Qora afsona (Ispaniya) - Black legend (Spain)

Ushbu maqola Ispaniya va uning imperiyasiga tegishli qora afsona haqida. Umumiy tarixiy hodisa uchun qarang Qora afsona. Ispaniyalik inkvizitsiya bilan bog'liq qora afsona uchun qarang Ispaniya inkvizitsiyasining qora afsonasi.

Taglavhani ko'ring
1598 gravyurasi Teodor de Bry o'ldirilgan ayollar va bolalarni itlariga boqayotgan ispaniyalik. De Bryning asarlari Ispaniyaga qarshi xarakterlidir tashviqot natijasi bo'lgan Sakson yillik urush.
Ispaniya imperiyasi

Qora afsona (Ispaniya: La leyenda negra) yoki Ispaniyaning qora afsonasi, tashkil topgan nazariy tarixshunoslik tendentsiyasi Ispaniyaga qarshi va katoliklarga qarshi tashviqot. Uning tarafdorlari uning ildizi kelib chiqqan deb da'vo qiladilar XVI asr, u dastlab a siyosiy va psixologik qurol go'yoki Ispaniyaning shimoliy evropalik raqiblari tomonidan jinlarni jinni qilish uchun foydalanilgan Ispaniya imperiyasi, uning xalqi va madaniyati, Ispaniyaning kashfiyotlari va yutuqlarini minimallashtiradi va dunyo ishlarida uning ta'siri va kuchiga qarshi turadi.

XVI asrda dastlab golland va ingliz targ'ibotining asosiy tarixga singib ketishi nazarda tutilgan ispanlarga qarshi tarafkashlik haqidagi noto'g'ri fikr bilan birga keyingi tarixchilar orasida Ispaniya tarixi, lotin Amerikasi va dunyoning boshqa qismlari.[1] 17-asrning ushbu tashviqoti Ispaniyaning Amerikani zabt etishi paytida vahshiyliklarni o'z ichiga olgan haqiqiy voqealarda o'z asosini topdi, lekin u ko'pincha g'ayrioddiy va bo'rttirib tasvirlangan zo'ravonlik, boshqa kuchlarning o'xshash xatti-harakatlarini e'tiborsiz qoldirganda.[2]

XVI-XVII asrlarda ispaniyalik qora tanli afsonaning mavjudligi ko'pchilik olimlar tomonidan kelishilgan bo'lsa-da, afsonaning jihatlari hanuzgacha muhokama qilinmoqda.[3] Charlz Gibson uni "Ispaniya imperiyasi shafqatsiz, mutaassib, tanazzulga uchragan, ekspluatator va haqiqatdan ortiqcha o'zini o'zi oqlaydigan deb hisoblanadigan targ'ibot va ispanofobiya an'analari" deb ta'rifladi.[1] Boshqa qora afsonalar singari, ispan qora afsonasi ham uydirma, kontekstualizatsiya, bo'rttirish, gilos yig'ish va ikki tomonlama standartlar faktlar bilan. Ispaniyaning tarixini xolisona tasvirlash bugungi kunga qadar davom etadimi yoki yo'qmi va agar u shunday bo'lsa, uning ahamiyati qanday bo'lishi to'g'risida olimlar o'rtasida kelishmovchiliklar mavjud.

Ispaniyaning qora afsonasi tarixshunosligi va ta'riflari

"Qora afsona" atamasi birinchi marta tomonidan ishlatilgan Artur Levi ning tarjimai hollariga murojaat qilib Napoleon va u buni birinchi navbatda qarama-qarshi ikkita afsona, "oltin afsona" va "qora afsona" kontekstida qo'llagan: uni xudo yoki jin deb tasvirlaydigan xarakterga nisbatan ikkita o'ta, soddalashtirilgan, bir o'lchovli yondashuv. "Oltin" va "qora afsonalar" Ispaniya tarixchilari va ziyolilari tomonidan Ispaniya tarixining jihatlariga nisbatan xuddi shu ma'noda ishlatilgan; Antonio Soler Kastiliya va Aragon monarxlari tasviri haqidagi ikkala atamadan ham foydalangan.[iqtibos kerak ] Ushbu atamadan foydalanish leyenda negra 20-asrning dastlabki ikki o'n yilligida valyutani olgan va aksariyat bilan bog'liq bo'lgan tarixni xolisona, ispanlarga qarshi tasvirlashga murojaat qilish Julian Juderías. 20-asrda va 21-asrda olimlar Qora afsonani turli xil talqin qilishdi va uning tarixiy tushuncha sifatida foydaliligini muhokama qilishdi.

Ispaniyalik qora afsona tushunchasining kelib chiqishi

1899 yil 18 aprelda Parijdagi konferentsiyada, Emiliya Pardo Bazan zamonaviy ispan tarixining umumiy ko'rinishiga murojaat qilish uchun birinchi marta "Qora afsona" atamasidan foydalangan:

Chet elda bizning azob-uqubatlarimiz ma'lum va ko'pincha muvozanatsiz abartılıyor; misol sifatida M. Iv Guyotning kitobini oling, uni qora afsonaning mukammal modeli, oltin afsonaning aksi deb hisoblashimiz mumkin. Ispaniyalik qora afsona - bu ma'lum siyosiy tezislarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun qulay misollarni izlayotganlar uchun somon (...) Qora afsona bizning zamonaviy tariximizni romanidagi roman bilan almashtiradi Ponson du Terrail uslub, minalar va qarshi minalar bilan, bu hatto tahlil sharafiga loyiq emas.[4]

Konferentsiya Ispaniyada, xususan Xulian Juderiyada katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Ispaniyaning Elchixonasida ishlagan Juderias Rossiya, Germaniya, Frantsiya va Angliyada Rossiyaga qarshi targ'ibotning tarqalishini payqagan (va qoralagan) va uning uzoq muddatli oqibatlariga qiziqish bildirgan. Juderías birinchi bo'lib "qora afsona" hodisasini tasvirlab bergan va uning ispaniyalik hamkasbini aniqlagan. Uning 1914 yilgi kitobi, La leyenda negra y la verdad histórica (Qora afsona va tarixiy haqiqat), dekonstruktsiyalar Ispaniya imidjining jihatlari (shu jumladan Foxening "Shahidlar kitobi" ). Juderiasning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu bir tomonlama tarixshunoslik Ispaniya tarixini salbiy tomondan namoyish etdi va atayin yutuqlar va yutuqlarni e'tiborsiz qoldirdi. Yilda La leyenda Negra, u ispan qora afsonasini quyidagicha ta'riflaydi:

... barcha mamlakatlarda ommaviylikning nurini ko'rgan Vatanimiz haqidagi fantastik hikoyalar yaratgan muhit, har doim ispanlarning shaxs sifatida va jamoat xarakteridan kelib chiqqan grotesk tavsiflari, inkor etish yoki hech bo'lmaganda muntazam ravishda jaholat madaniyat va san'atning turli ko'rinishlarida qulay va chiroyli narsalardan, har bir davrda Ispaniyaga qarshi ayblovlar. "[5]

[to'liq iqtibos kerak ]

Terimning tarixiy jihatdan rivojlanishi

Keyinchalik yozuvchilar Juderiya tanqidini qo'llab-quvvatladilar va rivojlantirdilar. Yilda Nafrat daraxti (1971),[6] tarixchi Filipp Ueyn Pauell Qora afsona zamonaviy tarixda hali ham faol bo'lib, u Ispaniyaga va boshqa kuchlarga nisbatan turli xil munosabat sifatida qarashlariga misollar keltirdi:

Ispaniyaliklar Yangi dunyo o'zlarining Evropa muhitidan tashqari imkoniyatlarni izlash, shafqatsiz va ochko'z "oltin qidiruvchilar" yoki "shaytonlar" bilan deyarli sinonim bo'lgan boshqa qaysar epitetlar deb nomlanadi; ammo Yangi Dunyo imkoniyatlarini izlagan inglizlar ko'proq hurmat bilan "mustamlakachilar" yoki "uy quruvchilar" yoki "ozodlikni izlayotganlar" deb nomlanadi. [...] Ispanlar diniy dissidentlarni haydab chiqarganlarida yoki jazolaganlarida, bu "mutaassiblik", "toqat qilmaslik", "aqidaparastlik" va ularning tanazzuliga sabab bo'lgan. Inglizlar, gollandlar yoki frantsuzlar xuddi shu narsani qilganlarida, bu "millatni birlashtirish" yoki uni xiyonat yoki chet el fitnasidan himoya qilish deb nomlanadi.

