Syerra-Leondagi fuqarolar urushiga Angliyaning harbiy aralashuvi - British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War

Syerra-Leondagi fuqarolar urushi
Sierra Leone bilan G'arbiy Afrika xaritasi ta'kidlangan
Shaxsiyat
Qurolli kuchlar
Tinchlik uchun urinishlar
Siyosiy guruhlar
Etnik guruhlar
Shuningdek qarang

Birlashgan Qirollik bunga harbiy aralashuvni boshladi Serra-Leone kod nomi ostida 2000 yil 7 mayda Palliser operatsiyasi. Garchi ilgari inglizlarning oz sonli xodimlari jalb qilingan bo'lsa-da, Palliser ingliz kuchlarining birinchi keng ko'lamli aralashuvi edi Syerra-Leondagi fuqarolar urushi. 2000 yil may oyining boshlarida Inqilobiy birlashgan front (RUF) - fuqarolar urushining asosiy tomonlaridan biri - mamlakat poytaxtida yurish, Fritaun, Britaniya hukumatini chet el fuqarolarini evakuatsiya qilishga tayyorgarlik ko'rish uchun "tezkor razvedka va aloqalar guruhini" (ORLT) jo'natishga undadi. 6 may kuni RUF Fritaunni mamlakatning asosiy aeroporti bilan bog'laydigan yo'lni to'sib qo'ydi, Qo'ziqorinlar. Ertasi kuni ingliz askarlari aeroportni va evakuatsiya uchun zarur bo'lgan boshqa joylarni himoya qilishni boshladilar. Ketishni istaganlarning aksariyati operatsiyadan keyingi dastlabki ikki kun ichida evakuatsiya qilingan, ammo ko'pchilik Britaniya kuchlari kelganidan keyin qolishni afzal ko'rishgan.

Evakuatsiya samarali yakunlangach, Britaniya kuchlarining vakolatlari kengaytirila boshlandi. Ular qamalda bo'lgan tinchlikparvarlarni evakuatsiya qilishda yordam berishdi, shu jumladan Britaniyaning bir necha otashkesim kuzatuvchilari - va yordam berishni boshladilar Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Syerra-Leondagi vakolatxonasi (UNAMSIL) va Syerra-Leone armiyasi (SLA). Missiyaning kengayishiga qaramay, 17 mayga qadargina ingliz askarlari RUF bilan bevosita aloqada bo'lishdi. Isyonchilar Lungi aeroporti yaqinidagi inglizlar pozitsiyasiga hujum qilishdi, ammo bir qator o't o'chirgandan so'ng orqaga chekinishga majbur bo'lishdi. Shu kuni RUF rahbari, Foday Sankoh, RUFni tartibsizlikda qoldirib, Syerra-Leone kuchlari tomonidan qo'lga olindi. RUF ixtiyoriy ravishda qurolsizlanmaydi degan qarorga kelgach, inglizlar SLAni qarama-qarshilikka tayyorlashni boshladilar. O'quv missiyasi davomida Iordaniya tinchlikparvar kuchlariga tashrifidan qaytgan patrul militsiya guruhi tomonidan asirga olingan West Side Boys. Muzokaralar natijasida o'n bir askarning beshtasi ozod qilindi va inqiroz boshlanganidan uch hafta o'tgach, Britaniya maxsus kuchlari kod nomini olgan missiyani boshladi. Barras operatsiyasi, qolgan oltitani bo'shatish. Barras operatsiyasining muvaffaqiyati Britaniya missiyasiga ishonchni tikladi; Bir akademikning ta'kidlashicha, uning muvaffaqiyatsizligi Britaniya hukumatini Syerra-Leonedagi barcha kuchlarini olib chiqishga majbur qiladi.

Buyuk Britaniyaning umumiy amaliyoti asosan 2000 yil sentyabrgacha yakunlandi. RUF siyosiy bosimdan so'ng qurolsizlana boshladi va keyinchalik iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar qo'llanildi. Liberiya - evaziga RUFni qo'llab-quvvatlagan ziddiyatli olmoslar noqonuniy ravishda Syerra-Leondan olib chiqib ketilgan. Syerra-Leone hukumati oxir-oqibat RUF bilan o't ochishni to'xtatish to'g'risidagi bitimni imzoladi Qurolsizlanish, demobilizatsiya va reintegratsiya (DDR) jarayoni. 2001 yil sentyabrga kelib, inglizlarning o'quv guruhlari xalqaro kuch bilan almashtirilganda, DDR jarayoni deyarli yakunlandi. Britaniya kuchlari Sierra Leone-da ishtirok etishni davom ettirdi va xalqaro o'quv guruhiga shaxsiy tarkibning eng katta hissasini qo'shdi va Syerra-Leone qurolli kuchlarini qayta qurish to'g'risida maslahat berdi. 2003 yilda ushbu hududga barqarorlikni ta'minlash uchun kichik kuch jalb qilingan, shu bilan birga bir necha ayblov xulosalari va hibsga olishlar amalga oshirilgan Sierra Leone uchun maxsus sud. Britaniyaning Syerra-Leonedagi operatsiyalarining muvaffaqiyati bir nechta kontseptsiyalarni, shu jumladan yuqori tayyorgarlik kuchlarini ushlab turishni tasdiqladi. Bosh vazir, Toni Bler, boshqa mojarolarga G'arbning aralashuvini ko'rishni xohlagan va Frantsiya bilan bir qatorda bir nechta yaratilishini qo'llab-quvvatlagan Evropa Ittifoqi jangovar guruhlari maqsad uchun. Bu sodir bo'lganidek, siyosiy qarama-qarshiliklar va keyinchalik Britaniyaning Afg'oniston va Iroqdagi majburiyatlari Afrikadagi Britaniyaning keyingi operatsiyalariga to'sqinlik qildi.

Fon

Serra-Leone

Asosiy maqolalar: Sierra Leone tarixi va Syerra-Leondagi fuqarolar urushi
A map of Sierra Leone
Sierra-Leone xaritasi poytaxt Fritaun, Lungi aeroporti va Buyuk Britaniyaning boshqa bir nechta operatsiyalari joylashgan joylarini aks ettiradi

Serra-Leone mamlakatdir G'arbiy Afrika, ekvatorga yaqin, maydoni 71,740 kvadrat kilometr (27,700 kvadrat mil)[1]- hajmi Janubiy Karolina yoki Shotlandiyaga o'xshash. U quruqlik bilan chegaralarni baham ko'radi Gvineya va Liberiya va g'arbdan Atlantika okeani bilan chegaradosh.[2] Mamlakat a Britaniya mustamlakasi 1808 yilda, Britaniyaning ta'siri 18-asr oxirida sobiq qullar deb nom olgan hududga joylashgandan so'ng boshlandi Fritaun, endi poytaxt.[3] Fritaun yarim orolda joylashgan va mamlakatning asosiy aeroportidan ajratilgan, Qo'ziqorinlar, ning daryosi tomonidan Serra-Leone daryosi kengligi bir necha milni tashkil etadi.[4] Mustamlaka 1961 yilda Buyuk Britaniyadan va Sirdan mustaqillikka ega bo'ldi Milton Margai uning birinchi bosh vaziri etib tayinlandi. Uning o'rnini 1962 yilda uning ukasi egalladi, Albert tomonidan mag'lub bo'lgan Siaka Stivens 1967 yilgi umumiy saylovlarda. Stivensni armiya qo'mondoni bir necha soat ichida ag'darib tashlagan, ammo keyinchalik qo'mondon o'zi ag'darilgandan keyin qayta tiklangan. Syerra-Leone 1971 yilda respublikaga aylandi va Stivens birinchi prezident etib tayinlandi.[5]

