qurol deb ta'riflanadi. o'q-dorilar.) Ushbu toifada odatda ko'rib chiqilgan birinchi qurol Gatling qurol, dastlab aravachaga o'rnatilgan, bir nechta aylanuvchi bochkalarga ega krank bilan ishlaydigan qurol. Amerika fuqarolar urushi. Trigger yordamida boshqariladigan zamonaviy avtomat 19-asr oxirida ishlab chiqilgan va maydonga tushirilgan turli xil dizaynlardan boshlangan Birinchi jahon urushi kabi Maksim qurol, Lyuis Gun va MG 08 "Spandau". Avtomat qurollarning aksariyati uzun qurollar deb tasniflanadi (ishlatilgan o'q-dorilar o'qotar qurolga o'xshash turga ega va qurolning tez o'q otishining qaytarilishi ikki qo'l bilan boshqarilishi yaxshiroq), ammo avtomat o'lchovli avtomatlar ham mavjud, odatda " avtomat "yoki" avtomat avtomat "klassi.

Tanlangan olov

Tanlangan olovyoki "tanlangan yong'in" degani, qurolning yong'inni boshqarish qobiliyatini yarim avtomatik, to'liq avtomatik otish rejimida yoki 3 ta dumaloq portlashda sozlash qobiliyatini anglatadi. Rejimlar selektor yordamida tanlanadi, qurolning konstruktsiyasiga qarab o'zgaradi. Ba'zi tanlab o'q otish qurollari mavjud otashin olov to'liq avtomatik rejimda tortishishlarning maksimal sonini cheklash uchun qurilgan mexanizmlar, eng keng tarqalgan chegaralar har bir tirgakning tortishishida ikki yoki uch marta. Qurol-yarog'da tanlab o'q otish rejimlarining mavjudligi aniq taktik ehtiyojlar uchun o'q-dorilarni aniqroq yoki aniqroq ishlatishga imkon beradi. bostiruvchi olov. Ushbu qobiliyat ko'pincha 20 va 21 asrlardagi harbiy qurollarda uchraydi, eng muhimi avtomatlar.

Tarix

Qo'l to'pi xitoylardan Yuan sulolasi (1271–1368)

Birinchi ibtidoiy qurollar taxminan milodiy 1250 yilda ixtiro qilingan Xitoy qachon odam ko'chma yong'in nayzasi (otish mumkin bo'lgan bambuk yoki metall naycha porox ) metall parchalari, singan chinni yoki dart / o'qlar kabi snaryadlar bilan birlashtirildi.^[4][16]

O'qotar qurolning eng qadimgi tasviri - g'or ichidagi haykal Sichuan, Xitoy. Haykal XII asrga tegishli bo'lib, vaza shaklidagi shaklga ega bombardimon, olov bilan va a to'p to'pi undan chiqib ketish.^[17]:31–32 Omon qolgan eng qadimgi qurol, a qo'l to'pi bronzadan yasalgan bo'lib, 1288 yilga tegishli, chunki u zamonaviy joyda topilgan Acheng tumani, Heilongjiang, Xitoy, qaerda Yuan Shi o'sha paytda janglar bo'lganligi haqida yozuvlar.^[18] Qurolning diametri 1 dyuymli 6,9 dyuymli bochka, porot uchun 2,6 dyuymli kamera va qurol ushlagichi uchun rozetka bo'lgan. Uzunligi 13,4 dyuym va tutqichsiz 7,8 funt, bu yog'ochdan yasalgan bo'lar edi.^[17]:32

Arablar va Mamluklar 13-asr oxirida o'qotar qurol bo'lgan.^[19][20][21] XIV asrda qurollar evropaliklar tomonidan qo'lga kiritildi.^[17]:1 Koreyslar XIV asrda xitoyliklardan o'qotar qurollarni qabul qilishgan. Eronliklar (birinchi Aq Qoyunlu va Safaviylar ) va hindular (birinchi Mug'allar ) barchasi ularni XV asrdan kechiktirmasdan, Usmonli turklaridan olgan. Odamlar Nusantara Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo arxipelagi ishlatilgan uzoq arquebus hech bo'lmaganda XV asrning so'nggi choragiga qadar.^[22]:23

