Talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuz - Campus sexual assault

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Talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuz bo'ladi jinsiy tajovuz, shu jumladan zo'rlash, kabi oliy o'quv yurtida tahsil olayotgan talabaning, masalan kollej yoki universitet.[1] Bunday tajovuzlarning qurbonlari ayollar bo'lishi mumkin, ammo har qanday kishi jins qurbon bo'lishi mumkin. Ta'riflar va metodikaga asoslangan holda o'zgarib turadigan jinsiy tajovuzlarning taxminlariga ko'ra, kollejdagi ayollarning 19-27% va kollejdagi erkaklarning 6-8% jinsiy tajovuzga uchragan.[2][3][4]

Maktablar jinsiy tajovuzdan shikoyat qilgan ayollarni yomon qo'llab-quvvatlamoqda degan ayblovlarga javoban 2011 yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Ta'lim Departamenti universitetlarga "Muhtaram hamkasbim" nomli maktub yo'llab, akademik muassasalarga talabalar shaharchalarida jinsiy zo'ravonlik holatlarini kamaytirishga qaratilgan turli xil uslublar to'g'risida maslahat berdi. .[5] Ba'zi huquqiy ekspertlar ayblanuvchiga nisbatan suiiste'mol qilish xavfi to'g'risida xavotir bildirishdi.[6] Intizomiy jarayonlarga o'zgartirishlar kiritilgandan so'ng, erkaklar tarafkashlik va / yoki ularning huquqlarini buzish ayblovlari bilan da'vo arizalari berildi.[7]

Tadbirlar

Asosiy maqola: Talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuz choralari

Hozirda kollejda o'qiyotgan ayollarga nisbatan jinsiy zo'rlash xavfi kollejda o'qimaydigan o'sha yoshdagi ayollarga qaraganda yuqori ekanligi to'g'risida hech qanday dalil yo'q.[8] 2017 yilda nashr etilgan tadqiqotlarni qayta ko'rib chiqishda shuni ko'rsatdiki, har 5 ayoldan 1 nafari kollejda o'qish davrida jinsiy tajovuzga uchragan ayollarning foiz nisbati bo'yicha "ayollar va talabalar shaharchalari bo'yicha o'rtacha o'rtacha ko'rsatkich" ni tashkil qilgan.[9]

AQShdan tashqari g'arbiy mamlakatlardagi kollej o'quvchilari o'rtasida jinsiy tajovuz tajribalarini o'rgangan tadqiqotlar amerikalik tadqiqotchilar topgan natijalarga o'xshash natijalarni topdi. 1993 yilda Kanada kolleji talabalarining milliy vakillik namunalari bo'yicha o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, o'tgan yili ayollarning 28% jinsiy tajovuzni boshdan kechirgan va ayollarning 45% kollejga kirgandan beri jinsiy tajovuzning ayrim turlarini boshdan kechirgan.[10] 1991 yilda Yangi Zelandiyadagi 347 nafar magistrantlar o'rtasida o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, 25,3% zo'rlash yoki zo'rlashga urinishgan, 51,6% esa jinsiy jabrlanuvchiga duch kelgan.[11] 2011 yilda Buyuk Britaniyadagi talabalar o'rtasida o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, ayollarning 25% universitetda o'qiyotgan paytida jinsiy tajovuzning bir turini boshdan kechirgan va 7% ayollar kollej talabasi sifatida zo'rlash yoki zo'rlashga urinishgan.[12]

Hisobot berish

Izlanishlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, zo'rlash va boshqa jinsiy tajovuz qurbonlarining aksariyati o'zlarining hujumlari to'g'risida huquq-tartibot idoralariga xabar bermaydilar.[13][14][15] Hisobot bermaslik natijasida, tadqiqotchilar odatda jinsiy tajovuzni o'lchash uchun so'rovlarga tayanadi. Tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra 10% gacha[2] 29% gacha[16] kollejni boshlaganidan beri ayollarning zo'rlash yoki zo'rlashga urinish qurboni bo'lganligi. Milliy jinoyatchilikka qarshi kurash bo'yicha tadqiqotning hisob-kitoblariga ko'ra yiliga 1000 o'quvchiga 6,1 jinsiy tajovuz sodir bo'ladi.[17] Ammo, odatda, ushbu manbani tadqiqotchilar jinsiy tajovuzlar sonini sezilarli darajada kam deb hisoblashadi.[18] So'rovni o'tkazish usuli, ishlatilgan zo'rlash yoki jinsiy tajovuzning ta'rifi, savollarning tuzilishi va o'rganilgan vaqt kabi uslubiy farqlar bu farqlarga yordam beradi.[16] Hozirda zo'rlash va jinsiy tajovuzni o'lchashning eng yaxshi usuli to'g'risida kelishuv mavjud emas.[18]

Tanqid

Kabi ba'zi mashhur sharhlovchilar Kristina Xof Sommers va Styuart Teylor kichik, jinsiy tajovuzni o'lchash uchun foydalanilgan ko'plab so'rovnomalar yaroqsiz deb ta'kidladilar, chunki ular ayollardan "zo'rlangan" yoki "jinsiy tajovuz" qilinganligini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri so'ramaydilar.[19] So'rovlarning aksariyati "zo'rlash" kabi atamalarni to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ishlatishdan qochishadi va aksincha respondentlardan zo'rlash va jinsiy tajovuzning qonuniy ta'rifiga mos keladigan o'ziga xos xatti-harakatlarni boshdan kechirganligini so'rashadi. Buning sababi shundaki, jinsiy zo'ravonlikni boshdan kechirgan ko'plab odamlar o'zlarining tajribalarini shu tarzda belgilamaydilar, hatto ushbu tajribalar jinoiy tajovuz yoki zo'rlash qonuniy ta'rifiga javob beradigan bo'lsa ham.[9] Jabrlanganlarning aksariyati, voqeani "zo'rlash" deb tasniflaganligidan qat'iy nazar, tajovuz bilan ish olib borishda salbiy hissiy va psixologik muammolar haqida xabar berishadi va xulq-atvorga oid maxsus so'rovlar jinsiy zo'ravonlikni o'lchash uslubi bo'lib kelgan.[20]

Izohlar

Jinsiy tajovuzni tushuntirish uchun uchta keng yondashuv mavjud.[21]

Birinchi yondashuv, "individual determinantlar", zo'rlashning psixologik nuqtai nazaridan kelib chiqadi. Ushbu yondashuv kampusdagi jinsiy tajovuzni birinchi navbatda jinoyatchi va / yoki jabrlanuvchiga xos bo'lgan individual xususiyatlar natijasi sifatida qaraydi. Masalan, Malamut va Hamkasblar ayollarga nisbatan jinsiy tajovuzni tanqidiy predmeti sifatida dushman erkaklar va shaxssiz jinsiy xatti-harakatlarning individual xususiyatlarini aniqladilar. Ularning psixologik modeli shuni ko'rsatadiki, dushmanlik erkaklik xususiyatlarini (masalan, ayollarni boshqarish / hukmronlik qilish istagi va o'ziga nisbatan ishonchsiz, ayollarga nisbatan o'ta sezgir va ishonchsiz yo'nalish) va shaxssiz shahvoniy xatti-harakatlar (masalan, jinsiy munosabatlarga nisbatan hissiy jihatdan ajralib turadigan, buzuq va majburiy bo'lmagan yo'nalish). ) ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik va jinsiy tajovuzni qo'llashni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. Ularning topilmalari kollej talabalari namunalarida va talaba bo'lmagan kattalar namunalarida takrorlangan (Malamut va boshq., 1991; Malamut va boshq., 1993). Bundan tashqari, narsistik huquq va o'ziga xos tajovuz zo'rlash uchun asosiy individual xavf omillari sifatida aniqlangan (LeBreton va boshq., 2013). Jinsiy aloqaga bo'lgan umumiy istak yoki ehtiyoj, ommabop fikrdan farqli o'laroq, jinsiy tajovuz bilan sezilarli darajada bog'liq emas, bu jinsiy tajovuz jinsiy qoniqish o'rniga hukmronlik harakati ekanligini ko'rsatadi (Abbey & McAuslan, 2004). Jabrlanganlarga nisbatan oq tanli ayollar, birinchi kurs talabalari, kollej talabalar shaharchasida bo'lmagan talabalar, jabrlanganlar va jinsiy faolroq bo'lgan ayollar jinsiy tajovuzga ko'proq moyil bo'lishadi.[22]