— Nafrat daraxti (2008 yil nashr), 11-bet

Uning kitobida Inkvizitsiya, Edvard Piters yozgan:

Ispaniyaning obrazi XVI asr oxirlarida Evropada tarqalib, siyosiy va diniy targ'ibot orqali ispaniyaliklar va ularning hukmdorlarining xarakterlarini shu qadar qoraytirdiki, Ispaniya barcha repressiya kuchlari, shafqatsizlik, diniy va siyosiy murosasizlik ramzi bo'lib qoldi. va keyingi to'rt asr uchun intellektual va badiiy qoloqlik. Ispanlar va ispanofillar bu jarayon va natijada paydo bo'lgan tasvirni "Qora afsona" deb atashgan. la leyenda negra.

— Tekshiruv (1989 yil nashr), 131 bet

Uning 2002 yilgi kitobida Amerikadagi Ispaniya: AQShda ispanizmning kelib chiqishi, Amerikalik tarixchi Richard Kagan Ispaniyalik qora afsonani aniqladi:

Ispaniyani bu qadar pastroq "boshqasi" sifatida qabul qilishni birlashtirgan "Qora afsona" edi, bu asrlar davomida AQShga inglizlardan va ma'lum darajada gollandlardan meros bo'lib o'tgan protestantlik e'tiqodlari to'plami. Qora afsona Ispaniyani inkvizitsiya, diniy mutaassiblik va protestantlar va yahudiylarni qonli ta'qib qilish bilan tenglashtirgan. Shuningdek, o'z fuqarolariga iqtisodiy va siyosiy erkinlikning har qanday ko'rinishiga kirishni taqiqlagan va natijada Ispaniyani iqtisodiy zaiflik va siyosiy tanazzul yo'liga qo'ygan despotik monarxlar tasvirlari paydo bo'ldi. Ispaniya tarixini bunday o'qish haddan tashqari soddalashtirilgan edi, ammo Amerika eksklyuzivizmining targ'ibotchilari Ispaniyani asosiy qadriyatlari Qo'shma Shtatlar uchun antitetik bo'lgan mamlakat bilan nima sodir bo'lishining namunasi sifatida ko'rish foydali bo'ldi. "

Ga binoan Julian Marías, Ispaniyalik qora tanli afsona istisno emas edi, ammo uning qat'iyligi. Uning chidamliligi sabablari:

  1. Ning kiritilishi bilan Ispaniya imperiyasining ustma-ust tushishi bosmaxona Angliya va Germaniyada bu har kuni yuzlab risolalarni chop etishga imkon berdi
  2. Diniy omillar va identifikatsiya
  3. Ispaniyaning intellektual sinfining o'rnini sobiq raqibi (Frantsiya) uchun qulay bo'lgan boshqa tomonidan almashtirish Ispaniya merosxo'rligi urushi Ispaniyada frantsuzcha rivoyatni o'rnatgan
  4. Dastlabki zamonaviy davrdagi mustamlakachilik urushlarining o'ziga xos xususiyatlari va mustamlaka kuchlarining hozirgi mustaqil Ispaniya mustamlakalarida da'volarni qonuniylashtirish uchun zarurligi va keyingi imperiyaning o'ziga xos, yangi xususiyatlari: Britaniya imperiyasi.[7]

Valter Mignolo va Margaret Greer Qora afsonani Ispaniyaning irqchilikning rivojlanishi sifatida ko'rib chiqish Yahudiylik XV asrda. Ning ayblovlari aralash qon XV asrning yahudiy va mavritlarga asoslangan diniy erkinligi suhbatlar Ispaniyada ham, chet ellarda ham XVI asrda ispanlarning ispanofobik qarashlari yahudiylik bilan aloqada bo'lgan diniy aqidaparastlik sifatida rivojlandi. Ular ushbu ispanofobiyada ko'rgan yagona barqaror element - bu Sharqiy va Afrika dunyosi bilan o'zaro aloqalar, "to'liq boshqalar", shafqatsizlik va axloqiy xarakterning etishmasligi bilan ajralib turadigan "boshqalik" elementidir, bunda o'sha rivoyatlar qayta o'ylab topilgan va qayta shakllangan. .[8]

Antonio Espino Lopes Ispaniyalik tarixshunoslikda Qora afsonaning mashhurligi Ispaniyaning Amerikani zabt etishidagi haqiqiy vahshiyliklar va shafqatsiz zo'ravonliklar Ispaniya ichida ularga munosib e'tibor berilmaganligini anglatishini anglatadi.[9] U ba'zi ispanistlar:

... Ispaniyaning Amerikani zabt etishini iloji boricha eng yaxshi tarzda oqlash uchun harakat qiling, chunki ular "Qora afsona" tomonidan qilingan haddan tashqari haddan tashqari hodisalarni juda yaxshi anglab etdilar, bu ularning intellektual qo'polligi bilan ajralib turadigan g'oyalar to'plamidir.[10]

Tarixchining fikriga ko'ra Elvira Roka Barea, qora afsonaning shakllanishi va uning millat tomonidan o'zlashtirilishi barcha madaniy imperiyalarda kuzatiladigan hodisadir (nafaqat Ispaniya imperiyasi ). Imperiya haqidagi qora afsona aksariyat zamonaviy kuchlar va mag'lubiyatga uchragan raqiblarning tashviqot hujumlari va sa'y-harakatlari natijasi bo'lishi mumkin; imperiyadagi raqib fraksiyalar tomonidan yaratilgan tashviqot; intellektual elita tomonidan o'z-o'zini tanqid qilish va imperiya mavjud bo'lgan (yoki undan keyin) yangi kuchlarga bo'lgan ehtiyoj.[11]

Roca Barea-ga javoban, Xose Luis Villakanas "qora afsona" birinchi navbatda XVI-XVII asrlardagi geosiyosiy vaziyat bilan bog'liq omil bo'lganligini ta'kidlaydi. Uning ta'kidlashicha:

1648 yildan keyin [Qora afsona] Evropa intellektual doiralarida ayniqsa dolzarb bo'lmagan. Aksincha, [Ispaniyaning] eski dushmanlari Angliya va Gollandiya eng buyuk himoyachilariga aylanishdi Ispaniya imperiyasi XVII asr oxirida [frantsuzlar] qo'liga tushib qolishining oldini olish uchun. "[12]

Ispaniyalik qora tanli afsonaning kontseptual kuchliligi akademiklar tomonidan hamma tomonidan qabul qilinmaydi. Benjamin Kin uning tarixiy tushuncha sifatida foydaliligiga shubha bildirdi,[13] esa Rikardo Garsiya Karcel va Lourdes Mateo Bretos uning mavjudligini 1991 yilgi kitobida inkor etgan, Qora afsona:

Ispaniyaning salbiy fikrlari asl tarixiy asoslarga ega bo'lgani kabi, bu afsona ham emas, qora ham emas, chunki ohang hech qachon izchil va bir xil bo'lmagan. Kul rang juda ko'p, ammo bu fikrlarning rangi har doim biz oq afsona deb atagan narsadan farqli o'laroq ko'rib chiqilgan.[14]

16-17 asrlarda Ispaniyaga qarshi targ'ibotning tarixiy asoslari

XVIII asr faylasufi Immanuil Kant yozgan edi: "Ispaniyaning yomon tomoni shundaki, u chet elliklardan o'rganmaydi; u boshqa millatlar bilan tanishish uchun sayohat qilmaydi; u ilm-fan bo'yicha asrlardan orqada. U har qanday islohotlarga qarshi turadi; u yo'qligidan faxrlanadi u ishlash kabi; u xuddi shunday romantik ruhiy ruhga ega buqalar jangi namoyishlar; u avvalgidek zolim avtomatik-da-fé namoyishlar; va u o'z ta'mida qisman evropalik bo'lmagan kelib chiqishini namoyish etadi. "[15] Shunday qilib, semiotik Valter Mignolo Ispaniyalik qora tanli afsona Ispaniyadan foydalanishda poyga bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi Moorish Ispaniyaliklarni irqiy ifloslik sifatida tasvirlash tarixi va unga nisbatan munosabat Afrikaliklar va Mahalliy amerikaliklar mamlakatning axloqiy xususiyatini ramziy qilish uchun Ispaniya mustamlakasi paytida. Shunga qaramay, 16-17 asrlarda Ispaniyaga qarshi targ'ibot to'lqini 1492 va 1648 yillarda Ispaniya qudratining apogeyida sodir bo'lgan tortishuvsiz hodisalar va hodisalar bilan bog'liqligi to'g'risida umumiy kelishuv mavjud.[1][16][17][12]

Amerika qit'asini zabt etish

Uch asr davomida Amerikaning Evropadagi mustamlakasi, vahshiylik va jinoyatlar barcha Evropa xalqlari tomonidan ham zamonaviy fikrga, ham zamonaviy axloqiy me'yorlarga muvofiq amalga oshirildi. Ispaniyaning mustamlakasi, shuningdek, qirg'inlar, qotilliklar, jinsiy qullik va boshqa inson huquqlarining buzilishlarini o'z ichiga olgan, ayniqsa dastlabki yillarda, kelganidan keyin. Xristofor Kolumb ichida Karib dengizi.[12][17] Biroq, Ispaniya qayd qilingan tarixda birinchi bo'lib tub aholini himoya qilish uchun qonunlar qabul qildi. 1512 yildayoq Burgos qonunlari Evropaliklarning Yangi Dunyoda mahalliy aholi bilan yomon muomalasini taqiqlovchi va hokimiyatini cheklaydigan xatti-harakatlarini tartibga solgan encomenderos - haq to'lanadigan mehnatni jalb qilish uchun qirollik grantlarini olgan er egalari. Qonunlar mehnat, ish haqi, ta'minot, yashash joylari, gigiena va mahalliy aholiga g'amxo'rlikning oqilona insonparvarlik ruhida tartibga solinadigan rejimini o'rnatdi. Ushbu nizom yer egalari tomonidan har qanday jazo turlaridan foydalanishni taqiqlagan va hindularning kulbalari va kabinalarini ispaniyaliklar bilan birga qurishni talab qilgan. Qonunlar, shuningdek, mahalliy aholiga ta'lim berishni buyurgan Xristian dini va noqonuniy nikoh.[1]

1513 yil iyulda yana to'rtta qonun qo'shildi Leyes Komplementarias de Valladolid 1513 yil, uchtasi hindistonlik ayollar va hindistonlik bolalar bilan, yana biri hindistonlik erkaklarga tegishli. 1542 yilda Yangi qonunlar avvalgi qonunlar qo'llanilishini takomillashtirish maqsadida kengaytirildi, o'zgartirildi va tuzatildi. Ushbu yangi qonunlar Perudagi Gonsalo Pizarro singari isyonlarni to'xtatish uchun etarli bo'lmagan gumanitar harakatni anglatadi. Biroq, ushbu qonun hujjatlari zamonaviy tarixning gumanitar qonunlarining eng qadimgi namunalaridan birini ifodalaydi.[18]

Ispaniyadagi vahshiyliklarning tasviri Hispaniola tomonidan Teodor de Bry

Ushbu qonunlarga har doim ham rioya qilinmasa-da, ular 16-asrda Ispaniya monarxiyasining mahalliy huquq va farovonlik haqidagi vijdonini va Ispaniya hududlari aholisini himoya qilish irodasini aks ettiradi. Ushbu qonunlar mustamlakachilikning dastlabki davrida, ispanlarning o'zlari Kolumb bilan sayohat qilgan ba'zi bir qonunbuzarliklardan so'ng paydo bo'lgan. Ispaniyadagi mustamlaka usullari mahalliy aholini xristian diniga zo'rlik bilan kiritishni o'z ichiga olgan. 1523 yildagi "O'n ikki odamga buyruqlar" fransiskanlik ruhoniylari, agar kerak bo'lsa, mahalliy aholini harbiy kuch yordamida konvertatsiya qilishni talab qildilar.[19] Doktor Xuan Gines de Sepulveda ushbu hissiyot bilan bir qatorda, hindlarning pastligi urushni ularni madaniyatlashish va xristianlashtirish uchun urushdan foydalangan holda oqlashini ta'kidladi. U mahalliy aholining vahshiyligini to'xtatish uchun qullik va zo'ravonlikni rag'batlantirdi. Bartolome de las Casas, aksincha, bu nuqtai nazarga qat'iyan qarshi edi - mahalliy aholini tinch yo'l bilan konvertatsiya qilish mumkin degan da'vo.[20]

Ispaniyani suiiste'mol qilish to'g'risidagi bunday xabarlar Ispaniyada mustamlaka jarayoni va Amerika qit'asining tub aholisi huquqlari va himoyasi to'g'risida institutsional munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi. Dominikan friar Bartolome de las Casas nashr etilgan Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las hindular (Hindlarning yo'q qilinishi haqida qisqacha ma'lumot ), 1552 yilda mustamlakachilikning dastlabki davrida er egalari va ayrim amaldorlar tomonidan sodir etilgan taxminiy zulmlar haqida ma'lumot. Yangi Ispaniya (xususan Hispaniola ).[21] Savdogar Pedro de Las Kasasning o'g'li De las Kasas (Kolumbni ikkinchi safarida hamrohlik qilgan) Kolumbning o'zining mahalliy aholisiga munosabatini tasvirlab bergan. Hindlar tarixi.[22] Ispaniyaning xatti-harakatlarining tavsifi Ispaniyaga hujumlar uchun asos sifatida ishlatilgan, jumladan Flandriya davomida Sakson yillik urush. De Las Kasasning Ispaniyaning mustamlakasi haqidagi ta'riflarining to'g'riligi, ba'zi olimlar tomonidan taxmin qilinayotgan mubolag'alar tufayli hanuzgacha muhokama qilinmoqda. Garchi tarixchi Lyuis Xanke de Las Casas o'z hisoblarida shafqatsizlikni bo'rttirib ko'rsatgan deb o'ylardi,[23] Benjamin Kin ularni ozmi-ko'pmi aniq topdi.[24] Charlz Gibson 1964 yilgi monografiya Ispaniya boshqaruvi ostidagi asteklar (hindular va ispanlar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar haqidagi manbalarni birinchi bo'lib har tomonlama o'rganish Yangi Ispaniya ), Ispaniyani demonizatsiya qilish "qasddan sadizm yozuviga asoslanadi. Bu g'azab muhitida gullab-yashnaydi, bu masalani ob'ektiv tushunish toifasidan chiqarib tashlaydi. Bu mustamlaka tarixi institutlarini tushunishda etarli emas" degan xulosaga keladi.[25] Biroq, bu fikr Kin kabi boshqa olimlar tomonidan keng tanqid qilindi, ular Gibsonning ispan zo'ravonliklari va suiiste'mollari haqidagi hujjatli dalillarni emas, balki qonuniy kodekslarga e'tiborini qaratishdi.[17]