The istinggar, hind-portugal qurol ishlab chiqarish an'analarining natijasi

Garchi poroxga asoslangan qurol ishlab chiqarish bo'yicha bilim Nusantara arxipelagi muvaffaqiyatsiz tugagandan so'ng ma'lum bo'ldi Mo‘g‘ullarning Yava istilosi (1293) va otashin qurollarning salafi qutbli qurol (bedil qabri ), 1413 yilda Java tomonidan ishlatilganligi qayd etilgan,^[23][24]:245 "haqiqiy" o'qotar qurollar yasash to'g'risida bilim ancha kechroq, XV asr o'rtalaridan so'ng paydo bo'ldi. Bu tomonidan olib kelingan Islomiy G'arbiy Osiyo davlatlari, ehtimol Arablar. Kirishning aniq yili noma'lum, ammo uni 1460 yildan erta deb xulosa qilish mumkin.^[25]:23 Portugaliyaliklar Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoga kelguniga qadar mahalliy aholi ibtidoiy o'qotar qurollarga ega edilar Java arquebus.^[26]

A) 1510 yilda Goa zabt etilgunga qadar portugallar tomonidan ishlatilgan Bohemiyadan Lissabonga kelgan tetik uchun tugmachali gugurt miltig'i. B) Hind-portugal gugurt miltig'i portugal va goan qurol ishlab chiqarishining kombinatsiyasi natijasida paydo bo'lgan. C) Yapon gugurt miltig'i Yapon orollariga kiritilgan birinchi o'qotar qurol nusxasi sifatida paydo bo'ldi.

Qurol-yarog 'texnologiyasi Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo keyin yaxshilandi Portugaliyaning Malakkani qo'lga kiritishi (1511).^[27] 1513 yildan boshlab nemis-bohem qurollarini tayyorlash an'anasi turk qurol yasash an'analari bilan birlashtirildi.^[28]:39–41 Natijada hindu-portugal tilida gugurt qulflash an'anasi paydo bo'ldi. Hindistonlik hunarmandlar nishonga olish paytida yelkaga emas, yonoqqa tutilgan juda qisqa, deyarli to'pponchaga o'xshash tayoqchani taklif qilib, dizaynni o'zgartirdilar. Ular, shuningdek, kalibrni kamaytirdilar va qurolni engilroq va muvozanatli qildilar. Bu portugaliyaliklarga zarba bo'ldi, ular kemada va daryo kemalarida juda ko'p jang qildilar va ixcham qurolni qadrlashdi.^[29]:41[30] Malay qurollari,^{[imloni tekshiring ]} Germaniya bilan bir xil darajadagi bilan taqqoslaganda, ushbu yangi o'qotar qurollarni tezda moslashtirdi va shu tariqa yangi arquebus turini - istinggar paydo bo'ldi.^[31]:385 Yaponlar XVI asrgacha, keyin esa xitoyliklardan ko'ra portugallardan o'qotar qurollarga ega bo'lmaganlar.^[17]:31–32

A mushketyor (1608)

