Yadro va radiatsion avariyalar va hodisalar - Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

2011 yilgi yapon tilidan keyin Fukusima yadroviy halokati, hukumat mamlakatdagi 54 ta atom elektr stantsiyasini yopdi. 2013 yilga kelib, Fukusima maydoni saqlanib qolmoqda radioaktiv, 160 mingga yaqin evakuatsiya qilinganlar hanuzgacha vaqtinchalik uylarda yashaydilar, ammo hech kim o'lmagan yoki radiatsiya ta'siridan o'lishi kutilmoqda.^[1] The qiyin tozalash ishi 40 va undan ko'proq yilni oladi va o'nlab milliard dollar turadi.^[2][3]

Havodan tushadigan yo'llar radioaktiv ifloslanish insonga

The Kashivazaki-Kariwa atom elektr stantsiyasi, dunyodagi eng yirik yagona atom elektr stantsiyasi bo'lgan ettita blokli Yaponiya atom zavodi 2007 yilda sodir bo'lgan zilziladan so'ng 21 oy davomida to'liq ishdan chiqqan edi. Xavfsizlikning muhim tizimlari zilziladan zarar ko'rmaganligi aniqlandi.^[4][5]

A yadroviy va radiatsion avariya bilan belgilanadi Xalqaro atom energiyasi agentligi (IAEA) "odamlar, atrof-muhit yoki ob'ekt uchun jiddiy oqibatlarga olib kelgan voqea" sifatida. Bunga misollar kiradi shaxslarga o'limga olib keladigan ta'sir, radioaktiv izotop uchun atrof-muhit, yoki reaktor yadrosi eritiladi."^[6] "Katta yadro halokati" ning eng yaxshi namunasi, unda a reaktor yadrosi zararlangan va sezilarli darajada radioaktiv izotoplar kabi, ozod qilinadi Chernobil fojiasi 1986 yilda va Fukushima Daiichi yadroviy halokati 2011 yilda.^[7]

Yadroviy avariyalarning ta'siri birinchisidan beri munozara mavzusiga aylandi yadro reaktorlari 1954 yilda qurilgan va bu muhim omil bo'lgan jamoatchilikning yadroviy inshootlarga nisbatan tashvishi.^[8] Biroq, baxtsiz hodisalar xavfini kamaytirish yoki atrof-muhitga chiqariladigan radioaktivlik miqdorini minimallashtirish bo'yicha texnik choralar qabul qilindi inson xatosi va "turli xil ta'sirga ega bo'lgan baxtsiz hodisalar, shuningdek, o'tkazib yuborilgan voqealar va hodisalar yaqinida sodir bo'lgan".^[8][9] 2014 yil holatiga ko'ra, 100 dan ortiq jiddiy yadroviy baxtsiz hodisalar va atom energiyasidan foydalanish bilan bog'liq hodisalar ro'y bergan. Chernobil falokatidan keyin ellik etti baxtsiz hodisa yoki og'ir voqealar sodir bo'ldi va yadro bilan bog'liq barcha baxtsiz hodisalar / og'ir hodisalarning taxminan 60% AQShda sodir bo'ldi.^[10] Jiddiy atom elektr stantsiyasi baxtsiz hodisalarga quyidagilar kiradi Fukushima Daiichi yadroviy halokati (2011), Chernobil fojiasi (1986), Uch Mile orolidagi avariya (1979) va SL-1 baxtsiz hodisa (1961).^[11] Atom energiyasidagi baxtsiz hodisalar hayotni yo'qotish va qayta tiklash ishlari uchun katta pul xarajatlarini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin.^[12]

Yadro bilan ishlaydigan suv osti kemasi baxtsiz hodisalarga quyidagilar kiradi K-19 (1961), K-11 (1965), K-27 (1968), K-140 (1968), K-429 (1970), K-222 (1980) va K-431 (1985)^[11][13][14] baxtsiz hodisalar. Jiddiy radiatsion hodisalar / baxtsiz hodisalar quyidagilarni o'z ichiga oladi Kishtim falokati, Shisha yong'in, Kosta-Rikada radioterapiya hodisasi,^[15] The Saragosada radioterapiya hodisasi,^[16] The Marokashdagi radiatsion avariya,^[17] The Goiania avariyasi,^[18] The Mexiko shahridagi radiatsion avariya, Tailandda radioterapiya bo'linmasida avariya,^[19] va Mayapuri radiologik falokati Hindistonda.^[19]

IAEA so'nggi yadroviy baxtsiz hodisalar haqida xabar beruvchi veb-sayt yuritadi.^[20]

Yadro zavodidagi baxtsiz hodisalar

Tark qilingan shahar Pripyat, Ukraina, quyidagilarga amal qiling Chernobil fojiasi. Chernobil AESi orqada.

Bugungi kunga qadar sodir bo'lgan eng yomon yadro hodisasi Chernobil fojiasi 1986 yilda sodir bo'lgan Ukraina. Ushbu voqea natijasida 31 kishi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri halok bo'ldi va taxminan 7 milliard dollarlik mulkka zarar etkazildi. Tomonidan 2005 yilda nashr etilgan tadqiqot Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti oxir-oqibat sezilarli darajada radiatsiya darajasiga duchor bo'lganlar orasida baxtsiz hodisa bilan bog'liq holda 4000 ga yaqin saraton kasalligidan o'lim bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilmoqda.^[21] Voqea sodir bo'lgan radioaktiv tushish Belorussiya, Ukraina va Rossiya hududlarida to'plangan. Boshqa tadqiqotlar Chernobilda milliondan ortiq saraton kasalligidan o'lgan deb taxmin qilmoqda.^[22][23] Oxir-oqibat saraton kasalligidan o'lishni taxmin qilish juda bahsli. Sanoat, BMT va DOE agentliklari, qonun bilan tasdiqlanadigan saraton kasalligidan o'lganlarning kamligi tabiiy ofat kuzatilishi mumkin deb da'vo qilmoqda. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti, DOE va sanoat idoralari epidemiologik o'limga olib keladigan o'lim chegaralaridan foydalanadilar, chunki ularning pastligi ularning tabiiy ofatdan kelib chiqishini qonuniy ravishda isbotlab bo'lmaydi. Mustaqil tadqiqotlar o'limga olib keladigan saratonni dozadan va populyatsiyadan statistik ravishda hisoblab chiqadi, garchi qo'shimcha saraton soni epidemiologik o'lchov chegarasidan 1% atrofida bo'lsa. Bu ikki xil tushunchadir va taxminlarning katta o'zgarishiga olib keladi. Ikkalasi ham turli xil ma'nolarga ega oqilona proektsiyalardir. Baxtsiz hodisadan ko'p o'tmay, ushbu hududlardan taxminan 350,000 kishi majburan ko'chirildi. Chernobilni tozalashga 6000 kishi jalb qilingan va 10.800 kvadrat kilometr ifloslangan.^[24][25]

Ijtimoiy olim va energetika siyosati mutaxassisi, Benjamin K. Sovacool 1952 yildan 2009 yilgacha butun dunyoda atom elektr stansiyalarida 99 ta avariya sodir bo'lganligi haqida xabar bergan (bu inson hayotiga zomin bo'lgan yoki 50 000 AQSh dollaridan ortiq moddiy zarar etkazadigan hodisalar sifatida aniqlangan, AQSh federal hukumati yirik energetikani aniqlash uchun foydalanadigan miqdor) 20,5 milliard AQSh dollarlik moddiy zarar etkazilganligi to'g'risida baxtsiz hodisalar to'g'risida xabar berish kerak).^[10] Atom elektr stansiyasidagi avariyalar bilan bog'liq o'lim hollari nisbatan kam bo'lgan.^[10] Ko'pgina reaktorlarning baxtsiz hodisalari va ushbu hodisalarning fenomenlari bo'yicha ilmiy sharh Mark Foreman tomonidan nashr etilgan.^[26]

