Vili xalqi - Vili people - Wikipedia

Vili

Taxminan 1910 yildagi Vili yosh bola fotosurati
Jami aholi
100 000
Aholisi sezilarli bo'lgan hududlar
Kongo Respublikasi Gabon Kongo Demokratik Respublikasi Angola
Tillar
Vili
Din
Nasroniylik, Afrika an'anaviy dini va diniy sinkretizm
Qarindosh etnik guruhlar
Kongo xalqi, Voyo odamlar, Lindji xalqi, Kotchi odamlar, Yombe odamlari, Punu odamlar, Lumbu odamlar va Kugni xalqi

The Vili xalqi janubiy-g'arbiy qismida tashkil etilgan Markaziy Afrika etnik guruhi Gabon, Kongo Respublikasi, Angola va Kongo Demokratik Respublikasi. Bu kichik guruh Bantu va Kongo xalqlar.

Bilan Yombe, Lumbu, Vungu, Punu va Kugni, ular avvalgi davrda uyg'un yashagan Loango qirolligi. Ular hatto Kugni bilan rivojlangan Bundiku, nizolarni oldini olish uchun yaxshi qo'shnichilik munosabatlari.

Vili madaniyati dunyoviy tarixga boy, a Matrilineality poydevori bo'lgan jamiyat Vili maqollar taniqli o'rin tutadigan nuanslarga to'la til. asl o'lchov tizimining,^[1] kimning ma'naviyati Nkisi,^[2] Nkisi Konde yoki tirnoq fetişleri taniqli jismoniy vakillikdir. Ushbu asarlar "o'z-o'zidan sharhlar" dir. Ular yaratilish vaqtida ustun bo'lgan ijodkorlik va o'zlikni anglash kalitlarini beradi.^[3]

Kongo Qirolligi tarixiga oid ko'plab hujjatlar mavjud bo'lsa-da Loango qirolligi yozma manbalar tomonidan juda kam hujjatlashtirilgan.

Vili g'arbliklar bilan teng huquqli munosabatlarni juda erta saqlab qolishgan, ayniqsa savdo-sotiqda. Biroq, g'arb bilan aloqalar va qul savdosi bilan shug'ullanish Vilining ijtimoiy tuzilishini buzish hisobiga ozchilikni boyitdi. Ning epidemiyalari tripanozomiya va chechak bu xalqning soni yanada keskin kamaygan.

Ism

Manba va kontekstga qarab, bir nechta shakllar mavjud: Bavili, Bavilis, Fiote, Ivili, Loango, Vilis. Portugaliyalik ko'chmanchilar tomonidan ishlatiladigan fiote ("qora") atamasi endi pejorativ hisoblanadi. Vili atamasi ularning madaniyati va urf-odatlarini ham anglatadi.

Til

Ular Vili, 2010 yilda nutq so'zlovchilarining soni 50 000 kishini tashkil etgan bantu tili. Kongo Respublikasida taxminan 45 000 kishi va Gabonda 5 000 kishi hisoblangan. Boshqa ma'lum ismlar va dialekt nomlari: Civili, Civili ci Loango, Civili ci Moongo, Civili ci Waanda, Civili ci Yombe, Fiot, Fiote, Tshivili, Tsivili. Yaqin etnik guruh: Kotchi, Lindji, Kyombe, Voyo, Yombe, Yoombe.^[4]

Tarix

Kelib chiqishi

Vili, shuningdek Yombe (etnik jihatdan madaniy-geografik jihatdan Vili odamlariga eng yaqin),^[5] Lumbu, Vungu, Punu va Kugni, qadimiyning etnik tarkibiy qismlarini tashkil etdi Loango qirolligi. Bilan aralashish ham mavjud edi pigment Babenzi, Binga yoki Baka populyatsiyalari.

XVI asrda Njimbe boshchiligidagi Buvandji temirchilarining qudratli birodarligiga tegishli bo'lgan va jangchilar qo'shiniga asoslangan Bavoyo sulolasi Loango qirg'og'idagi mahalliy odamlarga yuklatilgan. Ingliz sayohatchisi kabi bir nechta manbalarga ko'ra Endryu Battel,^[6] mintaqada 1610 yil atrofida, Gollandiyalik Olfert Dapper,^[7] shuningdek, ingliz savdogari R.E. Dennet, Njimbe Loango Qirolligining asoschisi va oltmish yil davom etgan hukmronlik qilgan birinchi suvereni bo'ladi.

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  1770 yil G'arbiy Afrikaning Bonne xaritasi (Gvineya, Benin Bight, Kongo) - Geographicus

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  Loango qirolligining xaritasi

Dastlab, viloyat Kongo qirolligi (Kongo Dia Nthotila - Qirol Kongosi), Loango Qirolligi, ning ikkita provinsiyasi tarkibida Ngoyo va Kakongo, XVI asrda ozod qilingan va mintaqasidan tortib keng hududni egallagan Setté Cama ga Gabon, oqimga Kabinda janubida, Massivdan Mayombe sharqda chegaralarigacha Anziku qirolligi va g'arbda Atlantika okeanida, poytaxt Bvalida joylashgan edi. Maqol uch bo'linuvchi provinsiyaning asl jamoasini hamda Ngoyo qirolining diniy rolini aniq aks ettiradi. Bu: "Makongo Nuni, Mangoyo Nthomi, Maloangu nkasi" so'zma-so'z ma'nosini anglatadi "Makongo - eri, ruhoniy Mangoyo (Bunzi xudosining Tsibila ibodatxonasini qo'riqchisi va boshqaruvchisi) va Malvangu ayol ".

Hukmdor oila Vili etnik guruhidan, xususan Kondi va Nkata klanlaridan kelib chiqqan. Ushbu davlatda qirol, hukumat va uning etti viloyatining hokimlari bo'lgan ijtimoiy va siyosiy tashkilot mavjud edi. Kuchli siyosiy ustuvorlik ba'zi xronikachilarga feodal jamiyatlari bilan o'xshashlik o'rnatishga imkon berdi o'rta asrlar Evropa. O'sha paytda Loango allaqachon saylov mexanizmi, ayniqsa, kelajak suverenini belgilashda keng tarqalgan edi.

• Loango aholisining kostyumlari (gravyuralar 1797 yildan boshlab)
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  Maloango - Loango qiroli.

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  Loangoning odami.

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  Loango ayollari.

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  Loango raqqosasi.

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  Loango shohining xonadonining rafiqasi.

Loango qirolligi tarixida ko'rinadigan iz yo'q. Biroq, u tez orada evropaliklar, asosan portugaliyaliklar, portlashlardan yoki sobiq qora tanli savdogarlardan qochib qutulishdi. Nemislar, inglizlar, gollandlar, katta qishloqlarga yaqin joyda fabrikalar ochishgan.

San'at

Kongo Respublikasidan Vili figurasi. 19-asr oxiri. Bir paytlar rassom Anri Matissga tegishli edi.

Vili haykallari muhim kollektsionerlar tomonidan qadrlangan, ular orasida Parij rassomi Anri Matiss ham bor edi, uning Vili figurasi Pablo Pikassoga 1906 yilgi ilk Afrika davrida katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi.

Evropa mustamlakasi

1849 yildan 1944 yilgacha - kengayish

Loango qirolligining yemirilishi

Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, 1849 yilda frantsuz dengiz flotining Penelopa fregati tomonidan braziliyalik Yeliziya yoki Iliziya kemasining qulga tushishi foydasiga, Vili, Lumbu, Yaka yoki Bongo kabi o'ttiz yoki bir necha yuz qullar, manbalarga ko'ra,^[8][9][10] uch yillik yashashdan keyin Senegal o'rtalarida Komo daryosiga doimiy ravishda o'rnatildi Mpongve qishloqlar. Ushbu voqea tug'ilgan kunni belgilab berdi Librevil, siyosiy poytaxti Gabon, kabi Fritaun Syerra-Leoneda.

O'n to'qqizinchi asrning oxiri. Ning dekadensiyasini boshlagan Loango qirolligi. Ikkinchisi evropaliklarning Markaziy Afrikadagi raqobati, xususan Ensign kemasi o'rtasidagi garov ziyoniga duchor bo'ldi Per Savorgnan de Brazza va tadqiqotchi Genri Morton Stenli. Kongo va Gabon dengiz jabhasini bir tomonlama nazoratini ta'minlash uchun Frantsiya an'anaviy hokimiyat organlariga shartnomalar yuklaydi.