19 va 20-asrlarda o'qotar qurollarning rivojlanishi tezlashdi. Qo'lda o'q otish qurollarini qayta yuklash uchun kamdan-kam hollarda universal standart bo'lib qoldi va ba'zi bir istisno holatlar (masalan, minomyot) bilan davom etmoqda. Shaxsiy turlarni qurolga yuklash o'rniga, ko'plab o'q-dorilarga ega jurnallar qabul qilindi - bu tezda qayta yuklashga yordam berdi. Avtomatik va yarim avtomatik otish mexanizmlari shuni anglatadiki, bitta askar jang davomida vintage qurolidan ko'ra bir daqiqada ko'proq o'q otishi mumkin edi. Qurol qurishda polimerlar va qotishmalar qurol-yarog'ni tobora yengillashtirdi va shu bilan ularni joylashtirishni osonlashtirdi. O'q-dorilar asrlar davomida pog'onadan pastga urilgan oddiy metall shar shaklidagi snaryadlardan yuqori aniqlikda ishlab chiqarilgan o'q va patronlarga aylandi. Ayniqsa, o'tgan asrda o'qotar qurolni har qachongidan ham aniqroq qilish uchun aniqlik va ko'rishga alohida e'tibor berildi. Ommaviy ishlab chiqarish paydo bo'lishi sababli qurol-yarog 'har qanday omillardan ko'ra ko'proq tarqaldi - bu qurol ishlab chiqaruvchilarga katta miqdordagi qurol-yarog' ishlab chiqarishni doimiy ravishda ishlab chiqarishga imkon beradi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Qo'rg'oshin yadrosini qoplagan mis va mis qotishmalari kabi metallning "ko'ylagi" ishlatilishi bilan o'qlar tezligi oshdi va o'q ochilgan qo'rg'oshindan osonroq o'q bilan bochkada pastga siljiydi. Bunday o'qlar "to'liq metall ko'ylagi" (FMJ) sifatida belgilanadi. Bunday FMJ o'qlari zarbada parchalanish ehtimoli kamroq va kamroq energiya berib, nishon orqali o'tishi mumkin. Shunday qilib, FMJ o'qlari kengayadigan kamzulli o'qlarga qaraganda kamroq to'qimalarga zarar etkazadi. (Dougherty and Eidt, 2009) Bu 1899 yilda Gaaga konventsiyasiga rioya qilgan mamlakatlar tomonidan ularni harbiy maqsadlarda foydalanishga olib keldi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Ya'ni, qurol bilan ishlashning asosiy tamoyili shu kungacha o'zgarishsiz qolmoqda. Bir necha asrlar ilgari mushket printsipial jihatdan zamonaviy avtomat bilan o'xshashdir - uzoq masofalarga snaryadlarni harakatga keltirish uchun gazlarning kengayishi yordamida - unchalik aniqroq va tezkor emas.^[32]

Evolyutsiya

Dastlabki modellar

Yong'in nayzalari

Xitoyliklar yong'in nayzasi 10-asrdan boshlab qurolning zamonaviy kontseptsiyasi uchun to'g'ridan-to'g'ri salafiy bo'lgan. Bu qurolning o'zi emas, balki askarlarning nayzalariga qo'shimcha edi. Dastlab u qog'oz yoki bambuk bochkalardan iborat bo'lib, ular ichida alangalanuvchi porox bor edi, ular bir marta yoqilishi va dushmanga alangalanishi mumkin edi. Ba'zida xitoylik qo'shinlar barrel ichiga mayda snaryadlarni joylashtirar edilar, ular porox yoqilganda ham aks etar edi, lekin portlovchi kuchning katta qismi alanga yaratardi. Keyinchalik, barrel metalldan yasalgan bo'lib, portlovchi porox ishlatilishi va snaryadning harakatlanishiga ko'proq kuch qo'shilishi uchun o'zgartirildi.^[17]:31–32

Qo'l to'plari

Qo'l to'pi "Belli Fortis" stendidan otilgan, qo'lyozma, Konrad Kyeser, 1400 yil

Barcha o'qotar qurollarning asl salafi, xitoyliklar yong'in nayzasi^{[qachon? ]} va qo'l to'pi porox va o'q bilan to'ldirilgan (dastlab o'q otish, keyinchalik quyma temir bilan almashtirildi^{[iqtibos kerak ]}) orqa tomondan sug'urta o'rnatilgan bo'lsa, og'iz orqali. Ushbu sug'urta yonib, porox yonib, to'p to'pini harakatga keltirdi. Harbiy foydalanishda, standart qo'l to'pi juda kuchli edi, shu bilan birga biroz foydasiz edi^{[iqtibos kerak ]} qurolni nishonga olmaganligi yoki o'qning ballistik xususiyatlarini boshqarishi mumkin emasligi sababli. Bo'shliqni erga bog'lab, yog'och tayanch yordamida, uning oldingisi yordamida qaytarib olish mumkin Aksiya. Neither the quality or amount of gunpowder, nor the consistency in projectile dimensions were controlled, with resulting inaccuracy in firing due to shamol, variance in gunpowder composition, and the difference in diameter between the zerikarli and the shot. The qo'l to'plari were replaced by lighter carriage-mounted artilleriya pieces, and ultimately the arquebus.

