Machismo - Machismo

"Macho" qayta yo'naltirishlar. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Macho (ajralish).
Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Machismo (ajralish).
Buni chalkashtirib yubormaslik kerak Masoxizm (ajralish).

Qismi bir qator kuni
Erkakchilik
Symbol mars.svg
Fozil Qahramonning toji tomonidan Piter Pol Rubens

Machismo (/məˈtʃiːzmoʊ,mɑː-,-ˈtʃɪ-/; Ispancha:[maˈtʃismo]; Portugalcha:[maˈʃiʒmu]; dan Ispaniya va Portugal "macho", erkak)[1] bo'lish tuyg'usi "erkakcha 'va o'ziga ishongan, bu kontseptsiya "kuchli erkaklar mag'rurligi hissi: bo'rttirilgan erkalik" bilan bog'liq.[2] Bu "erkakning oilasini ta'minlash, himoya qilish va himoya qilish mas'uliyati" bilan bog'liq.[3]

So'z macho Ispaniyada ham, Portugaliyada ham, ispan va portugal tillarida ham uzoq tarixga ega. Dastlab bu erkaklar o'z jamoalarida, xususan, iberiy tilida so'zlashadigan jamiyatlarda va mamlakatlarda o'ynashlari kerak bo'lgan ideal ijtimoiy roli bilan bog'liq edi. Macho portugal va ispan tillarida qat'iyan erkakcha dan olingan atama Lotin masclus erkak degan ma'noni anglatadi (bugungi kunda hombre yoki varon, cf. Portugal homem va odamlar uchun eskirgan Varao; macho va Varao, eng keng tarqalgan ma'noda, odam bo'lmagan hayvon turlarining erkaklari uchun ishlatiladi). Iberiya avlodlaridan bo'lgan Machos-larda mardlik, jasorat va kuch, shuningdek, donolik va etakchilik va ega bo'lishlari kutilmoqda. ser macho (so'zma-so'z "maho bo'lish") barcha o'g'il bolalar uchun intilish edi.

Caballerosidad

Portreti Marlon Brando kabi Stenli Kovalski yilda Istak deb nomlangan tramvay

"Caballerosidad"ispan tilida yoki kavalheirismo portugal tilida yoki ikkalasining ham inglizcha aralashmasi, lekin ilgari aytib o'tilgan tillarning birortasida to'g'ri so'z emas, kaballerizm, Lotin Amerikasida erkalikni anglash, bu ko'proq sharafga va ritsarlik.[4] Ning ma'nosi caballero "janob" (odatdagidek ritsarlar singari sharaf kodeksiga amal qiladigan yoki ular bilan bog'liq ba'zi qadriyat va g'oyalarni baham ko'radigan kishidan olingan, shu qatorda sharaf uchun alohida g'urur kabi, ayollarga alohida noziklik va e'tibor bilan mehr bilan munosabatda bo'lganlar) Lotin amerikalik olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, machismoning ijobiy tavsiflovchilari kaballerosidad tushunchasi bilan bog'liq xususiyatlarga o'xshashdir.[5] Lotin Amerikasi madaniyatlaridagi maxismo tushunchalari ham salbiy emas; ular shuningdek, shaxsiy va guruhning o'zaro ta'siriga bog'liq bo'lgan sharaf, mas'uliyat, qat'iyat va jasorat xususiyatlarini o'z ichiga oladi.[5][6] Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, Lotin Amerikasidagi erkaklar erkalikni bolalarni parvarish qilishda katta mas'uliyat, xushmuomalalik, ayollarning avtonomiyasini hurmat qilish va zo'ravonliksiz munosabat va xatti-harakatlarni o'z ichiga oladi.[7] Shu tarzda, machismo immigrantlar kontekstida Lotin Amerikasi erkak identifikatorini ijobiy va salbiy tushunishni anglatadi. Shu sababli, maxismo, identifikatsiyaning barcha ijtimoiy konstruktsiyalari singari, bir necha qatlamlarga ega deb tushunilishi kerak.[5][8]

So'z caballerosidad ispancha so'zdan kelib chiqqan caballero, Ispancha "ritsar" uchun. Caballerosidad ritsarlik erkak xulq-atvor kodeksiga ishora qiladi. (E'tibor bering, inglizcha atama frantsuzcha chevalier orqali ham kaballus lotin ildizidan kelib chiqqan). Ingliz chivalric kodi singari, caballerosidad boylik va mavqega ega bo'lgan odamlar transport va boshqa ot kuchlariga ega otlarga ega bo'lgan o'rta asrlardagi ijtimoiy-tarixiy sinf tizimidan kelib chiqqan holda, quyi sinflar esa bunday bo'lmagan. Bu feodal tuzumdagi ritsarlar sinfi bilan ham bog'liq edi. Ispan tilida, caballero mulk va / yoki chorvachilik xo'jayinlari bo'lgan yuqori stantsiyadagi er egasi bo'lgan mustamlakachi janobga murojaat qilgan.[5]

Tasvirlar

Machismo tasvirlari argentinalik singari turlicha gaucho, ammo ularning xususiyatlari juda yaxshi tanish. Machismo biologik, tarixiy, madaniy, psixo-ijtimoiy va shaxslararo xususiyatlar yoki xatti-harakatlarga asoslangan. Ba'zi taniqli xususiyatlar;

  • Posturing; muayyan, ko'pincha g'ayrioddiy yoki abartılı tana holatini yoki munosabatini taxmin qilish. Ular diplomatiyadan farqli o'laroq zo'ravonlik bilan bog'liq barcha kelishmovchiliklarni, og'zaki yoki jismoniy zo'ravonliklarni, qiyinchiliklarni va kelishmovchiliklarni hal qilishlari kerak. Xotinlarini yolg'iz himoyachining namoyishi sifatida ko'rish. Ayollar mehribon, erkaklar g'alaba qozonishadi.[9]
  • Bravado; g'azablangan maqtanish, haddan tashqari o'ziga ishonish.
  • Ijtimoiy ustunlik; ijtimoiy-madaniy jihatdan belgilangan ustunlik sifatida; macho qallob.
  • Jinsiy qudrat, jinsiy jihatdan qat'iyatli bo'lish. Uyatchanlik erkaklar uchun jamoaviy muammo.[10]
  • O'z sharafini himoya qilish. Xavfga qaramay, sharafni himoya qilishga bo'lgan ishonch.
  • Xavfni boshdan kechirishga tayyorlik.[11]

Xulosa qilish mumkin bo'lgan psixo-ijtimoiy xususiyatlar; hissiy daxlsizlik, patriarxal hukmronlik, ayollarga nisbatan ogohlantiruvchi va ambivalentlikka qarshi tajovuzkor yoki boshqaruvchi javoblar.[12][13] Bu Meksikaning madaniy va psixologik nuqtai nazaridir, chunki Meksikaning Ispaniyani Amerikani zabt etishiga meksikalik erkaklar javobi.[14] Ba'zi olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, machismo erkak tanasini boshqarish shakli sifatida qabul qilingan.[15]

Tanqid va tortishuvlar

Mustamlakachilik mazmuni atrofidagi ziddiyatlar

Dastlab ispan va portugal millatlaridan kelib chiqqan machismo tushunchasi atrofida tortishuvlar mavjud. Ispan va portugal tillaridan foydalanish Ispaniya va Portugaliyaning erkaklar ijtimoiy qurilishini targ'ib qilish orqali tarixiy mustamlakachilik mazmunini keltirib chiqaradi, bu atama Lotin Amerikasining o'ziga xos tarixiy erkakliklarini tavsiflash uchun ishlatilishi kerak.[16][17] Biroq, so'z maxismo ispan va portugal tillaridagi so'zlarga o'xshaydi, shuning uchun uni ko'pincha Ispaniya va Portugaliya bilan bog'lashadi. Bundan tashqari, makizmoni evropalikning bir shakli sifatida aniqlash orqali u protestant islohotidan kelib chiqqan madaniyatlarga ma'lum bo'lgan va o'sha g'arbiy gipermaskulilikdan tashkil topgan yovuz odamlarning kontseptsiyasi uchun qonuniylikni taklif etadi va Lotin Amerikasining o'zi va uning madaniy tarixi va o'ziga xos xususiyatlarini tushunishini bo'ysundiradi.[16][tushunarsiz ]