Ma Loango Manimakosso-TchinkossoSagittaire kemasi tomonidan o'rnatilgan qirg'oq blokadasi tufayli zaiflashgan 1879 yildan 1885 yilgacha hukmronlik qilgan, qishloqlar o'rtasidagi har qanday aloqani oldini olgan kapitulyatsiya qilishga majbur bo'ldi. 1883 yil 12 martda u portugaliyalik savdogarlar Manuel Saboga va frantsuz Ferdinand Pixot huzurida kema leytenanti Robert Kordier bilan Hukmdorlik, savdo va hududni tasarruf etish to'g'risidagi shartnomani imzoladi. Bundan tashqari, Ma Loangoning markaziy kuchi mahalliy kuchlilar foydasiga yo'qoladi. Ulardan ba'zilari, shu jumladan André Moe-Loemba (Portugaliya vakolatxonalari tomonidan ko'tarilgan mahalliy aholi, Tximbamba qishlog'ining asoschisi), Mamboma Makosso, Mvumvo Lucieno va Matchimbamba 1883 yil 21-iyunda Punta-Negra shartnomasi, xuddi shu leytenant Cordier kemasi bilan Frantsiyaga ushbu hududni egallashga imkon bergan, shu bilan birga, portugal tilida so'zlashadigan perimetrda, ikki yildan so'ng, 1885 yil 25-fevralda , qirolliklarining knyazlari va taniqli shaxslari Kakongo, Loango va Ngoyo Korvet komandiri Gillerme Ogyust de Brito Kapello bilan imzolangan Portugaliyalik Rainha, Simulambuko shartnomasi bu ularni himoya ostiga oladi Portugaliya qirolligi,

The Belgiya Qirolligi vodiysini zabt etishda 1883 yildan 1884 yilgacha kamida 289 shartnoma imzolagan Kouilou-Niari, hududi Frantsiyaga berilgan Berlin konferentsiyasi 1885 yilda. Ushbu shartnomalarning barchasini ratifikatsiya qildi va Frantsiyani Markaziy Afrikaning o'ng qirg'og'idan mutlaq hukmdoriga aylantirdi. Kongo daryosi Gabon chegaralariga, shu tariqa Afrikani mustamlaka davlatlar o'rtasida bo'lishishni yakunladi. Sohil bazalarini boshqarish, shuningdek, ko'plab ekspeditsiyalarni tark etishga imkon berdi Chad va hatto Sudan (Fashoda voqeasi Loango, poytaxt, keyin Hukumat va ichki va tashqi savdoni boshqaradigan rasmiy muassasalar joylashgan. Bu karvonning okeanga olib boradigan yagona yo'li. Da Pointe-Noire, hozirgi iqtisodiy poytaxt, kabi bir qator baliq ovlash qishloqlari mavjud Bou Mvou-Mvou (Novotel mehmonxonasi joylashgan joy Sharl de Goll Xiyobon); - so'zma-so'z Mvoumvou degani edi nima davom etadi, nima abadiy va kengaytiriladi M; Bou Mvoumvou Bu plyaj, abadiy Dengiz-, M'Bukou (joriy Muyondzi tumani ).

Hozirgi vaqtda Pointe-Noire-ning hozirgi periferik hududlari faqat qishloqlardir: Loandjili, Siafoumou, Tchimbamba, Mpita, Tchimani ... 1888 yilda Gabon Vili ishg'ol qildi Mayumba va Banio Laguni bo'yida joylashgan Lumbu bilan almashdilar. Bu ikki xalq Kongo guruh bir-birini tarjimonsiz tushunadi.

Qirol Lumbu Mayombe Ignondrou, mintaqadagi eng keksa kishi, buyruq berdi Mayombe, Mayumba va qismi Setté Cama. U Vili va Lumbu klanlari rahbarlari o'rtasidagi munozaralarni hal qiladi, Mayumba Vili buyurtma qiladi Gufilava o'zlarini Ma Loangodan ozod qilishdi. Ning Vili savdogarlari Loango kim ketdi Setté Cama qirg'oq bo'yida, shuningdek, ko'pincha matolarning to'plamlarini echib olishadi.

Loango shahrining tanazzulga uchrashi va Puant-Nuarning paydo bo'lishi

1897 yilda tugallanishi Matadi-Leopoldvil temir yo'l, lekin ayniqsa poydevori Pointe-Noire 1922 yilda, chuqur suv porti va temir yo'l liniyasini qurishni hisobga olgan holda, Kapital Loangoning pasayishiga olib keladi. Darhaqiqat, uning ko'rfazida kam tortishish bilan odamlar va tovarlarni tashish uchun kemalarning tushishiga yo'l qo'yilmaydi. Loango shundan keyingina Vili dvoryanlari va ko'chmanchilarning dafn marosimlarini kutib oladi, shuningdek, port va kemasozlik zavodlari. Kongo okean temir yo'li zamon kuchi bilan erkaklarni Puan-Nuarga ko'chishga majbur qiladi. Ndjindji kichik baliqchilar qishlog'idan tashqari, mahalliy Puente-Noire aholisining asosiy qismini ushbu ikkita kemasozlik zavodining ishchilari tashkil etadi. Shahar, shuningdek, jalb qilingan ish joylari tomonidan jalb qilingan odamlarning kelishini ko'radi. Bularga treyderlar kiradi Gabon, Daxomey, Bormoq va Gana.

Mahalliy aholi bilan to'qnashuvlardan qochishga intilgan frantsuz mustamlakachilari, botqoqli hududlarni, qishloq xo'jaligi uchun yaroqsiz va aholining bo'sh joylarini saqlab qolishdi. Ular odatiy huquqni ham tan olishadi: unumdor bo'lmagan er butun jamoaga tegishli. Ammo bu qoida har doim ham hurmat qilinmaydi, shuning uchun 1910 yilda Koombi Builika qishlog'i xaritadan chiqarildi. Bosh Louissi Sakala boshchiligidagi uning aholisi, Patriarx Nfuk'-Lassining to'ng'ich o'g'li, Pointe-Noire rivojlanishining poydevorida ko'chmanchilarning irodasi bilan bu erdan haydab chiqarilgan va olib tashlangan. Ikkinchisi, samolyotni sig'dira oladigan uchish-qo'nish yo'lagini qurish uchun ushbu platodan boshqa munosib joy topolmay, afsuski, hozirgi qishloq joylashgan qishloqqa ko'chib o'tdi. Pointe-Noire shahridagi Agostinho Neto aeroporti. U hozirgi havo bazasi va Tschinuka daryosi o'rtasida cho'zilgan va Ntie-Tye, Mboukou, Mpaka, Mpolo, Tsimani, Ngoyo, Tsibambuka, Mpita, Tsinouka, Malala va Tsimbamba qishloqlariga qo'shni bo'lgan.

1924 yilda Herve Mapako-Gnali, otasi Mambou Aimée Gnali va Jan-Feliks Tchicaya ning birinchi o'qituvchilari bo'ldi O'rta Kongo dan chiqish Uilyam Ponti maktabi ustida Gore oroli Senegalda.Ishchi kuchga bo'lgan ehtiyoj odamlarning ichki qismidan (mahalliy aholi chaqirgan) ommaviy oqimini keltirib chiqaradi Bilanda Lail, "temir yo'l izdoshlari"); Ularning uy-joy ehtiyojlari shaharning rivojlanishiga hissa qo'shadi. Shu paytgacha mintaqaning aksariyat aholisi bo'lgan Vilislar endi erni bo'lishishi va alloxtonik aholi bilan ishlashlari kerak. Ularning yashash joylari qirollikning atomizatsiyasiga qarab kamayib borayotganini ko'rishadi.

Kouilou, immigratsiya mamlakati bo'lishdan tashqari, mustamlaka paytida emigratsiya va ekspatriatsiya mamlakati hamdir. Yilda kofe va kakao plantatsiyalarini yaratish Fernando Po va San-Tome, Portage, maktabda o'qish va ish haqi olish istiqbollari mahalliy ishchi kuchidan sezilarli ravishda chiqib ketishga sabab bo'ladi Brazzavil, Gabon va Ubangi-Shari.Bundan tashqari, Vili, aksincha Yombe odamlar o'zlarining tijorat kasblari va o'zlarining ichki qishloqlari va Evropa savdogarlari o'rtasida vositachi sifatida joylashishlari sababli erga unchalik bog'liq emaslar. Ushbu barcha migratsion oqimlar qarish va jinslar nomutanosibligini ta'kidlab, qishloqdan chiqishni keltirib chiqaradi. Ning doimiy depopulyatsiyasi Bvali, birinchisining poytaxti Loango qirolligi tasvirlangan.

Epidemiyalarining kombinatsiyasi chechak va tripanozomiya, shuningdek, aybdorlarni, xususan shubhali o'limni tayinlash uchun sinov zahari (sinov) dan foydalanish ham Loango Qirolligi avlodlari sonining kamayishiga yordam beradi.

1945 yildan 1960 yilgacha - Dekolonizatsiya

Frantsiya Ikkinchi Jahon urushidan qon oldi. Ta'sis yig'ilishi orqali mamlakat siyosiy faoliyatini jonlantirish uchun yangi institutlarni tashkil etadi. Keyinchalik Frantsiyaning vakolatliligi AEF kabi xorijiy hududlarga ham taalluqlidir, uning mahalliy aholisi vakillarni tanlash imkoniyatiga ega. G'arbiy Hindistondagi kabi eski koloniyalar o'z deputatlarini umumiy saylov huquqi bilan saylasa, AEF. va AOFda ikkita alohida saylov kolleji mavjud: birinchisi metropoliten fuqarolari uchun, ikkinchisi mahalliy fuqarolar uchun ajratilgan. Gabon va O'rta Kongo aholisi kamligi sababli ushbu ikkinchi kollej uchun parlament a'zosini saylash uchun bitta okrugni tashkil etadi.^[11]

1945 yil 7-dekabrda, ikkinchi turdan so'ng, Jan-Fliks Tsikayya Assambleyaning a'zosi etib saylandi. Jan-Hilaire Obam, Jak Opangault, Issembé va François-Moussa Simon navbati bilan. Libosida tug'ilgan, otasining hijrat qilgan joyi, tikuvchi Makosso Tsikaya g'olibga raqobatchilarini, shu jumladan Gabon nomzodlarini qabul qilishga imkon berdi. U Gabonda ishlaganligi va mustahkam do'stlik aloqalarini o'rnatganligi bilan bir qatorda, u ovozini oldi Vili va Lumbu Ngounie va ning Ogooué-Maritime. Biroq, o'rtasidagi raqobat O'rta Kongo va Gabon, shuningdek, Vili va Mpongve, G'arb tsivilizatsiyasi bilan aloqada bo'lgan ikki mamlakatning dastlabki ikki etnik guruhi ikkita alohida okrugga bo'linishga olib keladi.