Yadro reaktorining hujumlari

Atom zavodlarining qasddan qilingan hujumga nisbatan zaifligi mintaqada tashvish uyg'otmoqda yadroviy xavfsizlik va xavfsizlik.^[40] Atom elektr stantsiyalari, fuqarolik tadqiqot reaktorlari, ba'zi dengiz yoqilg'isi inshootlari, uranni boyitish zavodlar, yoqilg'i ishlab chiqaradigan zavodlar va hattoki potentsial uran konlari keng tarqalishiga olib kelishi mumkin bo'lgan hujumlarga moyil radioaktiv ifloslanish. Hujum tahdidi bir nechta umumiy turlarga ega: qurilmalarga qo'mondonlik kabi er usti hujumlar, agar ular o'chirilsa reaktorga olib kelishi mumkin yadro erishi yoki radioaktivlikning keng tarqalishi; tashqi reaksiyalar, masalan samolyot reaktor kompleksiga qulashi yoki kiberhujumlar.^[41]

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining 11 sentyabr voqealari bo'yicha komissiyasi, atom elektr stantsiyalari dastlab ushbu maqsad uchun ko'rib chiqilgan potentsial maqsadlar ekanligini aniqladi 2001 yil 11 sentyabr hujumlar. Agar terroristik guruhlar xavfsizlik tizimlariga zarar etkazishi mumkin yadro erishi atom elektr stantsiyasida va / yoki yetarli darajada zarar ko'rganda sarflangan yoqilg'i hovuzlar, bunday hujum keng tarqalgan radioaktiv ifloslanishni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin. The Amerika olimlari federatsiyasi agar atom energiyasidan foydalanish sezilarli darajada kengaytirilsa, yadro inshootlari atrof-muhitga radioaktivlikni keltirib chiqaradigan hujumlardan juda xavfsiz holatga keltirilishi kerak. Yangi reaktor dizaynlari o'ziga xos xususiyatlarga ega passiv yadro xavfsizligi yordam berishi mumkin. Qo'shma Shtatlarda NRC kamida uch yilda bir marta Atom elektr stantsiyasining (AES) uchastkalarida "Force on Force" (FOF) mashqlarini o'tkazadi.^[41]

Yadro reaktorlari davomida afzal qilingan maqsadlarga aylanadi harbiy mojaro va so'nggi o'ttiz yil ichida harbiy havo hujumlari, bosib olish, bosqinlar va kampaniyalar paytida bir necha bor hujum qilingan.^[42] Turli xil harakatlar fuqarolik itoatsizligi 1980 yildan beri tinchlik guruhi tomonidan Plowshares Yadro qurollari ob'ektlariga qanday qilib kirib borish mumkinligini ko'rsatdi va guruhning harakatlari xavfsizlikning favqulodda buzilishini anglatadi yadro qurollari Qo'shma Shtatlardagi o'simliklar. The Milliy yadro xavfsizligi boshqarmasi 2012 yilgi Plowshares aktsiyasining jiddiyligini tan oldi. Yadro qurolini tarqatmaslik siyosat bo'yicha mutaxassislar "hukumatning eng xavfli harbiy materiallarini ishlab chiqaradigan va saqlaydigan ob'ektlarda xavfsizlikni ta'minlash uchun xususiy pudratchilarning ishlatilishini" shubha ostiga olishdi.^[43] Yadro qurollari bo'yicha materiallar qora bozor global muammo,^[44][45] va kichik, qo'pol yadroviy qurolning portlashidan xavotirda iflos bomba tomonidan a jangari guruh katta shaharda, hayot va mol-mulkning katta yo'qotishlariga olib keladi.^[46][47]

Kiberhujumlarning soni va nafisligi o'sib bormoqda. Stuxnet a kompyuter qurti tomonidan yaratilgan deb ishonilgan 2010 yil iyun oyida topilgan Qo'shma Shtatlar va Isroil Eronning atom inshootlariga hujum qilish. U xavfsizlik moslamalarini o'chirib qo'ydi, natijada santrifüjlar nazoratdan chiqib ketdi.^[48] Ning kompyuterlari Janubiy Koreya atom stansiyasi operatori (KHNP ) 2014 yilning dekabrida buzilgan. Kiberhujumlarda minglab odamlar qatnashgan fishing zararli kodlarni o'z ichiga olgan elektron pochta xabarlari va ma'lumotlar o'g'irlangan.^[49]

Radiatsiya va boshqa baxtsiz hodisalar va hodisalar

Doktor Jozef G. Xemilton U.C.da amalga oshirilgan inson plutoniy tajribalari uchun asosiy tadqiqotchi bo'lgan. 1944 yildan 1947 yilgacha San-Frantsisko.^[50] Xemilton 1950 yilda insoniyatning keyingi eksperimentlarini susaytirgan esdalik yozuvini yozgan, chunki AEC "katta tanqidlarga" ochiq qoladi, chunki taklif qilingan eksperimentlar "biroz" Byuxenvald teginish. "^[51]

Plutonyumning to'rtta misolidan biri (Pu-239) 1957 yong'inida paydo bo'lgan Rokki Kvartiralar Yadro qurollari zavodi. Ommaviy norozilik va birlashgan Federal tergov byurosi va Qo'shma Shtatlar atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi 1989 yilda reyd zavodda ishlab chiqarishni to'xtatdi.

Radioaktiv chiqindilarni saqlash uchun korroziyalangan va oqayotgan 55 galon baraban Rokki kvartiralar zavodi, pastki tomoni ko'rsatilishi uchun uning yon tomoniga o'girildi.

The Hanford sayti hajmi bo'yicha AQShning yuqori darajadagi radioaktiv chiqindilarining uchdan ikki qismini tashkil etadi. Yadro reaktorlari Hanford saytidagi daryo bo'yida joylashgan Kolumbiya daryosi 1960 yil yanvar oyida.

2014 yil 14 fevralda, WIPPda radioaktiv materiallar buzilgan saqlash barabanidan oqib chiqdi (rasmga qarang). DOE tomonidan o'tkazilgan bir nechta baxtsiz hodisalar tahlili korxonada "xavfsizlik madaniyati" yo'qligini ko'rsatdi.^[52]

18000 km² kengligi Semipalatinsk poligoni (qizil bilan ko'rsatilgan), bu maydonni qamrab oladi Uelsning kattaligi. Sovet Ittifoqi 1949 yildan 1989 yilgacha Semipalatinskda 456 yadro sinovlarini o'tkazdi, ularning mahalliy aholi yoki atrof muhitga ta'siri juda kam edi. Radiatsiya ta'sirining to'liq ta'siri Sovet hukumati tomonidan ko'p yillar davomida yashiringan va faqat 1991 yilda sinov maydonchasi yopilganidan beri paydo bo'ldi.^[53]

2007 yil ISO radioaktivlik xavf belgisi. Qizil fon favqulodda xavfni etkazish uchun mo'ljallangan va bu belgi favqulodda kuchli radiatsiya maydonlariga duch keladigan yoki noto'g'ri foydalanish yoki buzish natijasida hosil bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan joylarda yoki uskunalarda ishlatilishi kerak. Maqsad shundaki, oddiy foydalanuvchi bunday belgini hech qachon ko'rmaydi, ammo uskunani qisman demontaj qilgandan so'ng, odam ishini to'xtatishi va voqea joyini tark etishi kerakligi to'g'risida ogohlantiradi.