1978 yilda Sierra Leone rasmiy ravishda bir partiyali davlatga aylandi va Butun xalq kongressi (APC) yagona qonuniy siyosiy partiyaga aylandi. Stivens 1985 yilda nafaqaga chiqqan va tayinlangan Jozef Momoh uning vorisi sifatida. Momoh korrupsiyada va vakolatlarini suiiste'mol qilishda ayblangan va Inqilobiy birlashgan front (RUF) uni ag'darish maqsadida o'n yil ichida tuzilgan.[6][7] Liberiya homiyligida RUF 1991 yilda chegara bo'ylab joylashgan aholi punktlariga hujum qila boshladi va tezda mahsulotlarini Liberiya orqali olib o'tadigan va qurol-yarog 'bilan savdo qiladigan olmos konlarini tezda o'z nazoratiga oldi.[8][9] Keyingi yillarda bir qator to'ntarishlar va aralashuvlar sodir bo'ldi xususiy harbiy kompaniyalar,[9] Nigeriya G'arbiy Afrika davlatlarining iqtisodiy hamjamiyati, va Birlashgan Millatlar (BMT), qonli fuqarolar urushi mamlakatni vayron qilgan edi.[10]

1999 yil 7-iyul kuni Lome tinchlik shartnomasi imzolandi.[11] Boshqa qoidalar qatorida, kelishuv fuqarolar urushi va qurolsizlanishning asosiy tomonlari o'rtasida zudlik bilan sulhni to'xtatishni talab qildi. Syerra-Leone armiyasi (SLA) va RUF. Shuningdek, u RUFga qonuniy siyosiy partiya maqomini berdi, Syerra-Leone hukumatidagi rolni va vazirlar mahkamasidagi yigirma ikki o'rindan to'rttasini berdi. Foday Sankoh, RUF rahbari, olmos konlari uchun javobgarlikni oldi - bu uchrashuv kuzatuvchilar va xalqaro ommaviy axborot vositalari tomonidan RUFning olmos kontrabandasi tarixini hisobga olgan holda ko'p tanqid qilingan.[12][13][14] Biroq, Piter Xeyn, Afrika davlat vaziri, Buyuk Britaniya hukumatining RUFning ustunligini hisobga olgan holda Lome shartnomasini tasdiqlashdan boshqa iloji yo'qligini va yagona alternativa davom etayotgan fuqarolik urushi ekanligini taklif qildi. 1999 yilda Buyuk Britaniyaning harbiy aralashuvi bekor qilindi, chunki Britaniya hukumati harbiy yordam so'rab murojaat qilmagan va uni bir tomonlama aralashuv uchun xalqaro hamjamiyat qo'llab-quvvatlamayapti deb hisoblagan. Britaniya harbiylari ishtirok etganligi sababli, aralashuv siyosiy va harbiy jihatdan amaliy emas deb topildi Yugoslaviyadagi NATO operatsiyalari.[15]

Toni Bler va Buyuk Britaniya qurolli kuchlari

Sierra Leone-ga aralashish to'rtinchi ekspeditsiya operatsiyasi va ikkinchi muhim joylashtirish edi Janob hazratlarining qurolli kuchlari ostida Toni Bler 1997 yilda Bosh vazir etib saylangan.[16][17] Dastlabki ikkitasi nisbatan kichik operatsiyalar edi: 1998 yilda Iroqqa qarshi bir qator aviazarbalar kod nomi bilan o'zgartirildi "Desert Fox" operatsiyasi,[18] kompaniyasining joylashtirilishi Gurxalar va maxsus kuchlar tinchlikni saqlash operatsiyalari to'g'risida Sharqiy Timor 1999 yilda.[19][20] Uchinchi operatsiya, Bler boshchiligidagi birinchi yirik qo'shin 1999 yilda Kosovoda bo'lib, u erda ingliz kuchlari a NATO ga aralashish Kosovo urushi.[16]

Britaniyaning Kosovodagi operatsiyalari paytida Bler Chikagoda nutq so'zlab, o'zining "Xalqaro hamjamiyat doktrinasi" ni bayon qildi.[16][21] Bler undan ko'proq foydalanishni yoqladi gumanitar aralashuv - milliy manfaatlarni himoya qilish uchun emas, balki tinch aholini himoya qilish uchun qurolli kuch ishlatish.[22] Kosovo Blerning "kuchli axloqiy ish olib borilishi mumkin bo'lgan joyda" insonparvarlik maqsadlarida harbiy kuch ishlatishga bo'lgan ishonchini pasaytirmadi,[23] va u aralashuv mezonlarini belgilab berdi.[21] Syerra-Leonedagi aralashuv, Andrey Dormanning so'zlariga ko'ra London qirollik kolleji, "[Chikago nutqi] tarkibidagi axloqning aksariyat qismini o'zida mujassam etgan ko'rinadi".[16]

Oldingi inglizlar joylashtirilgan

2000 yil may oyidagi aralashuv Britaniya urushi paytida Sierra Leone-ga ingliz kuchlarining birinchi yirik joylashtirilishi bo'ldi, ammo u erda inglizlar birinchi marta xizmat qilayotgani yo'q. 1997 yil may oyida ikki kishilik mashg'ulotlar guruhi Britaniya armiyasi SLA zobitlarini o'qitish uchun yuborilgan, ammo SLA kuchi aytilganidan ancha past ekanligini aniqladi. Har qanday mashg'ulotlar o'tkazilishidan oldin hukumat to'ntarish bilan ag'darildi.[eslatma 1][24] Tomonidan saylangan hukumat tiklanganidan so'ng G'arbiy Afrika davlatlarining iqtisodiy hamjamiyati Monitoring guruhi (ECOMOG) 1998 yil fevralda, HMS Kornuol oziq-ovqat va tibbiy buyumlar bilan Fritaunga suzib ketishdi.[25] Uning ekipaji infratuzilmani ta'mirlashda yordam berdi va uning vertolyoti aprel oyining o'rtalarida jo'nab ketguniga qadar odamlar va mollarni Sierra Leone atrofida ko'chirish uchun ishlatilgan.[26] Yil oxirida Syerra-Leonedagi xavfsizlik holati yomonlashgani sababli Qirollik havo kuchlari (RAF) 1998 yilgi Rojdestvo kuni "Spartik" operatsiyasi kod nomi ostida jangovar bo'lmagan evakuatsiya operatsiyasini o'tkazdi. Taxminan 80 kishi - asosan Britaniya fuqarolari, ularning aksariyati Britaniya Oliy Komissiyasining xodimlari yoki qaramog'ida bo'lganlar - ikki kun ichida evakuatsiya qilindi.[4][27][28]

1999 yil yanvar oyida RUF Fritaunga hujum qildi. Ularni shaharning sharqiy chekkalariga ECOMOG orqaga qaytargan, shundan so'ng HMS Norfolk yordam taklif qilish uchun yuborilgan. Kelgandan keyin Xalqaro rivojlanish bo'limi (DfID) ekipaj harakatlariga yordam berish uchun kema bortida joylashgan.[29] Piter Penfold, Gvineyaga evakuatsiya qilingan Buyuk Britaniya Oliy Komissari - Fritaundagi qarorgohiga qaytishi xavfsiz deb topilmaguncha, kemada vaqtincha yashagan. U qirg'oqqa uchib ketdi Norfolk'har kuni uchrashuvlar uchun vertolyot, xavfsizlikni ta'minlaydigan qirol dengiz piyodalari guruhi bilan.[30] HMS Norfolk bilan almashtirildi HMS Vestminster Ko'p o'tmay Penfold o'z qarorgohiga qaytib bordi va Qirollik dengiz piyodalari vaqtincha bino xavfsizligini o'z zimmasiga oldi.[31]