Masalan, dan foydalanish caballerosidad va kavalheirismo, faqat mustabid kuch munosabatlari bilan bog'liq feodal va mustamlakachilik kontseptsiyalariga ega bo'lgan machismoning ijobiy xususiyatlarini anglatadi. Bu so'zning kelib chiqishi feodal ispan / portugal mulkdorlarining mustamlakachilik davriga qadar bo'lgan va yuksaltirgan mulkdorlarning tavsiflarida joylashganligi sababli.[18] Evropa madaniyati Lotin Amerikasi makizmosiga (hayvoniy, mantiqsiz, zo'ravon, qoloq, jinsga oid) nisbatan.[5] Portugal tilida bundan qochish mumkin emas kavalheirismo, ning ko'proq maqbul qismlari uchun so'z maxismo, o'zi ispan tilidan taqdim etilgan a palatizatsiya portugallar boshidan kechirmagan jarayon (portugal tilida otliq degan so'z cavaleirova otchilik uchun bu bor kavalariya).[tushunarsiz ]

Bir tomonlama salbiy tasvirning oqibatlari

Porfirio Rubirosa uchun haqiqiy hayotdan ilhom Jeyms Bond belgi.

Tadqiqotchilar Lotin Amerikasi madaniyatlari ichidagi maxismoning nomutanosib vakili haqida tashvishlanmoqdalar va endi muvozanatli vakillikni yaratishga qaratilgan.[5] Ular bir necha bor machismo-ga mos keladigan ijobiy xususiyatlarni ta'kidladilar yoki caballerosidad: tarbiya, oila va uning sha'ni, qadr-qimmati, donoligi, mehnatsevarligi, mas'uliyati, ma'naviyati va hissiy bog'liqligini himoya qilish.[8] Lotin Amerikasi olimlari machismo ichida haqiqatan ham ikki xil konstruktsiya mavjudligini taklif qilishadi, biri ijobiy va biri salbiy konstruktsiya. Machismoning salbiy konstruktsiyasi an'anaviy G'arbning gipermaskullik kontseptsiyasiga asoslangan. Caballerosidadxarakteristikalari baland, machismoning xarakteristikalari asosan salbiy hisoblanadi.[5][8]

Mexanizmning boshqa tomoni, ijobiy tomoni (caballerosidad, kavalheirismo), oila va ritsarlik bilan bog'liqlikni anglatadi. Biroq, mashismoning salbiy tomonlariga e'tibor berish va ijobiy tomonlaridan qochish marginallashtirish va kuchsizlik tushunchasiga to'g'ri keladi[19] Ispan va lotin tillaridan va kengroq romantik so'zlashadigan Evropa madaniyatidan kelib chiqqan rivoyatlar. Buning sababi shundaki, salbiy tomonlarga e'tibor berish va ijobiy narsalardan qochish yoki bilmaslik asosiy amerikalik gegemonlik g'oyasini erkalikning to'g'ri yoki odil shakli sifatida qonuniylashtiradigan kuch dinamikasini yaratadi va maxismoni buzilgan suiiste'mol shakli sifatida o'ziga bo'ysundiradi. ayollar va qoloqlik. Natijada, bu latino erkaklar ichida erkaliklarini ifodalashda kuchsizlik hissi yaratishi mumkin.[20][21]

Gender asosidagi e'tiqod tizimlarining salbiy va ijobiy ta'sir ko'rsatadigan hodisalari quyidagicha tavsiflanadi ikkilangan seksizm, bu dushmanlik seksizm va xayrixoh seksizmdan iborat.[22]

Akademiklar mashhur adabiyotda Ispan va Latino erkaklar uchun faqat salbiy ta'rif berishning oqibatlari borligini ta'kidladilar. Tadqiqotchilar, shunga ko'ra, buni taklif qildilar katoliklarga qarshi va / yoki Nordicist ) asosiy oq tanli Amerika madaniyatida hukmronlik qiladigan qarashlar, Lotin Amerikasidagi mashismo namoyishlari "odamda bo'lgan hamma narsani" anglatadi.[23] Latino akademiklari ushbu dalildan foydalanib, nega latino erkak yoshlar akademik muassasalarda kurash olib borishi va jinoyatchilik darajasi yuqori ekanligini tushuntirishdi.[24] Bu xuddi shu nutqlar, lotin tilidagi erkaklik (machismo) zo'ravonlik, beparvolik va notanishlik bilan belgilanadi. Shunga ko'ra, ular ushbu iboralarni akademiklarga qiziqishning etishmasligi, shuningdek, latino erkak yoshlar uchun maktablarda o'zini tutish uchun kurashish uchun hissa qo'shadi.

Mashhur adabiyotda maxismoning salbiy tasvirlari

Barcha mashhur adabiyotlarda ushbu atama salbiy xususiyatlar bilan bog'liq bo'lib kelmoqda, masalan seksizm, noto'g'ri fikr, shovinizm, gipermaskullik va gegemonik erkaklik.[25][26][27] Olimlar[28] macho erkaklarni zo'ravon, qo'pol, ayollashtirish va moyil alkogolizm. Turli fanlarning mualliflari maho erkaklarni tahdid qilish, zo'ravonlik, qo'rqitish va avvalgi shahvoniylik uchun ayollar va bolalarni yo'ldan ozdirish va boshqarish orqali hukmronlik qilishgan.[25]

Masalan, Amerika adabiyotida mahoratning misoli kelib chiqadi Tennessi Uilyams belgi Stenli Kovalski, xudbin qaynota, dan Istak deb nomlangan tramvay. O'yinda (va 1951 yil filmlarni moslashtirish ), Stenli qattiqni aks ettiradi, alfa-erkak (gipermaskulin) arxetip, ijtimoiy va jismoniy jihatdan hukmronlik qiladi va o'z irodasini xotiniga va uning singlisi Blanche Dyuboga yuklaydi. Stenlining tajovuzkor va vaqti-vaqti bilan misoginistik qarashlari bilan bog'lanish - bu kuchli g'urur va iftixor tuyg'usi bo'lib, Blanshga nisbatan nafratiga sabab bo'ladi.

Asarda Ko'prikdan ko'rinish tomonidan Artur Miller, asosiy qahramonlardan biri Eddi - bu mexanizmni namoyish etadigan klassik tur. U atrofidagi erkaklarning eng yaxshisi bo'lishni xohlaydi va kaltaklanganda juda qo'zg'alib, tobora mantiqsiz bo'lib qoladi. Salbiy stereotiplar Amerika adabiyotida tasvirlangan, bu turli xil makismo qatlamlarining vakili emas.

Ba'zi jamiyatlar va akademiklar an'anaviy bo'lib qoladilar jinsdagi rollar (ba'zi jamoalar uchun ijtimoiy me'yorlar, boshqalar uchun hayrat yoki odatiylik) - bu maxismoning eng muhim tarkibiy qismi.

Ta'sir

Machismo turli xil omillarga ta'sir ko'rsatdi va qo'llab-quvvatladi. Katolik dini ispan jamoatidagi ko'pchilik uchun muhim rol o'ynaydi. Shu sababli odamlar orasida Muqaddas Kitobda tez-tez uchraydigan erkaklar hukmronlik qiladigan dunyo ko'rinadi. Muqaddas Kitobda ayollarning erlariga qanday bo'ysunishi kerakligini ko'rsatadigan misollarni topish mumkin: "Ayolning so'zlariga ko'ra, men sizning qayg'uingizni va tushunchangizni ko'paytiraman; qayg'uda siz farzand ko'rasiz va sizning xohishingiz bo'ladi. ering va u seni boshqaradi "(Ibtido 3:16).[29] Erkak kuchliroq, pul ishlab chiqaruvchi va himoyachi degan mafkuralar, xotinlar erlarini tinglashlari kerak degan fikrni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.