Jiddiy radiatsiya va boshqa baxtsiz hodisalar va hodisalarga quyidagilar kiradi:

1940-yillar

• 1945 yil may: Albert Stivens a-ning bir nechta mavzularidan biri edi inson radiatsiya tajribasi, va AOK qilingan plutonyum uning bilimi yoki xabardor roziligisiz. Garchi Stivens plutoniy tajribalari davomida eng yuqori dozada nurlanishni olgan odam bo'lsa ham, u o'rganilgan birinchi yoki oxirgi mavzu emas edi. 4 yoshdan 69 yoshgacha bo'lgan o'n sakkiz kishiga plutonyum yuborildi. Eksperiment uchun tanlangan sub'ektlarga yakuniy kasallik tashxisi qo'yilgan. Ular in'ektsiya paytidan 6 kundan 44 yilgacha yashagan.^[50] 18 kishidan sakkiztasi ukol qilinganidan keyin ikki yil ichida vafot etdi.^[50] Ularning barchasi avvalgi mavjud kasallik yoki yurak kasalliklaridan vafot etgan. Hech kim plutonyumning o'zidan o'lmadi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Manxetten loyihasi bo'yicha inson tajribalarida Rochester, Chikago va Oak Ridge kasallariga plutonyum AOK qilingan.^[50][54][55]
• 1945 yil 6–9 avgust: Prezidentning buyrug'i bilan Garri S. Truman, uran-qurol dizayni bomba, Kichkina bola, Yaponiyaning Xirosima shahriga qarshi ishlatilgan. Semiz erkak, Nagasaki shahriga qarshi plutonyum implosion-dizayn bomba ishlatilgan. Ikki qurol taxminan 120,000 dan 140,000 gacha o'ldirilgan tinch aholi va harbiy xizmatchilar yillar davomida minglab odamlar vafot etdi radiatsiya kasalligi va tegishli saraton.
• 1945 yil avgust: AQShdagi muhim voqea Los Alamos milliy laboratoriyasi. Garri Daglian o'ladi.^[56]
• 1946 yil may: Los-Alamos milliy laboratoriyasidagi muhim voqea. Louis Slotin o'ladi.^[56]

1950-yillar

• 13 fevral 1950 yil: a Convair B-36B halokatga uchradi shimoliy Britaniya Kolumbiyasi qochib ketganidan keyin a Mark IV atom bombasi. Bu birinchi shunday edi yadro qurolini yo'qotish tarixda.
• 1952 yil 12-dekabr: NRX AECL Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario, Kanada. Qisman erib ketish, taxminan 10 000 kuryer chiqarildi.^[57] Ikki yillik tozalashga taxminan 1202 kishi jalb qilingan.^[58] Kelajakdagi prezident Jimmi Karter avariyani tozalashga yordam bergan ko'plab odamlardan biri edi.^[59]
• 1953 yil 15-mart: Mayak, sobiq Sovet Ittifoqi. Muhim voqea sodir bo'ldi. Zavod xodimlarining ifloslanishi yuz berdi.^[56]
• 1954 yil 1-mart: 15-tog'li tog ' Bravo qal'asi 1954 yilgi otishma sezilarli darajada tarqaldi yadro qulashi Tinch okeanining ko'plab orollarida, shu jumladan bir nechta aholi yashagan va ba'zilari evakuatsiya qilinmagan.^[60]
  • 1 mart 1954 yil: Daigo Fukuryū Maru, Bravo qal'asidan tushgan zararlar bilan ifloslangan yapon baliq ovlash kemasi, 1 kishi halok bo'ldi.
  • 1954 yil 2-mart: AQSh dengiz kuchlari tanker USSPatapsko suzib ketayotganda Bravo qal'asining qulashi bilan ifloslangan Enewetak Atoll ga Pearl Harbor.
• 1957 yil sentyabr: a plutonyum yong'in sodir bo'lgan Rokki kvartiralar zavodi, natijada ifloslanish 71-bino va plutonyumning atmosferaga chiqarilishi, 818,600 AQSh dollarlik zarar etkazgan.
• 1957 yil 21-may: Mayak, sobiq Sovet Ittifoqi. 20-sonli fabrikada oksalat dekantat kollektsiyasida boyitilgan uran oksalatini cho'kindi filtrlashdan keyin muhim voqea sodir bo'ldi. Olti kishiga 300 dan 1000 remgacha bo'lgan dozalar berildi (to'rtta ayol va ikkita erkak), bitta ayol vafot etdi.^[56]
• 1957 yil 29 sentyabr: Kishtim falokati: Yadroviy chiqindilarni saqlash uchun mo'ljallangan tankning portlashi Mayak o'simlik, Rossiya. Yaqin atrofdagi radioaktiv ifloslanish natijasida 200 dan ortiq saraton o'limiga olib kelishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, darhol o'limga olib kelmaydi; 270 ming kishi xavfli ta'sirga duchor bo'ldi nurlanish darajalar. 1958 yildan 1991 yilgacha o'ttizdan ortiq kichik jamoalar Sovet xaritalaridan chiqarildi.^[61] (INES 6 darajasi)^[28]
• 1957 yil oktyabr: Shisha yong'in, Buyuk Britaniya. Yong'in "plutonyum qoziq" ni yoqadi (havo sovutadigan, grafit moderatsiyalangan, uran bilan ishlaydigan reaktor, u plutoniy va izotop ishlab chiqarish uchun ishlatilgan) va atrofdagi sut xo'jaliklarini ifloslantiradi.^[10][62] Taxminan 33 saraton kasalligidan o'lim.^[10][62]
• 1957-1964: Rocketdyne Los-Anjelesdan 30 mil shimolda, Kaliforniya shtatidagi Santa Susanna Field laboratoriyasida joylashgan bo'lib, o'nta eksperimental yadroviy reaktor ishlaydi. Ko'p sonli baxtsiz hodisalar, shu jumladan asosiy erish. O'sha davrdagi eksperimental reaktorlardan zamonaviy yadro reaktorlarini himoya qiladigan bir xil turdagi inshoot tuzilmalari talab qilinmagan. Rocketdyne-da sodir bo'lgan baxtsiz hodisalar bo'lgan Sovuq urush davrida, bu hodisalar Energetika vazirligi tomonidan ommaviy ravishda e'lon qilinmagan.^[63]
• 1958: Milliy tadqiqot universal reaktorida (NRU) yoqilg'ining uzilishi va yong'in, Chalk River, Kanada.
• 1958 yil 10-fevral: Mayak, sobiq Sovet Ittifoqi. SCR zavodidagi muhim voqea. Eritmada turli xil uran kontsentratsiyali silindrsimon idishda boyitilgan uranning kritik massasini aniqlash bo'yicha tajribalar o'tkazildi. Xodimlar YADM (yadro bo'linadigan material) bilan ishlash qoidalari va ko'rsatmalarini buzdilar. SCR xodimlari 7600 dan 13000 remgacha bo'lgan dozalarni olganlarida. Uch kishi vafot etdi, bir kishi radiatsiya kasalligiga chalindi va ko'r bo'lib qoldi.^[56]
• 1958 yil 30-dekabr: Sesil Kelli avtohalokati Los Alamos milliy laboratoriyasida.^[56][64]
• 1959 yil mart: Santa Susana dala laboratoriyasi, Los Anjeles, Kaliforniya. Yoqilg'ini qayta ishlash korxonasida yong'in.
• 1959 yil iyul: Santa Susana dala laboratoriyasi, Los Anjeles, Kaliforniya. Qisman erish.