Muskets

Jumboq yuklash muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were among the first firearms developed.^{[qachon? ]} The firearm was loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally some wadding and then a bullet (usually a solid lead ball, but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of bullets). Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually rifled instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and small game with their guns. Muzzleloaders have to be manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could fire multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could be reloaded and fired, although by the mid-18th century, when muzzleloaders became the standard small armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could fire six rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket. Before then, effectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered by both the low reloading speed and, before the firing mechanism was perfected, the very high risk posed by the firearm to the person attempting to fire it.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the "Roman Candle Gun" with superposed loads. This was a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the one ahead of it was ignited. It was neither a very reliable nor popular firearm, but it enabled a form of "automatic" fire long before the advent of the machine gun.^[33]

Loading techniques

Perkussiya qopqog'i va erta murvat harakati shakl

Most early firearms were muzzle-loading. This form of loading has several disadvantages, such as a slow rate of fire and having to expose oneself to enemy fire to reload as the weapon had to be pointed upright so the powder could be poured through the muzzle into the breech followed by the ramming the projectile into the breech. As effective methods of sealing the breech were developed through the development of sturdy, weatherproof, self-contained metallic cartridges, muzzle-loaders were replaced by single-shot breech loaders. Eventually single-shot weapons were replaced by the following repeater type weapons.

Internal magazines

Many firearms made in the late 19th century through the 1950s used internal magazines to load the cartridge into the chamber of the weapon. The most notable and revolutionary weapons of this period appeared during the U.S. Civil War and they were the Spenser va Genri repeating rifles. Both used fixed tubular magazines, the former having the magazine in the buttstock and the latter under the barrel which allowed a larger capacity. Later weapons used fixed box magazines that could not be removed from the weapon without disassembling the weapon itself. Fixed magazines permitted the use of larger cartridges and eliminated the hazard of having the bullet of one cartridge butting next to the primer or rim of another cartridge. These magazines are loaded while they are in the weapon, often using a stripper clip. A clip is used to transfer cartridges into the magazine. Some notable weapons that use internal magazines include the Mosin-Nagant, Mauser Kar 98k, Springfild M1903, M1 Garand, va SKS. Firearms that have internal magazines are usually, but not always, rifles. Some exceptions to this include the Mauser C96 pistol, which uses an internal magazine, and the Breda 30, an Italian light machine gun.

Detachable magazines

Many modern firearms use what are called detachable or box magazines as their method of chambering a cartridge. Detachable magazines can be removed from the weapon without disassembling the firearms, usually by pushing the magazine release.

Belt-fed weapons

A belt or ammunition belt is a device used to retain and feed cartridges into a firearm commonly used on machine guns. Belts were originally composed of canvas or cloth with pockets spaced evenly to allow the belt to be mechanically fed into the gun. These designs were prone to malfunctions due to the effects of oil and other contaminants altering the belt. Later belt designs used permanently connected metal links to retain the cartridges during feeding. These belts were more tolerant to exposure to solvents and oil. Some notable weapons that use belts are the M240, the M249, the M134 Minigun, and the PK Machine Gun.

Firing mechanisms

Uchrashuv

Various Japanese (samurai) Edo davri matchlocks (tanegashima).

Uchrashuvlar were the first and simplest firearms firing mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a "match". The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a "touch hole" at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun barrel. The match usually had to be relit after each firing. The main parts to the matchlock firing mechanism are the pan, match, arm and trigger.^[34] A benefit of the pan and arm swivel being moved to the side of the gun was it gave a clear line of fire.^[35] An advantage to the matchlock firing mechanism is that it did not misfire. However, it also came with some disadvantages. One disadvantage was if it was raining the match could not be kept lit to fire the weapon. Another issue with the match was it could give away the position of soldiers because of the glow, sound, and smell.^[36] While European pistols were equipped with wheellock and flintlock mechanism, Asian pistols were equipped with matchlock mechanism.^[37]

G'ildirak blokirovkasi

A wheellock pistol mechanism from the 17th century

The g'ildirak g'ildiragi action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the flintlock. Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a significant improvement over the matchlock in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in proximity to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much like that on sigaret zajigalka which was wound up with a key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled, spun against a flint, creating the shower of sparks that ignited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented by Leonardo da Vinchi, italiyalik Uyg'onish davri odami, the wheellock action was an innovation that was not widely adopted due to the high cost of the clockwork mechanism.