Jang oxir-oqibat 1999 yil iyulda imzolangan Lome tinchlik shartnomasi bilan tugatildi. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Sierra-Leondagi kuzatuvchilar missiyasi o'rniga almashtirildi Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Syerra-Leondagi vakolatxonasi (UNAMSIL), uning tarkibiga 260 harbiy kuzatuvchi qo'shildi. Kuzatuvchilar qurolsiz edilar va ularga Lome bitimi tomonidan belgilangan sulhni nazorat qilish vazifasi topshirildi. Kuzatuvchilar kuchi, xuddi UNAMSILning o'zi singari, birinchi navbatda boshqa Afrika davlatlarining xodimlaridan iborat edi, ammo Buyuk Britaniya Britaniya armiyasi va qirol dengiz piyoda piyodalarining oz sonli ofitserlarini jalb qildi.[32][33] Syerra-Leonedagi kuzatuvchilardan tashqari, Qirol logistik korpusi Nyu-Yorkda xizmat qilib, missiyani vakolatli kuchiga etkazish uchun UNAMSIL-ga havo o'tkazgichlarini tashkillashtirishda yordam berishdi.[34]

Aralashuvga qadar qurish

A senior military officer in warm-weather uniform
General janob Devid Richards (keyin brigadir) Britaniyaning Syerra-Leonedagi operatsiyalariga qo'mondonlik qilgan.

Lome kelishuviga muvofiq, UNAMSIL Syerra-Leone bo'ylab qurolsizlanish lagerlarini tashkil etdi, ular Syerra-Leone armiyasini, RUFni va mamlakatda faoliyat yuritayotgan militsiya guruhlarini qurolsizlantirishga qaratilgan edi. SLA va ba'zi militsiya guruhlari lagerlarga kirishni boshladilar, ammo RUF kirmadi. 2000 yil aprel oyida RUFning 10 a'zosi RUF rahbariyatidan xabardor bo'lmagan holda UNAMSIL lageriga kirishdi. Jangchilarini topgach, RUF ularni qaytarishni talab qildi. Harbiy kuzatuvchilar rad etishdi va RUF bunga javoban lagerni qamal qilib, hududdagi boshqa UNAMSIL bazalariga hujum qildi. Ular Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining ko'plab xodimlarini asirga olishdi va keyinchalik Syerra-Leone hukumati tomonidan nazorat qilingan hududlarga o'tishni boshladilar. 3 may kuni RUF shaharchani o'z nazoratiga oldi Kambiya. Mamlakatdagi xorijiy diplomatlar, RUF bir hafta ichida Fritaunda bo'lishi mumkin deb taxmin qilishdi, chunki SLA kazarmalarda saqlanib qolgan va Lome kelishuviga muvofiq qurollarining ko'pini topshirgan.[35] Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti zo'ravonliklarni qoralab bayonot chiqardi, shundan so'ng Bosh kotib Kofi Annan Buyuk Britaniyaning BMTdagi vakiliga Buyuk Britaniyaning sobiq mustamlakachi davlat sifatida xalqaro hamjamiyatga tayanmasdan, balki Syerra-Leonega bevosita aralashishini kutayotganligini aytdi.[36]

2000 yil 5-mayda Britaniya hukumati UNAMSIL-ga faqat moddiy-texnik ko'mak berishini ta'kidlashda davom etdi,[37] ammo harbiy joylashtirish uchun o'z imkoniyatlarini xususiy ravishda o'rganib chiqmoqda. Birlashgan Qirollik boshqa har qanday Afrika mamlakatlariga qaraganda Syerra-Leoneda siyosiy jihatdan ko'proq ishtirok etgan va mamlakatdagi barqarorlik yomonlashgani sababli, sarmoyalar behuda sarflanganini ko'rishni istamagan.[38][39] Bundan tashqari, taxmin qilingan 1000 ta huquqqa ega xodim[2-eslatma] Syerra-Leoneda bo'lgan va hukumat ularning xavfsizligidan qo'rqgan.[38] Shundan keyin akademiklar, Syerra-Leonedagi missiyani bajarishga yo'l qo'yilmasa, UNAMSIL va BMTning kelajakdagi tinchlikparvarlik operatsiyalari uchun xavf tug'dirishi mumkin edi.[41][42] Buyuk Britaniya qurolli kuchlari 2000 yilda, keyinchalik o'n yillikda bo'lgani kabi keng joylashtirilmagan. Britaniya armiyasida NATO bilan Bolqonda xizmat qiluvchi ikkita brigada bor edi va Mudofaa vazirligi (MoD) Kipr, Folklend orollari va boshqa joylarga doimiy majburiyatlarni olgan,[38][43] ammo qurolli kuchlar, xususan mudofaa byudjetini qisqartirish tahdidi ostida bo'linmalar, operatsiyada qatnashishni xohlashdi. Katta zobitlar shu tariqa Syerra-Leonedagi operatsiyani amalga oshirish mumkinligi to'g'risida hukumatga maslahat berishdi.[38][39] Keyingi kunlarda Buyuk Britaniya hukumati ichida Syerra-Leonega harbiy joylashishni maqsadi nima bo'lishi haqida munozaralar bo'lib o'tdi. The Tashqi ishlar va Hamdo'stlik idorasi (FCO) UNAMSILga yordam berish uchun keng ko'lamli aralashuvni qo'llab-quvvatladi va jangovar bo'lmagan evakuatsiya operatsiyasi etarli emasligi va BMTga putur etkazishini ta'kidladi, ammo IIV qurolli kuchlar keng ko'lamli operatsiyani davom ettira olmaydi deb hisobladi.[38]

Two large military helicopters on a runway.
RAF CH-47 Chinuk; Chinuklar evakuatsiya uchun juda muhim edi va keyinchalik Britaniyaning Syerra-Leonedagi operatsiyalarini qo'llab-quvvatladi, ammo RAF ularni buzilmasdan tashish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lmaganligi sababli, ikkitasi Buyuk Britaniyadan Fritaunga uchib ketishi kerak edi.

Britaniya hukumatining favqulodda vaziyatlar qo'mitasi, COBRA,[3-eslatma] yig'ilib, huquq egalarini evakuatsiya qilishning uchta varianti - Lungi aeroporti orqali evakuatsiya o'tkazish uchun samolyotlar va maxsus kuchlarni joylashtirish, shu kabi operatsiya uchun doimiy quruqlikdagi kuchlarni joylashtirish yoki Amfibiya Tayyor guruhini (ARG) qayta yo'naltirish.[4-eslatma] COBRA uchta variantdan birini tavsiya qilish uchun etarli ma'lumotga ega emas degan xulosaga keldi va Moliya vazirligiga ularni ishlab chiqishni davom ettirishni buyurdi, shu bilan birga vaziyatni baholash va maslahat berish uchun "tezkor razvedka va aloqa guruhi" ni (ORLT) Syerra-Leonega yuborishni tavsiya qildi. harbiy qanday foydali bo'lishi mumkinligi haqida. Bosh vazir Toni Bler Brigadier boshchiligidagi ORLTni tasdiqladi Devid Richards, Qo'shma kuchlar operatsiyalari boshlig'i.[4] Richards ilgari fuqarolar urushi paytida Sierra Leone-ga ikki marta tashrif buyurgan - birinchi bo'lib HMSda Norfolk 1999 yil boshida va yana 2000 yil boshida - mamlakatning siyosiy rahbariyati bilan tanish edi.[29][46] U va uning jamoasi tark etishdi RAF Northolt sakkiz soatdan keyin yaqin himoya kuchlari hamrohligida va 6-may kuni erta tongda Fritaunga etib kelishdi.[4][47][48] ORLT o'zini Fritaundagi Buyuk Britaniyaning Oliy komissiyasida tashkil etdi, u erda operatsiya davomida har kuni siyosiy-harbiy muvofiqlashtirish yig'ilishlari bo'lib o'tdi.[49]