"zo'rlash madaniyati "yondashuv kelib chiqadi ikkinchi to'lqin feminizm[23] va qanday qilib zo'rlash keng tarqalgan va normallashtirilgan haqidagi ijtimoiy munosabat tufayli jins va jinsiylik.[24]

Zo'rlashni tushuntirishning uchinchi yondashuvi zo'rlash va jinsiy tajovuz sodir bo'lgan sharoitlarni aniqlaydi.[25] Ushbu yondashuv shuni ko'rsatadiki, zo'rlash madaniyati jinsiy tajovuzni keltirib chiqaradigan omil bo'lsa-da, bu uning xususiyatlarini zaifligini oshirishi mumkin. Masalan, amaliyot, qoidalar, tarqatish yoki manbalar va universitet yoki kollej mafkuralari jinsga oid nosog'lom e'tiqodlarni targ'ib qilishi va o'z navbatida talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuzga hissa qo'shishi mumkin.[21] Birodarliklar, jinsiy tajovuz xavfini oshiradigan, ichkilikbozlik va tasodifiy jinsiy aloqalar rag'batlantiriladigan partiyalarni tashkil qilishlari bilan mashhur.[26]

Xususiyatlari

Jinoyatchining demografiyasi

Tadqiqot tomonidan Devid Lisak kampus zo'rlashlarining 90 foizini zo'rlik bilan zo'rlaganlar tashkil etishini aniqladilar[27] har biri o'rtacha oltita zo'rlash bilan.[28][29] 2015 yilda Jorjiya shtati universitetida Kevin Svartout boshchiligidagi erkak talabalar o'rtasida o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, besh jinoyatchidan to'rttasi ketma-ket yirtqichlar profiliga to'g'ri kelmaydi.[30]

1998 yilda o'tkazilgan so'rovda ishtirok etgan 1084 kishidan Ozodlik universiteti, Erkaklarning 8,1% va ayollarning 1,8% istalmagan jinsiy tajovuzni sodir etganligini xabar qildi.[31] Kerol Bohmer va Andrea Parrotning so'zlariga ko'ra, "Talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuz" erkaklar, agar ular umuman erkaklarning yashash joyida yashashni tanlasalar, jinsiy tajovuz qilish ehtimoli ko'proq.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ham sportchi erkaklar, ham birodarlik jinsiy tajovuzning yuqori ko'rsatkichlariga ega. Talaba sportchilar talabalar shaharchasidagi jinsiy tajovuzlarning uchdan bir qismini sportchilarga nisbatan olti baravar yuqori darajada amalga oshiradilar.[32] NASPA tomonidan 2007 va 2009 yillarda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotda shuni ko'rsatmoqdaki " birodarlik a'zolari birodarlik qilmaydigan a'zolarga nisbatan zo'rlash ehtimoli ko'proq ".[33]

Antoniya Abbining yana bir maqolasida u jinsiy tajovuz qilish xavfini tug'diradigan erkak jinoyatchilarining o'ziga xos xususiyatlari borligini aniqladi. Uning ta'kidlashicha, jinoyatchilar har xil ", ammo ko'pchilik yuqori ball to'plab, boshqa odamlar uchun g'amxo'rlik etishmasligini ko'rsatmoqda narsisizm va past hamdardlik. Ko'pchilik umuman g'azabning yuqori darajalariga ega ayollarga nisbatan dushmanlik; ular ayollarning sabablaridan shubhalanishadi, odatdagidek ishonishadi zo'rlash haqidagi afsonalar, va jinsiy aloqada bo'lish huquqiga ega ".[34] Shuningdek, sport jamoalaridagi erkaklar o'yindan keyin hujum qilish ehtimoli ko'proq. Ikkala hodisa o'rtasidagi umumiylik spirtli ichimliklarni jalb qilishdir. Jinoyatchilar ushbu ikki holat bilan cheklanib qolmaydilar, ammo ularning maktabdagi mavqei bilan bog'liqlik ham bo'lishi mumkin.[35]

Jabrlanganlarning demografik ko'rsatkichlari

Amerikalik kollej o'quvchilarining tadqiqotlari shuni ko'rsatmoqda oq tanli ayollar, oldingi qurbonlar, birinchi kurs talabalari va ko'proq jinsiy faol ayollar jinsiy tajovuzga eng zaif hisoblanadi.[21] Kollejga kirishdan oldin jinsiy tajovuzga uchragan ayollar kollejda jinsiy tajovuzni boshdan kechirish xavfi yuqori.[36] Boshqa bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatadiki, oq tanli ayollarga qaraganda zo'rlash holati oq tanli ayollarga qaraganda ko'proq uchraydi mast, ammo zo'rlashning boshqa shakllarini boshdan kechirish ehtimoli kamroq. Ma'lum bo'lishicha, "oq tanli kollej ayollari hayotida partiyani zo'rlashning roli yaqinda o'tkazilgan" oq tanli ayollar [oq tanli bo'lmagan ayollarga qaraganda) mast bo'lish paytida zo'rlash holatini boshdan kechirganligi va tajribaga ega emasligi boshqa zo'rlash. ''[21] Bu mastlik holatida zo'rlashning yuqori darajasi, oq tanli ayollarga nisbatan jinsiy tajovuzning umumiy darajasi yuqoriroqligini bildirgan oq tanli ayollarni hisobga oladi, ammo irqiy farqlar va kollej partiya tashkiloti bo'yicha qo'shimcha tadqiqotlar o'tkazish zarur.[21] Irqidan qat'i nazar, qurbonlarning aksariyati tajovuzkorni bilishadi. Amerikadagi qora tanli ayollar begona kishi tomonidan sodir etilgan jinsiy tajovuz haqida ko'proq xabar berishadi.[37] Zo'rlash qurbonlari asosan 10 yoshdan 29 yoshgacha, jinoyatchilar odatda 15 yoshdan 29 yoshgacha.[38] Talabalar shaharchasida sodir bo'lgan zo'rlashlarning deyarli 60 foizi qurbonlar yotoqxonasida yoki kvartirada sodir bo'ladi.[39] Vaqtning katta qismi ushbu zo'rlashlar talabalar shaharchasiga qaraganda kampus tashqarisida sodir bo'ladi.[39] Ammo bu sohada ko'proq tadqiqotlar o'tkazish kerak.