Flintlok

Flintlok mexanizmi

The toshbo'ron action was a major innovation in firearm design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the touch hole was supplied by a sharpened piece of flint clamped in the jaws of a "cock" which, when released by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the "qovurilgan " to create the necessary sparks. (The spring-loaded arm that holds a piece of flint or pyrite is referred to as a cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.) The cock had to be manually reset after each firing, and the flint had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking the frizzen. (See also chaqmoq mexanizmi, snaphance, Mikelet qulfi ) The flintlock was widely used during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries in both muskets and rifles.

Perkussiya qopqog'i

Perkussiya qopqoqlari (caplock mechanisms ), coming into wide service in the early 19th century, were a dramatic improvement over flintlocks. With the percussion cap mechanism, the small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding firearms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass "cap". The cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended to form a "nipple") and ignited by the impact of the gun's "hammer". (The hammer is roughly the same as the cock found on flintlocks except that it does not clamp onto anything.) In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to fit around the cap in order to keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter.

Once struck, the flame from the cap in turn ignited the main charge of gunpowder, as with the flintlock, but there was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer exposed to the elements. As a result, the percussion cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges containing a premeasured charge of gunpowder and a ball had been in regular military service for many years, but the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had long been a source of misfires). Hammasi muzlatgichlar manufactured since the second half of the 19th century use percussion caps except those built as replicas of the flintlock or earlier firearms.

Patronlar

(Chapdan o'ngga): A .577 Snider cartridge (1867), a .577/450 Martini-Henry cartridge (1871), a later drawn brass .577/450 Martini-Genri cartridge, and a .303 inglizlar Mk VII SAA balli patron.

Frantsuz Lui-Nikolas Flobert birinchisini ixtiro qildi rimfire metall patron in 1845. His cartridge consisted of a percussion cap with a bullet attached to the top.^[38][39] Flobert then made what he called "parlor guns " for this cartridge, as these rifles and pistols were designed to be shot in indoor shooting parlors in large homes.^[40][41] Bular 6 mm Flobert cartridges, do not contain any powder, the only yoqilg'i substance contained in the cartridge is the percussion cap.^[42] In English-speaking countries, the 6mm Flobert cartridge corresponds to .22 BB qopqog'i va .22 CB qopqog'i o'q-dorilar. These cartridges have a relatively low muzzle velocity of around 700 ft/s (210 m/s).

This was major innovation in firearms ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder, was combined in a single metallic (usually brass) patron containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one weatherproof package. The main technical advantage of the brass cartridge case was the effective and reliable sealing of high pressure gasses at the breech, as the gas pressure forces the cartridge case to expand outward, pressing it firmly against the inside of the gun barrel chamber. This prevents the leakage of hot gas which could injure the shooter. The brass cartridge also opened the way for modern repeating arms, by uniting the bullet, gunpowder and primer into one assembly that could be fed reliably into the breech by a mechanical action in the firearm.

Before this, a "cartridge" was simply a premeasured quantity of porox together with a ball in a small cloth bag (or rolled paper cylinder), which also acted as wadding for the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge. Cartridges with built-in percussion caps (called "primers") continue to this day to be the standard in firearms. In cartridge-firing firearms, a hammer (or a firing pin struck by the hammer) strikes the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder within. The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge, either within the rim (a "rimfire " cartridge) or in a small percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a "markaziy olov " cartridge). As a rule, centerfire cartridges are more powerful than rimfire cartridges, operating at considerably higher pressures than rimfire cartridges. Centerfire cartridges are also safer, as a dropped rimfire cartridge has the potential to discharge if its rim strikes the ground with sufficient force to ignite the primer. This is practically impossible with most centerfire cartridges.

