Yugoslaviyani NATO tomonidan bombardimon qilish - NATO bombing of Yugoslavia

Yugoslaviyani NATO tomonidan bombardimon qilish
Qismi Kosovo urushi
Yugoslaviya shahri Novi Sad 1999 yilda yonib ketgan
Sana 1999 yil 24 mart - 10 iyun (78 kun)[3] Manzil Yugoslaviya Federativ Respublikasi[4] Natija Kumanovo shartnomasi Tashkil etilgan KFOR:[5] Kumanovo shartnomasi boshlangan Yugoslaviya kuchlarini olib chiqish Kosovo Joylashtirish KFOR Tashkil etilgan UNMIK Yugoslaviya iqtisodiyoti va infratuzilmasiga katta zarar[6][7][8] Qaytish Albancha Kosovodagi qochqinlar Ko'pchilikning jo'nab ketishi Serb va boshqa albaniyalik bo'lmagan fuqarolar[a] Hududiy o'zgarishlar BMTning 1244-sonli qarori; amalda ostida Kosovoni Yugoslaviyadan ajratish BMTning vaqtinchalik boshqaruvi
Urushayotganlar
NATO  Belgiya  Kanada  Daniya  Frantsiya  Germaniya Italiya  Gollandiya  Norvegiya[1]  Portugaliya  Ispaniya  kurka[2]  Birlashgan Qirollik  Qo'shma Shtatlar Kosovo ozodlik armiyasi (UÇK)	Yugoslaviya
Qo'mondonlar va rahbarlar
Uesli Klark (SACEUR ) Rupert Smit Xaver Solana General Jon V. Xendrix[13] Jeyms O. Ellis[14]	Slobodan Milosevich Dragoljub Oydanich Neboysha Pavkovich
Kuch
NATO: 1,031+ samolyot[15][16] 30 ta harbiy kemalar va suvosti kemalari[17] Ishchi guruh Hawk	114000 doimiy 20000 politsiyachi 1270 ta tank 825 zirhli texnika[17] 1400 artilleriya zarbasi 100 SAM ishga tushirgichlar 14 zamonaviy jangovar samolyot[18]
Yo'qotishlar va yo'qotishlar
3 ta reaktiv qiruvchi yo'q qilindi 2 vertolyot yo'q qilindi 46 PHA vayron qilingan[19] 3 ta samolyot qiruvchisi shikastlangan 2 askar halok bo'ldi (jangovar bo'lmagan vertolyot halokati) 3 askar qo'lga olindi	631-1200 o'ldirilgan 5 173 kishi yaralangan 52 kishi bedarak yo'qolgan Moddiy yo'qotishlar: (NATO ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, oqibatlarni ko'ring) 120 ta tank yo'q qilindi 220 ta BTR yo'q qilindi 450 ta artilleriya zarbasi yo'q qilindi 121 samolyot yo'q qilindi 29,6 milliard dollarlik iqtisodiy zarar[20]
Human Rights Watch tashkiloti smeta: 489-528 tinch aholi vakillari o'ldirilgan (Ularning 60 foizi Kosovoda bo'lgan)[21] Yugoslaviya taxminlari: 1200-5700 tinch aholi o'ldirildi[21] 3 ta Xitoy fuqarosi o'ldirilgan NATOning Belgraddagi Xitoy elchixonasini bombardimon qilishi

The Yugoslaviyani NATO tomonidan bombardimon qilish edi Shimoliy Atlantika Shartnomasi Tashkiloti (NATO) ga qarshi harbiy operatsiya Yugoslaviya Federativ Respublikasi davomida Kosovo urushi. Havo zarbalari 1999 yil 24 martdan 1999 yil 10 iyungacha davom etdi. Portlashlar Yugoslaviya qurolli kuchlarining Kosovodan chiqib ketishiga va uning tashkil qilinishiga olib keladigan kelishuvga qadar davom etdi. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Kosovodagi vaqtinchalik ma'muriyati, BMT tinchlikni saqlash Kosovodagi missiya. NATOning rasmiy operatsion kod nomi "Operatsion Ittifoq kuchlari" edi, ammo Qo'shma Shtatlar uni "Nobel Anvil operatsiyasi" deb nomlagan;^[22] Yugoslaviyada operatsiya noto'g'ri "Mehribon farishta" deb nomlangan (Serb: Milosrdni anђeo / Milosrdni anđeo) noto'g'ri tushunish yoki noto'g'ri tarjima natijasida.^[23]

NATOning aralashuviga albanlarni qo'shni mamlakatlarga haydab yuborgan va mintaqani beqarorlashtirish potentsialiga ega bo'lgan Albaniyani xunrezlik va etnik tozalash natijasida kelib chiqqan. Yugoslaviya xatti-harakatlari allaqachon BMT kabi xalqaro tashkilotlar va idoralarning qoralashiga sabab bo'lgan edi, NATO va turli xil INGO.^[24][25]NATO mamlakatlari avtorizatsiya olishga harakat qildilar BMT Xavfsizlik Kengashi harbiy harakatlar uchun, ammo qarshi bo'lgan Xitoy va Rossiya, kim buni qilishlarini ko'rsatdi veto bunday chora. Natijada, NATO o'zining roziligini olmasdan, BMTning ma'qullashsiz o'z kampaniyasini boshladi gumanitar aralashuv. BMT nizomi Xavfsizlik Kengashi tomonidan VII bobga binoan qaror qabul qilingan yoki qurolli hujumga qarshi o'zini himoya qiladigan holatlar bundan mustasno, kuch ishlatishni taqiqlaydi - bu ikkalasida ham bo'lmagan.^[26]

Bombalash natijasida 489-588 tinch aholidan tashqari Yugoslaviya xavfsizlik kuchlarining 1000 ga yaqin a'zosi halok bo'ldi. U ko'priklarni, sanoat korxonalarini, kasalxonalarni, maktablarni, madaniy yodgorliklarni, xususiy korxonalarni, shuningdek, kazarmalarni va harbiy ob'ektlarni buzdi yoki buzdi. Yugoslaviya armiyasi chiqib ketganidan bir necha kun o'tgach, 164000 dan ortiq serblar va 24000 ta rimliklar Kosovoni tark etishdi. Qolgan albaniyalik bo'lmagan fuqarolarning ko'pchiligi (shuningdek, ular hamkorlik qilgan deb hisoblanadigan albaniyaliklar) kaltaklash, o'g'irlash va qotillikni o'z ichiga olgan zo'ravonlik qurbonlari bo'lishdi.^{[27][28][29][30][31]} Kosovodan keyin va boshqalar Yugoslaviya urushlari, Serbiya eng ko'p qochoqlar uyiga aylandi va ID-lar (shu jumladan kosovolik serblar) Evropada.^[32][33][34]