2007 yilgi Milliy Adliya Instituti tadqiqotlari shuni ko'rsatdiki, jinoyatchilar nuqtai nazaridan jismoniy zo'rlik yoki mehnatga layoqatsiz jinsiy tajovuzdan omon qolganlarning 80 foizga yaqini ular bilgan odam tomonidan tajovuz qilingan.[40]

2015 yil AAU Kampus iqlimini o'rganish bo'yicha hisobotda aniqlandi transgender va jinsga mos kelmaydigan talabalar tengdoshlariga qaraganda jismoniy kuch yoki muomalaga layoqatsizlik bilan jinsiy tajovuzni boshdan kechirishgan. Deb aniqlagan 1398 talabadan TGQN, 24.1% magistrantlar va 15.5% aspirantlar / professional talabalar ro'yxatdan o'tganidan beri jismoniy kuch ishlatgan holda jinsiy tajovuzni boshdan kechirganligini xabar qilishdi. Taqqoslash uchun, magistrant ayollarning 23,1% va aspirantlarning 8,8% bir xil jinsiy tajovuz haqida xabar berishdi, shu bilan birga 5,4% erkak magistrantlar va 2,2% erkak bitiruvchilar / professional talabalar. Umuman olganda, jinsiy tajovuz yoki huquqbuzarlik transgender va jinsga mos kelmaydigan talabalar orasida 19%, ayol talabalar orasida 17% va erkak talabalarning 4,4% darajasida sodir bo'lgan.[41][42]

Ko'pgina qurbonlar o'zlarini tajovuz uchun to'liq yoki qisman ayblashadi, chunki ular uyalishadi va uyalishadi yoki ishonmasliklaridan qo'rqishadi. Ushbu elementlar olib kelishi mumkin kam xabar berish jinoyat. Tadqiqotlarga ko'ra, "erkaklar jinsiy aloqasi, xususan erkaklarning gomoseksualligi haqidagi afsonalar, stereotiplar va asossiz e'tiqodlar" erkaklar orasida kam ma'lumot berishga yordam beradi. Bundan tashqari, "erkaklar jinsiy tajovuz qurbonlari ayollarga nisbatan kamroq zo'ravonlik va katta stigma mavjud."[43] Ispaniyalik va osiyolik talabalar madaniy qadriyatlarning oshkor bo'lishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik sababli jabrlanuvchi yoki jinoyatchini bilish darajasi pastroq bo'lishi mumkin.[44]

Neumann tadqiqotlari shuni ko'rsatdiki, birodarlik a'zolari boshqa kollej o'quvchilariga qaraganda zo'rlash bilan shug'ullanishadi; adabiyotlarni o'rganib chiqib, buning ko'plab sabablarini, shu jumladan tengdoshlarni qabul qilish, spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilish, qabul qilishni tasvirlab berdi zo'rlash haqidagi afsonalar va ayollarga jinsiy aloqada bo'lgan narsalar, shuningdek juda erkaklarcha muhit sifatida qarash.[45] Kollejdagi talabalar shaharchasida to'dalarni zo'rlash muammosi bo'lsa-da, tanishlar va partiyani zo'rlash (mast bo'lganlar nishonga olinadigan tanishlar zo'rlash shakli) ko'proq sodir bo'ladi.[46]

Jinsiy orientatsiya va jinsning o'ziga xosligi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: LGBT shaxslarga jinsiy tajovuz

Jinsiy ozchilik erkaklarning 10%, jinsiy ozchilik ayollarning 18% va 19% ikkilik bo'lmagan yoki o'tish talabalari, heteroseksual ko'pchilikdan farqli o'laroq kollejni boshlaganidan beri istalmagan jinsiy aloqa haqida xabar berishdi.[47]

LGBTQ kolleji yoshidagi talabalar orasida ichki gomofobiya va istalmagan jinsiy tajribalar o'rtasida to'g'ridan-to'g'ri bog'liqlik aniqlandi, bu LGBTQni kollej yoshidagi talaba sifatida aniqlashning o'ziga xos stresslari odamlarni jinsiy zo'ravonlik xavfi ko'proq bo'lishiga olib keladi.[48] LGBTQ talabalari jinsiy tajovuzda duch keladigan to'siqlarni nafaqat ichki homofobiya, balki institutsionalizatsiya bilan ham bog'lash mumkin. heteroseksizm va siseksizm kollej shaharchalari ichida.[49]

Axborotni oshkor qilish stavkalari

Umuman olganda LGBTQ talabalarining keng toifasida, jinsiy zo'ravonlikning jinsi va irqiy tendentsiyalari, heteroseksual kollej o'quvchilari orasida jinsiy zo'ravonlik aks etadi, jinsiy zo'ravonlik ayollar va qora tanli / afroamerikalik yoshlar orasida yuqori darajada sodir bo'ladi. LGBTQ shifokor yoki maslahatchi kabi rasmiy manbani oshkor qilganda, ular LGBTQ talabalarining o'ziga xos zaifliklari va stresslari bilan shug'ullanish uchun ko'pincha yomon jihozlangan bo'lib, LGBTQ talabalarining kelajakda oshkor bo'lish ehtimoli kam bo'lishiga olib keladi.[50]

Jinsiy zo'ravonlik va ruhiy salomatlik

LGBTQ talabalari o'rtasida jinsiy tajovuz hodisalari turli xil vaziyat omillari ta'sirida bo'lishi mumkin. LGBTQ yoshlar hamjamiyatining ko'plab a'zolari jiddiy depressiya va o'z joniga qasd qilish fikrlaridan aziyat chekmoqda. LGBTQ populyatsiyasida o'z joniga qasd qilishga urinish tarqalishi yoshlar uchun 23% dan 42% gacha.[51] Ko'pgina LGBTQ yoshlari depressiyani engish uchun spirtli ichimliklardan foydalanadilar. Bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, intervyu berganlarning ("kim" bo'lganlar) 28% i alkogol yoki giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilishdan davolangan.[51] Bundan tashqari, LGBTQ kolleji talabalari orasida giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilish va suiiste'mol qilish darajasi heteroseksuallarga qaraganda ancha yuqori, LGBTQ ayollari heteroseksual ayollarga qaraganda 10,7 marta ko'proq ichishadi.[52] Afsuski, ko'plab yirtqichlar zaif ko'rinadigan odamlarni nishonga olishmoqda va shuni aniqladiki, jinsiy zo'ravonlik qurbonlarining yarmidan ko'pi ular suiiste'mol qilinganida ichganliklari haqida xabar berishgan.[53]

Xavf omillari

Tadqiqotchilar kollej talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuzning kuchayishiga sabab bo'lgan turli xil omillarni aniqladilar. Shaxsiy omillar (masalan, spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilish, shahvoniy shahvoniy xatti-harakatlar va ayollarga nisbatan dushmanlik munosabatlari), atrof-muhit va madaniy omillar (masalan, tengdoshlar guruhining jinsiy tajovuzni qo'llab-quvvatlashi, gender rolining stressi va jinslarning noto'g'ri nisbati), shuningdek, talabalar shaharchasi politsiyasi va mumkin bo'lgan sabablar sifatida ma'murlarga taklif qilingan. Bundan tashqari, jabrlanuvchini ayblash bilan bog'liq umumiy madaniy tushunchalar o'ynaydi, chunki hujumlarning aksariyati uyat yoki qo'rquv tufayli hech qachon xabar qilinmaydi.[21]

Semestr va sinf darajasi

Bir qator tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, kollejning birinchi yili yoki ikkinchi yilida talabalar uchun jinsiy tajovuz xavfi yuqori va avgust va noyabr oylari orasida ko'plab talabalar talabalar shaharchasiga birinchi bo'lib kelganlarida jinsiy tajovuzlar tez-tez sodir bo'ladi. Ushbu vaqt oralig'i jinsiy tajovuzni o'rganuvchilar va jinsiy tajovuzning oldini olish materiallarida "qizil zona" deb nomlanadi.[54]

"Qizil zona" ning mavjudligi dastlab asosan latifaviy dalillarga asoslangan bo'lsa-da, so'nggi paytlarda o'tkazilgan bir qator tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, jinsiy tajovuz birinchi va birinchi kurs talabalari orasida eng yuqori, ikkinchi va ikkinchi darajali ayollar orasida uchinchi va to'rtinchi yillarda bo'lgan ayollarga nisbatan yuqori. kollej.[55] 2008 yilda Kimble va boshq. shuningdek, jinsiy tajovuzlar kuzgi semestrda tez-tez sodir bo'lgan degan da'voni qo'llab-quvvatladi, ammo mualliflar semestrlar vaqti, talabalar turar joyi tizimi yoki katta birodarlik voqealari vaqti kabi "mahalliy omillar" vaqtinchalik xavfga ta'sir qilishi mumkinligi haqida ogohlantirdi. jinsiy tajovuz.[56]