1550 yilda Karl I ushbu bahsni kuchli bosib olishni to'xtatish bilan tugatishga urindi. Filipp II Filippin orollari bilan izidan borishga harakat qildi, ammo avvalgi zo'ravonlik istilosi mustamlakachilik munosabatlarini qaytarilmas shakllantirgan edi. Bu Ispaniyaning dushmanlari tomonidan Qora afsonaning tarqalishiga olib keladigan doimiy oqibatlardan biri edi.[20]

Keyinchalik Amerikadagi boshqa Evropa koloniyalarida sodir bo'ladigan amerikaliklarga nisbatan yomon munosabat, Ispaniya imperiyasiga qarshi dushmanlikni kuchaytirish uchun raqobatchi Evropa kuchlarining asarlarida ishlatilgan. De Las Kasasning asarlari birinchi marta 1583 yilda ingliz tilida keltirilgan Ispan koloniyasi yoki G'arbiy Hindistondagi ispanlarning xatti-harakatlari va gestesining qisqacha xronikasi, Angliya Gollandiyada Ispaniyaga qarshi urushga tayyorgarlik ko'rayotgan paytda.

Amerikani mustamlaka qilgan barcha Evropa kuchlari, shu jumladan Angliya, Portugaliya va Niderlandiya, yomon munosabatda bo'lgan mahalliy aholi. Mustamlaka kuchlari ham sodir etganlikda ayblanmoqda Kanadada genotsid, Qo'shma Shtatlar va Avstraliya. So'nggi yillarda ushbu masalalarga ko'proq ilmiy e'tibor qaratildi va mustamlakachilik ta'sirining tarixiy baholanishi rivojlanib bormoqda. Uilyam B. Maltbining so'zlariga ko'ra, "kamida uchta avlod stipendiyalari Eski dunyoda ham, yangi davrda ham Ispaniyaning xulq-atvorini yanada muvozanatli tarzda qadrlashdi, boshqa imperatorlik kuchlarining notinch yozuvlari esa ob'ektiv baholandi".[26]

Niderlandiya bilan urush

Ispaniyaning Birlashgan provinsiyalar va, xususan, Kastiliya zodagonlarining g'alabalari va zulmlari Fernando Alvares de Toledo, Albaning 3-gersogi, Ispaniyaga qarshi tashviqotga hissa qo'shdi. 1567 yil avgustda Evropaning bosmaxonalari turli fikrlarni ilgari surgan bir qismidagi siyosiy tartibsizliklarga qarshi yuborilgan (ayniqsa, Katolik cherkovi ), Alba nashriyot sohasini o'z qo'liga oldi; bir nechta printerlar haydab chiqarilgan va kamida bittasi qatl etilgan. Kitob sotuvchilari va matbaachilar jinoiy javobgarlikka tortilib, nashr uchun hibsga olingan taqiqlangan kitoblari, ularning ko'plari kitobning bir qismi bo'lgan Indeks Librorum Prohibitorum.

Kam mamlakatlarda ko'p yillik notinchliklardan so'ng, 1567 yil yozi yangilandi zo'ravonlik unda Gollandiyalik Kalvinistlar katolik monastirlari va cherkovlarida buzilgan haykallar va bezaklar. 1567 yil mart Oosterweel jangi tartibsizliklar uchun Ispaniyaning birinchi harbiy reaktsiyasi va boshlanishi edi Sakson yillik urush. 1568 yilda Alba Bryusselda taniqli golland zodagonlarini qatl etdi. markaziy maydon, Ispaniyaga qarshi kayfiyatni qo'zg'atdi. 1572 yil oktyabrda, keyin apelsin kuchlari shaharni egallab olishdi Mexelen, uning leytenanti Ispaniyaning kattaroq armiyasi yaqinlashayotganini eshitib, taslim bo'lishga urindi. Qo'shinlarni joylashtirishga urinishlariga qaramay, Fadrique Alvarez de Toledo (Niderlandiya gubernatorining o'g'li va gersog qo'shinlari qo'mondoni) o'z odamlariga uch kun ruxsat berdi talon-taroj qilish shahar; Alba xabar berdi Qirol Filipp II "devorda bironta ham mix qolmagan". Bir yil o'tgach, magistratlar hanuzgacha ispan askarlari boshqa joyga sotgan cherkov ashyolarini olishga harakat qilmoqdalar.[27][28]

Mexelenning bu xaltasi "deb nomlanuvchi bir qator tadbirlarning birinchisi edi Ispaniya g'azabi;[29][30][31][32] Keyingi bir necha yil ichida yana bir necha kishi sodir bo'ldi.[33]1572 yil noyabr va dekabr oylarida, gersogning ruxsati bilan Fadrikining aholisi bor edi Zutfen va Naarden cherkovlarda qulflangan va kuyib o'lgan.[28][34] 1573 yil iyulda, keyin olti oylik qamal, shahar Haarlem taslim bo'ldi. Garnizon odamlari (nemis askarlari bundan mustasno) cho'kib ketgan yoki gersog qo'shinlari tomonidan tomoqlari kesilgan va taniqli fuqarolar qatl etilgan.[28] 10 mingdan ortiq Haarlemerlar devorlarda o'ldirilgan, 2000 ga yaqin odam yoqib yuborilgan yoki qiynoqqa solingan va ularning soni ikki baravar ko'p bo'lgan.[35] Ispaniya sudiga ko'plab shikoyatlardan so'ng Filipp II siyosatni o'zgartirishga va Alba gersogini ozod qilishga qaror qildi. Alba Gollandiyada 18600 kishini yoqib yuborgan yoki qatl etgani bilan maqtandi,[36] urush paytida u qatl etganlarning sonidan tashqari, ularning aksariyati ayollar va bolalar; Bir yil ichida 8000 kishi yoqib yuborilgan yoki osilgan va Albaning umumiy soni Flamancha jabrdiydalar 50 mingdan kam bo'lmasligi mumkin.[37]

1576 yil 4-noyabrdagi zamonaviy, noma'lum rasm Antverpendagi Ispaniya g'azabi
The Ispaniya g'azabi Maastrixtda 1579 yilda