Bombardimon NATOning ikkinchi yirik jangovar operatsiyasi bo'ldi Bosniya va Gertsegovinada 1995 yil bombardimon kampaniyasi. NATO birinchi marta harbiy kuchni BMT Xavfsizlik Kengashi tomonidan tasdiqlanmagan holda ishlatdi, bu esa munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi. aralashuvning qonuniyligi.

Fon

A Tomahawk qanotli raketasi AQSh harbiy kemasining orqa raketa kemasidan uchirildi USS Gonsales 1999 yil 31 martda

Portlashdan keyingi bomba zararini baholash fotosurati Kragujevac Qurol-yarog 'va avtomobilsozlik zavodi Crvena Zastava, Serbiya

Tutun ko'tarilmoqda Novi Sad, 1999 yil NATO bombardimonidan keyin Serbiya

1990 yil sentyabrdan keyin 1974 yugoslaviya konstitutsiyasi tomonidan bir tomonlama bekor qilingan edi Serbiya Sotsialistik Respublikasi, Kosovo avtonomiyasi aziyat chekdi va shu sababli mintaqa davlat tomonidan uyushtirilgan zulmga duch keldi: 1990 yillarning boshlaridan boshlab alban tilidagi radio va televidenie cheklandi va gazetalar yopildi. Kosovalik albanlarni davlat korxonalari va muassasalari, jumladan banklar, kasalxonalar, pochta aloqasi va maktablardan ko'p sonli ishdan bo'shatishdi.^[35] 1991 yil iyun oyida Priştina universiteti assambleya va bir nechta fakultet kengashlari tarqatib yuborildi va ularning o'rnini serblar egalladilar. 1991 yil sentyabr oyida boshlanadigan yangi o'quv yili uchun kosovalik albaniyalik o'qituvchilar maktabga kirishga to'sqinlik qilishdi, bu esa o'quvchilarni uyda o'qishga majbur qildi.^[35]

Keyinchalik Kosovar albanlari Belgradga qarshi qo'zg'olon boshladilar Kosovo ozodlik armiyasi 1996 yilda tashkil etilgan. Ikki tomon o'rtasida qurolli to'qnashuvlar 1998 yil boshida boshlangan. A NATO - o't ochishni to'xtatish to'g'risidagi bitim 15 oktyabrda imzolangan edi, ammo ikki oy o'tib ikkala tomon ham uni buzishdi va yana janglar boshlandi. 45 kosovalik alban o'ldirilganda Rachak qatliomi 1999 yil yanvarida xabar berilgan edi, NATO mojaroni faqat ikki tomonni majburan cheklash uchun harbiy tinchlikparvar kuchlarni kiritish yo'li bilan hal qilish mumkin degan qarorga keldi. 23 mart kuni Rambuyadagi kelishuvlar buzilganidan so'ng, Yugoslaviya tashqi tinchlikparvar kuchlarni rad etganligi sababli, NATO tinchlikparvar kuchlarni kuch bilan o'rnatishga tayyorlandi.

Maqsadlar

NATO maqsadlari Kosovo mojarosi da aytilgan Shimoliy Atlantika kengashi ning NATO shtab-kvartirasida bo'lib o'tgan uchrashuv Bryussel 1999 yil 12 aprelda:^[36]

• Barcha harbiy harakatlarning tugashi va darhol tugatilishi Milosevich hukumati tomonidan zo'ravonlik va repressiv harakatlar;
• Kosovodan barcha harbiy, politsiya va harbiylashtirilgan kuchlarni olib chiqish;
• Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Kosovodagi tinchlikparvarlik kuchlarining joylashuvi;
• Barchaning so'zsiz va xavfsiz qaytishi qochqinlar va ko'chirilganlar;
• Kosovo uchun siyosiy asoslar to'g'risidagi bitimni tuzish Rambuyadagi kelishuvlar ga muvofiq xalqaro huquq va Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Ustavi.

Strategiya

Ittifoq kuchlari operatsiyasi asosan keng ko'lamda ishlatilgan havo aktsiyasi yuqori balandliklardan Yugoslaviya harbiy infratuzilmasini yo'q qilish. Uchinchi kunlik havo bombardimonidan keyin NATO Yugoslaviyadagi deyarli barcha strategik harbiy maqsadlarini yo'q qildi. Shunga qaramay, Yugoslaviya armiyasi o'z faoliyatini davom ettirdi va hujumni davom ettirdi Kosovo ozodlik armiyasi (KLA) isyonchilar Kosovo ichida, asosan Shimoliy va Janubi-G'arbiy Kosovo mintaqalarida. NATO strategik iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy maqsadlarni, masalan, ko'priklar, harbiy inshootlar, hukumatning rasmiy binolari va fabrikalarini bombardimon qildi, uzoq masofali qanotli raketalar yordamida kuchli himoyalangan maqsadlarga, masalan strategik qurilmalarga zarba berdi. Belgrad va Priştina. NATO havo kuchlari, shuningdek, elektr stantsiyalari kabi infratuzilmani ( BLU-114 / B "Yumshoq bomba" ), suvni qayta ishlash zavodlari va davlat teleradiokompaniyasi tomonidan butun Yugoslaviya bo'ylab ekologik va iqtisodiy zarar etkazilgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

The Rand korporatsiyasi tadqiqotda ushbu masalani o'rganib chiqdi.^{[37][tushuntirish kerak ]} The Golland o'sha paytdagi tashqi ishlar vaziri Xozias van Aartsen Yugoslaviyaga berilgan zarbalar ularning harbiy salohiyatini zaiflashtiradigan va boshqa gumanitar zo'ravonliklarning oldini oladigan darajada bo'lishi kerakligini aytdi.^{[38][sahifa kerak ]}