Kontekstda erkaklik: Chili

Ning inqilobi mis qazib olish an'anaviy erkaklik ohangini o'rnatadi.[30] Ishchi erkakning mehnatsevar mehnati tengdoshlari orasida maqomi va oilani ta'minlash qobiliyati bilan tasdiqlangan.[30] Konlarda ishlaydigan erkaklar ko'pincha oilalaridan uzoqroq bo'lishadi, aksariyat hollarda ular shug'ullanishadi birdamlik.[30] Gomososyal bo'sh vaqtni o'tkazish ishchilar qimor, futbol va spirtli ichimliklardan iborat. Ijtimoiy muhitda ayollarning ishtiroki unchalik katta emas, shuning uchun erkaklarning ustunligi va muqarrar gomososial o'zaro aloqalari qarindoshlik va birodarlikni yaratadi. Konchilar konteksti orqali erkalikni ekspluatatsiya qilish chililik erkaklar tomonidan tanilgan.

2007 yildan boshlab har iyul oyida Red Chilena Contra la Violencia hacia las Mujeres (Chili ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlikka qarshi tarmoq) ayollarga nisbatan zo'ravonlik, tanish bo'lmagan zo'ravonlik va habar berish to'g'risida "¡Cuidado! El Machismo Mata" (Ehtiyot bo'ling! Machismo Kills) kampaniyasini amalga oshirmoqda. femitsid. [31]

Puerto-Riko mahorati va gender tengligining Amerika madaniy ta'siri

AQSh hududi sifatida Puerto-Riko AQSh bilan bir xil ilg'or harakatlarni amalga oshirishga intiladi. Bu harakatlarga LGBTQ huquqlari, ozchilik huquqlari va tenglik kiradi. Tenglik va erkaklar va ayollarni bir-biridan ajratib turadigan narsalarga kelsak, gender rollari turli xil geografik hududlarda ijtimoiy jihatdan maqbul bo'lgan narsani belgilaydi. Puerto-Rikoda machismo madaniyati mavjud yoki bo'lgan[noaniq ] kuchli mavjudlik. Erkaklar uydan tashqarida ishlashlari, mablag'ni boshqarish va qarorlar qabul qilishlari kerak edi. Ayollar erlariga bo'ysunishlari va uy egalari bo'lishlari kerak edi. Ayollar ko'pincha hamma narsada erkaklarga bog'liq bo'lishlari kerak edi. Voyaga etgan o'g'il bolalarga maxismo kodi o'rgatiladi, qizlarga marianismo kodi o'rgatiladi. Machismo - bu 1930-yillarning boshlarida va 40-yillarning boshlarida erkaklar va mag'rurlik kabi aniqlangan atama. Machismo - bu bosim o'tkazadigan ideal odamning qanday tasvirlanishi kutilayotganligi sababli, turli guruhlar o'rtasida bahslashadigan omil. Aqliy erkaklar umidlarni qondirish uchun ko'proq imkoniyatlardan foydalanish zarurligini his qilishlari mumkin, masalan, uyni qo'llab-quvvatlash yoki stressni keltirib chiqaradigan ish joyini saqlab qolish. Bu, shuningdek, jismonan kuchli va tanani haddan tashqari oshirib yuborish uchun og'irlikni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin, yoki kerakli jismoniy holatga ega bo'lmaslik va o'zingizni pastroq his qilish orqali og'irlikni ko'tarishning teskarisi. Bu orol tashqarisidagi Puerto-Rikalik amerikaliklar orqali ham ifoda etilgan.[32]

Biroq, ayollar huquqlari va tenglik harakatlari materikni qamrab olayotgani sababli, rollar o'zgarishni boshlaydi, Puerto-Riko uning ta'sirini his qila boshlaydi.[iqtibos kerak ] Puerto-Rikaliklar materikning ilg'or turtki bo'lishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, ular o'z harakatlarini Puerto-Rikodagi vaziyatlaridan kelib chiqib asoslashadi. 1950-yillardan boshlab, orolning sanoatlashuvi tufayli ish bilan bandlik darajasi tushib ketganligi sababli, ayollarning ish bilan bandlik darajasi ko'tarila boshladi. Shuningdek, 1950-1980 yillarda oq tanli ayollar sohasi paydo bo'ldi. Biroq, ayollar ishi borligi sababli uy bekasi vazifasidan ozod qilinmadi. Darhaqiqat, endi ayollar uyning moliya ishlariga o'z hissalarini qo'shishlari va uy egasi bo'lishlari kerak edi. Bu uy xo'jaliklarida maqbul bo'lgan narsalarning o'zgarishiga olib keldi. Ilgari erkaklar xohlagancha kelib-ketishlari mumkin edi, chunki ayollar ularga bog'liq edi, ammo uyga hissa qo'shgandan, ko'proq ma'lumot olganidan va uy bekasi bo'lgan ayollardan mustaqil va ongli bo'lib qolishdi. Ular endi kambag'al erkaklarga toqat qilmaydilar. Bu maxismo madaniyati g'oyasi bilan katta ichki ziddiyatni keltirib chiqardi. 2016 yilda Puerto-Riko ayollar erkaklarnikidan ko'proq pul topadigan yagona joy bo'lganligi sababli, hozirgi jamiyatda bu mahorat madaniyati hali ham zulm qilinmoqda, har bir dollar uchun 1,03 dollar.[33][34][35]

Puerto-Riko jamoatchiligi joylashgan Chikagoda; Puerto-Rikaliklar o'zlarining Amerika orzusi bilan tahdid qilishayotganini his qilishmoqda. Puerto-Rikolik yosh ayollar reproduktiv tarzda uyda bo'lishlari kutilmoqda,[noaniq ] shuningdek, uyda samarali bo'lishning madaniy sabablari. Lotin oilalari tomonidan chiqarilgan qoidalar mavjud: yosh ayollarga tashqi xavfi ta'sir ko'rsatmasligi kerak, chunki yosh ayollarning tasviri shahvoniy yoki zaif bo'lishi kerak. Ular ushbu qat'iy qoidalar asosida tarbiyalanadilar, chunki ba'zi ayollar homiladorlikni yoshligida boshdan kechiradilar va o'zlariga ham, yangi farzandning vazifalariga ham g'amxo'rlik qilishni yaxshi bilishmaydi. Yosh ayollar, hatto o'zlarining oilaviy oilalari tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanmasligi mumkin va ular etarli darajada o'qimaganlikda ayblanmoqda. Amerika madaniyati ta'sirida bo'lgan Puerto-Riko oilalari; an'anaviy qoidalarni bükmek uchun ifoda etishi mumkin. Bu oilalar o'zlarining oilalari uchun eng yaxshi deb hisoblagan ishlarini qiladilar, shuningdek, jinsiy ta'lim to'g'risida ma'lumot olishadi va nikohgacha qizlik qadrlanadi.[36]

LGBTQ hamjamiyati - bu machismo madaniyatiga zid bo'lgan masala. Puerto-Riko kuchli xristian jamoati bilan bir qatorda yahudiy va musulmonlarning ham kichik jamoalari bilan mashhur. Vaqtning o'zgarishi va Amerikaning ta'siri tufayli LGBTQ harakati Puerto-Rikoda har doim ham qabul qilinmagan tenglik uchun kuchli kuch bo'ldi; va hatto zarar etkazdi[iqtibos kerak ] farq tufayli jarayonda. Latinni farqlash uchun yangi atama - bu Latinx, Lotin tilida esa Lotin Amerikasi bo'ylab osonlikcha talaffuz qilish uchun ishlatiladigan variant - tanish erkak yoki ayol latinaga nisbatan kimgadir murojaat qilishning gender neytral shakli. Puerto-Rikoda ozchiliklarga uchta irq aralashganiga qaramay turlicha munosabatda bo'lishadi. Puerto-Rikaliklar o'zlarining jamoalarida va ishda faqat terining rangiga qarab o'zaro irqchilikka duch kelishadi. Eng kichik pigmentga ega bo'lgan odamlar oq deb hisoblanmagan va ajratish orol ichida mavjud; bu erda ozchiliklar orolning turli mintaqalarida rangli boshqalar bilan yashashi mumkin.[37][38][39]