1946 yilda Jan-Feliks Tsikaya, to'rtinchi respublika bo'ylab o'tirgan Frantsiya Milliy Assambleyasida mustamlakachilikning katta qotili, o'zining partiyasini tashkil etdi PPC. (Kongo taraqqiyot partiyasi ), Frantsiya Kommunistik partiyasiga yaqin, Jozef Pouabu yoki Robert Stefan Tchitchelle kabi yosh rahbarlar kompaniyasida. Ikkinchisi, asoschining o'ng qo'li, partiyaning asosiy animatori bo'ladi Pointe-Noire va Kouilou. U atrofida, butun temiryo'lchilar atrofida to'planadi Kongo-Okean temir yo'li. 1956 yilda u ustozi bilan talashib, Abbeyga qo'shildi Salom UDDIA (Afrika manfaatlarini himoya qilish uchun demokratik ittifoq) tashkil etish. Ikkinchi partiya Larisni (Pul tumani aholisi va.) Siyosiy safarbar qilish orqali Brazzavil ), PPCda siyosiy etakchilikni o'z zimmasiga oladi va Stefan Tchitchellega Puant-Nuarning birinchi mahalliy meri bo'lishiga imkon beradi. Keyinchalik u bir necha vazir lavozimlarida ishlagan.

Kongo-Brazzavil, ushbu dekolonizatsiya yillarida, frantsuz tilida so'zlashadigan Afrika mintaqasida anti-kommunistik kurashning asosiy yo'nalishlaridan biri hisoblanadi. Parij har qanday narxda bo'lajak mustaqil Kongoni "qizillar" tomonidan emas, balki do'st siyosiy rahbar tomonidan qo'lga kiritilishini istaydi. Parij dastlab Brazzavilni Markaziy Afrikadagi Kongo-Kinshasa yo'nalishidagi frantsuz harakatlarining markaziga aylantirmoqchi edi, chunki sobiq Belgiya Kongosiga qaratilgan barcha fitnalar Brazzavil orqali o'tgan edi.

Frantsiya, shuningdek, o'z koloniyalaridagi ozodlik intilishlarini o'zlashtirishga intilmoqda, Dahomean Antuan Hazoume kabi maxfiy agentlardan foydalanadi,^[12][13] PPCning durdonasi. Keyin UDDIA yoki Frantsiya maxfiy xizmatiga Kongo siyosatchilariga murojaat qilish uchun topshirildi. Hazoume - bu Frantsiya razvedkasining xodimi, u Moris Robert tomonidan davolanmoqda [Frantsiya maxfiy xizmatining bosh Afrikasi] va u Jan Mauricho-Bopré [Afrika ishlari bo'yicha Bosh kotibiyatidagi missiya vazifasi] siyosiy guruhiga qo'shilgan. Kabi Afrika davlatlari rahbarlari Fulbert Youlou, Feliks Houphouet-Boigny yoki Ngarta Tombalbaye uni aybiga ishontirishga majbur qildi. Haqiqatan ham o'z vositachisi orqali Frantsiya 1956 yildan boshlab Youlou-ning g'alabasini (Kongo hududi miqyosidagi harakatlar) uni ikki asosiy raqiblari bilan teng huquqlilik asosiga qo'yishni afzal ko'radi. Jan-Feliks Tchicaya va Jak Opangault. Keyin Frantsiya Youlou va uning RDA partiyasi tarkibiga kirdi Afrika Demokratik Mitingi (Rassemblement Démocratique Africain). (Afrika darajasidagi harakat) 1958 yil boshida; Shunday qilib to'g'ridan-to'g'ri TCHicaya bilan raqobatlashdi, u keyinchalik RDAdan chiqib ketdi. Va nihoyat, Frantsiya Youlou-ga odatda faqat afrikalik deputatlar uchun ajratilgan koinotning eshiklarini ochadi (Frantsiya darajasidagi harakatlar) bu holda Tsikayada.

Jak Opangault tomonidan Afrika sotsialistik harakati (MSA), frantsuz xalqaro va ishchi sinfining (SFIO) mahalliy tarmog'i. Gay Mollet, 1957 yildagi Hududiy Assambleyasi saylovlarida g'alaba qozongan. Ushbu ko'pchilik parlamentning a'zosi Jorj Yambotning qaroridan qutulmaydi. Niari, shu bilan MSA rahbariyatini bekor qilish. 1958 yil noyabr oyida Hududiy Assambleya tarkibidagi UDDIAga. Brazzavil va Puant-Nuarda, asosan, lari va mbochi etnik guruhlari fuqarolari o'rtasida qonli tartibsizliklar va vandalizm avj oldi. Ushbu notinch davr O'rta Kongoning poytaxti Pointe-Nuardan Brazzavilga ko'chirilishiga to'g'ri keladi.^[14] Shunday qilib, Puan-Nuar shahriga tegishli ma'muriy, siyosiy va iqtisodiy qarorlarning bir qismi hozir Brazzavilda qabul qilinadi.

Post Mustaqillik

Vili xalqining mustaqillikdan keyingi taqdiri respublikalarning geosiyosiy va iqtisodiy evolyutsiyasi bilan chambarchas bog'liqdir Kongo, Demokratik Kongo, Gabon va Angola.

Angola

Kabinda viloyati xaritasi (Angola).

Kabinda tarkibiga kiritilgan Portugaliya mustamlakasi imperiyasi, janubiy Angolaning yirik qo'shnisidan alohida. Darhaqiqat, o'sha paytning o'zida ikkala hududni Kongo daryosi.

Ikkinchi maqola Simulambuko shartnomasi, 1885 yilda imzolangan, ko'pincha Kabindis ayirmachilari tomonidan dalil sifatida ishlatiladi. Unda aytilishicha, Portugaliya himoya ostida bo'lgan Hududlarning yaxlitligini ta'minlashi kerak. Cabindis 2005 yilda ushbu Shartnomaning 120 yilligini nishonladi, bu shartnomani haqiqat holatiga zid deb hisoblagan Angola hukumati norozi bo'lib, Kabinani Angolaning anklaviga aylantirdi. Shartnomani ushbu differentsial o'qish, shuningdek, ikki Tomon o'rtasidagi azaliy mojaroning kelib chiqishida.

Gabon

Mayumba

Gabonning Vili asosan Mayumbada joylashgan. 5000 ga yaqin jonga ega bo'lgan bu joy, Gongonning qo'shni Kongo chegarasiga kirishdan oldingi so'nggi shahri.^[15] Mayumba mintaqasi hali ham buzilmagan cho'lligi, zo'ravon to'lqinlar va zo'ravon oqimlar tomonidan mag'lubiyatga uchragan ulkan plyajlari bilan tanilgan. Mayumba milliy bog'i, taxminan 870 kvadrat kilometrni tashkil etadi. Bu hayvonlar va o'simlik turlarining keng spektri rivojlanadigan qo'riqlanadigan qo'riqxona. Ular timsohlarni, shimpanze, gorillalar, turli maymunlar, leoparlar, fillar, antilopalar, bufalolar. Shuningdek, bu turli xil qush turlarini kuzatish uchun ajoyib joy.^[16]Sohil turlarida plyajlarda yotish uchun kelgan akulalar, kamtarin kitlar, delfinlar va charm toshbaqalar qolmaydi. Ekvatorial o'rmon va mangrovlar qimmatbaho daraxtlar va o'simliklarning mo'l-ko'l turlariga ega bo'lib, bir vaqtlar obod bo'lgan shahar sharpa bo'lib qoldi. Aslida hayotga yaroqli iqtisodiy sektor mavjud emas. Mayumba g'ururi bo'lgan yog'ochni ekspluatatsiya qilish iqtisodiy inqiroz va qimmatbaho yog'och va yog'ochlarni eksport qilishni taqiqlash bilan bog'liq edi.

Eksport biznesi uchun faqat Benin va Togo kelib chiqishi baliqchilar qishlog'i port vazifasini bajaradi. Ammo chuqur suv portini qurish uchun birinchi toshni qo'yish 1975 yilda Omar Bongo raisligida boshlangan. Bugungi kunga qadar bu ish hali ham tashqarida emas va aholi hali ham kutishmoqda, chunki uning hayotiyligi aniq emas.

Librevil

Vili tumanlarida qadimdan tashkil topgan Librevil: Montagne Saint, Avenue-de-Cointet, Nombakele, Petit-Parij, Mont-Boni, Campagne, Glass, Toulon, plein-Niger, Louis. O'tgan asrning 40-yillarida, Librevillning o'rnini baham ko'rgan, hurmatga sazovor bo'lgan oltita buyuk mahalla rahbarlaridan uchtasi Vili edi: Petit-Parij uchun Lamou, Nombakele uchun Loembe va Tulon-Shisha uchun Loueyi 1962 yilgi urush paytida o'yin davomida rad etilgan gol uchun harakat boshlandi. Gabon (Azingo National) va Kongo (Diables rouges) milliy futbol jamoalari o'rtasida Kongoning barcha Gabon fuqarolari va aksincha Gabonning barcha kongoliklari mezbon ikki mamlakatdan chiqarib yuborilgan. Ammo mahalliy va gabonlik etnik zo'ravonliklarda kam sonli va yaxshi tanilgan Librevil Vilisi bezovta qilinmadi.