Ommaviy axborot vositalari to'g'risidagi qonunlar tufayli Yugoslaviyadagi ommaviy axborot vositalari o'zlarining kuchlari Kosovoda nima qilayotgani yoki boshqa mamlakatlarning gumanitar inqirozga munosabati to'g'risida kam ma'lumot berishdi; Shunday qilib, jamoatchilikning oz sonli vakillari diplomatik bitim tuzilishini o'ylab, bombardimonni kutishdi.^[39]

Strategik havo kuchlari uchun dalillar

Ga binoan Jon Kigan, Yugoslaviyaning Kosovo urushidagi kapitulatsiyasi urush tarixida burilish yasadi. Bu "urushni faqat havo kuchlari bilan yutish mumkinligini isbotladi". Diplomatiya urushdan oldin muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchragan edi va NATOning katta quruqlik kuchlarini joylashtirishga hali bir necha hafta qolgan edi Slobodan Milosevich tinchlik bitimiga rozi bo'ldi.^[40]

Nima uchun havo kuchlari yakka o'zi harakat qila olishi kerak edi, degan savolga javob berildi^{[kim tomonidan? ]} talab qilinadigan bir qancha omillar mavjudligini. Odatda ular kamdan-kam hollarda birlashadi, ammo barchasi Kosovo urushi paytida yuz bergan:^[41]

1. Bombardimon qurbonlarni minimallashtirishda vayronagarchilikni keltirib chiqarishi kerak. Bu aholi ichida urush harakatlarini cho'zish o'rniga ularni to'xtatish uchun bosimni keltirib chiqaradi. Kosovo urushida aniq havo kuchlarini ishlatish^{[kim tomonidan? ]} buni ta'minlagan bo'lishi kerak.
2. Hukumat aholi ichidagi bosimga duchor bo'lishi kerak. Bir yil o'tib Miloshevichning ag'darilishi bilan ko'rsatilgandek, Yugoslaviya hukumati faqat kuchsiz avtoritar edi va mamlakat ichkarisidagi yordamga bog'liq edi.
3. Harbiy imkoniyatlarning nomutanosibligi bo'lishi kerak, shunda raqib o'z hududi ustidan havo ustunligini amalga oshirishga xalaqit bera olmaydi. Serbiya, nisbatan kambag'al Bolqon davlat ancha kuchli bo'lgan NATO Birlashgan Qirollik va AQShni o'z ichiga olgan koalitsiya.
4. Karl fon Klauzevits bir vaqtlar "dushmanning asosiy massasi" ni uning "tortishish markazi" deb atagan. Agar tortishish markazi yo'q qilinadigan bo'lsa, Yugoslaviyada qarshilik ko'rsatishning asosiy omili buziladi yoki yo'q qilinadi. Miloshevichning holatida tortishish markazi uning hokimiyatni ushlab turishi edi. U giperinflyatsiya, sanktsiyalar va talab va taklifdagi cheklovlarni boshqarib, kuchli imkoniyatga ega bo'ldi biznes foyda olish uchun Serbiya ichidagi manfaatlar va ular bunga javoban uni hokimiyatda ushlab turishgan. Iqtisodiyotga etkazilgan zarar, uni ozgina foyda keltiradigan darajada siqib chiqardi, agar ular havo kampaniyasi davom etsa, Miloshevichni qo'llab-quvvatlashni buzish bilan tahdid qilar edi, infratuzilma esa qimmatga tushdi.^[42]

Strategik havo kuchlariga qarshi bahslar

1. Diplomatiya:
   1. Britaniyalik general-leytenant Mayk Jeksonning so'zlariga ko'ra, 1999 yil 3 iyunda Rossiyaning G'arbni qo'llab-quvvatlash va Miloshevichni taslim bo'lishga undash qarori "urushni tugatishda eng katta ahamiyatga ega" bo'lgan yagona voqea bo'lgan. Yugoslaviya kapitulyatsiyasi o'sha kuni sodir bo'ldi.^[43] Rossiya o'sha paytda G'arbning iqtisodiy yordamiga ishongan edi, bu esa uni Miloshevichni qo'llab-quvvatlashni qaytarib olish uchun NATO tomonidan bosimga duchor bo'lishiga olib keldi.^[44]
   2. Miloshevichning harbiy jinoyatchi sifatida BMT tomonidan ayblovi (1999 yil 24-mayda), agar u shaxsan unga ta'sir qilmasa ham, Rossiyaning diplomatik yordamni qayta boshlash ehtimolini kamaytirdi.^[45]
   3. The Rambuyadagi kelishuv 1999 yil 18 martda, agar Yugoslaviya bunga rozi bo'lsa, NATO kuchlariga tranzit huquqini bergan bo'lar edi, bivuak, manevr, ignabargli va Serbiya bo'ylab foydalanish. Milosevich taslim bo'lgan paytda, NATO kuchlari faqat Kosovodan foydalanish huquqiga ega bo'lishlari kerak edi.^[46]
   4. Viloyatda xalqaro fuqarolik ishtiroki BMT nazorati ostida bo'lishi kerak edi, bu serblarning manfaatlariga tahdid solganda Rossiyaning veto qo'yishiga yo'l qo'ydi.^[46]
2. Bir vaqtning o'zida quruqlikdagi operatsiyalar - KLA Kosovoning o'zida operatsiyalarni amalga oshirdi va serb kuchlariga qarshi bir qator muvaffaqiyatlarga erishdi. Yugoslaviya armiyasi Morinega qarama-qarshi chegara postini Yugoslaviya armiyasi zastavasi yaqinida tark etdi Koshare viloyatning shimoliy g'arbiy qismida. Koshare shahridagi Yugoslaviya armiyasining forposti butun urush davomida Yugoslaviya qo'lida edi: bu provintsiyaga etkazib berish liniyasini o'rnatishga va keyinchalik hududni egallab olishga imkon berdi. Junik maydon. KLA shuningdek janubi-g'arbiy qismga bir necha milya kirib bordi Pashtrik tog'i maydon. Ammo viloyatning katta qismi serblar nazorati ostida qoldi.^[47]
3. Mumkin bo'lgan quruqlik hujumi - general Uesli Klark, Evropa ittifoqdoshlarining oliy qo'mondoni, rejalashtirish va quruqlikdagi aralashuvga tayyorgarlik "xususan, Miloshevichni tan olishga majbur qildi".^[48] Yugoslaviya kapitulyatsiyasi AQSh prezidenti bilan bir kunda sodir bo'lgan Bill Klinton o'zining to'rtligi bilan keng jamoatchilik bilan uchrashuv o'tkazdi xizmat boshliqlari havo urushi muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lgan taqdirda quruqlikdagi kuchlarni joylashtirish variantlarini muhokama qilish.^[49] Biroq, Frantsiya va Germaniya quruqlikdagi hujumga qat'iyan qarshi turishdi va 1999 yil aprel oyidan beri bir necha hafta davomida buni amalga oshirdilar. Frantsuz hisob-kitoblariga ko'ra, bostirib kirish muvaffaqiyatga erishish uchun 500 ming kishilik armiya kerak bo'ladi. Bu NATOni, xususan Qo'shma Shtatlarni quruqlikdagi operatsiyani qo'llab-quvvatlamaydi degan aniq fikrni qoldirdi. Shularni inobatga olgan holda AQSh havo kampaniyasiga ishonishini yana bir bor tasdiqladi.^[50] NATOning quruqlikdagi kuchlardan foydalanishni istamasligi Miloshevich quruqlik bosqinidan qo'rqib kapitulyatsiya qilgan degan g'oyani jiddiy shubha ostiga qo'ydi.^[51]