Shuning uchun, so'zning Kolumbiyagacha ishlatilishi macho taqlid qilishga loyiq donolik va etakchilik bilan bog'liq edi, shu bilan birga jins jalb qilinmadi. Ispanlar kelganda, bu so'zdan foydalanish macho qat'iy erkak edi. Shu sababli, Ispaniya istilosidan keyin yangi so'z, g'oya va kontseptsiya paydo bo'ldi: maho ma'rifatli va taqlid qilishga loyiq bo'lgan erkak lider edi. Bu har doim ijobiy atama edi. Shuning uchun, Meksikada so'zning ishlatilishi macho aniq yoki kontekstda ishlatilmasa, chalkashliklarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin.[40]

Kubadagi Machismo

Dastlabki boshlanishlar

Machismo erkaklar uchun mag'rurlik manbai bo'lib, ular o'zlarining obro'si va uy sharoitida o'zlarining ustunligini qo'llab-quvvatlash orqali o'zlarining erkaliklarini isbotlashlari kerak. Machismo kundalik hayotda erkaklar ustunligini tasdiqlashdan kelib chiqadi. Bunga erkaklar o'z xotinlarida hukmronlik qilishlari, bolalarini boshqarish va uydagilaridan katta hurmat talab qilishlari mumkin. Machismo chuqur to'qilgan bo'lib qoldi Kuba jamiyati va ayollarning to'liq tenglikka erishish uchun to'siqlar yaratdi. Buning sababi patriarxat bu baland ishlaydi Kuba jamiyat. Kubaning patriarxal jamiyat Ispaniyaning shafqatsiz urush taktikasini va xorlikni o'z kuchini saqlash va o'rnatish vositasi sifatida ishlatib kelgan tarixidan kelib chiqadi. Tomas de Torquemada, ostida buyuk advokat sifatida hukmronlik qilgan Qirol Ferdinand va Ispaniya qirolichasi Yelizaveta, mahbuslardan ma'lumot olish uchun qiynoqlarni kamsituvchi va kamsituvchi usullaridan foydalangan. Torquemada singari erkaklar repressiv va toksik erkaklik bu Kuba jamiyatini qiynagan.[41]

Uva de Aragon Klavixoning romanida El Kayman Ante El Espejo , Klavixoning ta'kidlashicha, kubaliklar Kubaning avvalgi erkak rahbarlarining jinsiy a'zolaridan ko'proq kuch his qilishadi Fidel Kastro. U inqilob vakili bo'lishiga qaramay, u hali ham xalq ustidan hukmronlik qilgan qudratli va hukmron odam edi. Klavixo nuqtai nazaridan, militarizm va kaudillismo, Kuba machizmiga aybdor bo'lgan narsa, chunki u Kastroning inqilobida g'alaba qozonishida o'zini muvaffaqiyatli ko'rsatgan "kuchli odamning etakchiligi" mafkurasini o'rnatdi. Shunday qilib, erkaklar hukmronlik qiladigan siyosiy jamiyat ustundir.[41] Kastroning etakchiligiga qaramay a sotsialistik inqilob, bu faqat Kuba xalqi ustidan maxo-nazoratni kuchaytirgandek, ayniqsa Kubalik ayol hali belgilangan siyosiy lavozimlarni egallamaganlar.

Erkak egosi g'oyasi, bu erda erkak "giper-erkak, jirkanch, kuchli, paternalistik, jinsiy jihatdan dominant va moliyaviy ta'minotchi "[42] ta'limoti bilan mustahkamlangan Katolik cherkovi, Asosiy din Kubada va Latina Amerika umuman. Ga binoan Katolik cherkovi ta'limoti, ayol bo'lishi kerak a bokira lekin erkak uchun unchalik muhim emas.[42] Mustamlakachilik davrida ayolning iffati va xiralashishi oilaning ijtimoiy ahvoliga bog'liq edi [yangi], erkaklar kutilgan va ba'zida bir nechta sheriklarga ega bo'lish orqali jinsiy qudratlarini isbotlashlari kerak edi.[42] Sevgi ifodasida ikkilanish bor edi. Erkaklar jismoniy sevgini ifoda etishi kerak edi, ayollar esa faqat namoyon qilishi kerak edi ma'naviy sevgi va romantik muhabbat. Hatto keyin ham nikoh, tana muhabbati Agar ayol buni juda qattiq ifoda etgan bo'lsa, uning ko'ngli g'ashga tegdi, aksincha uni muhabbatning romantik ifodasi ko'proq quvontirdi.

Kubalik Machismo va uning Ayollar va LGBT hamjamiyatiga ta'siri.

Tufayli ob'ektivlashtirish ayollar, oiladagi zo'ravonlik ayollar politsiyadan yordam so'rashga qaror qilishganda ko'pincha e'tiborga olinmaydi. Oiladagi zo'ravonlik qurbonlari beriladi psixologik maslahat ular bilan kurashishning bir usuli sifatida travma, ammo muammoni hal qilish uchun jinoiy yo'l bilan ozgina ish qilinmoqda.[42] Maishiy suiiste'mol qilish holatlari yoki ayollarga nisbatan sodir etilgan boshqa zo'ravonlik jinoyatlari haqida ommaviy axborot vositalari kamdan-kam xabar berishadi,[43] va hukumat odamlarga jinoyatlar darajasini ko'rsatadigan statistik ma'lumot bermaydi.[44] The Kuba inqilobi Kuba aholisining ayollarga bo'lgan ba'zi qarashlarini o'zgartirdi. Fidel Kastro o'z so'zlari bilan aytganda, ayollar "inqilob ichida inqilobni boshdan kechirmoqdalar va Kuba ayollari federatsiyasi (FMC). Boshchiligidagi ushbu tashkilot Vilma Espin, Kastroning singlisi, ayollarga ish dunyosida va ayollarning huquqlari masalalarida o'zlarini yaxshiroq tanib olishlariga yordam berdi.[43] The FMK doimiy ravishda ayollar huquqlarini himoya qilib keladi va 1997 yilda ushbu huquqni yaratadi Grupo Nacional para la Prevencion y Atencion de la Violencia tanish, milliy guruh bo'lib, uning maqsadi oilaviy zo'ravonlik qurboniga aylangan ayollarga qanday yordam ko'rsatish bo'yicha choralarni o'rganish va topishdir.[43] FMK va Grupo Nacional para la Prevencion y Atencion de la Violencia tanish, ayollar o'zlarining suiiste'molchilariga qarshi da'vo arizalarini Jabrlanuvchilar huquqlari bo'yicha idoraga yuborishlari mumkin. Ular endi jinsiy zo'ravonlik terapiyasidan foydalanish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lishdi.[43] Bu hech qanday tarzda muammoni hal qilmaydi maishiy suiiste'mol qilish, lekin bu uchun burilish nuqtasi Kuba ayollari endi ular kurashda o'zlarini kuchsiz his qilmaydilar.[43]