Tadqiqotchilar "qizil zona" ning paydo bo'lishining bir necha sabablarini keltirib chiqardilar: birinchi va ikkinchi kurs talabalari partiyalarga tashrif buyurishadi va spirtli ichimliklarni ko'pincha yoshlar va qariyalarga nisbatan tez-tez ishlatadilar, bu ikkalasi ham jinsiy tajovuz xavfining ortishi bilan bog'liq.[57] Birinchi kurs talabalari birinchi semestrda jinsiy tajovuzga ko'proq moyil bo'lishlari mumkin, chunki ularga tajovuz qilish xavfi tug'ilsa, aralashishi mumkin bo'lgan yaqin do'stlari yo'q yoki ular yoshi kattaroq talabalar istalmagan jinsiy e'tibordan qochish uchun foydalanadigan norasmiy strategiyalardan xabardor emaslar.[55] Bir qator olimlar shuni ta'kidladilarki, avgust va noyabr oylari o'rtasidagi davr odatda birodarlik "shoshqaloqlik" haftasiga to'g'ri keladi, talabalar birodarlik partiyalariga ko'proq tashrif buyurishadi, bu esa jinsiy tajovuz xavfi yuqori bo'lishi mumkin.[58]

Spirtli ichimliklar ta'siri

Jinsiy tajovuz qurbonlari ham, ijrochilari ham tajovuz sodir bo'lganda spirtli ichimlik iste'mol qilganliklarini tez-tez xabar berishadi. Masalan, 2007 yilgi Kampusdagi jinsiy tajovuzni o'rganish shuni ko'rsatdiki, jinsiy tajovuzlarning aksariyati ayollar o'z ixtiyori bilan spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilgandan keyin sodir bo'lgan.[2] 1998 yilgi tadqiqotda, jinsiy tajovuz qilganini tan olgan erkaklarning 47% ham hujum paytida spirtli ichimlik ichganliklarini bildirishgan.[59]

Ijtimoiy aloqalar paytida spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilish sherikning jinsiy motivlarini xolisona baholashga undaydi, jinsiy niyatlar haqidagi aloqani buzadi va jinsiy niyatni noto'g'ri qabul qilishni kuchaytiradi. Ushbu ta'sir ichimlik paytida qanday harakat qilish kerakligi haqida tengdoshlarning ta'siri tufayli kuchayadi.[60]Spirtli ichimliklarning ta'siri majburiy jinsiy aloqa noto'g'ri tushunchalarni to'g'irlash qobiliyatini susaytirishi mumkin, jinsiy yutuqlarga qarshi turish qobiliyatini pasaytiradi va tajovuzkor xatti-harakatlarni oqlaydi.[60] Spirtli ichimliklar odatda noo'rin deb hisoblangan xatti-harakatlar uchun asos beradi. Hujumlarning ko'payishi kollej Talabalar shaharchalarini talabalarni spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilishda ishtirok etadigan ijtimoiy kutish bilan bog'lash mumkin. Tengdosh normalar Amerikaning kollej shaharchalarida ko'p ichish, cheklanmagan tartibda harakat qilish va tasodifiy jinsiy aloqada bo'lish.[61] Biroq, kollejda o'qiyotgan ayollarning hisobotlari bo'yicha olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ularning giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilish majburiy jinsiy tajovuz uchun xavf tug'dirmaydi, balki jabrlanuvchi qobiliyatsiz bo'lsa, jinsiy tajovuz uchun xavf omilidir.[36]

Turli tadqiqotlar quyidagi natijalarga erishdi:

  • Kollej o'quvchilarining kamida 47% jinsiy tajovuz spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilish bilan bog'liq[17]
  • Sheriklari spirtli ichimliklarni suiiste'mol qilgan ayollarning sheriklari tomonidan boshqa ayollarga nisbatan hujumi 3,6 baravar ko'p[62]
  • 2013 yilda AQShda 18 yoshdan 24 yoshgacha bo'lgan 14700 dan ortiq talabalar spirtli ichimliklar bilan bog'liq jinsiy tajovuz qurboni bo'ldi.[17]
  • Ichkilikbozlik omil bo'lgan politsiya tomonidan qayd etilgan zo'ravonlik hodisalarida jinoyatchilarning taxminan 9% va qurbonlarning qariyb 14% 21 yoshga to'lmagan.[63]

Ba'zilar mast holda rozilik berish uchun jinsga xos va o'zgaruvchan standartlarni ta'kidladilar. Dyuk universitetiga qarshi yaqinda o'tkazilgan sud ishlarida Dyuk ma'muri, ikkala ishtirokchi ham mast bo'lganida og'zaki rozilik o'zaro bo'lishi kerakmi, degan savolga shunday dedi: "Bu erkak va ayol deb faraz qilinsa, erkak uchun rozilikni olish mas'uliyatdir. jinsiy aloqada bo'lishdan oldin. "[64][65][66] Boshqa muassasalarda faqat zo'rlash qurbonining roziligini imkonsiz qilish uchun alkogol yoki giyohvand moddalar bilan "muomalaga layoqatsiz" emas, balki "mast bo'lishi" kerakligi aytiladi.[67][68][69][70]

Bitta ishda[34] Antoniya Abbi o'z maqolasida 160 kishilik talabalar guruhi zo'rlash haqidagi audioyozuvni tinglayotganini tasvirlaydi. Boshida ayol o'pish va teginishga rozi bo'ladi, lekin bir marta erkak kiyimlarini echib olishga harakat qilsa va u rad etsa, erkak og'zaki va jismoniy jihatdan tajovuzkor bo'lib qoladi. Erkaklardan odamning xatti-harakatlari noo'rin ekanligini sezgan holda lentani to'xtatish talab qilindi. "Spirtli ichimliklar iste'mol qilgan ishtirokchilar erkakka uzoq vaqt davom etishiga imkon berishdi va ayollarning jinsiy qo'zg'alishini hushyor ishtirokchilarga qaraganda yuqori deb baholadilar. Topilmalar shuni ko'rsatadiki, mast erkaklar o'zlarining jinsiy qo'zg'alishlarini ayollarga ko'rsatib berishadi, yo'qolgan yoki uning faol noroziligini e'tiborsiz qoldirgan. ".[34]

2006 yilda Elizabeth Armstrong, Laura Xemilton va Brayan Suini tomonidan o'tkazilgan tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatadiki, aynan birodarlik partiyalarining madaniyati va jinsi tabiati jinsiy tajovuz ehtimoli yuqori bo'lgan muhitni yaratadi. Ularning ta'kidlashicha, "ziyofat qatnashchilari ichkilikbozlik va partiyadoshlariga ishonish kabi madaniyatni kutish ayollarning erkaklar bilan muomalada bo'lishlari va umidvor bo'lishlari bilan birlashganda muammoli bo'lib qoladi. Tomonlarning rolini bajarish ayollarning zaif tomonlarini keltirib chiqardi. roziliksiz jinsiy aloqa ".[21]

Spirtli ichimliklar ko'plab zo'rlashlar va boshqa jinsiy tajovuzlarning omilidir. Armstrong, Xemilton va Suinining tadqiqotlari shuni ko'rsatadiki, bu zo'rlash haqida kam xabar berishning sabablaridan biri bo'lishi mumkin, chunki ichkilikbozlik qurbonlari ularni e'tiborsiz qoldirish yoki ishonmasliklaridan qo'rqishadi.[21]

Aloqalar

Green River kolleji (kampus) jinsiy tajovuz atrofidagi munosabat, afsona va faktlarni muhokama qilish