The Gollandiyalik qo'zg'olon dan keyin 1570 yillarning o'rtalarida janubga tarqaldi Flandriya armiyasi ish haqi yo'qligi uchun g'azablanib, bir nechta shaharlarda, eng muhimi, g'azablandi Antverpen 1576 yilda. Askarlar shahar bo'ylab qo'zg'olon olib, o'ldirish, talon-taroj qilish, aholidan pul undirish va to'lamaganlarning uylarini yoqib yuborishdi. Kristof Plantin bosmaxona uch marotaba yo'q qilinish bilan tahdid qilingan, ammo har safar to'lov evaziga qutqarilgan. Hujum natijasida Antverpen iqtisodiy jihatdan vayron bo'ldi; 1000 bino yoqib yuborilgan, 17000 tinch aholi zo'rlangan, qiynoqqa solingan va o'ldirilgan.[38][39] Ota-onalar farzandlarining huzurida qiynoqqa solinishdi, go'daklar onasining qo'lida o'ldirildi, xotinlari erlarining ko'zi oldida qamchi bilan o'ldirildi.[40] Maastrixt tomonidan ikki marta qamal qilingan, ishdan bo'shatilgan va yo'q qilingan Tercios de Flandes (1576 va 1579 yillarda) va 1579 qamal 10000 erkak, ayol va bolalarni o'ldirgan Ispaniya g'azabi bilan yakunlandi.[41](p247) Shahar devorlarini buzgan Ispaniya qo'shinlari avval ayollarni zo'rladilar, so'ngra aholini qirg'in qildilar, taniqli odamlarning oyoq-qo'llarini yulib oldilar.[42] Askarlar yuzlab tinch aholini Zutfendagi avvalgi voqealarga o'xshash epizodda Maas daryosi bo'ylab ko'prikdan tashlab, ularni g'arq qildilar. Harbiy terror Flamandlar harakatini mag'lubiyatga uchratdi va Ispaniya hukmronligini tikladi Belgiya.[43]

Ispaniya tojiga qarshi kurash paytida Gollandiyalik qo'zg'olon tomonidan yaratilgan targ'ibotni Qora afsonaning bir qismi sifatida ham ko'rish mumkin. Hindlarga qarshi depressiyalar De Las Kasas tasvirlangan edi, Alba va uning vorislarining Gollandiyadagi depressiyalari bilan taqqoslandi. The Brevissima relacioni Niderlandiyada 1578 yildan 1648 yilgacha kamida 33 marotaba qayta nashr etilgan (boshqa barcha Evropa mamlakatlariga qaraganda ko'proq).[44] The Niderlandiyani bosib olish va unga to'sqinlik qilish uchun Ispaniya inkvizitsiyasining maqolalari va qarorlari ayblangan Muqaddas idora Gollandiya aholisini ochlikdan qutqarish va uning etakchi zodagonlarini yo'q qilish uchun fitna uyushtirganligi, "hindularda ispaniyaliklar qilganidek".[45] Sint-Aldegondaning Marnixi isyonchilarning taniqli targ'ibotchisi, Ispaniyaning Gollandiyani "mustamlaka qilish" haqidagi taxmin qilingan niyatlariga muntazam ravishda murojaatlarni ishlatgan, masalan, 1578 yil nemislarga murojaatida. Parhez.

Dastlabki zamonaviy qora afsonaning kelib chiqishi

Ispaniya imperiyasining anaxron xaritasi, shu jumladan hududiy da'volar

Ispaniya imperiyasi o'sib borishi bilan Evropaning ko'p joylarida Ispaniyaga qarshi kayfiyat paydo bo'ldi. In Xabsburg shohligi, Ispaniya bugungi kunni o'z ichiga olgan ittifoqda hukmron kuch edi Belgiya, Lyuksemburg, Gollandiya, Burgundiya va ko'p Italiya. Iberian (asosan Kastiliya ) qo'shinlari Ispaniya yo'li bo'ylab Italiyadan Germaniyaga qarab yurish uchun Gollandiya va Germaniya jang maydonlarida jang qildilar.[41](p442)

Davomida Sakson yillik urush, targ'ibotda ispanlar qonxo'r sifatida tasvirlangan barbarlar. Keyingi asrlarda Ispaniyaga qarshi stereotiplar keng tarqaldi (ayniqsa Evropaning ingliz, golland va nemis tillarida so'zlashadigan qismlarida).[iqtibos kerak ] Targ'ibotda Ispaniyaning mustamlakachilik amaliyotlarining yomonliklari va mubolag'a versiyalari tasvirlangan Ispaniya inkvizitsiyasi.

Uilyam S. Maltbi, Gollandiyadagi Ispaniya haqida:

Ispaniyaga va katolik cherkoviga qarshi Elizabet kampaniyasining bir qismi sifatida ... XVI asrda ingliz, golland, frantsuz va nemis tillarida yuzlab ispanlarga qarshi nashrlar paydo bo'ldi. O'ttiz yillik urushda va boshqa hollarda Ispaniyaga qarshi kayfiyatni qo'zg'atish foydali bo'lgan yangi nashrlar va eski ayblovlarni takrorlaydigan yangi asarlar paydo bo'ladi. Bunday materialning keng tarqalganligini hisobga olib, ilmiy tarix mualliflari antispanizmni o'zlashtirganligi va keyingi avlodlarga etkazganligi ajablanarli emas.

— Uilyam S. Maltbi, Ispaniya imperiyasining ko'tarilishi va qulashi

Italiya

Sverker Arnoldsson ning Gothenburg universiteti Evropa tarixshunosligida Juderiasning ispan qora afsonasi haqidagi farazini qo'llab-quvvatlaydi va uning kelib chiqishini o'rta asrlarda aniqlaydi Italiya, oldingi mualliflardan farqli o'laroq (kim buni 16-asrga tegishli). Uning kitobida Qora afsona: uning kelib chiqishini o'rganish, Arnoldsson tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlarni keltiradi Benedetto Kroce va Arturo Farinelli 14, 15 va 16 asrlarda Italiya Ispaniyaga dushman bo'lganligini va u erda ishlab chiqarilgan va tarqatilgan matnlar keyinchalik protestant xalqlari tomonidan asos sifatida ishlatilganligini ta'kidlashdi.[to'liq iqtibos kerak ]

Arnoldssonning Ispaniyaning qora afsonasi kelib chiqishi haqidagi nazariyasi tanqid qilindi chalkashtirish chet el kuchiga salbiy qarash (yoki tanqid) bilan qora afsonaviy avlodni yaratish jarayoni. Quyidagi e'tirozlar bildirildi:[46]

  1. Ispaniyaga qarshi dastlabki yozuvlarning italyancha kelib chiqishi Italiyani qora afsonaning kelib chiqishi sifatida aniqlash uchun etarli sabab emas; bu begona kuch hukmron bo'lgan har qanday jamiyatda odatiy reaktsiya.
  2. "Qora afsona" iborasi yaqinda Ispaniya qo'shinlarining borishiga (tezda yo'q bo'lib ketgan) munosabatlarga asoslangan an'anani (italyancha yozuvlarda yo'q) taklif qiladi.[iqtibos kerak ]
  3. 15-16 asrlarda Italiyada tanqidchilar va Ispaniyaning italiyalik intellektual muxlislari (xususan Aragonlik Ferdinand II ) birgalikda yashagan.

Edvard Piters o'zining "Inkvizitsiya" asarida:

Ispaniyalik anti-ispan invektivida Ispaniya qirolliklarini, shu jumladan o'ziga xos Ispaniya inkvizitsiyasi institutini tozalash harakatining ko'p qismini ilhomlantirgan xristianlarning o'z-o'zini anglashi Ispaniyadan tashqarida zarur tozalash sifatida qabul qilindi, chunki barcha ispanlar ayblangan. Mur va yahudiy ajdodlariga ega. (...) Dastlab nasroniylik e'tiqodining nopokligi uchun hukm qilingan, keyin ispanlar katoliklikni himoya qilishda haddan tashqari g'ayrat uchun tanqidga uchragan. Ispaniyaning siyosiy va diniy siyosati ta'sirida etnik invektiviyaning keng tarqalgan turi xarakterni suiqasd qilish orqali ravon va shafqatsiz ta'rifga aylandi. Shunday qilib, Bartolome de las Casas Yangi Dunyodagi ayrim hukumat siyosatini tanqid qilganida, uning cheklangan, aniq maqsadi inobatga olinmadi.