Boshqa bir qator aktivlarning tayyorligi 5 may kuni kuchaytirildi. Ikki Qirollik floti kemalar - samolyot tashuvchisi HMSXayolparast va frekat HMSArgil - ARG (Frantsiya janubida mashqda bo'lgan) singari, ushbu hududga suzib borishga buyruq berildi. Kutishdagi maxsus kuchlar eskadroni va 1-batalyon, parashyut polki (1 PARA), ikkalasiga ham Syerra-Leonedagi operatsiyaga tayyorgarlik ko'rish buyurilgan; va bir nechta RAF transport samolyotlari boshqa vazifalardan chetlashtirilib, maxsus kuchlarni va / yoki havoga ko'tarishga tayyor bo'lishga buyruq berildi 1 PARA Lungi aeroportiga. Shu bilan birga, to'rtta RAF CH-47 chinoklari Sierra-Leone-ga - ikkitasi Bolqondan va ikkitasi Buyuk Britaniyadagi bazasidan joylashtirilishi kerak edi. Chinuklarni tashish uchun RAF samolyotlari yetishmas edi va shu sababli vertolyot ekipajlari o'zlarini Fritaunga uchib ketishdi. Buyuk Britaniyada joylashgan ikkita samolyot tomonidan amalga oshirilgan 3000 millik (4800 km) parvoz Britaniya tarixidagi vertolyotlarning o'z-o'zini joylashtirgan eng uzoq muddatli harakati bo'ldi.[5-eslatma][50]

Palliser operatsiyasi

2000 yil 6-mayda RUF yo'lni to'sib qo'ydi Fritaun ga Lungi aeroporti, so'rash UNAMSIL xodimlar Mamu Yoko mehmonxonasiga evakuatsiya qilish uchun, agar RUFning avtoulovi Fraytownga qarab davom etsa, Syerra-Leonedan butunlay chiqib ketishga tayyorlanmoqda. Vaziyatning yomonlashishiga javoban Richards ingliz qo'shinlarini jo'natishni iltimos qildi Dakar, Senegal, Sierra Leone-da operatsiyani boshlash uchun zarur bo'lgan vaqtni kamaytirish uchun. Richards ham suhbatlashdi 1 PARA ularni vaziyatga yangilash uchun buyruq. Suhbatdan so'ng, 1 PARA (Yamaykada mashq qilayotgan A kompaniyasining o'rnini bosuvchi 2 ta PARA kompaniyasining D kompaniyasi va bir nechta biriktirilgan mol-mulki, shu jumladan artilleriya bilan) Havo harakatlari markazi Janubiy Kernida, Glousestershire. Ertasi kuni Richards qo'shma tezkor kuchlar qo'mondoni etib tayinlandi va uning ORLT kompaniyasi Britaniyani joylashtirish uchun old shtabga aylandi. Shu bilan birga, evakuatsiya operatsiyasini boshlash vakolati Richards va Buyuk Britaniya Oliy Komissariga topshirildi, Alan Jons.[51][52]

RUF tez orada Fritaunda rivojlanib, Syerra-Leone ichki qismining ko'p qismini nazorat qilar ekan, huquqli shaxslarni tezda evakuatsiya qilish yoki UNAMSILni mustahkamlash vositasi Lungi aeroporti orqali havo yo'li bilan amalga oshirildi. Shunday qilib, yaxshilandi 1 PARA 7 may kuni Dakarga jo'natildi, u erda C kompaniyasi va maxsus kuchlar eskadrilyasi deyarli darhol RAF bortiga joylashtirildi. Gerkules C-130 aeroportni xavfsizligini ta'minlash bo'yicha buyruqlar bilan. Ular Lungiga quyosh botguncha etib kelishdi va qolgan elementlari ularga qo'shilishdi 1 PARA Keyingi tong.[51] Askarlar, agar kerak bo'lsa, ARG ning qo'shimcha vositalari va materiallarini kutish uchun ko'p vaqt kutmasliklarini bilgan holda, tez va minimal jihozlar bilan joylashishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi.[53] Askarlar darhol evakuatsiya qilish uchun muhim bo'lgan joylarni, shu jumladan evakuatsiya markaziga aylangan Mamy Yoko mehmonxonasini va Lungi aeroportini xavfsizligini ta'minlashga kirishdilar.[54] Jons 8 may kuni tushdan keyin Richardsdan "Palliser Operation" nomli evakuatsiya qilishni boshlashni iltimos qildi, bu Richards deyarli darhol amalga oshirdi. Ketishni istagan huquq egalariga Mamy Yoko mehmonxonasida yig'ilish buyurilgan. U erdan ular Chinooks tomonidan aeroportga vertolyotda etib, keyin Dakarga uchib ketishgan.[51]

Bir hafta davomida Buyuk Britaniya kuchlari Syerra-Leonedan 500 ga yaqin huquqbuzarlarni evakuatsiya qilishdi, ulardan deyarli 300 nafari operatsiyaning dastlabki ikki kunida tark etishdi.[55][56] Britaniyalik askarlarning kelishi mamlakatda ruhiy holatni kuchaytirdi va ko'plab chet el fuqarolari qolishni afzal ko'rishdi.[17][55][57] Dastlabki ikki kundan keyin operatsiya ancha past sur'atlarda olib borildi, ammo shaxsiy tarkib va ​​samolyotlar xavfsizlik masalasi yomonlashgan taqdirda, avvalroq Fritaunga etib borolmagan har qanday huquqqa ega odamlarni evakuatsiya qilishga va Buyuk Britaniya Oliy Komissiyasini evakuatsiya qilishga tayyor turdilar.[54][58]

Missiyani kengaytirish

Yilda Vestminster, Buyuk Britaniyaning Syerra-Leonedagi roli bilan bog'liq bo'lgan uchta hukumat idorasi - MoD, FCO va DfID - evakuatsiyadan tashqari harbiy joylashuvning maqsadlari to'g'risida kelishib olish uchun kurash olib borishdi, bu esa buyruqlar berishning kechikishiga olib keldi. Richards "Palliser" operatsiyasi boshlangunga qadar aniq ko'rsatmalar olmagan va unashtirish qoidalari (ROE) operatsiya boshlanishidan oldin chiqarilmagan. Qo'mondonlar Shimoliy Irlandiyada ishlatiladigan ROE-larga rioya qilmaydilar, bu ularning so'nggi tajribasi.[59][60]

Evakuatsiya deyarli yakunlangach, Buyuk Britaniya hukumati o'z e'tiborini Buyuk Britaniyaning to'rtta harbiy kuzatuvchilariga qaratdi (UNMOlar ) RUF tomonidan ushlab turilgan. Fritaundagi ingliz kuchlari to'rtta UNMO ning (uchta ingliz va bitta Yangi Zelandiyadan) UNAMSIL lageridan qochishiga yordam berdi. Makeni qurolsizlanish jarayoniga o'nta RUF jangchisi qabul qilinganidan beri RUF tomonidan qamal qilingan edi. Fritaundagi ingliz qo'mondonligi bilan maslahatlashgandan so'ng, to'rtta zobit lagerni tark etishdi va g'arbga yurishdan oldin RUF chizig'ini yashirincha bosib o'tdilar. Ular BMT bazasiga etib kelishdi Milya 91 deyarli 24 soatdan keyin va RAF Chinook ularni olib, Fritaunga uchib ketdi. Endi qurolsiz kuzatuvchilarni himoya qilish huquqiga ega bo'lmaslik uchun Makenidagi Keniya UNAMSIL otryadi qamaldan chiqib, g'arbga qarab boshqa UNAMSIL kuchlariga qo'shilish uchun yo'l oldi.[61] Makeni shahridagi uchta ingliz zobitlari ozod etilgandan so'ng, faqat bitta Britaniyaning UNMO-si - mayor Endi Xarrison - RUF asiri bo'lib qoldi va Britaniya hukumati ehtiyotkorlik bilan uning joylashgan joyini aniqlashga harakat qila boshladi.[61][62] Garrison RUFni kuzatuvchilarni hindlarning UNAMSIL kontingentiga qo'shilishiga ruxsat berishiga ishontirmaguncha, Harrison va boshqa o'nta UNMO dastlab RUF tomonidan uning bazasida saqlangan. Kailaxun.[63]