Shaxsiy va tengdoshlar guruhining munosabati, shuningdek, Qo'shma Shtatlardagi kollej yoshidagi erkaklar o'rtasida jinsiy tajovuzni amalga oshirish uchun muhim xavf omili sifatida aniqlandi. Gipotetik stsenariyda zo'rlash uchun o'zini o'zi e'lon qilgan prolivit, shuningdek jinsiy tajovuzning o'z-o'zini xabar qilingan tarixi, erkaklarda zo'rlashga chidamli yoki zo'rlashni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi munosabatlarni tasdiqlash bilan ijobiy bog'liqdir.[71][72] Zo'rlash haqidagi afsonalarni qabul qilish - zo'rlash to'g'risidagi beparvo va stereotip e'tiqodlar va "faqat buzg'unchilikka uchragan ayollar zo'rlanadi" yoki "ayollar buni so'raydilar" degan ishonch kabi zo'rlash bilan bog'liq vaziyatlar - o'z-o'zidan o'tmishdagi jinsiy tajovuz va o'z-o'zidan ma'lum qilingan tayyorlik bilan bog'liq. kelajakda erkaklar o'rtasida zo'rlash.[73]

2007 yildagi bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, avvalgi jinsiy tajovuz haqida xabar bergan kollej yoshidagi erkaklar ayollarga nisbatan salbiy munosabat va jins rollari, jinsiy aloqa qilish uchun alkogoldan foydalanishni ko'proq qabul qilishgan, ba'zi hollarda zo'rlash haqli deb o'ylashlari ehtimoli ko'proq. ularning qurbonligi uchun ayollarni ayblashadi va jinsiy zabt etishni muhim maqom belgisi sifatida ko'rishlari mumkin edi.[74][75]

Sotsiologning fikriga ko'ra Maykl Kimmel, zo'rlashga moyil bo'lgan kampus muhiti Shimoliy Amerikadagi bir nechta universitet va kollej talabalar shaharchalarida mavjud. Kimmel ushbu muhitni "... zo'rlash holatlari kuzatuvchilar tomonidan yuqori bo'lganligi yoki zo'rlash erkaklikning tantanali ifodasi sifatida uzilganligi yoki zo'rlash erkaklarga ayollarni jazolashiga yoki ularga tahdid solishi mumkin bo'lgan xatti-harakat sifatida ko'rilganligi" deb ta'riflaydi.[76]

Profilaktika ishlari

Qo'shma Shtatlarda, IX sarlavha federal mablag 'oladigan har qanday maktab yoki universitetda jinsga asoslangan kamsitishni taqiqlaydi.[77] 1980-yillardan boshlab, tartibga soluvchi organlar va sudlar gender kamsitishlarining oldini olish maktablardan o'quvchilarni jinsiy zo'ravonlik yoki dushmanlik muhitidan himoya qilish siyosatini amalga oshirishni talab qiladi, deb hisoblaydilar, chunki bu ayollarning ta'lim olish imkoniyatini cheklashi mumkin. IX unvonga muvofiq, maktablar jinsiy zo'ravonlik va tazyiqning oldini olishga harakat qilishlari, shikoyatlarni tekshirish va jabrlanganlarni himoya qilish bo'yicha siyosat yuritishi shart.[78] Maktablar jinsiy tajovuzdan jabrlanganlarni o'zlarining hujumlari to'g'risida politsiyaga xabar berish huquqiga ega ekanliklari to'g'risida xabardor qilishlari shart bo'lsa-da, bu xabar berish ixtiyoriydir. Maktablar da'volarni tekshirishi va intizomiy protseduralarni mustaqil ravishda amalga oshirishi shart, jinsiy tajovuz haqida politsiya xabar bergani yoki tekshirganligidan qat'iy nazar.[5] Kollejdagi talabalar zobitlarining taxminan 83% erkaklardir, ammo tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ko'proq huquqni muhofaza qilish organlari xodimlari jinsiy tajovuz haqida hisobotlarni ko'paytirmoqda.[79]

Zo'rlash va jinsiy tajovuz kengroq muammo bo'lgan eng yaxshi ma'lum bo'lgan artikulyatsiya 1975 yilda nashr etilgan kitob edi Bizning irodamizga qarshi. Kitob noma'lum odamlar tomonidan zo'rlash haqidagi tushunchani kengaytirdi, ko'pincha do'stlari va tanishlari o'z ichiga oladi va xabardorlikni oshiradi. 1980-yillarning o'zida talabalar shaharchasida zo'rlash kam xabar qilingan jinoyat sifatida qabul qilingan. Spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilish, talabalarning jinoyat to'g'risida xabar berishni istamasliklari va universitetlar bu masalani hal qilmaslik sabablarini o'z ichiga olgan.[80]

Universitetlarning hisobotlarni boshqarish uslubidagi tub o'zgarish 1986 yildan boshlandi Jinna Klerini zo'rlash va o'ldirish uning yotoqxonasidagi yotoqxonada. Uning ota-onasi talabalar shaharchasida xavfsizlik va hisobot to'g'risidagi qonun hujjatlari uchun asos bo'lib xizmat qildi Jeanne Clery talabalar shaharchasida xavfsizlik siyosati va talabalar shaharchasida jinoyatchilik to'g'risidagi statistik qonunni oshkor qilish. Clery Act AQShning federal talabalarga yordam dasturlarida qatnashadigan barcha maktablardan jinsiy tajovuzga qarshi kurash siyosatini amalga oshirishni talab qiladi.[81][82]

Milliy Adliya Instituti tomonidan 2000 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, AQSh maktablarining atigi uchdan bir qismi jinsiy zo'ravonlik holatlarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazish va xabar berish bo'yicha federal qoidalarga to'liq mos keladi va faqat yarmi jinsiy tajovuz qurbonligi to'g'risida anonim ravishda xabar berish imkoniyatini taqdim etadi.[83] Yaqinda o'tkazilgan bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, universitetlar, shuningdek, tekshiruv ostida bo'lgan holatlar bundan mustasno, "Klereylar to'g'risida" gi qonunning bir qismi sifatida hujumlar to'g'risida juda kam ma'lumot berishadi. Tekshiruv o'tkazilayotganda, muassasalar tomonidan hisobot darajasi 44% ga ko'tariladi, faqat keyinchalik dastlabki darajaga tushadi.[84]

Qo'shma Shtatlardagi ko'plab kollejlar jinsiy zo'ravonlik bilan bog'liq ishlarni ko'rib chiqishlari uchun federal tekshiruvdan o'tdilar, fuqarolik huquqlari guruhlari tomonidan kamsituvchi va noo'rin deb ta'riflandi.[85][86]

Yaqinda talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy tajovuzlar to'g'risida majburiy xabar berish taklif qilingan qonun loyihalariga kiritilgan. 2015 yil mart oyida Jinsiy Zo'ravonlikni Tugatish Milliy Alyansi (NAESV) bilan birgalikda so'rov o'tkazdi O'zingizning IXingizni biling tirik qolgan shaxsning jinsiy zo'ravonlik haqida universitet yoki kollejga xabar berish paytida qonuniy choralar ko'rilishini ta'minlaydigan qonunchilikka nisbatan politsiya idoralariga hujum to'g'risida xabar berishni tanlash huquqi to'g'risida. "Politsiyaga xabar berish majburiymi yoki yo'qmi, degan savolga ularning 79 foizi" bu xabar berish uchun sovuq ta'sir qilishi mumkin ", deb javob bergan bo'lsa, 72 foizi" tirik qolganlar jinoiy adliya tizimida ishtirok etishga majbur bo'lishlari yoki sudga borishlari "dan xavotirda. .[87]