Machismo ayollarni jabr-zulmni ushlab turadigan tizimlarga juda singib ketganligi sababli, Kubadagi ayollar hokimiyatning siyosiy yoki pul o'rnini egallamaydilar.[45] Ayollarning 48,9% bo'lsa Kuba Kongressi, eng ko'p hokimiyatga ega bo'lgan siyosiy guruh Kuba Kommunistik partiyasi, bu faqat 7% ayollardan iborat.[45] Ko'pgina hollarda, kasbiy ish bilan shug'ullanadigan ayollar ko'pincha Kuba davlati tomonidan moliyalashtiriladi, ya'ni oyiga atigi 30 dollar oladi.[46] Bu shuni anglatadiki, ayollar ish bilan ta'minlangan, ammo hokimiyatda qolishdan foyda ko'radigan hokimiyatdagi erkaklar tufayli hokimiyat lavozimlarini egallamaydilar va qila olmaydilar. Machismo asosan singib ketgan ichki 25 yoshdan oshgan ayollarning 89 foizi o'rta ma'lumot olgan bo'lsa-da,[47] agar ayol kun davomida qilgan barcha ishlaridan keyin ham shifokor yoki advokat bo'lsa, u uyda u ovqat pishirishi va tozalanishi va bolalarning asosiy tarbiyachisi bo'lishi kutilmoqda. Ko'pgina feminist olimlar, boshqa madaniyatlarda sodir bo'layotgan ushbu hodisani, ikkinchi siljish deb ta'rifladilar Arli Rassel Xochshildning kitobi xuddi shu nom bilan.[48] Kubalik erkaklar do'stlari bilan ichkilikka chiqishga ruxsat berilganda, barcha uy ishlarini xotinlariga topshirishda muammo yo'q.[49] Erkaklardagi Machismo xususiyatlari ularga uydagi ayollar ustidan hokimiyat berdi,[49] bu ba'zi ayollarni ko'proq himoyasiz qoldiradi oiladagi zo'ravonlik ularga qarshi qilingan. Kubaliklar endi davlat ishlarini tark etishni, ish qidirishni boshlaydilar turizm. Ushbu ish o'rinlari juda ko'p narsalarni ishlab chiqaradi foyda orolga tashrif buyuradigan va yaxshi maslahatlar qoldiradigan boy sayyohlar tufayli. Bir paytlar bo'lgan kubaliklar professorlar va shifokorlar endi bufetchilar bo'lish uchun eski ishlarini tark etishmoqda va haydash kabinalari

Ikkisidan ham mexanizm boshlanganidan Ispaniya imperiyasi va Portugaliya imperiyasi, machismo ma'noga tarjima qilinadi "Macho" va erkaklarning ayollarga nisbatan zulmiga ishora qiladi. Bundan tashqari, machismo - bu hukmronlik qilish uchun hamma narsani o'z ichiga olgan atama elita odam "boshqasi" ustidan.[45] Bu holda "boshqasi" macho himoya qilish ob'ekti sifatida ko'rgan barcha irq va iqtisodiy maqomdagi ayollarni nazarda tutadi.[45] aksincha, g'azablangan va gomoseksual erkaklar himoyaga loyiq emas, balki ularni masxara qilish va ba'zan zo'ravonlik bilan jazolash ob'ekti sifatida ko'rishadi. Jinsini "normallashtirilgan" usulda bajarmaydigan erkaklar deyiladi "Marikon", (a kamsituvchi so'z ma'nosi quer yoki fag), chunki ularning erkaklik shubha ostiga olinmoqda. LGBTga qarshi aksariyat qabullar Kuba inqilobi va kuchli qarashlarga ega bo'lgan Fidel Kastrodan kelib chiqadi. erkaklik va bu uning g'oyasiga qanday mos keladi militarizm. Bir paytlar Fidel Kastro aytgan edi gomoseksualizm 1965 yilda amerikalik jurnalist bilan suhbatda Li Lokvud, "Tabiatning og'ishi biz jangari kommunist qanday bo'lishi kerak degan tushunchaga zid keladi."[50] O'sha yili Kubadagi gomoseksual erkaklarni yuborishgan mehnat lagerlari chunki ularning jinsiylik ularni jalb qilish uchun "yaroqsiz" qildi harbiy xizmat.[50] Machismo nafaqat ayollarni boshqarish uchun, balki unga rioya qilmaydigan erkaklarni jazolash uchun ham foydalanilgan ijtimoiy normalar, shuningdek o'zini tutishi kerak. Biroq, so'nggi yillarda tashkil etilgan CENESEX (Jinsiy tarbiya bo'yicha milliy markaz) tashkil etilgan bo'lib, aholisi Kuba har qanday turdagi jinsiy xilma-xillikni, ayniqsa LGBT odamlari nuqtai nazaridan, osonroq qabul qilishi mumkin. CENESEX tufayli qisman o'sdi Kuba hukumati va yordami bilan Mariela Kastro-Espin, qizi Raul Kastro, Kubaning 16-prezidenti va jiyani Fidel Kastro. CENESEX kamaytirishga intildi gomofobiya Kubada anti-gomofobik mitinglar kabi ijtimoiy uchrashuvlar o'tkazish orqali jinsiy ongni oshirish orqali.

Kuba Machismo ommaviy axborot vositalarida

1975 yilda yangi Kuba qonuni orolga keldi: the Codigo de la Familia (Oila qonuni ). Oradan 15 yil o'tgach, 1975 yil 8 martda kuchga kirdi Kuba inqilobi. 1975 yilda qabul qilingan yangi Oila to'g'risidagi qonun haqiqatan ham ko'p narsalarga yordam berdi ayollar ish topadilar orolda va bolalar orasida tilanchilik va uysizlikni deyarli yo'q qilish uchun bolalarni qonun bo'yicha himoya bilan ta'minladilar. Qonunda shuningdek, uy ishlarida har ikki jins vakillari ham ishtirok etishi shartligi ta'kidlangan[51] Ammo qonun qabul qilinganligi sababli, bu, ayniqsa, maishiy sohada juda kuchaytirilgan degani emas.[52] Oila to'g'risidagi yangi qonunning jihatlaridan biri nafaqat uydan tashqarida, balki uning ichida ham tenglikni yaratish edi. Ushbu yangi oilaviy qonun ko'plab odamlar tomonidan yaxshi qabul qilinmadi Kuba. Va ko'p odamlar qonunga qarshi qarshilik ko'rsatdilar. Da aks etgan ushbu shikoyatlar ommaviy axborot vositalari Kubada, xususan, "Kuba kinematografiyasining oltin davri ".

Yaqinroq ko'rinish: Xasta Cierto Punto, 1983 (Muayyan nuqtaga qadar, 1983)

Xasta Cierto Punto rejissor Tomas Gutierrez Alea - Oskarni ta'qib qilgan film, ma'lumotli dramaturg makismoning ta'siri haqida kim film yozadi Kuba jamiyati. Ushbu filmning ochilish sahnasida bir qora tanli yigit bilan so'raladigan intervyu mavjud maxismo. Yigit kuladi va filmda "Oh, ular mening munosabatimni o'sha balda o'zgartirishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi; Men aniq bir nuqtaga qadar o'zgarganman. Hozir men 80 foizgacha o'zgargandirman. Balki ular buni qilishlari mumkin ustimda ishlang va meni 87% ga o'zgartiring. Ammo ular meni hech qachon, hech qachon 100% ga etkazishmaydi! "[53] Ekrandagi ushbu munosabat ko'plab erkaklarnikini aks ettiradi Kuba va ularning munosabatlari kundalik hayotda tenglik ko'proq bo'lgan ayollar. Oskar yozishi kerak bo'lgan filmni uning do'sti Arturo suratga olgan. Ikkalasi ham yaxshi o'qigan erkaklar, o'z sohalarida barqaror martaba, xotinlar, mashinalar va boshqa hashamatli narsalar. Biroq, Arturo Machismo masalasi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri a ishchilar sinfi muammo va o'zi va Oskar kabi o'qimishli erkaklar, bu masalada ongni ko'tarish. Oskar va Arturo ishchilar sinfidan foydalanadilar ishchilar o'z filmlari uchun tadqiqot sifatida foydalanish. Bu erda ular ishchilar sinfiga rahbarlik qiladigan ishchi ayol Lina bilan uchrashadilar. Filmning boshida u o'z ishchilariga nisbatan qattiqqo'llik bilan qatnashgan va u ishlaydigan barcha erkaklar orasida hurmatga sazovor bo'lgan. Oskar ssenariy muallifi, u o'zining ilgari uchrashgan ayollarga qaraganda ancha farq qiladigan qattiq munosabati bilan o'ziga yoqadi. Ammo, film davom etar ekan, Oskar tobora Linaning erkin ruhi va ishchi sinfining "erga qarashli" shaxsidan xafa bo'lganini ko'ramiz. Oskar bu odatlangan ayol emasligini ko'radi. Kino davomida, Oskar rafiqasi bilan ishqiy munosabatda bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, u o'zini ishchi sinfidagi kurashlarga nisbatan do'sti Arturoga o'xshamagan holda tushunadi. Arturo hanuzgacha barcha ishchi erkaklar "maho" deb hisoblaydi qo'pol"[53] Film dinamik ravishda ishlaydi ishchilar sinfi va burjua machismo haqida juda ko'p gapirish mumkin Kuba jamiyati va sinf mashismoga bo'lgan munosabatni qanday aks ettiradi. Bundan tashqari, bu muammoni hal qiladi, burjua intellektual jihatdan boshqalardan ustun ekanligiga ishonadigan erkaklar, shu jumladan machismo va ayollar tengligi.