Yo'qolgan UNMOlardan tashqari, Britaniya hukumati siyosiy va diplomatik muammolarga duch keldi. Britaniyalik qo'shinlarning Syerra-Leonega joylashtirilishi ruhiy holatni ko'targan va RUFning Fritaunga yurishini to'xtatgan va inglizlar ketgandan keyin zo'ravonlik yana boshlanishidan xavotirda edilar. Britaniya operatsiyasining yana bir natijasi shundaki, u UNAMSILni samarali ravishda chetlab o'tdi. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti va UNAMSILga hissa qo'shadigan bir nechta davlatlar Britaniya hukumatiga o'z kuchlarini UNAMSIL tarkibiga qo'shilishi uchun bosim o'tkazdilar, ammo Moliya vazirligi UNAMSIL shtab-kvartirasining vakolatiga ishonmadi va o'z qo'shinlarini UNAMSIL qo'mondonligi ostida joylashtirishni xohlamadi. MoD, shuningdek, qurolli kuchlarning boshqa joylardagi majburiyatlarini hisobga olgan holda, UNAMSILga qo'mondonlik qilish uchun zarur bo'lgan brigada tarkibidagi kuchlarni jalb qilishni istamadi va shu tariqa Syerra-Leondagi ingliz kuchlari UNAMSILdan tashqarida qoldi.[64] Britaniya hukumati, shuningdek, ingliz qo'shinlarini tinchlikparvarlik operatsiyasini o'tkazishga majbur qilishni istamadi, ayniqsa, Jamiyat palatasi - ayniqsa Konservativ partiya - Sierra-Leonega dastlabki ekspluatatsiya va Britaniya ommaviy axborot vositalarining ayblovlarimissiya sudraluvchisi ".[65] Aksincha, operatsiya xalqaro sahnada yaxshi kutib olindi,[39][66][67] va BMT Xavfsizlik Kengashining ma'qullashi bilan uchrashdi.[68]

12 may kuni, Baronessa Symons, dedi vazirlikning kichik vaziri Lordlar palatasi Britaniya kuchlari Sierra Leone-da qolishi, asosan Lungi aeroporti xavfsizligini ta'minlash, UNAMSIL esa qo'shimcha kuchlarni jalb qilgan. Askarlar, shuningdek, xavfsizligini ta'minlash uchun Fritaundagi evakuatsiya punktida qolishdi, boshqalari esa Fritaun ko'chalarida patrullik qilib, aholini tinchlantirishga harakat qilishdi. HMS Xayolparast, uning havo guruhi va ARG ikkalasi ham 14-may kuni etib kelishdi va operatsion hududdagi inglizlarning soni taxminan 4500 kishiga etdi.[62][69] Harrierlar Xayolparast Fritaun ustidan uchib yurgan xavfsizlik patrullari va ARG Britaniyaning o't o'chirish kuchini, xususan, Lungidagi artilleriya bilan ta'minladi.[69] Dalada, Britaniya kuchlari o'z harakatlarini uchta operatsiya yo'nalishi bo'yicha bo'lishdi: UNAMSILni qo'llab-quvvatlash, SLAni qo'llab-quvvatlash va kerak bo'lganda gumanitar yordam ko'rsatishga tayyorgarlik;[70][71] kengaytirilgan vakolat faqat bir necha kundan keyin rasmiy hukumat siyosatiga aylandi.[49] Keyingi hafta davomida RUF mamlakat shimolida remobilizatsiya qilishni boshladi. BMT va Syerra-Leone hukumati RUF va Fritaun o'rtasidagi UNAMSIL qo'shinlari RUF tomonidan qilingan hujumga qarshi tura olmasliklari mumkinligidan qo'rqishgan va shu sababli evakuatsiya qilish uchun mamlakatda joylashgan RAF Chinooks-dan kuchaytirish vositalarini olib o'tish uchun foydalanilgan. Lungi ular kelganda. Ayni paytda, Prezident Ahmad Kabba militsiya guruhlari ittifoqini tuzdi (shu jumladan o'zboshimchalik bilan) Fuqaro muhofazasi kuchlari va West Side Boys ) va SLA qoldiqlari, jami 6000 nafar xodim, UNAMSIL kuchlariga RUF avansini to'sishda yordam berish uchun. Inglizlar shuningdek, yer signallari va razvedka xodimlari va maxsus kuchlar hamda parvozlar yordamida UNAMSIL uchun razvedka ishlarini olib borishdi. Harrierlar va a Nimrod R1.[72]

A fighter jet taking off vertically
A Dengiz Harrier; Angliyaning aralashuvi paytida kashfiyotlar razvedka va ishonch uchun ishlatilgan.

RUF oldinga siljishni davom ettirdi, natijada UNAMSIL va hukumat kuchlari bilan vaqti-vaqti bilan to'qnashuvlar bo'lib o'tdi, ular 17 may kuni ingliz qo'shinlari bilan bevosita aloqada bo'ldilar. The Pathfinder vzvodi joylashgan edi Lungi Lol, Fritaundan shimolda 19 km shimolda joylashgan Lungi aeroporti yaqinidagi qishloq va undan ko'p o'tmay bir guruh RUF a'zolari bilan to'qnashdi. Olingan qator o't o'chirishlar bir necha soat davom etdi, shundan so'ng RUF 30 talafot ko'rgan holda chekindi.[73][74] Richardsning so'zlariga ko'ra, Britaniyaning qarama-qarshilikdagi muvaffaqiyati "ulkan" psixologik g'alabani va keyingi hujumlarga qarshi kurashni ta'minladi.[73] RUF rahbari Foday Sankoh o'sha kuni prezident Kabaga sodiq kuchlar tomonidan qo'lga olindi va unga topshirildi Syerra-Leone politsiyasi, ammo u joylashgan bino oldida dushmanona olomon to'plangandan keyin RAF Chinook tomonidan evakuatsiya qilinishi kerak edi.[71] Sankohning qo'lga olinishi RUF tepasida kuch vakuumini yaratdi va keyingi jangovar harakatlar MoD-ga Syerra-Leoneda joylashtirilgan kuchlarning aylanishini buyurish uchun imkoniyat yaratdi. The 1 PARA jangovar guruhga Buyuk Britaniyaga har qanday favqulodda vaziyatni joylashtirishga asos bo'ladigan doimiy kutish-batalyon sifatida o'zining nayza boshidagi rolini tiklashni buyurdi. 42 qo'mondonlik, Qirol dengiz piyoda askarlarini almashtirish uchun qirg'oqqa kelishdi.[56][73]