Ishlash

Uesli Klark sifatida xizmat qilgan Evropa Ittifoqi oliy qo'mondoni (SACEUR)

1999 yil 20 martda EXHT Kosovoni tasdiqlash missiyasi kuzatuvchilar Kosovodan "xavfsizlik holatining muttasil yomonlashuvi" ga asoslanib chiqib ketishdi,^[52][53] va 1999 yil 23 martda Richard Xolbruk Bryusselga qaytib keldi va tinchlik muzokaralari muvaffaqiyatsiz tugaganligini e'lon qildi.^[54] Ushbu e'londan bir necha soat oldin Yugoslaviya milliy televideniye orqali e'lon qilganini e'lon qildi favqulodda holat "NATO tomonidan Yugoslaviyaga qarshi yaqinlashib kelayotgan urush tahdidi" ni keltirib, ulkan kuchlar va resurslarni safarbar qilishni boshladi.^[54][55] 1999 yil 23 mart kuni UTC soat 22: 17da NATO Bosh kotibi, Xaver Solana rejissyorligini e'lon qildi Evropa ittifoqdoshlarining oliy qo'mondoni (SACEUR), general Uesli Klark, "Yugoslaviya Federativ Respublikasida havo operatsiyalarini boshlash".^[55][56]

NATO operatsiyalari

Aktsiyada Italiya va Germaniyadagi aviabazalardan va samolyot tashuvchisidan ishlaydigan 1000 ta samolyot qatnashdi USSTeodor Ruzvelt suzib yurish Adriatik dengizi. Mojaroning o'n haftasi davomida NATO samolyotlari 38000 dan ortiq jangovar topshiriqlarni bajargan.

24 mart kuni soat 19:00 da UTC NATO Yugoslaviyaga qarshi bombardimon kampaniyasini boshladi.^[57][58] F / A-18 hornets ning Ispaniya havo kuchlari Belgradni bombardimon qilgan va amalga oshirgan birinchi NATO samolyotlari edi SEAD operatsiyalar. BGM-109 Tomahawk qanotli raketalar kemalardan otilgan va dengiz osti kemalari Adriatikda.

Ruxsat etilgan qanotli havo kuchlaridan tashqari, bitta batalyon Apache vertolyotlari dan AQSh armiyasi "s 11-aviatsiya polki jangovar vazifalarga yordam berish uchun safarbar qilingan. Polkni uchuvchilar kuchaytirdilar Bragg Fort "s 82-chi havoda Vertolyot batalyoniga hujum qiling. Batalyon AH-64 Apache hujumidagi vertolyotlarga yonilg'i quyish joylarini xavfsiz holatga keltirdi va kichik bir hujumchi NATOning havo hujumlari maqsadlarini aniqlash uchun Albaniya - Kosovo chegarasiga safarbar etildi.

Yugoslaviya Mudofaa vazirligi binosi paytida shikastlangan NATO bombardimon qilish

Kampaniya dastlab Yugoslaviyaning havo hujumidan mudofaasi va qimmatbaho harbiy maqsadlarini yo'q qilish uchun ishlab chiqilgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} NATO harbiy amaliyotlari tobora ko'proq strategik bombardimonni davom ettirish bilan birga Yugoslaviya bo'linmalariga hujum qilmoqda. Chernogoriya bir necha bor bombardimon qilindi va NATO o'zining Miloshevichga qarshi etakchisining xavfli pozitsiyasini ilgari surishni rad etdi, Milo Dukanovich. "Ikki tomonlama foydalanish "tinch aholi va harbiylar foydalangan nishonlarga, shu jumladan, ko'priklar bo'ylab hujum qilingan Dunay, fabrikalar, elektr stantsiyalari, telekommunikatsiya inshootlari, shtab-kvartirasi Yugoslaviya so'lchilari, Milosevichning rafiqasi boshchiligidagi siyosiy partiya va Avala televizor minorasi. Ba'zilar ushbu harakatlar buzilganligi sababli norozilik bildirishdi xalqaro huquq va Jeneva konvensiyalari. NATO ushbu ob'ektlar Yugoslaviya harbiylari uchun potentsial foydali bo'lishi mumkinligini ta'kidladi va shuning uchun ularning bombardimon qilinishi haqli edi.