1960-yillar

• 7 iyun 1960 yil: 1960 yil Dik Dix IM-99 avariyasi vayron qilingan a CIM-10 Bomark yadroviy raketa va boshpana va ifloslangan BOMARC raketa halokati haqida sayt Nyu-Jersida.
• 1961 yil 24-yanvar: the 1961 yil Goldsboro B-52 halokati yaqinida sodir bo'lgan Goldsboro, Shimoliy Karolina. A B-52 Stratofortress ikkitasini olib yurish Mark 39 yadroviy bombalar havoda tarqalib, bu jarayonda yadro yukini tashladi.^[65]
• 1961 yil iyul: sovet suv osti kemasi K-19 baxtsiz hodisa. Sakkizta halok bo'lganlar va 30 dan ortiq odamlar radiatsiya ta'siriga duchor bo'ldilar.^[66]
• 1962 yil 21 mart - avgust: Mexiko shahridagi radiatsion avariya, to'rt o'lim.
• 1964 yil 23-iyul: Yog'och daryosi Junctiondagi avariya. 1 o'lim bilan yakunlandi
• 1964, 1969: Santa Susana dala laboratoriyasi, Los Anjeles, Kaliforniya. Qisman erish.
• 1965 yil Filippin dengizining A-4 halokati, qaerda a Skyhawk yadroviy qurolga ega hujum samolyoti dengizga qulab tushdi.^[67] Uchuvchi, samolyot va B43 yadro bombasi hech qachon tiklanmagan.^[68] Faqat 1980 yillarga qadar Pentagon bir megatonli bomba yo'qolishini aniqladi.^[69]
• 1965 yil oktyabr: AQSh Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi ekspeditsiya yadroviy telemetriya rölesini tinglash moslamasidan voz kechadi Nanda Devi^[70]
• 1966 yil 17-yanvar: The 1966 yil Palomares B-52 halokati sodir bo'lganda a B-52G bombardimonchi ning USAF bilan to'qnashdi KC-135 tankeri davomida havoda yonilg'i quyish sohillari yaqinida Ispaniya. KC-135 yonilg'i yuki yonib ketganda, butunlay yo'q bo'lib ketib, ekipajning barcha to'rt a'zosi halok bo'ldi. B-52G samolyoti parchalanib ketib, kemadagi etti nafar ekipaj a'zolaridan uch nafari halok bo'ldi.^[71] To'rt kishidan Mk28 turi vodorod bombalari B-52G tashilgan,^[72] uchtasi yaqinda quruqlikdan topilgan Almeriya, Ispaniya. Qurollarning ikkitasida yadro bo'lmagan portlovchi moddalar erga tekkanida portlagan, natijada 2 kvadrat kilometr (490 akr) (0,78 kvadrat mil) maydon ifloslangan. radioaktiv plutonyum.^[73] Ichiga tushgan to'rtinchisi O'rtayer dengizi, 2 oylik qidiruvdan so'ng buzilmagan holda tiklandi.^[74]
• 21 yanvar 1968 yil: 1968 yil Thule aviabazasi B-52 halokati ishtirok etgan a Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari havo kuchlari (USAF) B-52 bombardimonchi. Samolyotda to'rttasi bo'lgan vodorod bombalari kabinadagi yong'in ekipajni samolyotdan voz kechishga majbur qilganida. Olti ekipaj a'zosi xavfsiz ravishda chiqarib yuborildi, ammo yo'q biri chiqarish joyi qutqarib qolmoqchi bo'lganida o'ldirilgan. Bombardimonchi ustiga qulagan dengiz muzi yilda Grenlandiya, yadroviy foydali yukning yorilishiga va tarqalishiga olib keldi, bu esa keng tarqalishiga olib keldi radioaktiv ifloslanish.
• 1968 yil may: Sovet dengiz osti kemasi K-27 eritish yaqinidagi reaktor. 9 kishi vafot etdi, 83 kishi jarohat oldi.^[14]
• 1968 yil avgustda: Sovet yadroviy ballistik raketasi suvosti kemalarini ishlab chiqish loyihasi 667A. Yadro energiyasi bilan ishlaydi Yanki sinfidagi suvosti kemasi K-140 ta'mirlash uchun Severodvinskdagi dengiz hovlisida edi. 27 avgust kuni kemani modernizatsiya qilish bo'yicha ishlardan so'ng reaktor quvvatining nazoratsiz ko'payishi yuz berdi. Tekshirish tayoqchalari yuqori joyga ko'tarilganda reaktorlardan biri avtomatik ravishda ishga tushirildi. Quvvat normal miqdordan 18 baravar oshdi, reaktorda bosim va harorat darajasi odatdagidan to'rt baravar oshdi. Reaktorning avtomatik ishga tushirilishi boshqaruv pog'onasi elektr kabellarining noto'g'ri o'rnatilishi va operator xatosi tufayli yuzaga keldi. Kema bortidagi radiatsiya darajasi yomonlashdi.
• 1968 yil 10-dekabr: Mayak, sobiq Sovet Ittifoqi. Muhim voqea sodir bo'ldi. Plutonyum eritmasi xavfli geometriya bilan silindrsimon idishga quyildi. Bir kishi vafot etdi, boshqasi yuqori dozada radiatsiya va radiatsiya kasalligini oldi, shundan so'ng uning ikki oyog'i va o'ng qo'li amputatsiya qilindi.^[56]
• 1969 yil yanvar: Lucens reaktori Shveytsariyada g'orning katta miqdorda radioaktiv ifloslanishiga olib keladigan yadro qisman eriydi.

1970-yillar

• 1974-1976 yillarda: Kolumbus radioterapiya hodisasi, 10 kishi halok bo'lgan, kobalt-60 manbasidan 88 ta jarohati.^[14][75]
• 1978 yil iyul: Anatoli Bugorski ustida ishlayotgan edi U-70, eng kattasi Sovet zarracha tezlatuvchisi, u tasodifan boshini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri fosh qilganida proton nurlari. U uzoq muddatli zarar ko'rganiga qaramay, omon qoldi.
• 1979 yil iyul: Cherkov toshi uran tegirmonining to'kilishi yilda Nyu-Meksiko, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, United Nuclear Corporation uran ishlab chiqaradigan chiqindilarni yig'ish havzasi to'g'onni buzganida. 1000 tonnadan ortiq radioaktiv tegirmon chiqindilari va millionlab galon oqova suvlari quyilib chiqdi Puerko daryosi va ifloslantiruvchi moddalar quyi oqim bo'ylab tarqaldi.^[76]

1980-yillar

• 1980 yildan 1989 yilgacha: Kramatorsk radiologik falokati Ukraina SSRning Kramatorsk shahrida sodir bo'lgan. 1989 yilda ko'p qavatli uyning beton devori ichidan juda radioaktiv seziy-137 bo'lgan kichik kapsula topildi. Binoning 6 nafar aholisi vafot etdi leykemiya va yana 17 tasi turli xil nurlanish dozalarini oldi. Avariya aholisi sog'liqni saqlash fizikasini chaqirgandan keyingina aniqlandi.
• 1980 yil: Xyustondagi radioterapiya hodisasi, 7 kishi halok bo'ldi.^[14][75]
• 1982 yil 5 oktyabr: Yo'qolgan nurlanish manbai, Boku, Ozarbayjon, SSSR. 5 o'lim, 13 jarohat.^[14]
• 1984 yil mart: Marokashda radiatsion avariya, yo'qolgan nurlanishning haddan tashqari ta'siridan sakkizta o'lim iridiy-192 manba.^[17]
• 1984: Fernald yem materiallari ishlab chiqarish markazi O'simlik atmosferaga millionlab funt uran changini chiqarib, atrofdagi hududlarning katta radioaktiv ifloslanishiga sabab bo'lganligi ma'lum bo'lganida mashhur bo'ldi. Xuddi shu yili 39 yoshli truboprovod ishchisi Deyv Boks muassasadagi qabriston smenasi paytida g'oyib bo'lgan va keyinchalik u bedarak yo'qolgan. Oxir-oqibat, uning qoldiqlari 6-zavodda joylashgan uranni qayta ishlash pechida topilgan.^[77]
• 1985 yil avgust: Sovet dengiz osti kemasi K-431 baxtsiz hodisa. O'lgan o'n kishi va 49 kishi radiatsiya jarohati oldi.^[11]
• 1986 yil 4-yanvar: haddan tashqari yuklangan tank Sequoyah yoqilg'i korporatsiyasi 14,5 tonna uran geksaflorid gazini (UF6) yorib yubordi va bu ishchining o'limiga, boshqa 37 ishchining kasalxonaga yotqizilishiga va 100 ga yaqin shamolga sabab bo'ldi.^[78][79][80]
• 1986 yil oktyabr: Sovet dengiz osti kemasi K-219 reaktor deyarli eriydi. Sergey Preminin boshqaruv pog'onalarini qo'lda tushirgandan so'ng vafot etgan va portlashni to'xtatgandan so'ng vafot etgan. Uch kundan keyin suvosti kemasi cho'kib ketdi.
• 1987 yil sentyabr: Goiania avariyasi. To'rt kishi halok bo'ldi va 100000 dan ortiq odamni rentgenologik tekshiruvdan o'tkazgandan so'ng, 249 kishi ta'siridan jiddiy radiatsion ifloslanishni olganligi aniqlandi. seziy-137.^[18][81] Tozalash jarayonida, yuqori qatlam bir nechta saytlardan olib tashlanishi kerak edi va bir nechta uylar buzildi. Ushbu uylarning ichidagi barcha narsalar olib tashlandi va tekshirildi. Vaqt jurnali ushbu avariyani dunyodagi "eng yomon yadroviy ofatlar" dan biri deb topdi Xalqaro atom energiyasi agentligi buni "dunyodagi eng yomon radiologik hodisalardan biri" deb atadi.^[81][82]
• 1989 yil: San-Salvador, Salvador; xavfsizlik qoidalarini buzganligi sababli bitta o'lim kobalt-60 nurlanish inshooti.^[83]