Ijobiy rozilik siyosati

Asosiy maqola: Jinsiy rozilik § "Ha" degan ma'noni anglatadi
Minnesota shtati jinsiy rozilik siyosatini o'zgartirishni hisobga olgan holda (2018)

Nyu-York, Konnektikut va Kaliforniya singari ba'zi shtatlar politsiya talabalarining xulq-atvoriga qarshi kurashish maqsadida ko'plab maktablarda "ijobiy rozilik" talab qilinadi ("ha" degan ma'noni anglatadi). Qoidalar talabalardan har qanday jinsiy aloqa paytida doimiy va faol rozilik olishni talab qiladi. Siyosat "sukunat yoki qarshilikning etishmasligi o'z-o'zidan roziligini ko'rsatmaydi" degan ma'noni anglatadi, chunki "yo'q" degan ma'noni rad etishdan "ha" degan ma'noni anglatadi "degan so'zga o'tib, jinsiy aloqa konsensusli bo'lishi kerak. Maktablar giyohvandlik yoki alkogol mastligini talabaga ushbu siyosat bo'yicha "mast" talaba rozilik berolmasligi uchun rozilik bergan-bermasligini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin. Ushbu qoidalar talabalar uchun qiyin, chunki og'zaki bo'lmagan ko'rsatmalarni talqin qilish qiyin va qoidalar chalkash.[88] Bundan tashqari, tadqiqotchilar ijobiy rozilikning huquqiy ta'riflari talabalar tushunchasi va amaliyotiga mos kelmasligini aniqladilar.[89] Shuningdek, yuridik hamjamiyat tomonidan orqaga qaytarish ham bo'lgan. 2016 yil may oyida Amerika yuridik instituti ijobiy rozilikni tasdiqlash to'g'risidagi taklifni aksariyat hollarda rad etdi, bu esa aks holda uni jinoyat kodeksiga kiritishni talab qiladi. 120 a'zoning qo'mitaga yozgan xatida "Ayblanuvchini deyarli imkonsizligini isbotlashga majbur qilish - har bir bosqichda jinsiy aloqa vokal ravishda kelishilganligi - tasdiqlangan rozilik standartlari ayblanuvchiga tegishli protsess huquqlarini rad etadi" deb yozilgan.[90] Tennesi shtati sudi, shuningdek, ijobiy rozilik siyosati asosida chetlatilgan talaba o'zining aybsizligini isbotlashi, yuridik amaliyotga va tegishli huquqlarga zid ravishda talab qilinganligini aniqladi.

Kaliforniyadagi "Ha" degani "Ha" degan siyosatga ko'ra, Kaliforniya oliy o'quv yurtlari shtat ichidagi kollejlar shaharchalarida jinsiy zo'ravonlik kabi kuchga asoslangan zo'ravonliklarga qarshi kurashish uchun maxsus protokol va siyosatlarni qabul qilishlari shart. Davlat qonun loyihasi, xuddi shu darajadagi boshqalar singari, "ijobiy rozilik" deb nomlangan rozilik standartini o'rnatdi. Ushbu rozilik standarti jinsiy aloqada bo'lgan har bir kishiga rozilik olish va uni saqlash majburiyatini yukladi. Bunday masalalar uchun davlat tomonidan mablag 'olish uchun Kaliforniyadagi talabalar shaharchasi talabalar jamoasiga resurslar va yordam berish va kerak bo'lganda bunday xizmatlarni taqdim etish maqsadida talabalar shaharchasida va tashqarisidagi tashkilotlar bilan hamkorlik qilish uchun javobgardir. Shuningdek, ular dasturlash, tushuntirish ishlari va ta'lim orqali talabalar shaharchasi jamoatchiligiga profilaktika va targ'ibot xizmatlarini namoyish etishlari kerak. Bunga, shuningdek, kelgan o'quvchilarga yo'naltirilganligi uchun atrofdagi aralashuv kabi xabardorlik dasturlari kiradi.[91]

Talaba va tashkiliy faollik

Talabalar va boshqa faollar guruhlari ayollarni himoya qilish bo'yicha muassasalar tomonidan qilingan yomon javoblarni hisobga olgan holda, talabalar shaharchasida tahdidlar va ayollarning tajribalariga zarar etkazish to'g'risida xabardorlikni oshirishga kirishdilar. Birinchi "Tunni qaytarib oling "yurish 1978 yilda San-Frantsiskoda bo'lib o'tdi va keyinchalik ko'plab kollej shaharchalariga tarqaldi.[92] SlutWalk jinsiy zo'ravonlikka qarshi so'nggi harakatdir.[93]

Ba'zi bir shaxslar taniqli faollarga aylanishdi. Emma Sulkovich, keyin talaba Kolumbiya universiteti, ijrochilik san'atini yaratdi To'shakning ishlashi (og'irlikni ko'taring). Lena Sklove, talaba Braun universiteti, xabarlarga ko'ra, unga jinsiy tajovuz qilgan hamkasbi, bir yillik diskvalifikatsiyadan so'ng etarli darajada jazolanmagan.[94] Uning ishida ayblanayotgan shaxs ushbu hisobotni ommaviy ravishda muhokama qildi va jinoiy sud tizimi tomonidan aybsiz deb topildi. U universitet qoshida javobgar deb topildi dalillarning ustunligi standart. Bunday holatlar tortishuvlarga va ular bilan bog'liq xavotirlarga sabab bo'ldi aybsizlik prezumptsiyasi va tegishli jarayon, shuningdek, universitetlar ayblovchining huquqlari va ayblanuvchining jinsiy tajovuzga oid shikoyatlarni ko'rib chiqishda huquqlarini muvozanatlashda duch keladigan qiyinchiliklarni ta'kidladilar.[95][96][97] 2014 yilda 100 ga yaqin kollej va universitetlar o'zlarining asosiy kampuslarida zo'rlash haqida juda ko'p sonli xabarlarga ega edilar, Braun universiteti va Konnektikut universiteti yillik eng yuqori ko'rsatkichga - 43 ta.[98] Sulkovich va Sklove ishi erkaklarning universitetlarga (IX unvon yoki fuqarolik) masalalarni qanday hal qilishlariga nisbatan tarafkashliklaridan shikoyat qilishlariga olib keldi.[94][99]

Chanel Miller, Santa-Barbara shahridagi talaba, Stenforddagi birodarlik partiyasida qatnashgandan so'ng, Stenford talabasi Brok Tyorner tomonidan jinsiy tajovuzga uchragan. Tyorner besh marta jinsiy zo'ravonlikda ayblanib, faqat olti oylik qamoq jazosiga hukm qilindi. Sud jarayoni davomida Miller "Emili Dou" taxallusi bilan noma'lum bo'lib qoldi, ammo butun mamlakat bo'ylab suhbatni boshlab, jabrlanuvchiga ta'sir ko'rsatishi bilan jamoatchilikni qo'zg'atdi. Keyinchalik u o'zini tanitdi va nomli xotira kitobini nashr etdi Mening ismimni biling kollej talabalar shaharchasida zo'rlash bilan bog'liq faolligini boshladi.