Ostrujnica ko'prigi Ittifoq kuchlari operatsiyasi paytida urilgan

14-aprel kuni NATO samolyotlar Korisha yaqinidagi etnik albanlarni bombardimon qildi Yugoslaviya kuchlari tomonidan inson qalqoni sifatida ishlatilgan.^[59][60] Yugoslaviya qo'shinlari bombardimondan ko'p o'tmay voqea joyiga televidenie xodimlarini olib ketishdi.^[61] Yugoslaviya hukumati NATO tinch aholini nishonga olganligini ta'kidladi.^[62][63][64]

7 may kuni AQSh Xitoyning Belgraddagi elchixonasini bombardimon qildi, uchta xitoylik jurnalistni o'ldirish. AQSh mudofaa vaziri xato sababini "bombardimon qilish bo'yicha ko'rsatma eskirgan xaritaga asoslanganligi sababli" deb izohladi, ammo Xitoy hukumati bu tushuntirishni qabul qilmadi. Maqsad Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi oddiy NATO nishonga olish rejimidan tashqarida. AQSh bombardimon uchun uzr so'radi va moddiy tovon puli berdi.^[65][66] Bomba Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi va NATO o'rtasidagi munosabatlarni keskinlashtirdi va G'arbning Pekindagi elchixonalari oldida g'azabli namoyishlar uyushtirdi.^[67]

NATO qo'mondonligi tashkiloti

Solana Klarkni "Yugoslaviya Federativ Respublikasida havo operatsiyalarini boshlashga" yo'naltirdi. Keyin Klark "Ittifoq kuchlari" operatsiyasini o'tkazish uchun javobgarlikni Janubiy Evropa Ittifoq kuchlari bosh qo'mondoniga topshirdi, u esa o'z navbatida boshqaruvni Janubiy Evropa Ittifoqi havo kuchlari qo'mondoni general-leytenant Maykl C. Shotga, USAFga topshirdi.^[68] Operativ ravishda, topshiriqlarni bajarish uchun kundalik mas'uliyat 5-Ittifoq taktik-havo kuchlari qo'mondoniga topshirildi.^[69]

Yugoslaviya operatsiyalari

Novi Saddagi uchta ko'prik buzilgandan keyin Dunaydan o'tayotgan odamlar

Gaaga sudi 700 mingdan oshiqroq degan qarorga keldi Kosovo albanlari Yugoslaviya kuchlari tomonidan qo'shni Albaniya va Makedoniyaga majburan ko'chirildi, ko'p minglab odamlar esa Kosovo tarkibiga ko'chirildi.^[70] Aprelga qadar Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti 850,000 haqida xabar berdi qochqinlar Kosovoni tark etgan edi.^[71] Yana 230 ming kishi majburiy ravishda ko'chirilganlar sifatida qayd etilgan: uylaridan haydalgan, ammo baribir Kosovo ichida. Germaniya tashqi ishlar vaziri Joschka Fischer va mudofaa vaziri Rudolf Sharpin o'sha paytda qochqinlar inqirozi muvofiqlashtirilgan Yugoslaviya rejasi asosida ishlab chiqarilgan deb da'vo qilmoqda etnik tozalash kodlangan ""Nal taqi" operatsiyasi ". Bunday rejaning mavjudligi va xarakteri shubha ostiga qo'yildi.^{[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79]}

Serbiya televideniesi ning katta ustunlari deb da'vo qildi qochqinlar Yugoslaviya harbiy operatsiyalari emas, balki NATO tomonidan bombardimon qilinganligi sababli Kosovodan qochib ketishgan.^[80][81] Yugoslaviya tomoni va uning G'arb tarafdorlari qochqinlarning chiqib ketishiga Kosovo alban aholisining ommaviy vahima sabab bo'lganini va bu ko'chish asosan NATO bombalaridan qo'rqish natijasida vujudga kelganini da'vo qilishdi.

Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti va xalqaro inson huquqlari tashkilotlar inqiroz siyosatidan kelib chiqqaniga amin bo'lishdi etnik tozalash. Serblar va albanlarning ko'pgina hisobotlari Yugoslaviya xavfsizlik kuchlari va harbiy xizmatchilarni alban aholisining shaharlari va qishloqlarini qochishga majbur qilish orqali muntazam ravishda bo'shatish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan aybdor deb topdi.^[82]

Kosovodagi tinch aholiga qarshi vahshiyliklar Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining asosi edi harbiy jinoyatlar Milosevich va Kosovo mojarosini boshqarish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan boshqa rasmiylarga qarshi ayblovlar.

Havodagi jang

Kecha tunda Yugoslaviya zenit otishmasi

Yugoslaviya qulab tushdi MiG-29 yilda Ugljevik, Bosniya, 1999 yil 25 martda

Zoltan Dani, qo'mondon Yugoslaviya 3-akkumulyatori 250-raketa brigadasi, qaysi otib tashlandi NATO F-117 Nighthawk bilan S-125 Neva

Noto'g'ri raketa bilan urilgan, ammo keyinchalik qayta tiklangan MiG-29 samolyoti, hozir Belgrad aviatsiya muzeyida

Urushning muhim qismi urushni o'z ichiga olgan Yugoslaviya havo kuchlari va NATOdan qarshi bo'lgan havo kuchlari. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari havo kuchlari F-15lar va F-16lar Italiya aviatsiya bazalaridan uchib yurish asosan himoyalanayotgan Yugoslaviya jangchilariga hujum qildi MiG-29, ehtiyot qismlar etishmasligi va texnik xizmat ko'rsatish tufayli yomon ahvolda bo'lgan. NATOning boshqa kuchlari ham havo urushiga hissa qo'shdilar.

Havodagi jangovar hodisalar:

• 1999 yil 24-martdan 25-martga o'tar kechasi: Yugoslaviya harbiy-havo kuchlari dastlabki hujumlarga qarshi turish uchun beshta MiG-29 samolyotlarini chayqab tashladilar. Ikkita jangchi Nish aeroporti Serbiya janubidagi nishonlarni ushlab turish uchun vektor qilingan va Kosovo bilan NATO jangchilari muomala qilishgan. Mayda Dragan Ilich boshqargan MiG-29 shikastlangan; u bitta dvigatel bilan tushdi va samolyot keyinchalik aldanib sarflandi. Mayjo Iljo Arizanov boshqargan ikkinchi MiGni podpolkovnik boshqargan USAF F-15C samolyoti urib tushirgan. Sezar Rodrigez. Dan juftlik Batajnitsa aviabazasi (Mayor Nebojša Nikolich va mayor Ljubisha Kulačin) USAF kapitani Mayk Shower tomonidan unashtirilgan bo'lib, u Nikolichni urib yuborgan, Kulačin esa unga qarshi otilgan bir nechta raketalardan qochib, ishlamay qolgan tizimlarini ish holatiga qaytarish uchun kurash olib borgan. Oxir-oqibat u hech narsa qila olmasligini tushunib, hujum ostida bo'lgan Batajnitsa bilan Kulačin yo'nalishni boshladi Belgrad Nikola Tesla aeroporti, samolyotini to'xtab turgan laynerning dumi ostiga yashirgan.^[83] O'sha tunda havoga uchgan beshinchi va so'nggi MiG-29 samolyotini mayor Predrag Milutinovich uchirdi. Havoga ko'tarilgandan so'ng darhol uning radarlari ishlamay qoldi va elektr generatori ishlamay qoldi. Ko'p o'tmay, u yong'in nazorati radariga ega bo'lish haqida ogohlantirildi, ammo u bir necha qochish manevralari bilan raqibdan qochib ketdi. Uchrashuvlardan qochishga urinib, qo'nish niyatida Nish aeroportiga yaqinlashdi, ehtimol uni 2K12 kub a do'stona olov voqea, lekin ehtimol u a tomonidan urib tushirilgan KLU F-16AM samolyotini mayor Piter Tankink uchirdi va chiqarib yuborishga majbur qildi.^[84][85]
• 25 mart kuni ertalab mayor Slobodan Tesanovich MiG-29 samolyotiga qo'nayotganda to'xtab qoldi. Ponikve aviabazasi qayta parvozdan so'ng. U xavfsiz ravishda chiqarib yubordi.^[86][87]
• Urush paytida Yugoslaviya samolyotlari J-22 Oraos va G-4 Super Galebs qarshi 20-30 ga yaqin jangovar vazifalarni bajargan KLA Kosovoda daraxt tepasida^[88] ba'zi qurbonlarni keltirib chiqaradi. 1999 yil 25 martda ushbu topshiriqlardan biri paytida podpolkovnik Zivota Tsyurich o'zining J-22 Orao kosovosidagi tepalikka urilishi natijasida o'ldirilgan. Samolyotning ishlamay qolishi, uchuvchilarning xatosi yoki dushmanning harakati (KLA tomonidan) sabab bo'lganmi yoki yo'qmi (NATO hech qachon ularni urib tushirgan deb da'vo qilmagan).^[86]
• 1999 yil 25 mart kuni tushdan keyin Bosniya chegarasi tomon uchayotgan NATOning yolg'iz samolyotini ta'qib qilish uchun Batajnitsa shahridan ikkita Yugoslaviya MiG-29 samolyoti havoga ko'tarildi. Ular chegarani kesib o'tib, ikkita AQSh tomonidan unashtirilgan F-15lar. Ikkala MiG ham kapitan Jeff Xvang tomonidan urib tushirilgan.^[89] Bir MiG uchuvchisi, mayor Slobodan Perich, zarba berilishidan oldin kamida bitta raketadan qochib qutulgan va keyinchalik Yugoslaviyaga qaytarib yuborilgan. Srpska Respublikasi politsiya. Boshqa uchuvchi, kapitan Zoran Radosavlevich chiqarib tashlamadi va o'ldirildi.^[90]
• 1999 yil 27 martda polkovnik boshchiligidagi 250-raketa brigadasining 3-batalyoni Zoltan Dani, Isayev S-125 'Neva-M' (NATO nomi bilan) bilan jihozlangan SA-3 Goa ), pastga tushirilgan amerikalik F-117 Nighthawk.^[91][92] Uchuvchi tashqariga chiqarib yuborilgan va qutqarilgan qidirish va qutqarish Belgrad yaqinidagi kuchlar. Bu birinchi va hozircha yagona vaqt edi a yashirin samolyotlar jangovar dushmanlik bilan erdan o'qqa tutilgan.
• 1999 yil 5–7 aprel kunlari bir necha marotaba Yugoslaviya MiG-29 samolyotlari NATO samolyotlarini ushlab qolish uchun kurashgan, ammo nosozliklar tufayli orqaga qaytgan.^[87]
• 1999 yil 7 aprelda to'rt RQ-5A ovchi samolyotlari urib tushirildi.^[93]
• 30 aprelda AQShning ba'zi manbalari, ikkinchi "F-117A" "yer-havo" raketasi tomonidan shikastlangan deb da'vo qilmoqda.^[94] Garchi samolyot bazaga qaytgan bo'lsa-da, u boshqa hech qachon uchmagan.^[95][96]
• 2 may kuni USAF F-16 yaqinida urib tushirilgan Sabac tomonidan a SA-3, yana 250-raketa brigadasining 3-bataloni tomonidan o'qqa tutildi. Uchuvchi podpolkovnik Devid Goldfeyn, komandiri 555-jangchi otryad, qutqarildi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Xuddi shu kuni an A-10 momaqaldiroq II tomonidan zarar ko'rgan Strela 2 Kosovo ustidan elkama-elka o'rnatilgan SAM va shoshilinch ravishda qo'nish kerak edi Skopye aeroporti yilda Makedoniya,^[97] va Marine Corp Harrier amfibik hujum tashuvchisiga qaytayotganda halokatga uchradi USS Kearsarge o'quv missiyasidan. Uning uchuvchisi qutqarib qolindi.^[98]
• 4 may kuni Yugoslaviya MiG-29, uchuvchi podpolkovnik Milenko Pavlovich, 204-qiruvchi aviatsiya qanoti qo'mondoni, o'z tug'ilgan shahri Valjevo ustida past balandlikda ikkita USAF F-16 samolyoti tomonidan urib tushirilgan. Ehtimol, qulab tushgan samolyotni ham urishgan Strela 2 Yugoslaviya qo'shinlari tomonidan otilgan. Pavlovich o'ldirildi.^[90]
• 11 may kuni A-10 kosovo ustidan engil shikastlandi.^[97]
• Urush paytida NATO ikkitasini yo'qotdi AH-64 Apache vertolyotlarni urish (biri 26 aprelda, ikkinchisi 4 mayda)^[99] Albaniyada Yugoslaviya bilan chegara yaqinida, AQSh armiyasining ikki ekipaj a'zosining o'limiga olib keladigan mashg'ulotlarda.