1990-yillar

• 1990 yil: Soreq, Isroil; xavfsizlik qoidalarini buzganligi sababli bitta o'lim kobalt-60 nurlanish inshooti.^[83]
• 1990 yil 16-dekabr: Saragosada radioterapiya hodisasi. O'lganlarning 11 nafari va boshqa 27 bemor jarohat olgan.^[66]
• 1991 yil: Nesvij, Belorusiya; xavfsizlik qoidalarini buzganligi sababli bitta o'lim kobalt-60 nurlanish inshooti.^[83]
• 1992 yil: Jilin, Xitoy; uchta o'lim kobalt-60 nurlanish inshooti.^[83]
• 1992 yil: AQSh; bitta o'lim.^[83]
• 1993 yil aprel: avtohalokat Tomsk-7 Qayta ishlash majmuasi, tozalash paytida tank portlaganda azot kislotasi. Portlash natijasida radioaktiv gaz buluti paydo bo'ldi. (INES 4-daraja).^[28]
• 1994 yil: Tammiku, Estoniya; utilizatsiya qilingan o'lim seziy-137 manba.^[83]
• 1996 yil avgust - dekabr: Kosta-Rikada radioterapiya hodisasi. O'n uch o'lim va boshqa 114 bemorga haddan tashqari dozada nurlanish berilgan.^[15]
• 1996 yil: voqea sodir bo'lgan Pelindaba Janubiy Afrikadagi tadqiqot muassasasi ishchilarni radiatsiya ta'siriga olib keladi. Garold Daniels va yana bir qancha odamlar ta'sir qilish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan saraton va radiatsiya kuyishidan vafot etishadi.^[84]
• 1997 yil iyun: Sarov, Rossiya; xavfsizlik qoidalarini buzganligi sababli bitta o'lim.^[83]
• May 1998: The Acerinox avariyasi ning hodisasi edi radioaktiv ifloslanish Ispaniyaning janubiy qismida. A seziy-137 manba an asbob-uskuna orqali o'tishga muvaffaq bo'ldi Acerinoks metallolom qayta ishlash zavodi. Eritganda sezyum-137 radioaktiv bulutning tarqalishiga sabab bo'ldi.
• 1999 yil sentyabr: avtohalokat paytida ikki kishi halok bo'ldi Tokaymura yadroviy halokati (Yaponiya)

2000-yillar

• 2000 yil yanvar-fevral: Samut Prakan radiatsion avariyasi: uchta o'lim va o'nta jarohatlanish Samut Prakan qachon a kobalt-60 radiatsiya terapiyasi bo'limi demontaj qilindi.^[19]
• 2000 yil may: Halfa bilan tanishing, Misr; rentgenografiya hodisasi tufayli ikkita o'lim.^[83]
• 2000 yil avgust - 2001 yil mart: Instituto Oncologico Nacional Panamadan, 17 kishi halok bo'ldi. Prostata saratoni va bachadon bo'yni saratoni bilan davolanadigan bemorlar o'limga olib keladigan nurlanish dozalarini oladilar.^[14][85]
• 2004 yil 9-avgust: Mixama atom stansiyasi baxtsiz hodisa, 4 kishi halok bo'ldi. Buzilgan trubadan issiq suv va bug 'oqib chiqdi (aslida radiatsiya hodisasi emas).^[86]
• 9 may 2005 yil: deb e'lon qilindi Issiqlik oksidini qayta ishlash zavodi da Sellafield Buyuk Britaniyada birinchi marta 2004 yil iyul oyida boshlangan yuqori darajada radioaktiv eritmaning katta oqishi kuzatildi.^[87]
• 2010 yil aprel: Mayapuri radiologik falokati, Hindiston, a keyin o'lim kobalt-60 tadqiqot radiatori metallolom sotuvchisiga sotildi va demontaj qilindi.^[19]

2010 yil

• 2011 yil mart: Fukusima I yadro hodisalari, Yaponiya va Fukusima Daiichi elektr stantsiyasidagi radioaktiv razryad.^[88]
• 2014 yil 17-yanvar: At Uran konini qayta ishlash, Namibiya, yuvinish tankining halokatli tuzilishi katta to'kilishga olib keldi.^[89] Frantsiyada joylashgan laboratoriya, CRIIRAD, minani o'rab turgan hududda radioaktiv materiallar miqdori yuqori bo'lganligi haqida xabar bergan.^[90][91] Radioaktiv materiallar bilan ishlashning zarari va ularning sog'liqqa ta'siri haqida ishchilarga ma'lumot berilmagan.^[92][93][94]
• 2014 yil 1-fevral: o'n ming yilga mo'ljallangan, Chiqindilarni izolyatsiyalash tajriba zavodi (WIPP) saytida AQShning Nyu-Meksiko shtati, Karlsbad shahridan taxminan 42 km sharqda, birinchi bo'lib havodagi radioaktiv materiallar oqib chiqdi.^[95][96] O'sha paytda er ostida ishlaydigan 140 xodim yopiq joylarda boshpana topgan. Ulardan 13 tasi ichki radioaktiv ifloslanish uchun ijobiy natija berib, kelajakda saraton kasalligi yoki sog'liq muammolari xavfini oshiradi. Zavoddagi ikkinchi sızıntı, birinchisidan ko'p o'tmay sodir bo'ldi va plutonyum va boshqa radiotoksinlarni chiqarib, yaqin atrofdagi aholini tashvishga soldi. Baraban yorilishining manbai, Los Alamos milliy laboratoriyasida joylashgan WCRRF qadoqlash korxonasida organik mushukchalar chiqindilaridan foydalanish, bu erda baraban qadoqlangan va jo'natishga tayyorlangan.^[97]
• 2019 yil 8-avgust: Nyonoksa radiatsion avariyasi da Davlat markaziy dengiz floti sinovlari da Nyonoksa, yaqin Severodvinsk, Rossiya.

Butun dunyo bo'ylab yadroviy sinovlarning xulosasi

Dunyo bo'ylab o'ndan ortiq turli joylarda 2000 dan ortiq yadro sinovlari o'tkazildi. Qizil Rossiya / Sovet Ittifoqi, moviy Frantsiya, och ko'k Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, binafsha Buyuk Britaniya, qora Isroil, sariq Xitoy, to'q sariq Hindiston, jigarrang Pokiston, yashil Shimoliy Koreya va och yashil Avstraliya (yadro bombalariga duch kelgan hududlar)

Operatsiya chorrahasi Sinovga qodir, 23 kilotonlik havoga joylashtirilgan yadro quroli 1946 yil 1-iyulda portlatildi.

Radioaktiv materiallar 1970 yilda Baneberry yadro sinovidan tasodifan chiqarildi Nevada sinov joyi.

1945 yil 16 iyuldan 1992 yil 23 sentyabrgacha Qo'shma Shtatlar kuchli dasturni amalga oshirdi yadro sinovlari 1958 yil noyabrdan 1961 yil sentyabrgacha bo'lgan moratoriy bundan mustasno. Rasmiy hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra jami 1054 ta yadro sinovlari va ikkita yadroviy hujumlar o'tkazildi, ularning 100 dan ortig'i tinch okeani, ularning 900 dan ortig'i Nevada sinov joyi va Qo'shma Shtatlardagi turli xil saytlarda o'nta (Alyaska, Kolorado, Missisipi va Nyu-Meksiko ).^[98] 1962 yil noyabrgacha AQSh sinovlarining aksariyati atmosferada (ya'ni yer usti) o'tkazildi; Qisman sinovlarni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi Shartnoma qabul qilingandan so'ng, yadroviy parchalanishning tarqalishini oldini olish uchun barcha sinovlar er osti tartibga solingan.