Nearly all contemporary firearms load cartridges directly into their kam. Some additionally or exclusively load from a jurnal that holds multiple cartridges. A magazine is defined as a part of the firearm which exists to store ammunition and assist in its feeding by the action into the breech (such as through the rotation of a revolver's cylinder or by spring-loaded platforms in most pistol and rifle designs). Some magazines, such as that of most centerfire hunting rifles and all revolvers, are internal to and inseparable from the firearm, and are loaded by using a "clip". A klip, often mistakingly used to refer to a detachable "magazine", is a device that holds the ammunition by the rim of the case and is designed to assist the shooter in reloading the firearm's magazine. Examples include revolver tezyurar mashinalar, striptizchi klip used to aid loading rifles such as the Li-Enfild yoki Mauser 98, va blokdagi klip used in loading the M1 Garand. In this sense, "magazines" and "clips", though often used synonymously, refer to different types of devices.

Repeating, semi-automatic, and automatic firearms

Frantsuzlar FAMAS, a misoli bullpup miltiq

The M4 karbini, a modern-day service rifle capable of being fired automatically. It is in service by the U.S. military and has a wide ability for customization.

Many firearms are "single shot": i.e., each time a cartridge is fired, the operator must manually re-cock the firearm and load another cartridge. The classic single-barreled shotgun is a good example. A firearm that can load multiple cartridges as the firearm is re-cocked is considered a "repeating firearm" or simply a "repeater". A lever-action rifle, a pump-action shotgun, and most bolt-action rifles are good examples of repeating firearms. A firearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the next round with each trigger pull is considered a semi-automatic or autoloading firearm.

The first "rapid firing" firearms were usually similar to the 19th century Gatling qurol, which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank. Eventually, the "rapid" firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from firing could be used to operate it, thus the operator needed only to pull a trigger (which made the firing mechanisms truly "automatic"). An avtomatik (or "fully automatic") firearm is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed. An automatic firearm is capable of firing multiple rounds with one pull of the trigger. The Gatling qurol may have been the first automatic weapon, though the modern trigger-actuated machine gun was not widely introduced until the Birinchi jahon urushi with the German "Spandau " and British Lyuis Gun. Automatic rifles such as the Browning Avtomatik miltiq were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired handgun rounds, known as submachine guns, also appeared in this time. Many modern military firearms have a selektiv yong'in option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the firearm be fired either in the semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made M16, continuous fully automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges (this conserves ammunition and increases controllability). Automatic weapons are largely restricted to military and paramilitary organizations, though many automatic designs are infamous for their use by civilians.

Sog'liq uchun xavfli

Firearm hazard is quite notable, with a significant impact on the health system. In 2001, for quantification purpose, it was estimated that the cost of fatalities and injuries was US$4700 million per year in Canada (US$170 per Canadian) and US$100,000 million per year in the USA (US$300 per American).^[43]

O'lim

Gun-related homicide and suicide stavkalar in high-income OECD countries, 2010, countries in graph ordered by total death rates (homicide plus suicide plus other gun-related deaths).^[44]

In the 52 high- and middle-income countries counting 1400 million population and not engaged in civil conflict, fatalities due to firearm injuries are estimated at 115 000 people a year, in the 1990s^[43]

Assault by firearm resulted in 173,000 deaths, globally, in 2015, up from 128,000 deaths in 1990,^[45][46] however this represents a drop in rate from 2.41/100,000 in 1990 to 2.35/100,000 in 2015, as world population has increased by more than two billion.^[47] Additionally, there were 32,000 unintentional firearm global deaths in 2015.^[45]

In 2017, there were 39,773 gun-related deaths in the United States; over 60% were from firearms.^[48] Firearms are the second leading mechanism of injury deaths after avtoulovlarda sodir bo'lgan baxtsiz hodisalar.^[49][50]

[43]

In those 52 countries, firearm is the first method used for homicide (two thirds) but only the second method for suicide (20%)^[43]

To prevent unintentional injury, gun safety training includes education on proper firearm storage and firearm-handling etiquette.^[51][52]

Shikastlanish

Based on US data, it is estimated that three people are injured for one killed.^[43]

Shovqin

A common hazard of repeated firearm use is noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). NIHL can result from long-term exposure to noise or from high intensity impact noises such as gunshots.^[53][54] Individuals who shoot guns often have a characteristic pattern of hearing loss referred to as "shooters ear". They often have a high frequency loss with better hearing in the low frequencies and one ear is typically worse than the other. The ear on the side the shooter is holding the gun will receive protection from the sound wave from the shoulder while the other ear remains unprotected and more susceptible to the full impact of the sound wave.^[54][55]