NATO to'qnashuv paytida texnik nosozliklar yoki dushmanlarning harakatlaridan 21 ta samolyotni yo'qotganligini, shu jumladan kamida etti nafar nemis samolyotlari va beshta frantsuz samolyotlari haqida xabar berdi. Yugoslaviya Uchinchi Armiyasi qo'mondoni 21 ta NATO samolyotlari Yugoslaviya kuchlari tomonidan urib tushirilgan deb da'vo qilayotgan bo'lsa, boshqa bir Yugoslaviya generali Yugoslaviya havo mudofaasi va quruqlikdagi kuchlari 30 ta PUAni urib tushirgan deb da'vo qilmoqda.^[100] Dushmanlik samolyotlarini yo'q qilishning afzal qilingan Yugoslaviya taktikalaridan biri transport-vertolyotlardan havo-havo jangovar rolida foydalanishni o'z ichiga olgan. Birinchi IAI RQ-5 Hunter AQSh armiyasi tomonidan kampaniyada yo'qolgan uchuvchisiz samolyot a Mi-8 vertolyoti yonma-yon uchib, eshik pulemyoti 7.62 mm pulemyotni o'qqa tutmoqda. Manevr bir necha marotaba ittifoqchilarning havo ustunligi bu amaliyotni o'ta xavfli qilguniga qadar takrorlandi.^[101]

Havodan mudofaani bostirish operatsiyalari

Yugoslaviyani bombardimon qilishda ishlatilgan NATO qurollari; CBU-87 bomba (chapda) va urib tushirildi AGM-88 ZARAR Belgrad aviatsiya muzeyida

Dushmanning havoga qarshi mudofaasini bostirish yoki NATO uchun SEAD operatsiyalari asosan AQSh havo kuchlari tomonidan amalga oshirilgan bo'lib, ellikta F-16CJ bloki 50 jangovar lochinlar va AQSh dengiz kuchlari va dengiz piyoda kuchlari, 30 kishidan iborat EA-6B Prowlers. F-16CJ samolyotlari tashilgan AGM-88 ZARAR radiatsiyaga qarshi raketalar Prowlers ta'minlagan holda, har qanday faol Yugoslaviya radar tizimlarini o'z ichiga oladi va yo'q qiladi radarning siqilishi yordam (garchi ular HARMlarni ham olib yurishsa ham). Qo'shimcha qo'llab-quvvatlash italyan va nemis tillarida amalga oshirildi Tornado ECRlari shuningdek, HARMlarni olib ketishdi.

USAF EC-130s kompas chaqiruvi Yugoslaviya aloqalarini to'xtatish va yopish uchun ishlatilgan RC-135s o'tkazildi bomba zararini baholash.

F-16CJ samolyotlarining standart taktikasi ikki juftlik shubhali havo hujumidan mudofaa maydoniga qarama-qarshi yo'nalishlardan kelib, maqsadli hududning to'liq qamrab olinishini ta'minlash va kelayotgan zarba beruvchi kemalarga ma'lumot uzatish orqali o'zlarining parvoz yo'llarini mos ravishda sozlashi mumkin edi.^[102]

Iloji bo'lsa, NATO F-16CG va foydalanib, havo hujumidan mudofaa joylarini faol ravishda yo'q qilishga urindi F-15E Strike Eagles an'anaviy o'q-dorilarni, shu jumladan klasterli bombalar, AGM-130 kuchaytirilgan bomba va AGM-154 qo'shma qurol raketalar.

Ko'pgina NATO samolyotlari yangi samolyotlardan foydalangan tortib olingan aldovlar ularga qaratilgan har qanday raketalarni jalb qilish uchun mo'ljallangan. Xabar qilinishicha, NATO ham birinchi marta ish bilan ta'minlangan kiberjangi Yugoslaviya havo mudofaasi kompyuter tizimlarini nishonga olish.^[103]

F-16CJ Falcon 52-chi qiruvchi qanot a bilan yonilg'i quyishdan keyin KC-135R Stratotanker.

Bombardimon kampaniyasi davomida NATOning SEAD operatsiyalaridagi bir qator kamchiliklar aniqlandi. EA-6B samolyotlari boshqa samolyotlarga qaraganda ancha sekinroq edi, bu ularning qo'llab-quvvatlash samaradorligini cheklab qo'ydi va quruqlikdagi Prowlers uchib chiqib ketdi. Aviano aviabazasi masofa tufayli HARM o'rniga qo'shimcha yonilg'i baklarini olib ketishga majbur bo'lishdi.^[102] F-16CJ Block 50 yuk ko'tarolmadi LANTIRN podani nishonga olish, tunda aniq bombardimonni amalga oshirishga qodir emas.^[104] Bundan tashqari, AQSh havo kuchlari bunga yo'l qo'ygan elektron urush keyingi yillarda atrofiyaga aylanib boradi Ko'rfaz urushi. O'quv mashqlari avvalgiga qaraganda kamroq va qattiqroq edi, elektron urush tajribasiga ega bo'lgan faxriylarga nafaqaga nafaqaga almashtirishga ruxsat berildi. Natijalar qoniqarli bo'lmagan: SAM tahdidiga javob berish vaqtlari Fors ko'rfazidagi urushdan va elektron urushlardan ko'paygan qanotlar endi o'zlarini qayta dasturlashtira olmadilar tiqilib qolgan podalar lekin ularni topshiriq uchun boshqa joyga jo'natishlari kerak edi.^[105]

Keyinchalik qiyinchiliklar havo kengligini cheklash ko'rinishida yuzaga keldi, bu esa NATO samolyotlarini taxmin qilinadigan parvoz yo'llariga majbur qildi va unashtirish qoidalari bu NATOning qo'rqishidan ma'lum saytlarni nishonga olishiga to'sqinlik qildi garovga etkazilgan zarar. Xususan, bu Chernogoriyada joylashgan erta ogohlantiruvchi radarlarga taalluqli bo'lib, ular kampaniya davomida ishlamoqda va Yugoslaviya kuchlariga NATOning kirib kelayotgan havo hujumlari to'g'risida oldindan ogohlantirgan.^[106][102] Kosovoning tog'li hududi, shuningdek, NATO uchun Yugoslaviya havo hujumidan mudofaani topish va nishonga olishni qiyinlashtirdi, shu bilan birga mintaqaning kambag'al infratuzilmasi Yugoslaviya SAM va AAA joylari joylashtirilishi mumkin edi.^[104]