AQShning atmosfera yadro sinovlari dasturi bir qator aholini qulash xavfiga duchor qildi. Marshal orollari va yapon baliqchilarining yuqori ta'siridan tashqari, ta'sirlangan odamlarning aniq sonlarini va aniq oqibatlarini taxmin qilish tibbiy jihatdan juda qiyin bo'lgan. Bravo qal'asi 1954 yilda sodir bo'lgan voqea. Bir qator AQSh fuqarolari guruhlari - ayniqsa, Nevada sinov maydonchasidan pastda joylashgan fermerlar va shaharlarning aholisi va turli xil sinovlarda AQSh harbiy ishchilari - kompensatsiya va ularning ta'sirini tan olish uchun sudga murojaat qilishdi, aksariyati muvaffaqiyatli. 1990 yildagi radiatsiyaviy ta'sirni qoplash to'g'risidagi qonunning qabul qilinishi, shuningdek, yadro quroli ob'ektlarida ishlayotganlarga nisbatan kompensatsiya talablarini muntazam ravishda taqdim etishga imkon berdi. 2009 yil iyun holatiga ko'ra 1,4 milliard dollardan ziyod kompensatsiya berildi, 660 million dollardan ziyod mablag '"shamollar ".^[99]

Shahar markazining bunday ko'rinishi Las-Vegas ko'rsatadi a qo'ziqorin buluti fonda. Bu kabi sahnalar 1950 yillar davomida odatiy bo'lgan. 1951-1962 yillarda hukumat yaqin atrofda 100 ta atmosfera sinovlarini o'tkazdi Nevada sinov joyi.

Ushbu qo'llanma Nevada shtatidagi sinov maydonida birinchi yadro qurilmasi portlatilishidan 16 kun oldin tarqatilgan.

Odam savdosi va o'g'irliklar

Xalqaro Atom Energiyasi Agentligi "yadroviy va boshqa radioaktiv materiallarning noqonuniy aylanishi, o'g'irliklar, yo'qotishlar va boshqa ruxsatsiz faoliyat bilan bog'liq doimiy muammo" mavjudligini aytmoqda.^[100] MAGATE yadroviy savdosi to'g'risidagi ma'lumotlar bazasida so'nggi 12 yil ichida 99 ta mamlakat xabar bergan 1266 ta voqea, shu jumladan, HEU yoki plutonyum savdosi bilan bog'liq 18 ta voqea qayd etilgan:^{[101][81][102]}

• Xavfsizlik bo'yicha mutaxassis Shoun Gregori o'z maqolasida terrorchilar yaqin o'tmishda Pokiston yadro inshootlariga uch marta hujum qilganini ta'kidladi; 2007 yilda ikki marta va 2008 yilda bir marta.^[103][104]
• 2007 yil noyabr oyida o'g'rilar noma'lum niyat bilan kirib kelishdi Pelindaba Janubiy Afrikaning Pretoriya yaqinidagi yadroviy tadqiqot ob'ekti. O'g'rilar ob'ektda saqlanayotgan uranni olmagan holda qochib ketishgan.^[105][106]
• 2006 yil fevral oyida, Oleg Xinsagov ning Rossiya yilda hibsga olingan Gruziya, Gruziyaning uchta sherigi bilan, 79,5 gramm 89 foiz boyitilgan HEU bilan.^[107]
• The Aleksandr Litvinenko zaharlanish 2006 yil noyabr oyida Endryu J. Pattersonning so'zlariga ko'ra, radioaktiv polonyum bilan "dahshatli belgini anglatadi: yadroviy terrorizm davrining boshlanishi".^[108]

Baxtsiz hodisalar toifalari

Yadroviy eritma

Yadroviy eritma juda og'ir yadro reaktori natijada sodir bo'lgan baxtsiz hodisa reaktor yadrosi haddan tashqari issiqlikdan zarar. U yadro reaktori yadrosining tasodifiy erishi deb ta'riflangan va yadroning to'liq yoki qisman qulab tushishini anglatadi.^[109][110] Yadro reaktori tomonidan hosil bo'ladigan issiqlik sovutish tizimlari chiqaradigan issiqlikdan kamida bitta yadro yoqilg'isi elementi oshib ketadigan darajaga etganida, yadro eritmasi avariyasi sodir bo'ladi. erish nuqtasi. Bu a dan farq qiladi yonilg'i elementining ishdan chiqishi, bu yuqori harorat tufayli yuzaga kelmaydi. Eritishga a sabab bo'lishi mumkin sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishi, sovutish suvi bosimining yo'qolishi yoki sovutish suvi oqimining pastligi yoki natijasi a tanqidiy ekskursiya unda reaktor o'zining dizayn chegaralaridan oshadigan quvvat darajasida ishlaydi. Shu bilan bir qatorda, kabi reaktor zavodlarida RBMK-1000, tashqi yong'in yadroga xavf tug'dirishi mumkin, bu eritishga olib keladi.

Fuqarolik atom elektr stantsiyalaridagi yirik miqyosdagi yadroviy eritmalarga quyidagilar kiradi.^[13][56]

• The Uch Mile orolidagi avariya yilda Pensilvaniya, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, 1979 yilda.
• The Chernobil fojiasi da Chernobil AES, Ukraina, SSSR, 1986 yilda.
• The Fukushima Daiichi yadroviy halokati quyidagilarga rioya qilish zilzila va tsunami Yaponiyada, 2011 yil mart.

Boshqa asosiy erishlar quyidagicha sodir bo'ldi:^[56]

• NRX (harbiy), Ontario, Kanada, 1952 yilda
• BORAX-I (eksperimental), Aydaho, AQSh, 1954 yilda
• EBR-I, Aydaho, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, 1955 yilda
• Shisha oyna (harbiy), Sellafield, Angliya, 1957 yilda (qarang Shisha yong'in )
• Natriy reaktori tajribasi, Santa Susana dala laboratoriyasi (fuqarolik), Kaliforniya, AQSh, 1959 yilda
• Fermi 1 (fuqarolik), Michigan, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, 1966 yilda
• Chapelkross atom stansiyasi (fuqarolik), Shotlandiya, 1967 yilda
• The Lucens reaktori, Shveytsariya, 1969 yilda.
• Sen-Loran atom elektr stantsiyasi (fuqarolik), Frantsiya, 1969 yilda
• A1 o'simlik, (fuqarolik) da Jaslovské Bohunice, Chexoslovakiya, 1977 yilda
• Sen-Loran atom elektr stantsiyasi (fuqarolik), Frantsiya, 1980 yilda
• Sakkiz Sovet dengiz floti atom suvosti kemalari yadro eritmasi bo'lgan: K-19 (1961), K-11 (1965), K-27 (1968), K-140 (1968), K-429 (1970), K-222 (1980) va K-431 (1985).^[13]

Tanqidiy baxtsiz hodisalar

A tanqidiy voqea sodir bo'lgan (ba'zida "ekskursiya" yoki "quvvat ekskursiyasi" deb ham yuritiladi) yadro zanjiri reaktsiyasiga tasodifan yo'l qo'yilganda sodir bo'ladi bo'linadigan material, kabi boyitilgan uran yoki plutonyum. The Chernobil AESidagi avariya Umumiy miqyosda avtohalokatning misoli hisoblanmaydi, chunki bu elektr stantsiyasida ishlaydigan reaktorda sodir bo'lgan. Reaktor boshqariladigan tanqidiy holatda bo'lishi kerak edi, ammo zanjir reaktsiyasini boshqarish yo'qoldi. Avariya reaktorni yo'q qildi va katta geografik hududni yashash uchun yaroqsiz holga keltirdi. Keyinchalik kichik hajmdagi avariyada Sarov bilan ishlaydigan texnik yuqori darajada boyitilgan uran bo'linadigan materiallar sharini o'z ichiga olgan tajribani tayyorlash paytida nurlangan. Sarov avtohalokati qiziq, chunki tizim to'xtatilguncha bir necha kun davomida juda muhim bo'lib qoldi, garchi himoyalangan eksperimental zalda joylashgan bo'lsa.^[111] Bu atrof-muhitga radioaktivlikning tarqalishi sodir bo'lmaganda, faqat bir necha kishiga zarar etkazilishi mumkin bo'lgan cheklangan koeffitsientning misoli. Ikkala nurlanishning maydon tashqarisida chiqishi cheklangan tanqidiy avariya (gamma va neytron ) va radioaktivlikning juda kichik tarqalishi sodir bo'ldi Tokaimura 1999 yilda boyitilgan uran yoqilg'isini ishlab chiqarish jarayonida.^[112] Ikki ishchi vafot etdi, uchinchisi doimiy jarohat oldi va 350 fuqaro radiatsiya ta'siriga uchradi. 2016 yilda Rossiyadagi Afrikantov OKBM tanqidiy sinov zavodida tanqidiy voqea sodir bo'lganligi haqida xabar berilgan.^[113]