Ta'siri

Avlod tsikli

Ba'zi odamlar, bolalarning ma'lum bir tarzda tarbiyalanishi va bolaning rivojlanishida jinsning ijtimoiy tuzilishini shakllantirish uchun bosim orqali mexanizm davom etayotganini aniqlaydilar.[54] Bu odatda yaqinlik va mehr-muhabbatga yo'l qo'yilmaydigan uzoqdagi ota-bola munosabatlari bilan to'ldiriladi. Ushbu jihatlar mafkura o'zini davom ettiradigan muhitni yaratadi.[54] Bu o'g'il bolalarni erishib bo'lmaydigan erkalik darajasiga ko'tarishga undaydigan kamsuqlik tuyg'usini vujudga keltiradi, bu intilish ko'pincha ular atrofdagi erkaklarda kuzatadigan tajovuzkor va loqayd xatti-harakatlar bilan tasdiqlanadi va oxir-oqibat ularni tsiklni davom ettirishga olib keladi.[54]

Ruhiy salomatlik

An'anaviy ravishda erkaklar sifatida ijtimoiylashuvi va uning zararli ruhiy va jismoniy oqibatlari o'rtasidagi munosabatni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi ko'plab dalillar mavjud.[55] Shunga ko'ra, machismo, ispan madaniyatida erkak va ayol sotsializatsiyasi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan ijtimoiy-madaniy atama; bu erkaklik haqidagi qadriyatlar, qarashlar va e'tiqodlar to'plamidir.[56] Machismo konstruktsiyasi erkaklikning ijobiy va salbiy tomonlarini o'zida mujassam etgan bo'lsa-da, paydo bo'layotgan tadqiqotlar mashismoning jinsdagi rolini kontseptualizatsiya qilishning Ispan populyatsiyasida salbiy kognitiv-emotsional omillar (ya'ni, depressiya alomatlari; xavotir va g'azab; kinik dushmanlik) bilan assotsiatsiyasiga ega ekanligini ko'rsatadi.[56]

Xuddi shunday, yaxshi hujjatlashtirilgan nomutanosiblik boshqa etnik kelib chiqishlarga qaraganda depressiyaning yuqori darajasi haqida xabar bergan latino o'spirinlarni ham qayd etadi. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, bu o'spirinning gender roli to'g'risidagi an'anaviy tushunchalarini (ya'ni, maxismo) shubha ostiga oladigan gender roli nomuvofiqligi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin.[57]

Gender rolini kontseptualizatsiya qilish o'rtasidagi assotsiatsiyalar bo'yicha kengaytirilgan tushuncha maxismo salbiy kognitiv-emotsional omillar bilan ruhiy salomatlik mutaxassislari uchun bebaho bo'lishi mumkin.[56] Fragoso va Kashubekning so'zlariga ko'ra, "agar terapevt mijozning yuqori darajadagi mahoratni ma'qul ko'rayotganligini ta'kidlasa, u terapevt mijozning yuqori darajadagi stress va depressiyani boshdan kechirayotganligini tekshirishi mumkin".[55] Shu sababli, "gender rolini baholashni o'tkazish terapevtga mijozning mahorat darajasi va gender rollari ziddiyatlari jihatlari mavjudligini baholashga yordam beradi".[55]

Ko'plab maslahatchi psixologlar, erkaklar uchun maslahat va jinsiy-roli mojarolari va erkaklar sotsializatsiyasi kabi mavzular o'rtasidagi aloqani tushunish bo'yicha keyingi tadqiqotlarga qiziqish bildirmoqda.[58] Ushbu talab yuqori darajadagi psixologlarning bemorlarga jinsiy rollarga nisbatan ba'zi bir egilmas va oldindan o'rnatilgan ideallari odamlarning ijtimoiy kutishdagi yangi o'zgarishlarga munosabati, o'zaro munosabatlarni rivojlantirish va jismoniy va ruhiy salomatlik uchun qanday zararli bo'lishi mumkinligini tushuntirish qobiliyatidan kelib chiqadi.[58] Minnesota universiteti psixologiya professori Tomas Skovxolt kabi mutaxassislar maslahat berish orqali erkaklar uchun samarali vositachilik qilish uchun ko'proq tadqiqotlar o'tkazish kerakligini ta'kidlaydilar.[58]

Ning bir nechta elementlari maxismo erkaklar uchun psixologik zararli hisoblanadi.[59] Raqobat - bu sohada keng muhokama qilinadigan mavzu, chunki tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, unga ijobiy va salbiy ma'nolar mavjud.[59] Jamiyatni shakllantirish qobiliyatlari, faol ishtirok etish, bosimni boshqarish, tanqidiy fikrlash va ustun bo'lishga intilish kabi sog'lom raqobat ko'p foyda keltiradi.[60] Ushbu fazilatlar va xususiyatlar ko'pchilik tomonidan yuqori baholanganligi sababli, ular bolalarga maktabda ham, uyda ham yoshligidan keng o'rgatiladi.[60] Scholars also argue that men could be mentally harmed from competition, such as the one experienced by many at their job, as their impetus to rise above their peers and fulfill the breadwinner concept in many societies can cause stress, jealousy, and psychological strain.[59]

Salbiy oqibatlar

Zo'ravonlik

"Machismo as a cultural factor is substantially associated with crime, violence, and lawlessness independently of the structural control variables"[61] (26-27). One key aspect of Machismo's association to violence is its influence in a man's behavior towards proving his strength[54] (57). While strength and fortitude are recognized as key components to the stereotype of machismo, demonstrations of violence and aggressive actions have become almost expected of men and have been justified as desirable products of being tough and macho. It can be implied that "if you are violent, you are strong and thus more of a man than those who back down or do not fight".[62]

Violent encounters can stem from the desire to protect his family, friends, and particularly his female relatives that are vulnerable to the machismo actions of other men,[54] (59). However, through jealousy, competitiveness, and pride, violent encounters are also often pursued to demonstrate his strength to others. A man's insecurities can be fueled by a number of pressures. These range from societal pressures to "be a man" to internal pressures of overcoming an inferiority complex,[54] (59). This can translate into actions that devalue feminine characteristics and overemphasize the characteristics of strength and superiority attributed to masculinity,[54] (59).