Uaytxollda Buyuk Britaniya hukumati 23 may kuni Syerra-Leonedagi harbiy aralashuvga oid uzoq muddatli maqsadlarini belgilab berdi. Bular: Syerra-Leoneda barqaror tinchlik va xavfsizlikni o'rnatish, UNAMSIL operatsiyalarini qo'llab-quvvatlash, Fritaundagi yana bir gumanitar falokatni oldini olish, asirga olingan BMT xodimlarining ozod qilinishini ko'rish va nihoyat Britaniya halok bo'lishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik va "missiyadan qochgan" chiqish strategiyasini ishlab chiqish. UNAMSIL yoki Syerra-Leone hukumatiga putur etkazmasdan "sudralib yurish".[75]

"Xukri" operatsiyasi

Asosiy maqola: "Xukri" operatsiyasi

Buyuk Britaniya hukumati mayor Andy Harrisonni ozod etishni juda xohlagan edi - bu RUF tomonidan ushlab turilgan so'nggi Britaniya UNMO. Xarrisonning UNMO kontingenti hind armiyasining otryadi tomonidan himoya qilingan. The Hindiston armiyasi Gurxalari - UNAMSILga biriktirilgan - Kailaxundagi bazasida RUF tomonidan qamal qilingan. Syerra-Leonedagi ingliz va hind qo'mondonligi UNMOlarni qazib olish rejasini ishlab chiqqan edi. Britaniyaning maxsus kuchlari mamlakatda bo'lib, uni amalga oshirishga tayyor edi, ammo BMT va Buyuk Britaniya qo'mondonligi, agar UNMOlar chiqarilsa, ular qamal qilgan boshqa UNAMSIL kuchlariga qarshi qasos olishidan qo'rqishdi. Shunday qilib, general-mayor Vijay Kumar Jetli, UNAMSIL qo'mondoni, qamalda bo'lgan boshqa UNAMSIL kontingentlarini ozod qilish bo'yicha muzokaralarni davom ettirishga ruxsat berildi.[75]

Qamalda bo'lgan so'nggi garnizon (Kailaxundan tashqari) 30-mayda evakuatsiya qilinganida, Jetlining muzokaralari muvaffaqiyatsiz tugashi sharti bilan harbiy ekstraktsiyaga tayyorgarlik kuchaymoqda. Amaliyot (kod nomi Operatsiya Xukri) oxir-oqibat 10 iyulda boshlandi. Ikki RAF Chinook hind maxsus kuchlarini Kailaxun chekkasiga etkazdi. Vertolyotlar Harrison, uning hamkasblari UNMO va qamal paytida yaralangan bir necha Gurxa bilan Fritaunga qaytib kelishdi. Xarrison xavfsiz tarzda qazib olindi va 600 gurxa Kailaxundan chiqib ketish yo'lida kurash olib borishdi va bu jarayonda bir marta qurbon bo'lishdi.[76]

SLAni o'qitish

Buyuk Britaniya hukumati RUFga ishonib bo'lmasligini va u bilan to'qnashib, BMTga kirishga majbur bo'lishiga qaror qildi. Qurolsizlanish, demobilizatsiya va reintegratsiya (DDR) jarayoni.[77] Ular bunga erishish uchun uchta variant - RUFga qarshi Angliya kuchlarini joylashtirish, UNAMSIL o'z faoliyatini kengaytirish va RUFga qarshi turish yoki Sierra Leonean hukumati sodiq kuchlardan (SLA, sobiq SLA xodimlari, Qurolli kuchlar inqilobiy kengashi va boshqa bir necha militsiya guruhlari)[54] RUFni olish. Richards Britaniyaning RUFga qarshi joylashtirilishi uchun kamida brigada hajmidagi kuch talab etilishini taxmin qildi (5000 askardan ortiq). Shunga qaramay, Buyuk Britaniya kuchlarining Syerra-Leonedagi ishtiroki Vestminsterda siyosiy jihatdan mashhur bo'lmagan va Moliyaviy Vaziyat boshqa kuchlarni o'z majburiyatlarini saqlab turganda to'play olmas edi, shuning uchun RUFga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qarshi turish uchun ingliz kuchlaridan foydalanish rad etildi. UNAMSIL boshchiligidagi qarama-qarshilik ham chiqarib tashlandi. UNAMSIL vakolati unga RUF bilan jangga kirishga imkon bergan bo'lsa-da, milliy kontingentlar o'z bazalarini tark etishni istamadilar va uning ahamiyati inglizlar va boshqalar zarur deb hisoblagan tinchlik muhofazasiga emas, tinchlikni saqlashga qaratildi.[76]

Bu SLA va militsiya guruhlari ittifoqini tark etdi - ular "deb nomlandiMuqaddas alyans "va" Qo'shma harbiy qo'mita "tomonidan boshqarilgan[54]- RUFga qarshi tura oladigan yagona kuchlar. SLA BMTning DDR jarayoni orqali qurolsizlantirildi; uni qayta tuzish va uni qayta qurollantirishga imkon berish uchun BMT Sierra Leone-ga qurol-yarog 'embargosini bekor qildi va ingliz kuchlari SLAga maslahat berishni va o'qitishni boshladilar.[4][78] Sierra Leone-ga uzoq muddatli rivojlanish va demokratik javobgarlikka ko'maklashish uchun xalqaro guruhni jalb qilish rejalashtirilgan edi va inglizlarning qisqa muddatli o'qitish guruhi (STTT) piyoda askarlarning malakasini oshirish uchun bir vaqtning o'zida joylashtirilgan.[78][79] STTT missiyasi Bazilika operatsiyasi nomini oldi va Benguema o'quv markazida, tashlandiq barakda joylashgan edi. Vaterloo maqsadda yangilangan. Ushbu rolni bajaradigan birinchi qism 2-batalyon atrofida joylashgan Angliya qirollik polki va tarkibida 250 ta xodim, shu jumladan 45 ta o'qituvchi va kuchlarni himoya qilish bo'yicha kompaniya mavjud.[78] Angliyaliklar 15 iyun kuni Benguemaga 1000 nafar SLA yollovchisini tayyorlash uchun kelishdi va ARG chekinib ketdi. Benguemadagi treningda Jeneva konvensiyasi bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar, birliklarning uyushqoqligi va SLAni professional armiya tarkibiga kiritish uchun boshqa ko'nikmalar va bilimlar mavjud.[80]

Inglizlarning mashg'ulotlariga qaramay, SLA RUF bilan jangga kirishish uchun etarlicha katta yoki kuchli emas edi, shu bilan birga u qaytarib olgan zaminni ushlab turar edi, shuning uchun inglizlar UNAMSIL-ni o'zlarining qaytarib olingan erlarini himoya qilish uchun oldinga siljigan SLA orqasida oldinga siljishlariga ishontirdilar. UNAMSIL tarkibiga qo'shimcha ingliz aloqa zobitlari biriktirildi va inglizlar SLA va UNAMSIL qo'mondonlari uchun kunlik koordinatsiya uchrashuvini o'tkazdilar, shu bilan birga BMT kuchlariga kampaniya rejasini tuzishda yordam berdilar.[54][70]

Barras operatsiyasi

Asosiy maqola: Barras operatsiyasi

Angliyaliklar o'rnini 1-batalyon, The Irlandiya qirollik polki, C Company atrofida shakllangan. 25 avgust kuni Qirollik Irlandiyasining patrul xizmati West Side Boys (WSB) deb nomlanuvchi militsiya guruhiga tashrif buyurishga bordi. WSB joylashgan Magbeni qishlog'ida Qirollik Irlandiyasi ustun bo'lib, asirga olingan. Britaniyalik ofitserlar WSB bilan muzokaralar olib borishdi, natijada 31 avgust kuni o'n bitta askardan beshtasi ozod qilindi.[81]