Issiqlikning buzilishi

Issiqlikning buzilishi baxtsiz hodisalar - bu radioaktiv parchalanish natijasida hosil bo'ladigan issiqlik zarar etkazadi. Katta yadro reaktorida a sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishi baxtsiz hodisa zarar etkazishi mumkin yadro: masalan, at Uch mil oroli yaqinda o'chirish (SCRAMed ) PWR reactor was left for a length of time without cooling water. Natijada yadro yoqilg'isi was damaged, and the core partially melted. The removal of the decay heat is a significant reactor safety concern, especially shortly after shutdown. Failure to remove decay heat may cause the reactor core temperature to rise to dangerous levels and has caused nuclear accidents. The heat removal is usually achieved through several redundant and diverse systems, and the heat is often dissipated to an 'ultimate heat sink' which has a large capacity and requires no active power, though this method is typically used after decay heat has reduced to a very small value. The main cause of release of radioactivity in the Three Mile Island accident was a pilot-operated relief valve on the primary loop which stuck in the open position. This caused the overflow tank into which it drained to rupture and release large amounts of radioactive cooling water into the qamoqxona binosi.

For the most part, nuclear facilities receive their power from offsite electrical systems. They also have a grid of emergency back-up generators to provide power in the event of an outage. An event that could prevent both offsite power, as well as emergency power is known as a "station blackout".^[114] 2011 yilda an zilzila va tsunami caused a loss of electric power at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan. The decay heat could not be removed, and the reactor cores of units 1, 2 and 3 overheated, the nuclear fuel melted, and the containments were breached. Radioactive materials were released from the plant to the atmosphere and to the ocean.^[115]

Transport

Qayta tiklandi termoyadro bombasi was displayed by U.S. Navy officials on the fantail of the submarine rescue ship U.S.S. Petrel after it was located in the sea off the coast of Ispaniya chuqurlikda 762 meters va 1966 yil aprel oyida tiklandi

Transport accidents can cause a release of radioactivity resulting in contamination or shielding to be damaged resulting in direct irradiation. Yilda Cochabamba a defective gamma rentgenografiya set was transported in a passenger bus as cargo. The gamma source was outside the shielding, and it irradiated some bus passengers.

In Birlashgan Qirollik, it was revealed in a court case that in March 2002 a radioterapiya source was transported from Lids ga Sellafield with defective shielding. The shielding had a gap on the underside. It is thought that no human has been seriously harmed by the escaping radiation.^[116]

On 17 January 1966, a fatal collision occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over Palomares, Spain (see 1966 yil Palomares B-52 halokati ).^[117] The accident was designated a "Singan o'q ", meaning an accident involving a nuclear weapon that does not present a risk of war.^[118]

Uskunaning ishdan chiqishi

Equipment failure is one possible type of accident. Yilda Belostok, Poland, in 2001 the electronics associated with a particle accelerator used for the treatment of saraton suffered a malfunction.^[119] This then led to the overexposure of at least one patient. While the initial failure was the simple failure of a semiconductor diyot, it set in motion a series of events which led to a radiation injury.

A related cause of accidents is failure of control dasturiy ta'minot, as in the cases involving the Terak-25 medical radiotherapy equipment: the elimination of a hardware safety blokirovka in a new design model exposed a previously undetected bug in the control software, which could have led to patients receiving massive overdoses under a specific set of conditions.

Inson xatosi

A sketch used by doctors to determine the amount of radiation to which each person had been exposed during the Slotin excursion

Many of the major nuclear accidents have been directly attributable to operator or inson xatosi. This was obviously the case in the analysis of both the Chernobyl and TMI-2 accidents. At Chernobyl, a test procedure was being conducted prior to the accident. The leaders of the test permitted operators to disable and ignore key protection circuits and warnings that would have normally shut the reactor down. At TMI-2, operators permitted thousands of gallons of water to escape from the reactor plant before observing that the coolant pumps were behaving abnormally. The coolant pumps were thus turned off to protect the pumps, which in turn led to the destruction of the reactor itself as cooling was completely lost within the core.

A detailed investigation into SL-1 determined that one operator (perhaps inadvertently) manually pulled the 84-pound (38 kg) central control rod out about 26 inches rather than the maintenance procedure's intention of about 4 inches.^[120]

An assessment conducted by the Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (CEA) in France concluded that no amount of technical innovation can eliminate the risk of human-induced errors associated with the operation of nuclear power plants. Ikki turdagi xatolar eng jiddiy deb topildi: dala ishlari paytida yo'l qo'yilgan xatolar, masalan, avariyaga olib kelishi mumkin bo'lgan texnik xizmat va sinovlar; va kichik baxtsiz hodisalar paytida sodir bo'lgan insoniy xatolar, bu muvaffaqiyatsizlikka olib keladi.^[10]

In 1946 Canadian Manxetten loyihasi fizik Louis Slotin performed a risky experiment known as "tickling the dragon's tail"^[121] which involved two hemispheres of neutron-reflective berilyum being brought together around a plutoniy yadrosi to bring it to criticality. Against operating procedures, the hemispheres were separated only by a screwdriver. The screwdriver slipped and set off a chain reaction tanqidiy voqea sodir bo'lgan filling the room with harmful radiation and a flash of blue light (caused by excited, ionized air particles returning to their unexcited states). Slotin reflexively separated the hemispheres in reaction to the heat flash and blue light, preventing further irradiation of several co-workers present in the room. However, Slotin absorbed a lethal dose of the radiation and died nine days later. The infamous plutonium mass used in the experiment was referred to as the jinlar yadrosi.

Lost source

Lost source accidents,^[122][123] deb ham ataladi etim manbalari, are incidents in which a radioactive source is lost, stolen or abandoned. The source then might cause harm to humans. The best known example of this type of event is the 1987 Goniyaia avariyasi in Brazil, when a radiotherapy source was forgotten and abandoned in a hospital, to be later stolen and opened by scavengers. A similar case occurred in 2000 in Samut Prakan, Thailand when the radiation source of an expired teletherapy unit was sold unregistered, and stored in an unguarded car park from which it was stolen.^[124] Other cases occurred at Yanango, Peru where a rentgenografiya source was lost, and Gilan, Iran where a radiography source harmed a payvandchi.^[125]

The Xalqaro atom energiyasi agentligi has provided guides for metallolom collectors on what a sealed source might look like.^[126] The scrap metal industry is the one where lost sources are most likely to be found.^[127]

Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the Sovuq urush.^[118]

Taqqoslashlar

Hypothetical number of global deaths which would have resulted from energy production if the world's energy production was met through a single source, in 2014.

Comparing the historical safety record of civilian nuclear energy with other forms of electrical generation, Ball, Roberts, and Simpson, the IAEA, and the Paul Scherrer Institute found in separate studies that during the period from 1970 to 1992, there were just 39 on-the-job deaths of nuclear power plant workers worldwide, while during the same time period, there were 6,400 on-the-job deaths of ko'mir elektr stantsiyasi workers, 1,200 on-the-job deaths of tabiiy gaz elektr stantsiyasi workers and members of the general public caused by natural gas power plants, and 4,000 deaths of members of the general public caused by gidroelektr stantsiyalari^{[128][129][130][iqtibos kerak ]} with failure of Banqiao to'g'oni in 1975 resulting in 170,000-230,000 fatalities alone.^[131]

As other common sources of energy, ko'mir elektr stantsiyalari are estimated to kill 24,000 Americans per year due to lung disease^[132] as well as causing 40,000 heart attacks per year in the United States.^[133] Ga binoan Ilmiy Amerika, the average coal power plant emits 100 times more radiation per year than a comparatively sized nuclear power plant in the form of toxic coal waste sifatida tanilgan uchib ketadigan kul.^[134]

Xususida energy accidents, hydroelectric plants were responsible for the most fatalities, but atom energiyasi plant accidents rank first in terms of their economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage. Neft va gidroelektr stantsiyalari har biri 25 foiz atrofida, undan keyin tabiiy gaz 9 foiz va ko'mir 2 foizni tashkil etadi.^[25] Istisno Chernobil va Shimantan to'g'oni, the three other most expensive accidents involved the Exxon Valdez neft to'kilishi (Alyaska), Obro 'yog'i to'kilgan (Ispaniya) va Uch Mile orolidagi yadro halokati (Pensilvaniya).^[25]

Yadro xavfsizligi

Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent nuclear and radiation accidents or to limit their consequences. Ushbu qoplamalar atom elektr stantsiyalari as well as all other nuclear facilities, the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power, industry, and military uses.