— Eduard Piters, inkvizitsiya

Uilyam S. Maltbining so'zlariga ko'ra, italyan yozuvlarida "dirijyorlik mavzusi" yo'q: Gollandiyada va Angliyada ispan qora afsonasini shakllantiradigan umumiy rivoyat.[47] Roca Barea rozi; garchi u italyan yozuvlaridan nemis raqiblari foydalangan bo'lishi mumkinligini inkor qilmasa ham, asl italyan yozuvlarida "qora afsonaviy yozuvlarning shafqatsizligi va ko'r-ko'rona deformatsiyasi yo'q" va bu shunchaki ishg'olga bo'lgan munosabatdir.[Ushbu iqtibosga iqtibos kerak ]

Germaniya

Arnoldsson italyan kelib chiqishi nazariyasiga qutbli qarama-qarshi tomonida alternativa taklif qildi: the Germaniya Uyg'onish davri.[48] Nemis gumanizmi, chuqur millatparvarlik, Rim bosqinchilariga qarama-qarshi nemis identifikatorini yaratmoqchi edi. Xuttenning Ulrixi va Martin Lyuter, harakatning asosiy mualliflari "Lotin" kengroq tushunchasida "rim" dan foydalanganlar. Ispaniya, Portugaliya, Frantsiya va Italiyani o'z ichiga olgan Lotin dunyosi "axloqiy, tartibli va nemislarga zid ravishda begona, axloqsiz, xaotik va soxta" deb qabul qilindi.[49]

Ispaniyaliklarni yahudiylar, bid'atchilar va "afrikaliklar" bilan identifikatsiyalash bilan bir qatorda, imperatorni kamsituvchilar tomonidan Ispaniyaga qarshi tashviqot kuchaygan. Charlz V. Charlzga qarshi targ'ibot millatchilikka asoslangan edi, garchi u Flandriyada tug'ilgan bo'lsa-da, gollandiyalik bo'lsa-da, ozgina ispancha va o'sha paytda italyancha bo'lmagan va ko'pincha papa bilan zid bo'lgan.

Ularning sabablarini ko'rib chiqish uchun Charlzga qarshi bo'lgan hukmdorlar uni papa bilan tanishtirishga e'tibor berishdi (bu fikr Charlz Ispaniya qo'shinlarini o'zlari qarshilik ko'rsatgan Germaniya urushlarida qatnashishga majbur qilishga undagan). Charlzning qo'shinlari va tarafdorlari tarkibiga nemis va protestant knyazlari va askarlari kiritilganligi, ularga biriktirilgan ispan elementlarini rad etish uchun qo'shimcha sabab bo'ldi. Ispaniyaning hukmronligidan qo'rqish kerak edi va ma'lum bir tasvirni yaratish kerak edi. Ispanlarning mavrlar va yahudiylar bilan identifikatsiyasi (o'zaro nikohning tez-tezligi sababli), suhbatlar (Nasroniylikni qabul qilgan yahudiylar yoki musulmonlar) o'z jamiyatlarida va "bu ikkalasining tabiiy shafqatsizligi".[50]

Islomofobiya va antisemitizm

Ispaniyadan tashqarida Inkvizitsiya Ispaniyada amalga oshirilishi kerak bo'lgan zaruriy tozalash deb qaraldi, chunki barcha ispanlarni ayblashdi Moorish va Yahudiy ajdodlar (...) Avvaliga ularning e'tiqodlari nopokligi bilan qoralangan ispaniyaliklar keyinchalik katoliklikni himoya qilishdagi g'ayratlari uchun tanqid ostiga olindi. Ispaniyaning siyosiy va diniy siyosati ta'sirida etnik ixtirolarning keng tarqalgan turi ta'rifning ravon shakliga aylandi. xarakterga suiqasd. Shunday qilib, Bartolome de las Casas Yangi Dunyodagi ayrim hukumat siyosatini tanqid qilganida, uning cheklangan, ishontiruvchi, aniq maqsadi e'tiborsiz qoldirildi.

— Edvard Piters, Inkvizitsiya (1985)[to'liq iqtibos kerak ]

Ushbu kelib chiqishi nemis kelib chiqishi elementlarini XVI asrgacha mavjud bo'lgan Ispanlarga qarshi rivoyatni isbotlash bilan bir qatorda Ispaniyaga qarshi va paralelliklarning ko'pligi bilan birlashtiradi. antisemitizm zamonaviy Evropada bo'lgan rivoyatlar va bu eng katta qo'llab-quvvatlovni yig'adigan rivoyatlardan biridir. Ushbu qarashga ko'ra, Ispaniyaning qora afsonasi "shafqatsiz, oltin ehtirosli yahudiy" ning allaqachon yaratilgan "xarakterini" ispan millatiga o'tkazish yo'li bilan yaratilgan. Ushbu rivoyat tanish bo'lganligi sababli, stereotip qabul qilingan va yahudiylar Evropaning ko'p qismidan quvilgan bir paytda, Iberiyadagi ikkala jamoat o'rtasida uzoq vaqt davomida birga yashab kelgani sababli ispanlar va yahudiylarni identifikatsiyalash Evropada keng tarqalgan edi. Qora afsonaga zudlik bilan ishonilgan va assimilyatsiya qilingan Markaziy Evropa.

Elvira Roka Bareaning so'zlariga ko'ra, Ispaniyaning qora afsonasi XIII asrdan beri Angliyada, Markaziy Evropaning aksariyat qismida va Italiyada tarqalgan antisemitik rivoyatlarning bir variantidir. Roka Barea Ispaniya imperiyasiga qarshi xurofotni Ispaniyaning uchrashuv nuqtasi sifatida tarixiy rolini o'ynagan hispanofobik rivoyatlarga olib keladi deb hisoblaydi. Nasroniylik, Islom va Yahudiylik targ'ibot vositasi sifatida.[11] 1555 yilda, ispan yahudiylari quvib chiqarilgandan so'ng, Papa Pol IV ispanlarni "bid'atchilar, sismatiklar, Xudoning la'nati, avlodlari" deb ta'rifladilar Yahudiylar va Moors, erning axlati ".[51] Ushbu iqlim antisemitik va musulmonlarga qarshi ispanlar uchun stereotiplar.[52] Ushbu ishda uchta asosiy dalil manbalari mavjud: nemislarning Renascence ziyolilarining matnlari, Amerikani zabt etishdan oldin Evropada qora afsonaviy rivoyat borligi va yahudiylikka antisemitizm tomonidan berilgan stereotiplarning boshqa stereotiplarga o'xshashligi. Evropaliklar va Qora afsonaning ispanlarga tegishli bo'lgan stereotiplari.[53]

Ispaniyaliklarni "bid'atchilar" va "yahudiylar" bilan tanishtiradigan matnlar Germaniyada birinchi marta XIV asrda yozilgan va XV va XVI asrlarda Ispaniyaga qarshi targ'ibotning turli qismlari deyarli antisemitizmga oid asarlarning satr nusxalari. Masalan, yomon muomalada bo'lgan tub amerikaliklarning zulm qilganlarini boshlariga eritilgan oltinni quyib o'ldirgani haqidagi mashhur voqea antisemitizm she'rida tasvirlangan voqeani aniq qayta yozishdir. Quddusni qamal qilish. Shuningdek, u qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan chuqur antisemitizmni taklif qiladi Lyuter Agar har ikkala funktsiyani identifikatsiyalash muomalada bo'lgan bo'lsa, asarlari ikki tomonlama funktsiyani bajargan bo'lishi mumkin, millatchilik va ispanlarga qarshi, shuningdek diniy.