Domestic/sexual violence

In many cases, a man's position of superiority over a female partner can lead him to gain control over different aspects of her life.[63] Since women are viewed as subservient to men in many cultures, men often have power to decide whether his wife can work, study, socialize, participate in the community, or even leave the house. With little opportunity for attaining an income, minimal means to get an education, and the few people they have as a support system, many women become dependent on their husbands financially and emotionally.[63] This leaves many women particularly vulnerable to domestic violence both because it is justified through this belief that men are superior and thus are free to express that superiority and because women cannot leave such an abusive relationship since they rely on their husbands to live.[63]

Jinsiy rollar

The power difference in the relationship between a man and a woman not only creates the social norm of machismo, but by consequence also creates the social concept of marianismo.[64] which is the idea that women are meant to be pure and wholesome. Marianismo derives its origins from Spanish Colonization, as many social constructs from Latin America do. It emphasizes the perfect femininity of a woman and her virginity. One could argue that in the similar manner of Patriarchy, the man is the head of the household while the "fragile" woman is submissive and tends to remain behind the scenes. This brings to focus the idea that women are inferior and are thus dependent on their husbands. As a result, they not only rely on their husbands for financial support, but in the social realm are put at the same level as "children under age 12, mentally ill persons, and spendthrifts"[64] (265). By way of tradition, not only are women given limited opportunities in what they are able to do and to be, but they are also viewed as people that cannot even take care of themselves. Getting married provides a woman with security under her husband's success, but also entails a lifelong commitment towards serving her husband and her children.[64]

While social pressures and expectations play huge roles in the perpetuation of the marianismo construct, this ideology is also taught to girls as they grow up.[64] They learn the importance of performing domestic labor and household chores, such as cooking and cleaning, because this will be the role they will play in their future families. They are taught that these must be done well so that they can adequately serve their families and avoid punishment and discipline by their authoritative husbands.[64]

Some experts hypothesize, since there is a lack of empirical research on gender-role conflicts, that men might suffer from such conflicts because of their fear of femininity.[59]

Professionals from several universities in the United States developed a model around this hypothesis with six behavioral patterns.[59]

  1. Restrictive emotionality: restraining oneself from expressing feelings or not allowing others to express their feelings.[59]
  2. Gomofobiya: the fear of homosexuals or the fear of being a homosexual, not limited to all the stereotypes associated with that.[59]
  3. Socialized control, power, and competition: The desire for the authority of being in charge of the situation, commanding others, and to excel above others.[59]
  4. Restrictive sexual and affectional behavior: Showing little to no affection or sexuality to others.[59]
  5. Obsession with achievement and success: having an ongoing complex that accomplishment, work, and illustriousness constitutes one's value.[59]
  6. Sog'liqni saqlash muammolari: unhealthy diet, stress levels, and lifestyle.[59]

The model was developed around the idea that these six patterns are all influenced by men's the fear of femininity.[59] This theory was then partially supported by a study done by five professionals.[59] Some tools already created to measure gender-role attitudes include the Personal Attitudes Questionnaire, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale, and the Attitudes Toward the Male's Role Scale.[59] Evidence suggests that gender-roles conflicts inflicted by maxismo can lead males who were raised with this mentality and or live in a society in which maxismo is prevalent to suffer high levels of anxiety and low self-esteem.[65] Additionally, studies found that many males facing such conflicts are subject to experience anger, depression, and substance abuse.[66]

Sexually-transmitted infections

One implication of the Machismo concept is the pressure for a man to be sexually experienced.[63] Male infidelity is of common practice in many cultures, as men are not as expected to hold nearly the same level of chastity as women are. Meanwhile, girls are oftentimes brought up to tolerate an unfaithful partner, since it is a part of the machismo culture.[63] As such, this puts populations at risk for transmitting STIs as men seek out multiple sexual partners with little interference from their wives or from society. The risk is further heightened by the lack of condom use by men who are both miseducated about the effectiveness of a condom's protection against STIs and the belief that this wouldn't happen to them.[63] This mentality also deters men from getting themselves tested to know if they are HIV-positive, which leads them to even spread STIs without even knowing it.[63]

Sexuality and sexual orientation

For men in many Latin American countries, their perceived level of masculinity determines the amount of respect they receive in society.[67] Because homosexual men are associated with feminine attributes, they are perceived with lower level of masculinity, and as a result, they receive less respect than heterosexual men in society. This, in turn, can limit their "ability to achieve upward social mobility, to be taken seriously, or to hold positions of power".[67] Also, because homosexuality is seen as taboo or even sinful in many Christian denominations, homosexual men tend to lack a support system, leaving many unable express their true sexuality. To deal with such oppression, they must make the choice either to conform to heteronormativlik and repress their homosexual identity, to assimilate towards masculine ideals and practices while maintaining their homosexual identity in private, or to openly express their homosexuality and suffer ostracization from society.[67] This creates a hierarchy of homosexuality corresponding to how much "respect, power, and social standing" a homosexual man can expect to receive. The more a man acts in accordance with the stereotypical heterosexual gegemonik erkaklik, the higher on the social hierarchy they are.[67]

On the lower end of the hierarchy are the locas yoki marikonlar.[67] These men are those that are deemed as effeminate because they do not live by the social construct of hegemonic masculinity and also publicize their homosexuality. As such, they receive little respect both in society in general and among the LGBT community. Many homosexual men resist being associated with the "loca" stereotype by either demonstrating overt masculinity or by ridiculing and distancing themselves from other "loca" men.[67] A common Puerto Rican saying demonstrates this resistance: "mejor un drogadicto que un pato" (better a drug addict than a faggot).[67]

Homosexuality is perceived as negative or weak within the machista ideal. It doesn't fit into the masculine attributes that maxismo extols. This often leads homosexual or bisexual men living in machista communities to be reluctant about being open about their sexuality because of the negative connotation associated with it. Familismo, which is an idea in Latin cultures that ties an individual with a commitment to his or her family, and homophobia can sometimes cause in homosexual individuals the repression of sexual identity, family separation, and to hide their sexuality. Such situations may hinder personal shame and secret sexual actions that increases HIV and STI risk in Latino homosexuals. Regularly experiencing homophobia and low self-esteem have a connection with sexual risk. A survey conducted by the Virginia Commonwealth University found that men who had high maxismo values or characteristics were more than five times more probable to participate in activities or behave in a way to put them at risk for contracting HIV or an STI.[68]

Because of the negative connotations that come with identifying as homosexual, the definition of homosexuality has become ambiguous. By genderizing sexual practices, only men who are sexually penetrated during sex, locas are considered homosexual while men who are the sexual penetrators during sex can maintain their heterosexual identity.[67] Also, in many Latin American countries, the media portrayal of homosexual men often play into the stereotype of an effeminate, flamboyant male role. As a result, the idea of a masculine homosexual man remains almost unheard of and privatized by the community and by society, which allows this stereotype of homosexual men as locas to persist.[67]

Positive implications

Altruizm

Machismo can also pressure men to defend the well-being of his loved ones, his community, and his country.[69] It allows him to perform altruistic acts in order to provide protection to others. In the past, and even in many current societies where people rely on subsistence agriculture and economy to survive, machismo helped provide men with the courage to drive off potential threats to protect his land and his crop.[70] Today, this contributes to the substantial gender gap in the makeup of military and armed forces around the world, even considering growing female representation in the military today.[69] Beyond the realm of the armed forces, however, the machismo ideology can also drive men to work towards service because he is in a "superior" position, which enables him to demonstrate his success by offering his own strengths to help others. Their dependence on him can validate his ego and help maintain this difference in power.[69]

Another approach to machismo is that of the "caballerismo" ideology,[71] that because a man is the head of the household, he is responsible for the well-being of the members of his family. This describes the call for a man to be chivalrous, nurturing, and protective of his loved ones.[71] It translates to the belief that a true man would never act violent towards his wife or children, but would instead ensure that no harm come to them. Machismo, seen through this approach, inspires men to create "harmonious interpersonal relationships through respect for self and others".[72] This allows fathers to maintain positive, intimate relationships with his children and share a more egalitarian relationship with his wife.