The intensity of a gunshot does vary; lower caliber guns are typically on the softer side while higher caliber guns are often louder. The intensity of a gunshot though typically ranges from 140dB to 175dB. Indoor shooting also causes loud reverberations which can also be as damaging as the actual gunshot itself.^[54][55] According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders noise above 85dB can begin to cause hearing loss.^[53] While many sounds cause damage over time, at the intensity level of a gunshot (140dB or louder), damage to the ear can occur instantly.^[53][55]

Hearing protection is the only way to protect the ears against damage from gunfire as there is no option for the shooter to be further from the sound source or to reduce the intensity to a safe level. If possible, observers should attempt to move away, but hearing protection is often still necessary.^[53][54] Different types of shooters may benefit from different types of hearing protection. When target practicing it is recommended to wear an insert plug as well as an over the ear muff.^[54] Hunters are recommended to wear electronic type hearing protection which can amplify soft sounds like leaves crunching while reducing the intensity of the gunshot.^[54][55] Custom hearing protection can also be effective^[54][55] and is typically recommended for individuals who are skeet shooting.^[54] Hearing protection does have limitations though, and due to the high intensity of guns it is certainly possible for shooters to still develop hearing loss. However, hearing protection typically reduces the amount of damage the ear sustains even if it cannot completely protect the ear.^[54]

Huquqiy ta'riflar

Firearms include a variety of ranged weapons and there is no agreed-upon definition.For instance English language laws of big legal entities such as the United States, India the European Union and Canada use different definitions.Other English language definitions are provided by international treaties.

AQSH

In Qo'shma Shtatlar, under 26 USCA § 861^{[ishonchli manba ]} (a), the term ‘‘firearm’’ means

• (1) a shotgun having a barrel or barrels of less than 18 inches in length;
• (2) a weapon made from a shotgun if such weapon as modified has an overall length of less than 26 inches or a barrel or barrels of less than 18 inches in length;
• (3) a rifle having a barrel or barrels of less than 16 inches in length;
• (4) a weapon made from a rifle if such weapon as modified has an overall length of less than 26 inches or a barrel or barrel of less than 16 inches in length;
• (5) any other weapon, as defined in subsection (e);
• (6) a machinegun;
• (7) any silencer (as defined in section 921 of title 18, United States Code);
  The term ‘‘firearm’’ shall not include an antique firearm or any device (other than a machinegun or destructive device) which, although designed as a weapon, the Secretary finds by reason of the date of its manufacture, value, design, and other characteristics is primarily a collector's item and is not likely to be used as a weapon.

AQSh ma'lumotlariga ko'ra Spirtli ichimliklar, tamaki, qurol va portlovchi moddalar byurosi, if gas pressurization is achieved through mexanik gas compression rather than through chemical propellant combustion, then the device is technically an air gun, not a firearm.^[56]

Hindiston

In India, the arms act, 1959, provides a definition of firearms where "firearms" means arms of any description designed or adapted to discharge a projectile or projectiles of any kind by the action of any explosive or other forms of energy, and includes:

• (i) artillery, hand-grenades, riot-pistols or weapons of any kind designed or adapted for the discharge of any noxious liquid, gas or other such thing,
• (ii) accessories for any such firearm designed or adapted to diminish the noise or flash caused by the firing thereof,
• (iii) parts of, and machinery for manufacturing, fire-arms, and
• (iv) carriages, platforms and appliances for mounting, transporting and serving artillery;

Yevropa Ittifoqi

In the European Union, a Evropa direktivasi amended by EU directive 2017/853 set minimum standards regarding civilian firearms acquisition and possession that EU Member States must implement into their national legal systems. In this context, since 2017, firearms are considered as any portable barrelled weapon that expels, is designed to expel or may be converted to expel a shot, bullet or projectile by the action of a combustible propellant.^[57] For legal reasons, objects can be considered as a firearm if they have the appearance of a firearm or are made in a way which make possible to convert them to a firearm. Member states may be allowed to exclude from their gun control law items such as antique weapons, or specific purposes items which can only be used for that sole purpose.