Semantikasi intonatsiyaga qarab turlicha bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan tuman 'nomi quyidagicha:

Ah U Kebe! Xavfli! Diqqat! Yoki: Kéba! Diqqat, afsusdaman: Kebe, bitta narsani saqlang

Kongo-Brazzavil

Kongo-Brazzavilda, abbé Fulbert Youlou 1960 yil 15-avgustda boshlangan mamlakatni mustaqillikka olib keldi. Stefan Tchitchelle 1960 yil 28-iyulda Kongo delegatsiyasining a'zosi bo'lib, u shartnomalarni imzoladi va Frantsiya hokimiyatidan Kongo hukumatiga vakolatlarni o'tkazishni ta'minladi. Shuningdek, u respublika vitse-prezidenti bo'ldi. Ushbu qisqa muddatli eyforiya inqilobiy MNR (Milliy inqilob harakati) tomonidan hokimiyatni 1963 yil 13, 14 va 15 avgust kunlari egallashiga yo'l ochib beradi, ular istisno sudlari va jodugarlar ovini tashkil qiladi. Masalan, Stefan Tchitchell yoki Viktor-Jastin Satxud kabi shaxslar qamoqqa tashlangan. Kongo Oliy sudining birinchi prezidenti Jozef Pouabu, Kongo Axborot agentligi direktori Abbé Anselme Massouemé, ham Vili, ham Pointe-Noire mintaqasida tug'ilgan va respublikaning birinchi prokurori Lazare Matsokota, aslida hovuzdan. 1965 yil 14-fevraldan 15-fevralga o'tar kechasi o'g'irlab ketilgan va o'ldirilgan. Dahshatning yuqorisida Jozef Pouabuning jasadi topilmadi. Ushbu jinoyatchilar shu kungacha hech qachon aniqlanmaganlar.1968 yilda Kongo siyosiy manzarasini harbiylashtirish boshlandi. Progressiv askarlar, boshlari bilan, leytenant Marien Ngouabi va boshqa zobitlar Alfred Raul va Louis Silvain Goma, uchala Sen-Siren (Sen-Frans - Frantsiya harbiy akademiyasi), davlat to'ntarishi foydasiga siyosiy sahnaga chiqdilar. Inqilobiy Adliya sudi tashkil etildi. Ngouoniba Nsari va Kristof Mukoueke - mos ravishda prezident va vitse-prezident.

"Mpita" guruhi mintaqadan kelib chiqqan uchta Vilidan iborat Kouilou ya'ni politsiya xodimi Andre Tchicya, ikkita moliyaviy ma'mur Pol Bouanga va Jorj Goma ushbu Adliya sudi tomonidan kapitalistlar bilan noz qilishda va shuning uchun Kongo taraqqiyoti va manfaatlariga qarshi ishlashda ayblanmoqda. 1969 yil 26 sentyabrda ular xuddi shu sud tomonidan oqlanadi.

Litsey Chaminadasining (Drapeau Rouge) sobiq direktori Stanislas Batchi xalq sudining prezidenti bo'lgan va uni " "qizil prokuror". Ushbu lavozimda u o'zi bilan bir xil etnik identifikatsiyani talab qilgan do'stlari yoki ayblanuvchisi bilan bog'liq ishlarni tekshirishni buyurdi. Shunday qilib, Stefan Tchithelleni o'rnidan turishini so'rab, ikkinchisi uning bu rolni osib qo'yganini ko'rganidan hayratlanib, unga vili tilida, prokurorga qilgan barcha xizmatlarini va uni qaerda qabul qilganini eslatdi. kechki ovqat. Stanislas Batchi u oilaviy nizoni hal qilish jarayonida emas, balki davlat xavfsizligi bilan bog'liq o'ta muhim masala ekanligini aytdi. "Mpita guruhi" ishidagi ushbu misol o'zaro yordam qoidalarini qanday qilib buzish kerakligini ko'rsatmoqda. o'zlarining qo'llarini iflos qilish, yangi siyosiy tuzumga sodiqlik va o'zining asosiy mavqeidagi pozitsiyasini himoya qilish orqali. Bu, shuningdek, Vili jamoat hisobidan individual muvaffaqiyatga e'tibor berishga moyilligini tasvirlaydi. Kongo Respublikasining janubiy qismidagi Lari va Kongo xalqlari, fuqarolari faoliyatidan tashqari, bularning aksi. Niari vodiysi yoki ning Mbochis ning Kyuvetlar bo'limi ular uchun hamjihatlik muqaddas qadriyatdir.

Yetmishinchi o'n yilliklar davomida Kongo Xalq Respublikasiga aylangan yosh mamlakat chet elda o'qitilgan barcha yosh rahbarlardan rivojlanishiga hamrohlik qilish uchun qaytib kelishni so'radi. Bir paytlar reproduktiv va uy ishlarining roli bilan cheklanib qolgan ayollar ozod qilinib, mamlakat taraqqiyotida qatnashadilar. Shunday qilib, siyosiy jihatdan, Jozefina Buanga 1969 yil 15 noyabrda bo'lib o'tgan ushbu tashkilotning 2-Favqulodda Kongressi oxirida Kongo ayollarining inqilobiy ittifoqi (URFC) prezidenti etib saylandi. U bu vazifani Céline Claudette Eckomband Yandza o'rnini egalladi.

Fuqarolik jamiyatida, Brazzavil sudi binosida, Agathe Pembellot Mambu, 1973 yil 11 martda qasamyod qildi. U Kongo Respublikasining birinchi ayol magistrati bo'ldi.

Demografiya va hudud

Demografiya

Kouilou bo'limi Kongo Respublikasining dengiz fasadini qoplaydi. Ushbu hudud asosan G'arbga qadar qirg'oq tekisligida, Vili tomonidan, sharqda Mayombe o'rmon massivida Yombe tomonidan egallab olingan. Vili va te Yombe tillari o'zaro tushunarli.

Shimolni Lumbu ozchiliklar (bantu Échira) va Pigmy Babongo.

Vili asosan Atlantika qirg'og'i tomonidan asos bo'lib shakllangan uchburchakda taqsimlanadi Madingo-Kays uchun Kabinda yo'lda Tchikanou chegarasi va joyi Tsitondi (sobiq Xolle) sammit sifatida. Yuqorida aytib o'tilganlardan tashqari, ular Tchilunga, Longo-Bondi, Ntandu Yumbi, Tchissanga, Ntupu, Lendji, Bueti, Xinda, Makola, Bambala, Nanga, Tchivula, Nkumbi, Tangu Mbata, Diosso, Mabindu, Lubu, Mpili va Tchissekeni.

Loango qirolligining atomlashtirilishi tufayli ularning yashash joylari asta-sekin qisqartirilib, yuz ellik yildan ortiq vaqt mobaynida, taxminan 1883 yil 21-iyunda imzolangan Tsimbamba shartnomasiga to'g'ri keladi va Frantsiyaga ushbu hududni egallashga imkon beradi. Darhaqiqat, frantsuzlarning kirib borishi va induktsiyalangan populyatsiyalarning paydo bo'lishi jiddiy epidemiyalarning tarqalishiga yordam beradi chechak va tripanozomiya (uyqu kasalligi). Erkaklar orqasida yurish uchun barcha yoshdagi odamlarni rekvizitsiya qilish, Loangoga tushgan yuklarni, shuningdek, aybdorlarni, xususan shubhali o'limni aniqlash uchun sinov zaharidan foydalanishni kamaytirishga yordam beradi. Loango qirolligi avlodlari aholisining soni. Qurg'oqchilik tufayli kelib chiqadigan tanqislik Vilini ga o'tishga undaydi Mayombe yoki hijrat qilish. O'shandan beri ular sayohatchilarning bu ruhini saqlab qolishdi.

Ning qurilishi Kongo-Okean temir yo'li orqali mahalliy aholini kamaytiradi pnevmokokk va dizenteriya, Shuning uchun; ... uchun; ... natijasida Sara qaytarib olib kelingan Chad va Banda dan Ubangi-Shari inson hayotidagi ushbu jirkanch loyihani yakunlash imkoniyatiga ega bo'ladi.

1925 yildan 1949 yilgacha Puan-Nuarning tug'ilishi va ko'tarilishi Hinterland qishloqlarini aholisini ko'paytiradi. Maktabda o'qish va shahar turmush tarziga qiziqish qishloq yo'qotishlarini kuchaytiradi. 1962 yildan boshlab Pointe-Noire'da tashkil etilgan Vili soni qishloq joylardagidan ko'p. 1965 yilda Vili etnik guruhi Pointe-Noire shahrining ushbu erlarga joylashtirilishi bilan deyarli 60 foizga singib ketgan. Boshqalarga qaraganda, u urbanizatsiya oqibatlari va an'anaviy mulkchilikning o'ziga xos xususiyatlaridan to'liq azob chekdi.

1957 yilda antropolog Moris Chabuf Vili fuqarolari sonini 36000 kishini tashkil qildi va shu qadar azob-uqubatlarga qaramay, qanday qilib bu odamlar hali ham yo'q bo'lib ketmaganiga hayron bo'ldi.

Hozirgi kunda qishloqlarning aksariyati aloqa yo'llari bo'ylab joylashgan (yo'llar, CFCO).

Pointe-Noire tashqarisida, iqtisodiy poytaxt, Kouilou aholi zichligi odatda juda past. 1,7 hab./km2 dan 1984 yilgacha u 2017 yilda 6,8 hab./km2 ga ko'tarildi. Ammo tabiiy resurslarga (ov va baliqchilik) kirish va er nazorati uchun ziddiyatli joylar mavjud, masalan, Konkouati Lagun.