Martin Lyuter "yahudiy" (o'sha paytda Germaniyada nafratlangan) bilan mintaqada tobora kuchayib borayotgan "ispan" bilan o'zaro bog'liq edi. Sverker Arnoldssonning so'zlariga ko'ra, Lyuter:

  • Rim va Ispaniya o'sha paytda dushman bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, papa bilan Italiya va Ispaniyani aniqladilar
  • Ispaniyadagi nasroniylar va yahudiylarning birgalikda yashashiga (shu jumladan, o'zaro nikohga) e'tibor bermadilar
  • Ispaniya va Turkiya istilo qilinishidan qo'rqib, to'qnashdilar.[54]

1566 yilda Lyuterning suhbatlari nashr etilgan. Shunga o'xshash boshqa ko'plab tasdiqlashlar orasida uning so'zlari keltirilgan:

[...] Ispanlar [...], die essen gern weiss Brot vnd ​​küssen gern weisse Meidlein, vnd sind sie stiffelbraun vnd pechschwartz wie König Balthasar mit seinem Affen. (Ispanlar oq nonni zavq bilan iste'mol qiladilar va oq ayollarni zavq bilan o'padilar, ammo ular qirol Baltasar va uning maymunlari singari iflos-jigarrang va smola-qora rangga ega ".)

— Johann Fischart, Geschichtklitterung (1575).

Ideo prophetatum est Hispanos velle subigere Germaniam aut per se aut per alios, scilicet Turcam [...] Et ita Germania vexabitur et viribus ac bonis suis exhausta Hispanico regno subiugabitur. Eo tendit Sathan, quod Germaniam liberam perturbare tentat (Thus, it is prophesied that the Spaniards want to subjugate Germany, by itself or through others, such as the Turks. And so Germany will be humiliated and stripped of its men and property, will be submitted to the kingdom of Spain. Satan tries this because he tries to prevent a free Germany)

— Lyuter[53]

References to Spanish as "bad Christians", "Jews", "Moors" or racialized references associating said ancestry with lack of moral or general inferiority can be found uninterruptedly in black legend sources and political propaganda since the Middle Ages until well into the contemporary period.

Angliya

England played a role in the spread and use of the Spanish Black Legend during colonial times, but it is also agreed that, no matter how much the English might have added to it, the origin of the narrative was not in England and reached the islands only after war and conflicting interest.[iqtibos kerak ]

Yilda A Comparison of the English and Spanish Nation (1589), Robert Ashley writes:

[We must] learne to despise those magnificent Don Diegos va Spanish Cavalieros, whos doughtiest deedes are bragges and boastinges, and themselves (for the most part) shadowes without substance. ... What humanitie, what faith, what courtesie, what modestie, and civilitie, may wee thinke to finde amongst this scumme of Barbarians? [My assertions can] be cleared by conference of their manner with ours, that is, of their vices with our vertues, of their vile viliacquerie, with our generositie. ... The comparing of our conditions with those of this mongrell generation. [The Spanish Nation is] unfaithful, ravenous, and insatiable above all other Nations. ... The nature and disposition of the Spaniards, in whom may be seene together incorporated, a craftie Fox, a ravenous Wolfe, and a raging Tygre. ... [The Spaniard is also] an uncleane and filthie swine, a theevish howlet, a proud peacocke ... a legion of divels ... [Columbus] would never have undertaken this voyage, if he had thought that the men whome hee brought thither ... should straightwaies be transformed into Lions, Panthers, Tigres, and other savage beastes ... O Turkes, O Scithians, O Tartarians, [rejoice, for Spain's much greater cruelty makes yours look so much less].[a][Spain] is and ever hath bene the sinke, the puddle, and filthie heape of the most lothsome, infected, and slavish people that ever yet lived on earth. ... This wicked race of those half Wisigots. ... This demie Mur, demie Jew, yea demie Saracine. ... What? Shall those Marranos, yes, those impious Atheistes reigne over us kings and Princes? ... [Those Spaniards with] ... theyr insatiate avarice, theyre more than Tigrish cruelty, theyr filthy, monstruous and abominable luxurie ... theyr lustfull and inhumaine deflouring of their matrons, wives, daughters, theyr matchless and sodomiticall ravishings of young boys, which these demi-barbarian Spaniardes committed. ...[55]

Antonio Peres, the fallen secretary of King Filipp, fled to France and then England, where he published attacks on the Spanish monarchy under the title Relaciones (1594). The English referred to these books to justify xususiylashtirish and wars against the Spanish.[iqtibos kerak ]A violently hispanophobic preacher and pamphleteer, Tomas Skott, would echo this sort of epithet a generation later, in the 1620s, when he urged England to war against "those wolvish Antichristians" instead of accepting the "Ispaniya o'yini."[56]

Separf yahudiylar

Shuningdek qarang: Yahudiy qaroqchilari

According to Philip Wayne Powell, criticism which was spread by the Jews who were expelled by Spain's Catholic monarchs was an important factor in the spread of anti-Spanish sentiment (particularly religious stereotypes).

Tarqatish

Proponents such as Powell,[6] Mignolo[57] and Roca Barea[11] allege that The Spanish Black Legend affects most of Europe, especially Protestant and Anglican Europe, and France, as well as the Americas. There is, however, no significant trace of it in the Muslim world or Turkey despite the almost seven centuries of sustained warfare in which Spain and the Islamic world were engaged. Tarixchi Valter Mignolo has argued that the Black Legend was closely tied to ideologies of race, both in the way that it used the Moorish history of Spain to depict Spaniards as racially tainted, and in the way that the treatment of Afrikaliklar va Mahalliy amerikaliklar during Spanish colonial projects came to symbolize their moral character.[58]

The continuance of the Black Legend in the modern era

Historians disagree on whether the Black Legend exists as a genuine factor in current discourse around Spain and its history. In recent years a group of historians including Alfredo Alvar, Ricardo Garcia Carcel and Lourdes Mateo Bretos have argued that the Black Legend does not currently exist, it being merely the Spanish perception of how the world views Spain's legacy.[59] Ga binoan Karmen Iglesias, the black legend consists of negative traits which the Spanish people see in themselves and is shaped by political propaganda.[60]

The view of the group around Garcia Carcel is echoed by Benjamin Keen, writing in 1969. He argues that the concept of the Black Legend cannot be considered valid, given that the negative depiction of Spanish behavior in the Americas was largely accurate. He further claims that whether a concerted campaign of anti-Spanish propaganda based on imperial rivalry ever existed is at least open to question.[61]

Henry Kamen argues that the Black Legend existed during the 16th century but is now a thing of the past in England. Other authors, however, like Roca Barea, Tony Horowitz and Philip Wayne Powell, have argued that it still affects the way in which Spain is perceived and that it is brought up strategically during diplomatic conflicts of interest as well as in popular culture to hide the negative actions of other nations. Powell believed in 1971 that the stereotypes of the Black Legend contribute to oq ustunlik, erasing the ethical and intellectual contributions of Janubiy evropaliklar and obscuring the power and competence of Native American empires before and during the Spanish conquest.[62] In 2006, Tony Horowitz argued that the Spanish black legend affected current US immigration policy.[63]

Roca Barea states that early modern Spanish phenomena, such as the Spanish Inquisition and the conquest of the Americas, were in actual fact beneficial and therefore any negative comment on them forms part of the Black Legend. She further claims that Protestant European countries remain essentially anti-Catholic stating:

If we deprive Europe of its hispanophobia and anti-Catholicism, its modern history becomes incomprehensible.[64]