Kanada

In Canada, firearms are defined by the Criminal Code:

firearm means a barrelled weapon from which any shot, bullet or other projectile can be discharged and that is capable of causing serious bodily injury or death to a person, and includes any frame or receiver of such a barrelled weapon and anything that can be adapted for use as a firearm; (arme à feu)^[58]

Avstraliya

Australia has a definition of firearms in its 1996 legal act:

"firearm" means any device, whether or not assembled or in parts —

• (a) which is designed or adapted, or is capable of being modified, to discharge shot or a bullet or other missile by the expansion of gases produced in the device by the ignition of strongly combustible materials or by compressed air or other gases, whether stored in the device in pressurised containers or produced in the device by mechanical means; va
• (b) whether or not operable or complete or temporarily or permanently inoperable or incomplete

— and which is not —

• (c) an industrial tool powered by cartridges containing gunpowder or compressed air or other gases which is designed and intended for use for fixing fasteners or plugs or for similar purposes; yoki
• (d) a captive bolt humane killer; yoki
• (e) a spear gun designed for underwater use; yoki
• (f) a device designed for the discharge of signal flares; yoki
• (h) a device commonly known as a kiln gun or ringblaster, designed specifically for knocking out or down solid material in kilns, furnaces or cement silos; yoki
• (i) a device commonly known as a line thrower designed for establishing lines between structures or natural features and powered by compressed air to other compressed gases and used for rescue purposes, rescue training or rescue demonstration; yoki
• (j) a device of a prescribed class;^[59]

Janubiy Afrika

In South Africa, Firearms Control Act [No. 60 of 2000] defines firearm since June 2001, with a 2006 amendment of the definition:

'firearm' means any-

• (a) device manufactured or designed to propel a bullet or projectile through a barrel or cylinder by means of burning propellant, at a muzzle energy exceeding 8 joules (6 ft-lbs);
• (b) device manufactured or designed to discharge rim-fire, centre-fire or pin-fire ammunition;
• (c) device which is not at the time capable of discharging any bullet or projectile, but which can be readily altered to be a firearm within the meaning of paragraph (a) or (b);
• (d) device manufactured to discharge a bullet or any other projectile of a calibre of 5.6 mm (.22 calibre) or higher at a muzzle energy of more than 8 joules (6 ft-lbs), by means of compressed gas and not by means of burning propellant; or [Para. (d) substituted by s. 1 (b) of Act 43 of 2003.]
• (e) barrel, frame or receiver of a device referred to in paragraphs (a), (b), (c) or (d), but does not include a muzzle loading firearm or any device contemplated in section 5;^[11]

Xalqaro shartnomalar

An inter-American convention defines firearms as:

• any barreled weapon which will or is designed to or may be readily converted to expel a bullet or projectile by the action of an explosive, except antique firearms manufactured before the 20th Century or their replicas; yoki
• any other weapon or destructive device such as any explosive, incendiary or gas bomb, grenade, rocket, rocket launcher, missile, missile system, or mine.^[60]

An international UN protocol on firearms buni ko'rib chiqadi

“Firearm” shall mean any portable barrelled weapon that expels, is designed to expel or may be readily converted to expel a shot, bullet or projectile by the action of an explosive, excluding antique firearms or their replicas. Antique firearms and their replicas shall be defined in accordance with domestic law. In no case, however, shall antique firearms include firearms manufactured after 1899^[61]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

Manbalar

• Cheyz, Kennet (2003). Otashin qurollar: 1700 yilgacha global tarix. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-521-82274-9.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
• Cole, Suzanne N. (2017). Qurol o'qituvchilari assotsiatsiyasi Qurol atamasi lug'ati: 2017–2018 nashr. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari: Qurol o'qituvchilari assotsiatsiyasi. ISBN  978-0-9982150-3-7.
• Crosby, Alfred W. (2002). Olovni otish: Tarix orqali loyihalash texnologiyasi. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-521-79158-8.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)
• Nidxem, Jozef (1986). Xitoyda fan va tsivilizatsiya. 7 "Barut" dostoni. Kembrij universiteti matbuoti. ISBN  978-0-521-30358-3.CS1 maint: ref = harv (havola)