1993 va 1997 yillardagi fuqarolar urushlari paytida omon qolgan bo'lsada, Pointe-Noire va uning ichki hududlari muhojirlarning ommaviy to'dasini ko'rishadi. Hovuz bo'limi va mamlakatlari Niari. Yaroqsiz infratuzilma bugungi kungacha aholining haddan ziyod ko'payib ketishiga imkon bermayapti. er bosimini ta'kidlaydigan.

Hudud

Si / Tsi

Yomg'irli o'rmon yaqin Diosso - Pointe-Noire (Kongo Respublikasi)

Si Vili tilida yoki Tsi Yombe tilida inklyuziv er va uning boyliklari, hududi, mamlakatiga ishora qiladi. Matriclan a'zolari (likanda) jamoat joylarida, ko'rinadigan va ko'rinmas mollar va manfaatlar mavjud. Klan hududi (Si likanda) chegaralarni daho, urug 'ajdodlarining kuch ruhlari belgilaydi (nkisi birlikda va bakisi erkaklar tomonidan emas). Ushbu chegaralar daryolar, tepaliklar, o'rmonlarning chekkalari bo'lishi mumkin ...

Xizmat qiluvchi ruhlar tinch joylarni afzal ko'rishadi va bezovta bo'lganda tinchroq joylarga ko'chib ketishadi va shu bilan klanning ko'chib ketishiga sabab bo'ladi. Dahiylarning yashash joylari (tchibila) yoki qo'riqxonalar manbalar, daryolar, tog'lar (Mayombadagi Bamba tog'i), tsirklar (Diosso darasi), Sunda daralari, ajratilgan daraxtlar yoki daraxtzorlardir.

Erlarni boshqarish

Davlat

Evkalipt plantatsiyalari Diosso Pointe-Noire (Kongo Respublikasi) ga yaqin hudud

Davlat neft kompaniyalariga (Total, ENI) va boshqa EFC (Evkalipt tolasi Kongosi) singari sanoat kompaniyalariga ilgari UAIC (Kongoning sanoat o'rmonlarini barpo etish birligi) kabi korxonalarga ishlash uchun ruxsat beradi. Shunday qilib, Pointe-Noire, Hinda, Loango Bay va Shimoliy Bas-Kouilou atrofida 10 ming ga evkalipt ekish uchun imtiyozlar berildi.

Shuningdek, davlat har bir Kongo fuqarosiga istalgan joyda yashash imkoniyatini kafolatlaydi. Shiori Kongo Mehnat partiyasi (PCT), sobiq yagona partiya "hamma narsa odamlar uchun va odamlar uchun"Kuilouga joylashish uchun boshqa mintaqalar aholisidan garov evaziga xizmat qildi. Ammo avtoritarizm va shimol aholisining hokimiyat tepaligida bo'lganligi sababli, ushbu quruqlik o'yinida ularga janubiy (Vili va Yombe shaharlari) hisobiga ustunlik berildi. aql).

Mahalliy aholi

1991 yildagi suveren milliy konferentsiya bilan Loango qirolliklarining tiklanishi va Anziku (Teke) "ajdodlar urf-odati" ni qayta tiklash to'g'risidagi da'vo bilan davom etdi. Ushbu chiziqni ushlab turish Francois-Xavier Tchitembo-dan boshqa hech kim emas edi, uning nomi ostida taniqli Ma Mboma Si Loango (Loango Qirolligining Bosh vaziri), hatto Bvalining meri (Diosso) Bosh Tchitembo. So'nggi marotaba 1994 yil 6 iyuldagi Matombi (baliqchilar qishlog'i) da bo'lib o'tgan yig'ilishni o'z ichiga olgan chiziqli elektr kampaniyasini tiklashni o'z zimmasiga oldi. Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, klan er egaligiga qaytish - bu o'yinlarning kamligini, baliqchilik va qishloq xo'jaligi resurslarining kamayishini tartibga solish usuli.

Davlat ishlab chiqaruvchilari va sanoat operatorlari bilan tortishish uchun mintaqaviy elitaning bir qismi bo'lgan ba'zi odamlar 1992 yilda tashkil etilgan Kouilou (ARTK) tuproqchilar mintaqaviy assotsiatsiyasi atrofida uyushganlar. Ushbu muassasa erlar egalariga klanlarga ruxsat bergan. UAIC (Kongoning sanoat o'rmonzorlari zavodi) evkalipt daraxtlarini ekib, noqonuniy o'tin kesish uchun, o'z erlarini qaytarib olish va ta'kidlash uchun. Darhaqiqat, er rahbarlari yoki u erda ishlagan dehqonlar bilan maslahatlashmasdan, ma'muriy idoralar ushbu erlarni 5 yoki 6 yil davomida yaroqsiz holga keltirgan holda, ularni ishsiz deb hisoblab, BAAga topshirdilar.

Pointe-Noire shahrining tobora kengayib borishi bilan, mulkdorlar, hududni kelishilgan holda yoritib berolmay, ba'zida ko'chmas mulk chayqovchiligini amalga oshirmoqdalar. So on the periphery of the economic capital, the satisfaction of immediate and individual needs takes precedence over the preservation of the heritage of the future and the collective interest.

Migrantlar

The natural resources of the Congolese coastal plain and the outlet is Pointe-Noire, the economic capital, attract immigrants from the four corners of Congolese territory, including the inhabitants of other areas of the Kouloiu.

Thus, in the absence of a job employee at Pointe-Noire, migrants engaged in the areas of fishing, agriculture or hunting. Thus, since the sixties, Teke from Ewo va Okoyo tumani in the Congolese basin (the basin of the Alima ), settled in the marshes of the Ntombo and on the shores of lakes and lagoons crossed by the Loeme river to process fishing.

Moreover, the Teke and the Mbamba (Group Kota ) from the Massif of the North, in the Lékoumou bo'limi, engaged in hunting in the Massif of the Mayombe where they settled and in the park of Conkouati-Douli. Finally, around and near the pontenegrine settlement, some people from Pool department practice agricultural activities in rural areas.

In the Kouilou region, who do not have the attributes of sovereignty in the village where he was welcomed, is simply a resident and is called in Vili language Nthundji.

Habitat

One can be surprised that a ciVilization as rich as vili culture cannot leave monuments or ruins, testimony of the events of the distant past. This is to forget that in Loango country, you do not build homes or other sustainable buildings using materials. The traditional cabins were made in panels of Papirus yoki Aframomum.

Typical rural and traditional cabin, circa 1910

Congolese village around Loango, circa 1910

Qishloqlar

The typology of the villages is indicative of traditional rural life in its historical, socio-cultural and environmental development.

General speaking, the villages are linear and so-called "villages-routes", because of their location along the roads. Habitat within the village is more often split or subdivided in the middle of savannah. However, the habitat becomes more consolidated near sites of the rivers, forests and roads.

O'n to'qqizinchi asrning oxirida, Richard Edward Dennett, an English merchant who lived and traded in Vili country note "Fiote, once they have buried a parent, either destroy completely the house of the deceased, or dismantle it to sell the materials to another family ". " The cassava plants or other fruit trees like orange, lemon and mango are planted instead to avoid anyone to settle there. However, things have changed today. Indeed, the death of a loved one always causes abandonment of the home plot. However, it is only rarely destroyed. This allows the family of the deceased to continue to operate, at least temporarily, the food-producting cultures and fruits that are still there, however without to maintain them.

According to beliefs, anyone building a hut with long life materials, is irremediably condemned (death, misfortune, bad spells, fires, diseases...). These beliefs and the fetish so accentuate the fragmentation of the Vili rural landscape, the plots inhabited being continually on the move.

The dispersion and the movement of Vili rural habitat tell us about the individualistic or independent behaviour of Vili people.

The tremendous mango trees and groves across the savannas are the witnesses of this permanent transhumance of villages. Their size (height) give an indication of the age of the village.

This traditional custom may explain why the Vili are so badly housed, fearing by supertition, to be accused of witchcraft in compensation for the construction of a lavish home. This also explains the propensity of the Vili, unlike their neighbors, Yombe, to not be attached to their land.

In addition to the housing cabins (shelters for the night) and the kitchen huts (places of women), the "Moandza" or palaver hut, is the privileged place of meetings, exchanges, rest and craft activities of the masculine. Indeed, this place in which men spend most of their time, is an excellent observation post thanks to its close positioning to the road.

At the same time, the modest home of Moe Poaty III (crowned Maloango 18 March 1931 until his death on 3 May 1975), built in 1952 by the colonial administration and which he used as his residential Palace, was abandoned for six years. Indeed, none of these successors wanted to settle there.

Under pressure from the Government, the Royal residence then turned museum that opened, on 10 April 1982, Jean-Baptiste Tati Loutard, Minister of High education and, Minister of culture and arts.

In Pointe-Noire, the second area said illegal out of the ground in the 1950s after the ward "4 Km" is called also "Quartier planches" ("Plank ward"). The Catholic Church of St. Christopher of Mvoumvou, nearby was originally entirely built in white wooden planks. Which sometimes causes the laughingstock of newcomers on Pointe-Noire to the Vili, because they are not aware of this aspect of their culture.

Yerdan foydalanishni rejalashtirish

The town of Pointe-Noire or the Department of Kouilou, the Vili people's settlements still does not have a university, nor other public educational institutions such as high schools, colleges and elementary school. Only private initiatives such as the creation of structures such as École supérieure de technologie du littoral (EST-L), École supérieure de commerce et de gestionva Université de Loango-Institut supérieur de technologie (UL–IUT), mitigate somewhat this situation.