Tashqi guruhlardan biri, UltraViolet, zo'rlash haqidagi xabarlar bilan shug'ullanishda universitetlarni ko'proq tajovuzkor bo'lishiga bosim o'tkazish uchun onlayn qidiruv vositalarini, shu jumladan qidiruv tizimining reklamalarini qo'llagan. Ularning ijtimoiy media kampaniyasida ba'zida "Qaysi kollejda eng yomon zo'rlash muammosi bor?" va maqsadli maktab nomi uchun onlayn qidiruv natijalarida paydo bo'ladigan boshqa provokatsion sarlavhalar.[100]

Talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy zo'ravonlikni to'xtatish bo'yicha Kanadalik talabalar tomonidan tashabbus qilingan "Bizning navbat" 2017 yilda boshlangan. Karleton universiteti talabalar, shu jumladan Jade Cooligan Pang va tez orada 20 ga tarqaldi talabalar kasaba uyushmalari Kanadaning sakkizta viloyatida. 2017 yil oktyabr oyida bizning navbatimiz baholash bo'yicha so'rovnomani e'lon qildi jinsiy tajovuz 14 ta Kanada universitetlarining siyosati va talabalar ittifoqlari tomonidan jinsiy tajovuzdan omon qolganlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash bo'yicha harakatlar rejasi.[101][102] Harakat rejasi, talabalar shaharchasida, viloyat va respublika miqyosida jinsiy zo'ravonlikni oldini olish, qo'llab-quvvatlash va targ'ibot ishlarini olib borish uchun bizning navbatimizdagi qo'mitalarni tashkil etishni o'z ichiga oladi.[103]

Obama ma'muriyatining sa'y-harakatlari

2011 yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Ta'lim vazirligi AQShning barcha kollejlari va universitetlari prezidentlariga "Hurmatli hamkasbim" deb nomlangan maktub yuborib, buni takrorladi. IX sarlavha maktablardan talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy zo'ravonlik holatlarini tekshirishni va sud qarorini chiqarishni talab qiladi.[5] The letter also states that schools must adjudicate these cases using a "preponderance of the evidence" standard, meaning that the accused will be responsible if it is determined that there is at least a 50.1% chance that the assault occurred. The letter expressly forbade the use of the stricter "clear and convincing evidence" standard used at some schools previously.In 2014, a survey of college and university assault policies conducted at the request of the U.S. Senate found that more than 40% of schools studied had not conducted a single rape or sexual assault investigation in the past five years, and more than 20% had failed to conduct investigations into assaults they had reported to the Department of Education.[104] The "Dear Colleague" letter is credited by victim's advocates with de-stigmatizing sexual assault and encouraging victims to report. However it also created a climate where the accused rights are considered secondary. Brett Sokolow, executive director of the Association of Title IX Administrators va prezidenti National Center for Higher Education Risk Management stated, "I think probably a lot of colleges translated the 'Dear Colleague' letter as 'favor the victim.'"[105]

2014 yilda Prezident Barak Obama tashkil etdi Talabalarni jinsiy tajovuzdan himoya qilish uchun Oq uyning tezkor guruhi, which published a report reiterating the interpretation of Title IX in the "Dear Colleague" letter and proposing a number of other measures to prevent and respond to sexual assault on campus, such as campus climate surveys and bystander intervention programs.[106][107] One example of a campus climate survey that was developed in response to this task force is the ARC3 tadqiqotlari. Shortly thereafter, the Department of Education released a list of 55 colleges and universities across the country that it was investigating for possible Title IX violations in relation to sexual assault.[108] As of early 2015, 94 different colleges and universities were under ongoing investigations by the U.S. Department of Education for their handling of rape and sexual assault allegations.[109]

In September 2014, President Obama and Vice President Jo Bayden launched the "It's on Us" campaign as part of an initiative to end sexual assault on college campuses. The campaign partnered with many organizations and college campuses to get students to take a pledge to end sexual assault on campuses.[110][111]

Tanqid

The Department of Education's approach toward adjudicating sexual assault accusations has been criticized for failing to consider the possibility of false accusations, mistaken identity, or errors by investigators. Critics claim that the "preponderance of the evidence" standard required by Title IX is not an appropriate basis for determining guilt or innocence, and can lead to students being wrongfully expelled. Campus hearings have also been criticized for failing to provide many of the due process protections that the United States Constitution guarantees in criminal trials, such as the right to be represented by an attorney and the right to cross-examine witnesses.[112]

The Ta'limdagi individual huquqlar uchun fond (FIRE) has been critical of university definitions of consent that it considers overly broad. In 2011, FIRE criticized Stenford universiteti after it held a male student responsible for a sexual assault for an incident where both parties had been drinking. FIRE said that Stanford's definition of consent, quoted as follows "A person is legally incapable of giving consent if under age 18 years; if intoxicated by drugs and/or alcohol;", was so broad that sexual contact at any level of intoxication could be considered non-consensual.[113][114][115] Uchun yozish Atlantika jurnali Conor Friedersdorf noted that a Stanford male who alleges he was sexually assaulted in 2015 and was advised against reporting it by on-campus sexual assault services, could have been subjected to a counterclaim based on Stanford policy by his female attacker who was drunk at the time.[116] FIRE was also critical of a poster at Sohil Karolina universiteti, which stated that sex is only consensual if both parties are completely sober and if consent is not only present, but also enthusiastic. The FIRE argued that this standard converted ordinary lawful sexual encounters into sexual assault even while drinking is very common at most institutions.[117][118]

In May 2014, the National Center for Higher Education Risk Management, a law firm that advises colleges on liability issues, issued an open letter to all parties involved in the issue of rape on campus.[119] In it, NCHERM expressed praise for Obama's initiatives to end sexual assault on college campuses, and called attention to several areas of concern they hoped to help address. While acknowledging appreciation for the complexities involved in changing campus culture, the letter offered direct advice to each party involved in campus hearings, outlining the improvements NCHERM considers necessary to continue the progress achieved since the issuance of the "Dear Colleague" letter in 2011. In early 2014, the group YOQING (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network) wrote an open letter to the White House calling for campus hearings to be de-emphasized due to their lack of accountability for survivors and victims of sexual violence. According to RAINN, "The crime of rape does not fit the capabilities of such boards. They often offer the worst of both worlds: they lack protections for the accused while often tormenting victims."[120]

Many institutions today are facing Title IX investigations due to the alleged lack of response on their campus to sexual assault. New policies by colleges have spawned "a cottage industry" of experts to address sexual assault on their campuses. "The Federal Education Department urges colleges to make sure their discipline policies do not discourage students from coming forward to report sexual assaults."[121] Colleges need to be away of their policies in order to not victim blame their students and provide them with the adequate support that is need for the student. Many campuses are facing the same challenges on how to address the problem of sexual assault and are taking measures to do so, by hiring teams for addressing Title IX complaints.[122]

In October 2014, 28 members of the Garvard yuridik fakulteti Faculty co-signed a letter decrying the change in the way reports of sexual harassment are being processed.[6] The letter asserted that the new rules violate the due process rights of the responding parties. In February 2015, 16 members of the Pensilvaniya universiteti yuridik fakulteti Faculty co-signed a similar letter of their own.[123]

In response to concerns, in 2014 the White House Task Force provided new regulations requiring schools to permit the accused to bring advisers and be clearer about their processes and how they determine punishments. In addition to concerns about legal due process, which colleges currently do not have to abide, the push for stronger punishments and permanent disciplinary records on transcripts can prevent students found responsible from ever completing college or seeking graduate studies. Even for minor sexual misconduct offenses, the inconsistent and sometimes "murky" notes on transcripts can severely limit options. Mary Koss, a University of Arizona professor, co-authored a peer-reviewed paper in 2014 that argues for a "restorative justice" response – which could include counseling, close monitoring, and community service – would be better than the judicial model most campus hearing panels resemble.[124]

Some critics of these policies, such as libertarian critics of feminism Keti Yang, Kristina Xof Sommers va Laura Kipnis, have characterized the concerns about sexual assault on college campuses as a axloqiy vahima.[125][126][127]

Sud ishlari

Since the issuance of the "Dear Colleague" letter, a number of lawsuits have been filed against colleges and universities by male students alleging that their universities violated their rights over the course of adjudicating sexual assault accusations.[7] Xaver universiteti entered into a settlement in one such lawsuit in April 2014.[128]

Boshqa misollarga quyidagilar kiradi:

  • In October 2014, a male Occidental kolleji student filed a Title IX complaint against the school after he was expelled for an alleged sexual assault. The assault occurred after a night of heavy drinking in which both parties were reported to have been extremely impaired. The investigator hired by the school found that although the accuser had sent multiple text messages indicating an intent to have sex, found and entered the accused student's bedroom under her own power, and told witnesses she was fine when they checked on her during the sex acts, her estimated level of intoxication meant she was incapacitated and did not consent. A police investigation however found that "witnesses were interviewed and agreed that the victim and suspect were both drunk [and] that they were both willing participants exercising bad judgement."[129][130] The accused student attempted to file a sexual assault claim against his accuser, but the university declined to hear his complaint because he would not meet with an investigator without an attorney present.[131]
  • In March 2015, Federal regulators (OCR) opened an investigation on how Brandeis universiteti handles sexual assault cases, stemming from a lawsuit where a male student was found responsible for sexual misconduct. The accused was not permitted to see the report created by the special investigator that determined his responsibility until after a decision had been reached.[132][133]
  • In June 2015 an Amherst kolleji student who was expelled for forcing a woman to complete an oral sex act sued the college for failing to discover text messages from the accuser that suggested consent and undermined her credibility. The accuser said she described the encounter as consensual because she wasn't "yet ready to address what had happened". The suit alleges that the investigation was "grossly inadequate". When student later learned of the messages favorable to him, Amherst refused to reconsider the case.[134] In its response to the lawsuit, the school stated the process was fair and that the student had missed the 7-day window in which to file an appeal.[135]
  • In July 2015 a California court ruled that the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) acted improperly by using a deeply flawed system to adjudicate a sexual assault allegation and sanctioning the accused based on a process that violated his rights. The student was not given adequate opportunity to challenge the accusations and the panel relied on information deliberately withheld from the student despite repeated requests. The judge also admonished a dean who had punitively increased the student's penalty without explanation each time he appealed, while the student's counsel criticized the dean for a perceived conflict of interest.[136]
  • In August 2015, a Tennessee judge ruled against the Tennessi-Chattanooga universiteti who expelled a student for rape under a "yes-means-yes" policy. The student had been cleared by the school which later reversed its opinion on appeal using an affirmative consent policy. The judge found the school had no evidence the accuser did not consent, and found the school had "improperly shifted the burden of proof and imposed an untenable standard upon" the student "to disprove the accusation" that he assaulted a classmate.[137][138]
  • In June 2017, a divided panel of the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining Beshinchi davri bo'yicha apellyatsiya sudi deb topdi Xyuston universiteti did not violate the Constitution's Amalga oshiriladigan ishlar to'g'risidagi band yoki IX sarlavha when it expelled a student for committing sexual assault in a dorm room then abandoning the nude victim in a dorm elevator, as well as his girlfriend, who had recorded the assault and shared the video on social media.[139][140]

Trump administration efforts

2017 yil 22 sentyabrda, Betsy DeVos, Ta'lim bo'yicha kotib ichida Tramp ma'muriyati, rescinded some Obama-era campus guidelines regarding campus sexual assault. The rescinded guidelines included: having a low standard of proof to establish guilt, a 60-day investigation period, and not permitting vositachilik between involved parties.[141]

In May 2020, DeVos released the finalized new set of regulations under Title IX. Some of the new regulations hold that employees, such as faculty, athletic staff, and more, are no longer required to report allegation of sexual misconduct and those going through misconduct investigations are required to hold live hearings with the opportunity to cross-examine the accuser. If an assault happens outside of campus grounds, they no longer fall under Title IX protections. This is regardless to the fact if any or all parties involved are students. Allegations must meet the new criteria in order to formally be investigated, otherwise schools are allowed to dismiss the case. Kathryn Nash, a higher education attorney at Lathrop GPM states, "under the new regulations, to meet the definition of sexual harassment, the conduct 'has to be so severe, pervasive and objectively offensive that it effectively denies a person equal access to the recipient’s education program or activity, so that's definitely a higher burden.'"[142]

Criticisms/General Response

University of California system response[143]

After the announcement of the new finalized Title IX regulations, the UC system president, Janet Napolitano, released a statement in response. In this statement, Napolitano announced their opposition with these new rules. It is believed by the UC system that along with the challenges faced by COVID-19, these new regulations will only further the barrier already in place when it comes to reporting. Their largest concern comes from the direct-examination students will be subject to if a formal complaint turns into an investigation. Lower standards from schools is also seen to "weaken fair and just policies that have taken decades to establish." However, there were aspects that the system agreed with, such as the inclusion relationship violence into the mix.

Kollej dasturlari

Some colleges and universities have taken additional steps to prevent sexual violence on campus. These include educational programs designed to inform students about risk factors and prevention strategies to avoid victimization, bystander education programs (which encourage students to identify and defuse situations that may lead to sexual assault), and social media campaigns to raise awareness about sexual assault.[83] FYCARE is one example of an educational program designed to inform students that the Illinoys universiteti has implemented. FYCARE is a new student program that each student at the university is required to take. It focuses on informing students of sexual assault on campus and how they too can get involved in the fight against sexual assault.[144] A cheerful banner campaign at a large university found positive results, suggesting that an upbeat campaign can engage students in productive conversation.[145]

The Bystander Intervention programs is a system many schools are promoting to help students to feel empowered and knowledgeable. The program provides skills to effectively assist in the prevention of sexual violence. This gives a specific to that students can use in preventing sexual violence, including naming and stopping situations that could lead to sexual violence before it happens, stepping in during an incident, and speaking out against ideas and behaviors that support sexual violence. A few schools that are currently promoting the program are Johnson County Community College,[146] The University of Massachusetts,[147] Massachusets texnologiya instituti,[148] and Loyola University of Chicago.[149]

One study found that a large percentage of university students know victims of sexual assault, and that this personal knowledge differs among ethnic groups. These findings have implications for college programs, suggesting that prevention efforts be tailored to the group for which the program is intended.[150]

Xalqaro talabalar

As the development of the educational system around the world, more and more students have the opportunity to study abroad and gain knowledge and experiences.

Gap between cultures and the impact of sexual assaults

According to Pryor va boshq. (1997), the definition of sexual assault can differ depending on the countries and cultures and some students are unaware of what behaviors are considered to be sexual harassment in the country or culture where they are studying. Research conducted by Pryor va boshq. reported that college student definitions of sexual harassment in Germany, Australia, Brazil, and North America vary. They found that the most frequent definitional response for North Americans, Australians, and Germans includes unwanted verbal or physical sexual overtures. The most common response for Brazilian college students was "to seduce someone, to be more intimate (sexually), to procure a romance".[151] In addition, they found that Australians, Germans, and North Americans defined sexual harassment as an abuse of power, gender discrimination, and harmful sexual behavior. Brazilians defined sexual harassment as innocuous seductive behaviors. In this case, the certain student groups which have lower standards to the sexual assaults are easier to be assaulted.[151] When students are unable to confirm whether the type of assault will match the country and culture's definition of sexual assault, they are at risk of exhibiting behaviors such as a loss of morale, dissatisfaction with their career goals, or perform more poorly in school.[152][153]

Ta'lim

Levels of sexual education can differ depending on the country, which runs a risk of a lack of understanding of the domestic definitions of sexual assault and the legal repercussions. If a student is found to have committed sexual assault this can lead to their dismissal from the college or influence their visa status. Some campuses provide orientation programs to international students within a few days of their arrival, where the school laws and solutions for dangerous solutions are covered. These programs may not take into consideration if the student is familiar with the topics being discussed or potential language or cultural barriers.[154][155]

Shuningdek qarang

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Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Landis Dauber, Mishel; Warner, Meghan O. (2019). "Talabalar shaharchasida jinsiy zo'ravonlikka huquqiy va siyosiy javoblar". Huquq va ijtimoiy fanlarning yillik sharhi. 15 (1): 311–333. doi:10.1146 / annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031308.