Men and work

In many cultures in the world, there is a long-standing tradition that the man is the head of the household and is responsible for providing for the family.[73] In some cases, this may mean he is the only parent working in paid-work while in other conditions this may mean both parents are working but the man is expected to be the primary income contributor. In either case, part of the masculine identity and his self-respect is defined by his ability to provide for his family. If he is unable to do so, or if he brings home less money than that of his wife, his position as head of the family is challenged.[73] In some cultures, this may mean ultimate shame for him if he cannot fulfill this role: "that being unable to find work meant that 'there is no recognition even to [his] humanity] ... Those who do not work are like dead people'"[73] (212). Beyond providing economic support for his family, a man engaging in paid-work is seen as honorable because he is sacrificing time and energy that he could be spending with his family. These are costs that cannot be repaid and thus are a priceless investment on his part towards the well-being of his family unit.[73]

Qadimgi tarix

Although culture may present homophobia, misogyny and masculinity as innately bundled together, history presents different models of masculinity[iqtibos kerak ] Masculinity was part of homosexuality in ancient Greece. Neither was it all misogyny. Goddesses were worshiped in ibodatxonalar, and the female poet Safo wrote of Lesbian love. In ancient times, women too had their share of machismo-like vices, and virtues. Haqida ma'lumot Amazonlar tells of women heroically fighting as defenders in the Troyan urushi, and according to National Geographic, "Archaeology shows that these fierce women also smoked pot, got tattoos, killed and loved men."[74] Homosexual-machismo helped thwart Sparta's power hold over ancient Greek city-states: In 371BC the Thebes muqaddas guruhi was an elite fighting unit composed of 150 homosexual male pairs. They were credited with helping remove Sparta's military domination, and their actions were linked to the spread of G'arb madaniyati: Theban General Epaminondalar o'rgatgan Makedoniyalik Filipp II military tactics and diplomacy used to reunify the Greeks under Makedoniya. Uning o'g'li Buyuk Aleksandr was credited with the Hellenization of Persia, Egypt and Jerusalem in 332BC. The Greeks had the Hebrew scriptures translated into the Septuagint, fostering the spread of Judaism throughout the region.

Alexander & Hephaestion had been heavily influenced by Homer's Iliada, particularly the masculine love between Achilles & Patroclus. They paired themselves as their modern incarnation, nearly a millennium after the Trojan War. Later, the Roman Empire shared a degree of homosexuality alongside the virtues of masculinity. In 19BC, Virgil's epic poem Eneyid contributed to the folklore of Rome, while depicting the love of fellow warriors Nisus & Euryalus. In 128AD the love of Emperor Hadrian & Antinous was celebrated in the public. Back in Hebrew culture, in 1006BC,[75] the covenant between David & Jonathan qayd etilgan Shomuilning kitoblari.[76] Gradually, the Septuagint would be expanded with new Greek books, eventually forming Christian Bibles, the earliest extant versions being the Vatikan kodeksi va Sinay kodeksi from 300AD-360AD.

Kelishishlar

Machismo changes some dynamics of life in a way have both positive and negative effects. For example, machismo grants women authority in the home but at the expense of a man's relationship to his children and work related stress having worked long hours.

Female respect and responsibility

In the traditional household, the man is expected to work and provide for his family while his wife stays home to care for the children.[77] As such, fathers are seen as a distant authority figure to his children while mothers assume the majority of responsibility in this domestic realm and thus gain agency and the ultimate respect of her children.[77] With the rise of female power, decisions in the household can take on a more egalitarian approach, where mothers can have equal say in the household. Meanwhile, the machismo mentality in men as a provider and protector of the family can inspire him to persevere through challenges introduced by work.[77]

"Within each of our memories there Is the Image of a father who worked long hours, suffered to keep his family alive, united, and who struggled to maintain his dignity. Such a man had little time for concern over his "masculinity". Certainly he did not have ten children because of his machismo, but because he was a human being, poor, and without "access" to birth control."[78]

"Machismo ideology is as beneficial to women in that it encourages their husbands to provide for and protect them and their children. Further, by subordinating their needs to those of their family, women earn a lifetime of support from their husbands and children and in this way gain some control in the family"[79] (90). Because fathers are typically more invested in paid labor, mothers typically spend more time with the children and thus gain credibility in important decisions such as a child's schooling or a child's health care. Nevertheless, in these machist households the fathers will have the last word whenever they choose to, as they are the breadwinners, and all the family ultimately depends on them for survival. In case of a separation or divorce, it is typically the mothers who suffer the most, since they did not invest their time in their career, and will probably still have to provide and care for the children.

Prevalence and acculturation in the 21st century

Despite machismo's documented history in Hispanic and Latin American communities, research throughout the years has shown a shift in prevalence among younger generations. In Brazil, researchers found that while the majority of young men interviewed held traditional attitudes on gender roles and machismo, there was a small sample of men that did not agree with these views.[80] Macho attitudes still prevail, the values place women into a lower standard.

Acculturation and education have been proposed to be a factor in how machismo is passed down through Hispanic and Latino generations in the United States.[81] According to researchers who measured self-reported levels of machismo among 72 university students, 37 whom identified as Hispanic, the "somewhat unique population of college-educated students who have been heavily influence[d] by egalitarian attitudes, values, and norms" may explain why ethnicity did not directly predict machismo attitudes in two studies.[81] Because education and acculturation of American values in Latino individuals may result in the development of attitudes supporting gender-equality, this demonstrates how machismo may gradually decline over time in the United States.

Moreover, researchers analyzed a large cross-sectional survey among 36 countries, including 6 Latin American countries, from 2009 and discovered countries with less gender inequality had adolescents that supported attitudes of gender-equality, though females were more likely to support LGBT and non-traditional genders than males.[82] While the mean score of gender-equality attitudes was 49.83, with lower scores indicating less gender equality attitudes, Latin American countries scored the following: Chile (51.554), Colombia (49.416), Dominican Republic (43.586), Guatemala (48.890), Mexico (45.596), Paraguay (48.370).[82] Machismo is associated with gender inequality. Therefore, this study suggests that Latino individuals living in their native countries may support more machismo attitudes than Latino immigrants adopting U.S. values of gender equality.

Masuda also studied self-reported measures of sexual relationship power among 40 recently immigrated Latino couples found data against machismo attitudes since women perceived themselves to have greater control and decision-making roles in their relationships.[83] This serves as a stark contrast because machismo traditionally creates a relationship dynamic that relegates women to submissive roles and men to dominant roles. Again, acculturation may play a role in this dynamic shift because the couples averaged about 8 years since immigrating to the United States.[83]

Acculturation has not only been associated with a decline in machismo, it has appeared to affect how it manifests and how it is transferred through generations. Recently, Mexican American adolescents in romantic relationships demonstrated "adaptive machismo", which consist of the positive qualities of machismo, such as "emotional availability, demonstrations of affection, desire to financially care for a female partner, responsibility in child-rearing, and/or to the community or friends", during conflict resolution scenarios.[84] Furthermore, while Mexican American adolescent males were found to have certain values and attitudes, such as caballerismo, passed down by their families, machismo was not one of them.[85] Because families are not teaching machismo, this implies that it may be learned from sources separate from the family unit, such as peers and the media.[27] Ultimately, these findings suggest that machismo is changing in terms of its prevalence, manifestation, and socialization.

Activism around machismo

Yosh lordlar

Founded in 1969, the Yosh lordlar were an organization of Puerto Rican revolutionary nationalists in Chicago and New York City.[86] Working toward the liberation of all oppressed people, the Young Lords opposed racism, capitalism, and assimilationist ideologies.[87] Seeking self-determination and community control of institutions and land, the organization's leaders made a distinct choice to denounce machismo in their revised 13-Point Program and Platform. Previously reading, "We want equality for women. Machismo must be revolutionary... Not oppressive.", the organization moved toward a more radical position, stating "We want equality for women. Down with machismo and male chauvinism".[88] This revised version of the organization's ideological platform was published in their newspaper, Palante in November 1970 - thirteen months following the original platform's publication in October 1969.

The Young Lords opposed machismo because, as member Gloria González articulated in her 1971 Palante editorial, it serves to divide members of their movement.[89] Further, the organization believed machismo serves as an extension of capitalism, a system they opposed. They understood the division of labor, including both reproductive labor va productive labor, to perpetuate the marginalization of women. They also understood the sexual objectification of women to be problematic and damaging to potentially revolutionary leaders. Moving toward this platform, however, would not have been possible without the Women of the Young Lords who pressured the organization's leadership to reject machismo during their East Coast Regional Central Committee retreat in May 1970.[90] At this retreat the group studied and theorized, formally denouncing machismo because if power was to be transferred to the people, it would have to be the hands of all the people; and if this were to be possible, the Young Lords must reject "attitudes of superiority that brothers had towards sisters" and the "passivity of sisters toward brothers (allowing brothers to come out of a macho or chauvinist, superior bag)".[91]

Shuningdek qarang

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