The Pointe-Noire Grand Market area, the district Number 1 Lumumba and the district Number 2 Mvoumvou, once predominantly inhabited by Vili nationals, have become a preempted sector by Muslim populations, who have come from West Africa, increasingly pushing the Vili to the peripheral districts of the district number 4 Loandjili or 5 Mongo-Poukou. Indeed, impoverishment pushes families to sell their properties to survive.

Birinchi xonim Antuanetta Sassu Nguesso ning Kongo Respublikasi, 2011

So far there has been tacit approval between the central government and Pointe-Noire va Department of Kouilou: Most of the mayors of the coastal city have since independence been most often nationals of this region. For example, Stéphane Tchitchéllé, Dr. Jacques Bouiti, Marcel Tchionvo, Jean-Pierre Thysthère Tchicaya, François-Luc Makosso, Roland Bouiti-Viaudo and the current director-Mayor Jean-François Kando (elected since 28 August 2017), are noted. The fact that the first Lady Antuanetta Sassu Nguesso born Tchibota originates from Pointe-Noire, militates for this status quo. But how long will this agreement last, which the Vili consider their prerogative as descendants of this fief? Indeed, the economic lung of the Congo, as the gateway to and exiting the flow of goods, arouses increasingly heightened lust.

Diosso Gorges – Rock ridges and red rock cliffs, 1983

Diosso Gorges and environning rainforest, 1983

In September 1988, the site of Diosso gorges or the "Little Colorado" of Congo as presented by the tourist guides, one of the most beautiful natural sites to visit the country, was planned to receive toxic waste from Europe. The first shipment from Rotterdam, of the million tonnes of contract valued at US$74 million, fortunately never left the Dutch port.^[17][18]

This scandal revealed by the "Green Zorros of Ecology", and relayed by France Internationale radiosi broke out publicly four months ago and involves the businessman Luciano Spada and several personalities at the top of the state of the time: Gilbert Bembet, Minister of Information, Ange Edouard Poungui, Prime Minister, Alphonse Poaty-Souchlaty, Minister of Trade and SMEs, Christophe Mbouramoué, Minister of Scientific Research and environment. are also involved in this montage between Bauwerk A. G, a Lixtenshteyn company, and the Congolese State of civil society personalities such as Vincent Gomez, business lawyer, Jean Passi, adviser to the Prime Minister, and Dieudonné Nganga, Ngamissamy Issanga, Abel Tschicou, administrative authorities.

The scandal aroused incessant rumors and terror among the people of the Kouilou where the waste had to be stored. To calm the situation, the Government committed itself to establishing the responsibilities. The two ministers instigating this fraudulent contract, Christian Gilbert Bembet and Christophe Mbouramoué were dismissed, although having already pocketed the bribes even before the execution of the contract. In addition, lawyer Vincent Gomez was disbarred from the Lawyers bar.^[19]

More recently, after feasibility studies in Singapore, the Kongo and China have endorsed the construction of a special Economic Zone (SEZ) in the Pointe-Noire region, and more specifically to Loango; This is part of the $60 billion financing plan, granted by Beijing to support the industrialization of African countries. If at first it is excellent news for the Congo to have been chosen as a "pilot" country, particularly in terms of potential jobs, what will it be for the Kouilou and its nationals? Already expropriation operations began to build the future deep-water port in the region of Loango.^[20]

The presence of China also adversely affects the natural environment through its industrial fisheries off the Atlantika sohillari. Indeed, these trawlers destroy the nets of artisan Vili fishermen, residing in the villages located between the district of Tchiamba-Nzassi and the Gabonese border. These fishermen are forced to abandon their activity to fall back on the rural work. As a result, migratory flows to the interior of the land entailing pressure on the forest areas (agricultural activities, wood cutting for coal ...).^[21]

The immense industrial plantations of eucalyptus (originally intended to supply a hypothetical pulpa zavodi ) produce wood for export.^[22] This indigenous species of the Australian continent hinders the diversification of the undergrowth of the Kouilou region, whose soil is already sandy and poor. It follows a decrease in land reserved for agricultural activities. Active or disadvantaged local populations are forced to abandon artisanal activities and to look for salaried jobs in mining companies. The production of charcoal for cooking, agriculture, hunting and gathering to feed these populations that are urbanizing and whose relationship with their original natural environment fades, are not made to reassure the future of the biodiversity of the region.

Oil: The curse of the Vili people

Ning otilishi Loango qirolligi at the end of the nineteenth century fragmented the oil regions between the Kabinda anklav Angola, Gabon, Kongo-Brazzavil va D.R. Kongo. The first oil research began in Gabon, in 1928, at the instigation of Governor General Raphaël Antonetti. In 1931, the oil exploration Mission of AEF (MPPAEF) was created, of which Jacques-Olivier Haas took the direction in 1932. The MPPAEF is replaced in 1934 by the Union of Petroleum Studies and Research (SERP), which becomes, in 1949, the oil Company of AEF (SPAEF), which will eventually merge into the ELF guruh. The ELF company whose prospections began in the 1960 years, discovers the first offshore oil deposits off Pointe-Noire.

Dr. Jean-Baptiste Tchicaya, a geologist, is one of several of these expeditions. It is at its initiative that almost all oil fields, barges or drilling rigs still in operation or not off Pointe-Noire, bear the names Vili. These are names reminiscent of fish or seafood from the Atlantic Ocean of the Tropics:

• Foukanda
• Kitina
• Kombi: Red Captain fish
• Kouakouala
• Kundji
• Mengo
• Moho Bilondo: literally "The belly filled up with Bilondo" (local sea fish)
• Nkossa: Mayda qisqichbaqa
• Lianzi
• Likala
• Likoala: (singular likwal, mukwal yoki musundi for plural) seld
• Litchendili
• Likouf: Butterfish
• Mboundi
• Mwafi: Sea Carp
• Sendji: Sardina
• Tchendo: Afrika Bagrid
• Tchibeli Litanzi
• Tchibouela yoki tchipakoulou pangou: Stingray
• Yanga
• Zatchi

As soon as it was created in 1967, the French company Elf, which became Jami thereafter, is immediately above the law and depends on the right line of the Élysée Saroy. To compensate for the loss of Jazoir, which provided before its independence a quarter of its energy needs, France Gaulist considers as vital and strategic to explore and exploit oil fields in Sub-Saharian Africa. All means are good to achieve this goal.

Former officers of the SDECE (French Secret Services Agency) will be a cohort of private secret Service agents, to effectively ensure the safety of oil installations and men. Colossal financial means (occult commissions, corruption, opaque circuits, etc.) are put into play to finance the operating costs of governments, to intervene in the appointment of senior officials or in the distribution of under the counter payment.^[23]

In the western unconscious, Congo remains the quintessential playground for "spooks". After financing the presidential campaign of Paskal Lissuba in 1992, Elf refuses to advance the funds to pay the most immediate public officials and expenditure. Lissouba then turns to the American oil tanker Occidental Petroleum. The relations between the President and Elf will then deteriorate, with the civil Wars of 1993 and 1997 as a climax. Elf prefers to deal with President Denis Sassu Nguesso, a political and pragmatic end, first as soon as he ascended to power on 5 February 1979, then at the end of his coup de force in the Civil War of 1997, thus ending the parenthesis six years after the 1991 national conference.

Thus, Elf did not hesitate to finance and arm the two camps in presence to safeguard its interests.^[24]

Pointe-Noire, the economic capital of the Congo, sees hundreds of thousands of refugees coming from the Basseyn maydon va Niari vodiysi. Successive waves are sometimes anarchy settled by ethnic groups with an obvious risk of igniting on a tribal basis. So far, Pointe-Noire has always been preserved from the political turmoil of which the Congo is the prerogative. Colonel Louis Georges Loembé, Head of Pointe-Noire military zone N°1, and François Auguste Tchichellé Tchivéla, son of Stéphane Tchitchéllé, senior officer and pediatrician, Minister of Tourism and Environment from 1992 to 1995, under Pascal Lissouba rule, prefect of Kouilou departamenti during the Civil war that broke out in 1997, because they were Military, originating in the region, will ensure that the conflict does not affect the ocean City.^[25]

The Congo has important oil reserves but remains one of the poorest countries and one of the most indebted countries in the world per capita, despite the cancellation by international institutions of half of its debt, benefiting in 2010 of the HIPC regime (heavily indebted poor countries ).^[26] Meanwhile, the oil windfall extracted from Pointe-Noire does not benefit this one. The infrastructure does not follow the rapid evolution of the population of the coastal city. Investment work (access to drinking water, energy, sanitation, management of industrial and domestic waste ...) and maintenance (collection and treatment of waste, pollution, noise and visual nuisances, non-existent ...) are made sparingly. The few subsidies allocated disappear into the meanders of the obscure networks.

The oil sands operation

Since the years 1970, the beginning of the oil sands operation in the vicinity of the localities of Mboukou, Tchikanou, Loango first by the oil company SPAEF became later ELF, then by Maurel va Balo va nihoyat Eni (formerly AGIP research), it could have been expected that the living conditions of the populations improved. It is rather the disillusionment, because no road, nor sanitary and school infrastructure worthy of the name has emerged. These populations whose main activities are fishing, harvesting and agriculture have seen their area of activity polluted by the different boreholes, making their living conditions unbearable. In addition to the decline in agricultural yields (kassava, yams, chinorlar ) that allow Pointe-Noire to be supplied, water points have also been polluted making water unfit for food use. ENI's only solution is to supply water by tanker trucks whose vats are not always curated. Even this distribution is done at the head of the customer by favoring those who have relationships or money.^[27]

To carry out this extraction work, peasants have seen their fields destroyed and compensated by ENI in 2009 with a scale dating from 1986. For example, a field of 10 hectares was compensated at a level of 150 000 CFA francs (or approximately EUR 230), a cassava cutting was offset at 37 CFA francs (0.05 euro), one foot of mango tree at 60 000 CFA francs (about 90 euros).