9 sentyabr kuni WSB vakili, hozirda o'n ikki kundan ko'proq vaqt davomida ushlab turilgan patrulning qolgan olti a'zosi faqat Syerra-Leoneda yangi hukumat tuzilgandan keyingina ozod qilinishini aytdi va muzokarachilar tobora haqiqatga aylanmayotgan talablar haqida xulosa qilishdi inqirozni yakunlash uchun jiddiy urinishdan ko'ra taktikani to'xtatib turishgan. Xuddi shu vaqtda, to'rt kun davomida West Side Boys bazasini kuzatgan guruhlar, o'sha paytda asirlikda bo'lgan askarlardan hech qanday alomat ko'rmaganligini xabar qilishdi. Shuningdek, agar West Side Boys garovga olinganlarni ko'chirsa, hujum yanada xavfli bo'lib qoladi degan xavotirlar mavjud edi. Ushbu omillarning kombinatsiyasi olib keldi COBRA qazib olish missiyasini buyurtma qilish.[82]

"Barras Operation" nomi bilan nomlangan missiyani 22 kishilik D guruhi o'z zimmasiga oldi Maxsus havo xizmati Gberi Bana qishlog'iga askarlarni tortib olish uchun hujum qilgan polk, A Company atrofida rota guruhi tuzilganida, 1 PARA, qarama-qarshi tomonda Magbeni hujum qildi Rokel Creek. Amaliyot muvaffaqiyatli o'tdi va barcha Britaniya asirlari, ular bilan birga tortib olindi SLA aloqa va 22 Syerra-Leone fuqarolari, WSB esa harbiy kuch sifatida mag'lubiyatga uchradi.[83] Operatsiyada britaniyalik bir askar va kamida 25 nafar West Side Boys halok bo'ldi.[83][84] Boshqa ko'plab West Side Boys qochib ketishdi va keyinchalik Iordaniya tinchlikparvar kuchlariga taslim bo'lishdi. Iordaniyaliklar kun oxiriga qadar 30 ta qabul qilishdi va 371 kishi, shu jumladan 57 bola - ikki hafta ichida taslim bo'lishdi. Taslim bo'lganlarning ba'zilari yangi Syerra-Leone armiyasida ixtiyoriy ravishda xizmatga o'tdilar va qabul qilinganlar Benguemada inglizlar tomonidan olib boriladigan o'quv dasturiga kirishdi.[85] "Barras" operatsiyasidan so'ng, ikkita SLA bataloni - Britaniyaning qisqa muddatli o'quv dasturini bitirganlar - G'arbiy Sayd Boyzlar lagerining atrofini to'daning qolgan a'zolaridan tozalash uchun supurib tashlashdi.[86]

"Barras" operatsiyasining xavf-xatarlari MH tomonidan va rejalashtirish va hujumga aloqador xodimlar tomonidan tan olingan. SAS askari uni "klinik emas, qora balaklav," deb ta'riflagan. Knyazlar darvozasi turi operatsiyasi. It was a very grubby, green operation with lots of potential for things to go wrong".[87] Despite the risks, Richard Konnauton ichida kuzatilgan Kichik urushlar va qo'zg'olonlar that the operation showed the Blair government was not averse to the possibility of casualties when they felt the cause was just.[87][88] During the crisis and its immediate aftermath, the British government came under pressure from opposition politicians to end the deployment to Sierra Leone,[52][89] and Dorman suggested that the success or failure of Operation Barras was "inextricably linked" to the fate of the wider British operation. He suggested that, had the British forces been defeated, the United Kingdom would have been forced to withdraw all its forces from Sierra Leone.[19][89]

Confronting the RUF

The capture of the Royal Irish patrol reinforced to the British government that its efforts so far—and those of the international community—would not be sufficient to bring the civil war to an end. In Westminster, meanwhile, opposition politicians renewed their objection to the continued presence of British forces in Sierra Leone. The government was seeking an exit strategy that would end a politically unpopular deployment without abandoning Sierra Leone.[90]

2000 yil avgust oyida Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Xavfsizlik Kengashi o'tdi Resolution 1313, which blamed the RUF for the continuing conflict in Sierra Leone, citing multiple breaches of the Lomé Peace Accord. The resolution authorised an increase in the size of UNAMSIL and strengthened its mandate, which prompted the UN to once again apply pressure to the British government for a troop contribution. Several countries were reluctant to send their own troops to Sierra Leone without contributions from Western nations, and felt that the United Kingdom in particular should be contributing to the UN mission.[91]

Despite the political pressure, the MoD continued to lack confidence in UNAMSIL leadership. Thus, the British government refused to place combat troops under UN command, but did second additional staff officers to UNAMSIL, to the UN headquarters in New York, and to the SLA. The officers attached to UNAMSIL were tasked with assisting its commanders in planning and mounting operations and were led by a brigadir who became UNAMSIL's chief of staff, while in New York, the officers attached to UN headquarters provided planning support for logistics operations to bring UNAMSIL up to its mandated strength. At the same time, the focus of the British training programme shifted. Although six battalions had been trained, the SLA still lacked many combat support functions as well as command and control capabilities. The STTTs set out to improve the SLA's capabilities in these areas by providing the next set of recruits with more specialised training in addition to basic infantry training provided to the first intake.[92] The British trainers also constructed an operations room at the SLA's headquarters and provided other support to improve the SLA's communications and logistical capabilities.[70]

Resolution 1313 was a significant shift in attitude for UNAMSIL, away from its previous neutrality to support of the Sierra Leone government, a shift that made the governments of several troop-contributing nations uncomfortable. In particular, the governments of Jordan and India—two of the largest contributors, with nearly 5,000 troops between them serving with UNAMSIL—were moved to withdraw their forces. The withdrawal coincided with the end of the rainy season, after which there were fears that the RUF would resume its advance towards Freetown, and the UN and British government feared that UNAMSIL would be vulnerable. As a deterrent, the ARG was once more deployed off the coast, and was instructed to conduct amphibious landing demonstrations as a show of force.[93]

Otashkesim

A man panning for diamonds
A man panning for diamonds in Sierra Leone; the exploitation of the country's diamonds inspired the terms "qon olmos " and "conflict diamond".

The RUF was coming under increasing pressure from political angles as well as from the British-trained SLA. It was heavily dependent on Sierra Leone's south-eastern neighbour Liberiya, boshchiligida Charlz Teylor, and derived the majority of its income from the sale of diamonds smuggled through Liberia, which became known as qon olmoslari.[9][94] In late 2000, the Sierra Leone government—supported by the British, UNAMSIL, and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)—entered into talks with the RUF. On 10 November, the two parties signed a 30-day ceasefire that provided for UNAMSIL to deploy throughout the entire country (it had previously been prevented from operating in many RUF-controlled areas), for the RUF to return seized weapons and equipment to UNAMSIL, and for the RUF to enter the DDR process. The ceasefire was later extended by a further 90 days.[95] The UN Security Council embargoed Liberian diamonds in Resolution 1343 2001 yil mart oyida.[96][97] Shortly afterwards, the RUF began large-scale disarmament and agreed to a simultaneous disarmament with the Civil Defence Force, a militia group loyal to the government.[96] By September, over 16,000 militia members (including around 6,500 RUF) had been through the DDR process and the combatants in the diamond-producing areas had all disarmed.[94]

By March 2002, over 50,000 people had been through the DDR process and the RUF had been entirely disarmed.[94] Kompaniyasi Gurxalar and a Royal Navy frigate were sent to the area in March 2003 to ensure stability while several prominent people—including Charles Taylor of Liberia, cabinet minister Samuel Xinga Norman, and several former RUF leaders—were arrested and indicted by the Sierra Leone uchun maxsus sud.[6-eslatma][99]