The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly.^[135] Mistakes do occur and the designers of reactors at Fukusima Yaponiyada zilzila natijasida yuzaga kelgan tsunami zilziladan keyin reaktorni barqarorlashtirishi kerak bo'lgan zaxira tizimlarini ishdan chiqaradi deb taxmin qilmagan.^[136][137] Ga binoan UBS AG, the Fukusima I yadro hodisalari have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety.^[138] Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable.^[135]

Uning kitobida Oddiy baxtsiz hodisalar, Charlz Perrou says that unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly-coupled nuclear reactor systems. Nuclear power plants cannot be operated without some major accidents. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around.^[139] An interdisciplinary team from MIT have estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 – 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.^[140][141] To date, there have been five serious accidents (asosiy zarar ) in the world since 1970 (one at Uch mil oroli 1979 yilda; one at Chernobil 1986 yilda; va uchta Fukushima-Daiichi in 2011), corresponding to the beginning of the operation of II avlod reaktorlari. This leads to on average one serious accident happening every eight years worldwide.^[137]

Ekologik ta'sir

Impact on land

Isotopes released during a meltdown or related event are typically dispersed into the atmosphere and then settle to the surface through natural occurrences and deposition. Isotopes settling in the top soil layer can remain there for many years as a result of the half-life of said particles involved in nuclear events. Due to the long term detrimental affects on agriculture, farming and livestock, it carries further potential to affect human health and safety long after the actual event. After the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011, surrounding agricultural areas has been contaminated with more than 100,000 MBq km⁻² in cesium concentrations.^[142] As a result, eastern Fukushima food production saw massive limitations. Due to the topographical nature of Japan, as well as the weather pattern for the prefecture, cesium deposits as well as other isotopes reside in top layer of soils all over eastern and northeastern Japan. Luckily, mountain ranges have shielded western Japan. The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 caused approximately 125,000 mi² of land across the Ukraine, Belarus and Russia to be exposed to radiation.^[143] The amount of focused radiation caused severe damage to plant reproduction - resulting in most plants being unable to reproduce for a minimum of three years. Many of these occurrences on land can be a result of the distribution of isotopes through water systems.

Impact on water

Fukushima Daiichi accident

In 2013, contaminated groundwater was found in-between some of the affected turbine buildings in the Fukushima Daiichi facility, including locations at bordering seaports that led into the Pacific Ocean. In both locations, the facility typically expulses clean water to feed into further groundwater systems. The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), the entity that manages and operates the facility, further investigated the contamination in areas that would deem safe to conduct operations. They found that a significant amount of the contamination originated from underground cable trenches that connected to circulation pumps within the facility. Both the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and TEPCO confirmed that this contamination was a result of the 2011 earthquake.^[144] Due to damages like these, the Fukushima plant released nuclear material into the pacific ocean and has continued to do so. After 5 years of leaking, the contaminates reached all corners of the pacific ocean from North America, to Australia, to Patagonia.^[145] Along the same coastline, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) found trace amounts of Fukushima contaminates 100 miles (150 km) off of the coast of Eureka, California in November 2014.^[144] Despite the relative dramatic increases in radiation, the contamination levels still fall below the World Health Organization's (WHO) standard for clean drinking water.^[144]

In 2019, the Japanese government announced that it was considering the possibility to dump contaminated water from the Fukushima reactor into the Pacific Ocean. Japanese Environmental Minister Yoshiaki Harada reported that TEPCO had collected over a million tons of contaminated water, and by 2022 they would be out of space to safely store the radioactive water.^[146]

Multiple private agencies as well as various North American governments monitor the spread of radiation throughout the pacific to track the potential hazards it can introduce to food systems, groundwater supplies, and ecosystems. In 2014, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a report stating that radionuclides, traced from the Fukushima facility, were present in the United States food supply, but not to levels deemed to be a threat to public health – as well as any food and agricultural products imported from Japanese sources.^[147] It is commonly believed that, with the rate of the current radionuclide leakage, the dispersal into the water would prove beneficial as most of the isotopes would dilute into the water as well as become less effective over time, thanks to radioactive decay. Cesium (Cs-137) is the primary isotope released from the Fukushima Daiichi facility.^[148] Cs-137 has a long half-life, meaning it could potentially have long-term harmful effects, but as of now, its levels from 200 km outside of Fukushima show close to pre-accident levels with little spread to North American coasts.^[144]

Chernobil AESidagi avariya

Evidence can be seen from the 1986 Chernobyl event. Due to the violent nature of accident in Chernobyl, a sizable portion of radioactive contamination resulted from the atmosphere were particles what where dispersed during the explosion. Many of these contaminates settled in groundwater systems in immediate surrounding areas, but also Russia and Belarus. Due to the resulting radiation in groundwater, the ecological effects of the disaster can be seen in various aspects down the environmental process line. Radionuclides carried by groundwater systems in and around the areas of Chernobyl have resulted in the uptake to plants in the region and up the food chains into animals, and eventually, humans – as one of the largest exposure points of radiation was through agriculture contaminated by radioactive groundwater.^[149] Again, one of the largest concerns to the local populaces within the 30 km exclusion zone is the intake of Cs-137 through the consumption of agricultural products contaminated with groundwater. Comparatively, thanks to the environmental and soil conditions outside the exclusion zone, the recorded levels are below those that require remediation based on a survey in 1996.^[149] During this event, the groundwater transportation of radioactive material carried over borders in to neighboring countries. Belarus, lying to Chernobyl's northern border, was subject to approximately 250,000 hectares of previously usable farmland being held by state officials until deemed safe.^[150]

Off-site radiological risk may be found in the form of flooding. Many citizens in the surrounding areas have been deemed at risk of exposure to radiation due to the Chernobyl Reactor's proximity to floodplains. A study conducted in 1996 was conducted to see how far the radioactive effects were felt across eastern Europe. Lake Kojanovskoe in Russia, 250 km from the Chernobyl accident site, was found to be one of the most impacted lakes traced from the disaster area.^[151] Fish collected from the lake were found to be 60 times more radioactive than the European Union Standard. Further investigation found that the water source feeding the lake provided drinking water for approximately 9 million Ukrainians, as well as provided agricultural irrigation and food for 23 million more.^[151]

A cover was constructed around the damage reactor of the Chernobyl nuclear plant. This helps in the remediation of leaking radioactive material from the site of the accident, but does little to help aid the local area with isotopes that were dispersed in its soils and water ways more than 30 years ago. Partially due to the already abandoned urban areas, as well as international relations currently affecting the country, remediation efforts have minimized compared to the initial clean up actions and more recent accidents such as the Fukushima incident. On site laboratories, monitoring wells, and meteorological stations can be found in a monitoring role on key locations affected by the accident.^[152]

Effects of acute radiation exposure

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Tashqi havolalar

• AQSh yadro hodisalari (lutins.org) AQShning atom inshootlari va kemalari bilan bog'liq voqealarning eng to'liq onlayn ro'yxati, 1950 yildan beri
• AQSh yadroviy tartibga solish komissiyasining (NRC) veb-sayti qidirish funktsiyasi va elektron ommaviy o'qish zali bilan
• Xalqaro Atom Energiyasi Agentligi veb-sayti keng onlayn kutubxonasi bilan
• Plutopiya: Yadro oilalari, atom shaharlari va Buyuk Sovet va Amerika Plutoniy ofatlari
• Yadro muammolari bo'yicha Alsos raqamli kutubxonasidan fuqarolik yadroviy baxtsiz hodisalari uchun izohli bibliografiya