There are also the torchieres of oil sites like that of M'Boundji that produce greenhouse gases and heavy trucks that by transporting equipment (pipelines) raise dust on their way causing diseases Lung.

It all happens as if you want to kill softly local people.^[28]

Pierre Stève Loemba, peasant and spokesperson for the communities of Mboukou explains: After many arguments without results, we have entrusted our problem to human rights associations to help us to conquer our right to "A decent life, a healthy environment and fairness."^[29]

Brice Makosso, president of the Justice and Peace Commission, believes that "instead of brandishing the decree of 1986, all these companies should instead refer to international standards that are superior to local standards." In Chad or Cameroon, the scales have been revised.^[27]

Local content

The global oil sector has been in crisis and in full mutation since the oil barrel stagnated around US$50 and the demand for black gold is declining sharply.This affects the Congolese economy, which is largely dependent on its oil exports. All the oil majors operating in the country and all their major sub-contractors reduced the sail by returning their cohort of expatriates to the house. Employees with local status have a less-than-shiny spell. Some were thanked overnight without any compensation. Other majors want to reduce the benefits that have been acquired by nationals; What makes the teeth cringe or even causes strikes.^[30][31]

Sifatida Pol Boateng, a British politician, stresses, "a crisis presents both problems and opportunities." The opportunity is to be part of the solution: This industry can create well-paid jobs, benefiting both the shareholders and the companies in which it intervenes. To do this, we need to develop mahalliy xaridlar policies and local content.^[32]

Local content or national preference is to "ensure a rebalancing of wealth by inviting States to capitalize on their natural resources".^[33] Apart from the taxes and income received by the host States, it is an excellent instrument for the use of local industrial fabric and local competences, not only in the extractive economy sector (hydrocarbons, mines, forest industry), But also in the service and construction sector. So it is a direct impact on the national economy.

The tools available to the public authorities are as follows: imposing the use of local employment; Job creation and transfer of skills; Oblige foreign companies to open their shareholdings to national actors; Demand that they be provided locally in goods and services, in order to densify the Kichik va o'rta korxonalar network...

At the scale of the village communities that live in the sites operated by these oil majors, they would have to organize themselves into structures capable of serving as interlocutors with the public authorities and the oil companies, for example Train young people to work on these sites or offshore areas, design and implement sustainable development projects to preserve the natural environment and produce (agriculture, fish farming, livestock farming ...) to supply the large Pointe-Noire aglomeratsiya.^[34]

The Niigeria inspired by the Norwegian and Brazilian models is the sub-saharan country to have pushed the concept of local content further through the promulgation of the Nigerian content Act in April 2010. This concept is relatively new in Congo with the publication of the new hydrocarbons code in October 2016. As long as it benefits a little to the local communities. One can be doubtfully, since these laws on the local content, have never been followed by a support system so that national staff or national enterprises can confront themselves with their foreign competitors with equal arms.

But as Ines Féviliyé^[34] says, the crisis is the opportunity to implement the rules of local content, in information, awareness, dialogue. Indeed, all stakeholders are gaining, by reducing costs for private companies, new markets for local suppliers, transferring technology to develop the domestic industry, jobs, reducing unemployment and of poverty.

The task is certainly not easy, but it is no longer a question of shirking it, given the current situation.

Societal Structure

French Congo – Tailor Tchicaya and his family – circa 1900

The Vili traditional society as well as all the ethnic groups of the Kongo group, is characterized by a main structure called Likanda. This is the clan whose members possess in community and in common the goods and interests visible and invisible. Within this matrilineal society, the territory of the clan (si likanda) as well as its limits are managed by the elder of the maternal uncles (ma Nkashi yoki Fumu si). So'z SI in expressions si likanda yoki Fumu si designates both the land on which the clan is established, but also all the resources therein.^[35]

The terms and phrases used to distinguish kinship links are as follows:^[36]

• The maternal clan is called Tchifumba, while the paternal clan is called Tchisya.
• Maternal and paternal grandparents are the Nkaaka and grandchildren of the latter are the Ntekulu. Conversely, these call their grandparents by Yaaya.
• The great grandsons are sidandu si Butekulu (literally child following the grandson).
• The nuclear family that can be compared to the Western family is called Liziku, a term literally meaning hearth. This nucleus is composed of bibusi (parent progenitors); Aynan Lisya (the Father) and Nguli (the mother), not forgetting baana (children or mwaana birlikda). They are addressed to their parents by calling them respectively by Taata (Daddy) and Maama (Mummy).
• Ichida Liziku, the boy is called Mwaana libakala (literally child man), while the girl is Mwaana ntchetu (literally child woman).
• To apply the birthright within the Liziku, the eldest of the children is called Tchibutu, while the elder is called Nkoomba.
• The children call their maternal uncle (the brother of their mother) Ma Nkashi and the wife of their uncle by Cinkaaka. However, they call their maternal aunt Nguli yoki Maama, term also used to call their mother.
• The nephews are called Bana bu nkashi (literally child of the uncle). The child is placed under the authority of his maternal uncle; which has the right of life or death over its fate. The children of his uncle are called Baana Ba Kwelissi (literally child of the Allied clan or child by covenant) and belong to the clan of the wife of the uncle.
• The paternal uncle ranked Lisya deyiladi Taata in the same way as the parent father. The paternal aunt is called Taata Ntchietu (literally a woman's father). The husband of the latter was called Nkashi (the uncle).

One of the paramount issues in Kongo and Loango economies was the "people power"; it wasn't so much the accumulation of land that was important, but rather human resources, in a region that was not densely populated. To be powerful, a man had to accumulate a large household with both male and female dependents. The aim of marriage contracted is to acquire women, who had both productive and reproductive powers.^[3]

Familiyalar

When an elder meets a younger stranger, after the greetings, the first asks the second on the name of his clan, then on that of his parents, saying: "Ndjé mwan ' na? " (literally "From whom are you the child? " which can be translated as " What are your origins? "). It's a way to know a little more about who we're dealing with. The youngest describes then more or less succinctly his family tree.

Traditionally and prior to western penetration, members of Liziku, the nuclear family, did not have the same name. For instance, a child could bear the name of a grandparent (N'Luku) or another family member. This becomes the godfather or godmother (N'dusi)^[37] bolaning. One can also give the surname of a grandparent leaning on the father's.^[38]

Ism aytilgan Li Zina (Me zina in the plural), while the first name or pseudonym is said to be Nkumbu (Si Nkumbu ko'plikda).

Asillik

Members of the royal or princely clans are easily identifiable by the presence of the Mwé yoki Moe honorary particle in front of the surname. This title of nobility can be translated by Lord or my lord.

The Ma Loango (king), his brothers and sisters are Moe. His nephews and nieces (Bana bu nkashi) from her uterine sisters are also.

On the contrary, the King's Wife (Kame Fumu or by contraction Ka fu) emas Moe. Ditto for the Children of the King (Bane Fumu, Mwane fumu in the singular or by contraction Mwa fu).

Can claim or accede to the throne only the holders of the title of Moé, because of the matrilineal succession (power derived from the royal Blood).

Male surnames

Below are some surname and their meaning.

Balou (og'ir; the name of a Portuguese settler Barros very severe) – Bambi/Mbambi (Iguana ) – Batchi/Mbatchi (possess me, caught up with me, what belongs to you; fe'lning mbak meaning to possess, tutib olmoq) – Bilindji – Bouiti (Ustoz) – Boutali – Djembo (struggle with, provoking quarrels) – Djimbi – Gnali – Goma/Ngoma (drum, percussion musical instrument) – Guimbi – Katane (barglar) – Kutana (competing, compete) – Lassy – Lende – Lianzi (name of sea fish, fisherman) – Likounzi/Tchikounzi (Ustun) – Limeka-Linka (the other problem) – Loemba/Loembe (uy egasi ) – Loendo – Louang ' (the little herb that cures) – Loubendou – Louviloukou – Loussiemo (Chaqmoq ) – Louzimbou (noshukurlik) – Louzingou (Hayot) – Louzol ' (Sevgi) – Mabiala (Madness, elected, selected) – Makala (Coal/energy) – Makani – Makaya (barglar) – Makosso (plural of likosso; comments, eye drops, solution obtained by mashing by hand unidentified leaves and administered in the nostrils with a funnel made from leaves, arguments) – Malalou – Malassy – Mambou/Liambou/Tchimambou (case (s), amazement, admiration, many) – Mangafou/Mangofo (Minister of Health of the Government of the Loango qirolligi^[39]/Minister of Foreign Affairs and Introducer of Foreigners at the court of the Kakongo qirolligi -1776^[37]) - Manka (other situations) - Mapakou - Matakou (dumba) - Matchiela – Matouti – Mavoungou (plural Muvungu, bedding covers) – Mbouakissi – Mbouyou/Bouyou – Mfoumou/Foumou (chief, leader) – Moutou/Bantou/Tchimoutou (person (s)) – Mpaka/Paka (fence, doubt, uncertainty) – Mpili (Viper ) – Munuel (xabar beruvchi) – Ngang Lyel (educated, erudite) – Ngang' Vumba (the one who broods) – Ngô (qoplon ) – Ngulungu (Og'riq) – Ngulubu (yovvoyi cho'chqa ) – Nguli Mbwiti (Grand Master, great fetishist) – Niambi (shikoyat) – Nkali – Nkouanga – Nkoussou (To'tiqush) – Nkunta/Ntetchi (Savat ) – Nombo – Ntenda (sound of rifle shot translated in Tendart) – Nzaou (Fil) – Nzassi (Chaqmoq ) – Nzenze (kriket ) – Nziami – Pango/Pangou – Pambou (qobiliyat, qo'ng'iroq ) – Panzou – Pakassa (qo'tos) – Pembello (toza havo) – Poati (hold me, live all my being) – Poba – Sakala – Sitou – Souami – Souchlaty (hold me, inhabit my whole being) – Soumbou – Ta Lounga (we were right) – Tam ' Si (deals with the affairs of the country) – Ta Tounga (we have built) – Tati – Tchiama/Untchiama (Kamalak ) – Tchibota -Tchicaya (diminutive of Tchikakati; thing from the inside, platsenta ) – Tchinianga -Tchilala – Tchilimbou (bayroq, victory, indelible europeanised mark in Sinald) – Tchimbakala (Yosh yigit) – Tchiloumbou (kun) – Tchingoundou – Tchissafou (safou ) – Tchissambou – Tchissina (boy) – Tchitembo – Tchivanga – Tchivéla (momaqaldiroq ) – Tchiyembi (qashshoqlik) – Téléman (hope, arise) – Viodu/Li Viodu/Viaudo (Chumchuq, Unlucky, bad eye).