The last STTT, formed around 2nd Battalion, Yengil piyoda askarlar, left Sierra Leone at the end of September 2001. Approximately 8,500 SLA personnel were trained by the STTTs, which were replaced by the International Military Assistance and Training Team (IMATT)—an organisation formed of personnel from countries including Australia, Canada, and the United States, with the UK providing the largest contingent as well as an infantry company for force protection. The STTTs also formed a small maxsus kuchlar unit within the SLA—the Force Reconnaissance Unit (FRU)—to provide a morale boost and to give soldiers something to which they could aspire.[100] Later in 2001, the British Army advised the Sierra Leonean government on a merger of Sierra Leone's armed forces into a unified command, which became the Sierra Leone Respublikasi qurolli kuchlari in early 2002.[101] In 2008, the permanent British contingent in Sierra Leone was reduced to 100 personnel.[79] British soldiers remained in Sierra Leone as of 2013, continuing to form part of the IMATT, whose size has further reduced in accordance with the increased capabilities of the Sierra Leone armed forces.[102]

Ta'sir

A man in a suit and tie
Tony Blair, then British prime minister, ordered the deployment of British forces to Sierra Leone. The humanitarian intervention in Sierra Leone was widely considered successful.

According to Penfold, who served as High Commissioner until the week before the deployment of British troops, "The fact that the major country in the region, i.e. Nigeria, and a permanent member of the UN Security Council, i.e. the UK, took an active interest was crucial in resolving the conflict". On the other hand, he believed that the international community had failed to recognise that the Sierra Leone Civil War was part of a larger conflict in the sub-region, and "it was not until the problem of Charles Taylor and Liberia was addressed that the conflict was resolved".[103] In a later book, Penfold praised Richards' leadership of the operation, stating that it was "extremely fortunate that Operation Palliser was under the command of an officer of the calibre of David Richards, with his knowledge of the situation and his experience and commitment. David Richards knew that with the resources available he could do more than just assist an evacuation ... he realised that he could actively stabilise the situation".[104] Richards received the Hurmatli xizmat tartibi for his leadership of British forces in Sierra Leone, while several other personnel received decorations for gallantry or distinguished service.[105]

The intervention in Sierra Leone was the fourth deployment of British forces abroad during the premiership of Tony Blair, and the largest operation undertaken by the United Kingdom alone since the Folklend urushi (1982).[106][107] It was the second major operation of the Blair government, after Kosovo. During his remaining time in office, British forces undertook operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, but Sierra Leone was the only unilateral operation.[107] Unlike Afghanistan and Iraq, the intervention in Sierra Leone was widely regarded as successful.[108] It became a "benchmark" for successful expeditionary operations, and was cited by Blair in his rationale for later deployments to Afghanistan and Iraq.[109] Success in Sierra Leone encouraged the Blair government to continue its support to Africa, particularly with regard to resolving conflicts.[110]

Sierra Leone also encouraged Blair's policy of humanitarian intervention.[110] Critics claimed that it led Blair to see military force as "just another foreign policy option"[17] and that the apparent ease of the success shifted his focus towards the effectiveness of the use of force rather than the political and military risks.[111] In his autobiography, Blair described the operation as one of the least-discussed aspects of his time in office but one of the things of which he is most proud.[23] He was keen to intervene in other African nations where civilian populations were at risk, particularly Darfur and Zimbabwe,[110][112] but a lack of political support, combined with the pressure of large deployments to Afghanistan and Iraq after the 11 sentyabr hujumlari on the United States, prevented further interventions in Africa.[7-eslatma][39][110] It was not until 2011—when "Ellamy" operatsiyasi was launched as part of a multi-national intervention in Libya—that the United Kingdom undertook another military intervention in Africa.[109]

The experience in Sierra Leone proved the effectiveness of relatively small numbers of well trained and equipped soldiers.[113] It inspired the British government to work more closely with European allies, particularly France after the latter led Artemis operatsiyasi, a UN-mandated intervention in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2003. After a summit in 2003, the two governments called on the Yevropa Ittifoqi (EU) to develop the capability to rapidly deploy a battle group of around 1,500 personnel able to respond to crises, particularly in Africa. The member states of the EU approved the creation of 13 battle groups 2004 yilda.[114]

Soldiers from the British and United States armies training Sierra Leonean soldiers to use a mortar during 2011

Sierra Leone convinced Blair and his Defence Secretary Jeof Xun of the need to alter the focus of British defence policy towards less conventional conflicts and away from more traditional wars between states. The MoD published a oq qog'oz 2003 yilda, O'zgaruvchan dunyoda xavfsizlikni ta'minlash, which revisited aspects of the 1998 "Strategik mudofaa sharhi " (SDR). The SDR had focused on the Middle East and North Africa, and had not envisaged a need to deploy troops to sub-Saharan Africa other than for a potential non-combatant evacuation operation in Zimbabwe.[115] Thus, the white paper recommended preparations for relatively short, intense operations against forces with inferior technology, with a particular focus on Africa.[116]

The rapidity with which forces were required to deploy to Sierra Leone emphasised the need for the United Kingdom to retain high-readiness forces. That need also vindicated concepts such as the ARG and the spearhead battalion (the capacity in which 1 PARA was serving when it deployed), and protected 1 PARA in the 2004 review of the infantry structure. The 2004 review reduced the total number of British Army battalions from 40 to 36 and created the Maxsus kuchlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash guruhi (SFSG), which was inspired by the success of 1 PARA in Operation Barras. The SFSG—initially formed around 1 PARA—provides specialist capabilities or acts as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations.[117] As the largest unilateral operation undertaken by the United Kingdom since their creation, the intervention in Sierra Leone was the first major test of the ORLT and joint task force concepts.[4][48] Both were created as a result of the 1997 SDR and provide a headquarters staff at very high readiness to command an expeditionary operation at operatsion daraja.[48] According to Richards, both were "thoroughly validated" and were vital in coordinating the large numbers of assets deployed at short notice and reporting back to the Doimiy qo'shma shtab-kvartirasi in Northwood.[48][118]

2015 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqot Strategik tadqiqotlar jurnali finds that the intervention in Sierra Leone was a success.[119]

Izohlar

  1. ^ After President Kabbah was informed of the true strength of the SLA, he reduced its rice rations (each soldier received a monthly allowance of rice, commensurate with rank, in addition to their salary). The senior officers reduced the allowance of the junior ranks rather than their own, which led to a revolt in the junior ranks. The soldiers who revolted formed the Qurolli kuchlar inqilobiy kengashi (AFRC), which went on to overthrow the government.[24]
  2. ^ "Entitled personnel", sometimes referred to as "entitled persons", are defined by the British government as: British nationals (including dual nationals); nationals of the Commonwealth, European Union, and United States as part of multi-national agreements; and other nationalities dependent on space available and guarantees from their governments to reimburse the British government for the cost of their evacuation.[40]
  3. ^ COBRA is a British government committee convened to handle national crises. The committee is named after the room in which it meets—the Cabinet Office Briefing Room—and usually known as "COBRA" or "Cobra" or sometimes "COBR". Similarly to the SAS, COBRA first became known to the public during the Eron elchixonasini qamal qilish.[44]
  4. ^ The ARG is an amphibious force based around a Royal Marine commando (similar in size to an infantry battalion) with supporting assets.[45]
  5. ^ The RAF later acquired six C-17 Globemasters for large airlifts.[50]
  6. ^ The Special Court for Sierra Leone was modelled on the Xalqaro jinoiy sud (ICC); the latter could not be used in Sierra Leone as many of the alleged war crimes occurred before the establishment of the ICC.[98]
  7. ^ The UK did contribute logistics personnel to the Afrika ittifoqi mission in Darfur.[111]

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

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