This viewpoint is criticised by Garcia Carcel, who views her book as part of a long tradition of Spanish insecurities towards other European countries, that in effect constitutes the true Black Legend. He identifies strains of whataboutery (ispan tilida: y tu más) and self pity (no nos quieren: "Nobody loves us") in the Spanish historiography of the Black Legend, arguing that rigorous historical investigation should replace Spain's obsession with the way others see it.[65]

José Luis Villacañas, in his 2019 response to Roca Barea, states that her work is in fact "populist national-Catholic propaganda", containing large numbers of "scientific irregularities". Villacañas further accuses Roca Barea of considering France, Spain, England and Holland to have "hispanophobia in their DNA", and of minimising Spanish atrocities in Latin America along with the activities of the Inquisition. He argues that to all intents and purposes the Black Legend has no meaning outside the context of 17th century propaganda, but recognises that certain negative archetypes of Spain may have persisted during the Franco regime.[12]

Other proponents of the continuity theory include musicologist Judith Etzion[66] va Roberto Fernandez Retamar,[67] and Samuel Amago who, in his essay "Why Spaniards Make Good Bad Guys" analyzes the persistence of the legend in contemporary European cinema.[68]

Those who contend that the Black Legend still affects Spain and the Latin American world point to the following concrete examples:

Tilshunoslik

  • Creation and use of special categories: The use in English of the word "conquistador" instead of "conqueror" (the literal translation of konkistador), as well as of "conquista" instead of "conquest" (also, the literal translation of conquista) in order to create a new, unique category of connotation that separates Spaniards from other Europeans.[iqtibos kerak ]

Iqtisodiy

  • Luis Español argues that direct references to constructs from the times of the Black Legend were made in the British and Canadian press during the Turbot urushi of 1992 between Spain and Canada.[69]
  • Elvira Roca Barea argues that referring to Spain as part of the Cho'chqalar or "GIPSY" (sic) group of countries is a recourse to anti-Catholic and hispanophobic stereotypes in order to protect the financial interests of Protestant countries.[11]

Siyosiy

  • Lotin Amerikasi - Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari munosabatlari: Philip Wayne Powell, writing in 1971, considered the Black Legend to be the root of contemporary diplomatic problems and anti-Lotin tili sentiment in the United States, making the case for this in his book The Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting Relations with the Hispanic World. The view of the Black Legend affecting the present-day United States' immigration policy has gained supporters in the current political climate.[70] The narrative of the "degenerated race" is argued to be at the root of the racist discrimination suffered by Latinos in America.
  • Powell stated that Spain's past ownership of about half of the United States' land was unknown by most Americans, affecting the way in which the Latin American population and culture are treated, as well as the linguistic debate there.[71]
  • Spanish foreign minister Xosep Borrell stated that he sees a re-emergence of the Black Legend across Europe in the way the Catalonian issue has been covered, especially by English-speaking press.[72]

Education and popular culture

  • 1944 yilda American Council of Education released a report on anti-Hispanism in school textbooks, identifying a large number of basic errors, inexactitudes and biased portrayals. It concluded that "The abolition of the Black Legend and its effects in our interpretation of Latin American life is one of our main problems in the educational and intellectual aspect, as well as in the political sphere", and urged for textbooks' biases and errors to be fixed. However, according to Powell,[73] in 1971 all the core errors were still in the majority of school materials.
  • Roca Barea criticises the 2007 BBC documentary "Andes: The Dragon's Back" for stating that 200 Spaniards conquered 1.5 billion Incas, more than the entire population of the world at the time. She considers this to be modern Black Legend propaganda.[11] Edgar Straehle, in his extended response to her book, points out that the programme in fact states that the population of the Inca Empire was 15 million, linking to the original English version.[74] Roca Barea later replied to this argument by stating that, in the dubbed version broadcast on Spanish television, the figure of 1.5 billion was given.[75]
  • Roca Barea points to the following dialogue from a dubbed episode of the TV series Qonun va tartib, broadcast in Spain in 2014, as an example of continued hispanophobia in the present day: "How many heterosexual men over-30 do you know that are still Catholics and aren't weirdos?"[11]

Musobaqa

  • Powell argues that the Black Legend and its counterpart, the Dutch, English and German golden legends, are allegedly main contributors to the construct of oq ustunlik, since they erase the ethical and intellectual contributions of Janubiy evropaliklar and reduce the power and competence which was achieved by indigenous empires both prior to and during the Ispaniyaning Amerikani bosib olishi.[76]

White legend

The label "White Legend" is used to describe a supposed historiographic approach presenting an uncritical or idealized image of Spanish colonial practices.[13] Some authors consider this to be the result of taking attempts to counter the bias of the Black Legend too far, whereas others consider it to have developed independently. Miguel Molina Martinez describes this legend as a characteristic of the Nationalist Spanish historiography which was propagated during the tartib ning Frantsisko Franko, a regime which associated itself with the imperial past and couched it in positive terms. Molina Martinez points to the classic text of Spanish Americanists during the Franco period, Rómulo Carbia's Historia de la leyenda negra hispanoamericana, as a work with a strong ideological motivation which frequently fell into arguments which could be qualified as part of the White Legend, while also giving more current examples of the trope.[77] Ba'zilar, masalan Benjamin Kin, have criticized the works of Jon Fiske va Lyuis Xanke as going too far towards idealizing Spanish history.[16] While recognising the general merit of Hanke's work, Keen suggests that the United States' contemporary imperial ventures in the Caribbean and the Philippines had led him to idealise the Spanish Empire as an analogy for American colonialism. He further argues that the proponents of the White Legend focus on Spanish legal codes protecting the Indigenous population, while ignoring the copious documentary evidence that they were widely ignored.[17]

Luis Castellvi Laukamp accuses Elvira Roca Barea of "transforming the Black Legend into the White Legend" in her influential 2016 work, Imperofobia y Leyenda Negra, in which she claims that Spain confronted the boshqa "not with racist theories but with [protective] laws". Castellvi Laukamp points out that not only did the Spanish Laws of the Indies include racism from the beginning, but slavery continued in Spanish colonies in the Americas until 1886. He further takes issue with claims that Spanish colonies' high level of mestizaje (biological and cultural mixing of the European and Indigenous population) demonstrates the absence of racism in the Spanish Empire. Castellvi Laukamp quotes from contemporary sources showing that Indigenous women were treated as spoils of war and subject to racialised sexual slavery and subordination and demonstrates the discriminatory racial stereotypes deployed against black and other non-white women in the colonial period.[78]

Dominican Historian Esteban Mira Caballos argues that the Black and White legends for part of a single unity, which he calls a "Great Lie".[79] He goes on to describe the way the Black Legend is instrumentalised to support the White Legend:

The consequence of the positioning of those who allude to the Black Legend in order to, in reality, defend the White Legend, has been to silence any criticism of the past: We were marvellous, and anything negative anyone has to say about us is fruit of the Black Legend. And without the possibility of criticism, the science of History loses all meaning

— Esteban Mira Caballos, Mito, realidad y actualidad de la leyenda negra

The "White Legend" or the "Pink Legend" (Sp: Leyenda Rosa) may also refer to the propaganda which was circulated within Spain by Filipp II and his descendants, propaganda which claimed that his actions in the Netherlands and America were religiously motivated, so his own patrimony would be preserved. This propaganda was intended to foster the image that Spain was ruled by a prudent and pious monarch, and control the unrest that was generated by his aggressive policies and his wars in the Netherlands.[80]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ The author of this pamphlet gives credit to the famous Venetian, Franchesko Gikkardini, for some of this characterization of the Spaniards.
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