Female surnames

Below are some surname and their meaning.

Bossa – Bilongo – Bouhoussou – Boumba (moon halo) – Bwindji – Fotcheko – Foutou – Labline/Bwine – Landou – Lelo – Lembi – Lihaou (bu shunday) – Li Mani (tosh ) – Lissahou – Louangou – Losso – Malila – Malonda – Massanga – Matchiela – Mikemo – Mouissou – Mpakou – Mpemba/Pemba (Virginity, Virgin) – Mpouna – Mudeleto – Mulikigni – Ndola – Ndoulou – Ngouamba (ochlik) – Niandji – Niantou – Niefno (go'zallik) – Niendo – Ninga – Niong' (Afsus) – Nkambisi/Tchikambsi (suv parisi, Mami Vata, the Genius of Water) – Nsangou – Ntoulou – Nyissi – Nzinga -Simbou (Earth and Ocean) – Socko – Souaka (kou souek – to hide) – Soungou – Tchibinda (dalil) – Tchifou -Tchifoumba (oila) – Tchilambou – Tchiniongo – Tchingombi/Ngombi – Tchissafou (Safou, Safou tree – dacryodes edulis ) – Tchissimbou (something we hold) – Tchitoula (The most beautiful woman of a country) – Toukoula (powder based on Padouk ildizlar) – Volo (Shirin) – Voumbi (mortal remains) – Wola (gold as qimmatbaho metall ) – Yala – Yessa – Zole (Sevgi) – Zouina.

Neutral surnames

Bouanga / Tchibouanga (weaver, cloth) – Mpopi (Muqaddas) – Panzou – Tchizinga (surround, to have a long life) – Yanzi (farishta)

First and last name combination

The following combinations are often used:

Consecrated names (Me zina me bisuma)

Consecrated names give information on the circumstances of the birth of the children bearing these names.

Futi (born just after the twins, he would present according to tradition excellent skills to succeed) – Nguli Bassa (mother of twins. She enjoys great consideration and great respect within the traditional society) – Nkumba (born after Futi) – Nsafu/Safu (Safou tree or fruit, sut tishlari on the upper jaw, abnormally growing teeth) – Nsunda (child presented by the sits at his birth and out of the bowels of his mother by the feet and not by the head. It is considered a genius "Nkisi " and would be the twin of Nzinga according to tradition) – Nzinga (surround, to have a long life, born child with umbilical cord around the neck. It is considered a genius "Nkisi " and would be Nsunda's twin according to tradition) – Tchibassa (twin, it requires special attention on the traditional rules).

Names related to the beauty of women

Mamaye (nkasi bi bamb' – woman married to a European) – Madamasse – Niefno – Malisbète (from Elisabeth) – Fotchika – Tchitoula (the most beautiful woman in a country)

Zamonaviy ismlar

We are currently witnessing a return to authentically Vili first names:

Ata Yiss / Ataïs (Papa comes!) – Bianief (what has succeeded) – Bifani (where is the evil in all that good?) – Binief (Go'zallar) – Bimangu (the miracles) – B'Mokine (we watched over him) – Bosso Mweni (whatever the appearance) – Bouelo (The fact of being cristal clear) – Boueni – Bouketchi (Bouketchi ndje yi ntalang', Absolute Trust) – Bussina (Boylik) – Fani (qayerda?) – Fani Twek (where are we?) – Kefane (He is there, someone matured or handsome) – Kukel (be careful, be vigilant) – Kunief – Liel (aql) – Lessika (Yorqinlik) – Liam (Mine, my belonging) – Limone (The new one) – Liobakana (what they had planned) – Lisliane – Litati – Litshi (cho'pon ) – Liyandji (Quvonch ) – Louvoundou (dam olish) – Lyane / Lyanou (Hope, Hopeness) – Lyoukouna / Lyuk'n (agreement, Harmony) – Manyef – Miniemo (Mag'rurlik) – Mivek (my solitude, myself, often given to children whose likeness is striking compared to one of the parents) – Mouendou (sayohat) – Mitché (I say...) – Mwessi (Moonlight) – Naho Lissia (All about the image of the father) – Naïvane (The One I gave) – Naïving (the one I've been waiting for) – Naïzole (the one I loved) – Nandi (it's her, it is him) – Nateliane (brings hope) – Nayilote (men undan orzu qilganman yoki undan) - Navek (o'zi, ko'pincha bolalarga noyob beriladi) - Nele (uzuk) - Nienzi (Quvonch) - Nkelian (qayg'urmoq; o'zini ehtiyot qilmoq) - Nyundu - Oussing - Sasse Fani - Sisu - Taliane (ku taliann: Umid qiling, umidvor bo'ling) - Tchelika / Tshiélikk (Haqiqat, samimiy) - Chifani - Tchissesse (nur yoki ilohiy nur) - Tchivili (Sof til) - Tumsi (kelajakda etakchi) - Um'Vali (ikkinchisi)) - Untatou (uchinchisi) - Unteta (oqsoqol) - Untchi ku sombouka (to'siq) - Vang Si (To'quvchi) - Van Moul (omad keltirmoq; omad Bringer) - Vitchana (tasdiqlaylik) - Vitika (qabul qiladi) - Va Nayf (siz bezatilgansiz) - Vislian - Volsi (Oltinga boy mamlakat) - Yaviche (Men tasdiqlayman) / Taviche (biz tasdiqladik) - Voyilote (Men orzu qilganim) - Tchilifi (bosh; boshliq kuchining ramzi) - Yoyikane (Mening tilagim)

Evropa kelib chiqishi nomlari

Mustamlaka ma'muriyati vakillari bilan elkalarini silash yoki uy ishchilari sifatida ishlash orqali familiyalar Vili terminologiyasiga kiritilgan. Masalan, masalan:

Demauzer (Kuchli odam, nomini olgan qurol Nemis brendi nomi Mauzer ) - Fayet (Tikuvchi, tikuvchilik) - Kuizinielo (pishirish) - Lafadere (lavadeurdan, sobiq portugalcha so'z, kimyoviy tozalash ajdodi degan ma'noni anglatadi-) - Linguissi (tarjimon) - Magnifinelo (fil suyagi bo'yicha haykaltarosh) - Sulvey (nazoratchi) - Bayonne (Frantsiya shahridan bo'lgan mustamlakachi ma'mur Bayonne oshpaz deb aytilgan, men sizni Bayonga olib boraman ) - Mayordom (Butler) - Portella (konvoy rahbarining funktsiyasidan Bir nechta yuk ko'taruvchilarning boshigacha).

Vili xalqi

• Mambou Aimée Gnali, Ayol siyosatchi va yozuvchi
• Louis Silvain Goma, Kongolik siyosatchi
• Antuan Mbumbu Miyaku, Gabonlik siyosatchi
• Agathe Pembellot, Birinchi ayol sudya
• Jan-Feliks Tsikaya Kongolik siyosatchi
• Tchicaya U Tam'si, Kongo yozuvchisi, Jan-Feliks Tsikayaning o'g'li

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

• Dello, Jan (2006). Maqollar va so'zlar (Kongo République). Parij: L'Harmattan. p. 380. ISBN  978-2-2960-0030-8.
• Dennet, Richard Edvard (1887). Fyort orasida etti yil: Kongo okrugidagi ingliz savdogari tajribasi). London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searke & Rivington.
• Olson, Jeyms Styuart (1996). "Vili" Afrika xalqlarida: Etnohistorik lug'at). London: Greenwood Publishing Group. 583-584 betlar. ISBN  978-0-3132-7918-8.

Tashqi havolalar

• http://www.language-archives.org/language/vif
• Vili tilidagi etnolog hisoboti
• http://www.peoplegroups.org/Explore/groupdetails.aspx?peid=13021
• http://voyage-congo.over-blog.com/ Fabrice au Congo-dagi blog
• http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/fjort/index.htm - Edvard Richard Dennettning Fjort folkloriga oid eslatmalar, 1898 y