Yugoslaviya havo mudofaasi Iroq Fors ko'rfazi urushi paytida joylashtirilganidan ancha kam edi - taxminan 16 ta SA-3 va 25 SA-6 "yer-havo" raketasi tizimlar, shuningdek juda ko'p zenit artilleriyasi (AAA) va portativ havo hujumidan mudofaa tizimlari (MANPADS ) - ammo iroqliklardan farqli o'laroq ular o'z mol-mulklarini saqlab qolish choralarini ko'rdilar. Mojaro boshlanishidan oldin Yugoslaviya SAM-lari o'zlarining garnizonlaridan oldindan tarqatib yuborilgan va mashq qilishgan emissiyani boshqarish NATOning ularni topish qobiliyatini pasaytirish.^[106] Yugoslaviya havo hujumidan mudofaa tizimi (IADS) keng bo'lib, er osti qo'mondonlik joylari va ko'milgan shahar telefonlarini o'z ichiga olgan bo'lib, bu tizimlar o'rtasida ma'lumot almashish imkonini berdi. Bir hududdagi faol radar boshqa hududda SAM va AAA uchun samolyotlarni faol radarsiz nishonga olishi va NATOning havo hujumidan mudofaa qurollarini nishonga olish imkoniyatini cheklashi mumkin.^[107]

Vayron qilinganlarning ish tashlashdan oldingi va keyingi tasvirlari Priştina radiolokatsiya vositasi.

Kampaniya davomida NATO va Yugoslaviya kuchlari "mushuk va sichqoncha" o'yinini o'tkazdilar, bu esa havo mudofaasini bostirishni qiyinlashtirdi. Yugoslaviya SAM operatorlari o'zlarining radarlarini 20 soniyadan ko'proq vaqt davomida yoqib qo'yishadi, bu esa NATOning radiatsiyaga qarshi missiyalari uchun ularning emissiyasini yopish uchun juda kam imkoniyat yaratadi.^[103] Yugoslaviya SAMlarining aksariyati NATO samolyotlariga ballistik usulda (radarsiz rahbarliksiz) otilgan bo'lsa, uchdan bir qismi radar tomonidan boshqarilib, maqsadli samolyotlarni yonilg'i quyish tanklariga majburlab, qochishga harakat qildi.^[108] Bunga javoban, NATOning radiatsiyaga qarshi raketalarining yarmidan ko'pi shubhali havo hujumidan mudofaa qilinadigan saytlarga qarshi otilgan, shunda radar tizimi faollashsa, raketalar tezroq qulflanishi mumkin edi.^[104]

Mumkin bo'lgan taqdirda, Yugoslaviya havo mudofaasi NATO samolyotlarini AAA va MANPADS oralig'iga olib kirishga urindi. Umumiy taktika shundan iboratki, so'nggi samolyot kam himoyalangan, kam tajribali uchuvchi tomonidan boshqarilgan va / yoki qochish manevralarini amalga oshirish uchun zarur bo'lgan yoqilg'i kam bo'lgan degan taxmin bilan uchib ketayotgan samolyotni nishonga olish edi.^[106] Biroq, AAA harakatlanish uchun yo'llarga yaqin joylashish bilan cheklanib qolganligi va qiyin erga botib qolganligi sababli, NATO uchuvchilari yo'llardan kamida besh kilometr uzoqlikda, hech qachon ular bo'ylab uchmay va faqat ularni perpendikulyar burchak ostida kesib o'tib, bulardan qochishni o'rgandilar. garchi bu erdagi transportni aniqlash qiyinlashsa ham.^[104]

Yugoslaviya havo mudofaasi ularning operativ omon qolishlariga e'tibor qaratib, NATO kuchlariga ma'lum darajada havo ustunligini topshirdi. Shunga qaramay ularning ishonchli SAM tahdidlarining davom etishi NATOni boshqa missiyalarni bajarishdan ko'ra SEAD operatsiyalarini davom ettirish uchun ko'proq mablag 'ajratishga majbur qildi, Yugoslaviya AAA va MANPADS esa NATO samolyotlarini 15000 fut (4600 m) va undan yuqori balandlikda uchishga majbur qildi. Xabarlarga ko'ra, 78 kunlik kampaniya davomida NATO 743 HARMni ishdan bo'shatgan, ammo 25 dona SA-6 batareyasining atigi 3 tasining yo'q qilinganligini tasdiqlashi mumkin. Yugoslaviya kuchlari tomonidan NATO samolyotlari tomonidan 800 dan ortiq SAM, shu jumladan 477 ta SA-6 va 124 ta tasdiqlangan MANPADS samolyotlari urib tushirilgani uchun, faqat ikkita samolyot urib tushirilgani va yana bir nechta zarar ko'rganligi uchun otilgan.^[103]

NATO kuchlari

To'g'ridan-to'g'ri jangovar harakatlar bilan bog'liq bo'lmasa ham, 1999 yil 12 martda Chex Respublikasi, Vengriya va Polsha ning 10-moddasiga muvofiq qo'shilish to'g'risidagi hujjatlarni saqlash orqali NATOga qo'shildi Shimoliy Atlantika shartnomasi marosimida Missuri, Mustaqillik.^[109] Ushbu xalqlar jangovar harakatlarda bevosita ishtirok etmadilar.

Aviatsiya

F-16 yordamida AQSh havo kuchlari va dengiz kuchlariga tayanib, NATOning havo kuchlari operatsiyaning katta elementi bo'lib, F-15, F-117, F-14, F / A-18, EA-6B, B-52, KC-135, KC-10, AWACS va JSTARS Evropadagi bazalardan va mintaqadagi aviatashuvchi kemalardan.

F-117 soyaboni otib tashlandi tomonidan Yugoslaviya havo kuchlari 1999 yil 27 martda, qishlog'i yaqinida Buđanovci, Serbiya

Frantsiya dengiz kuchlari va harbiy havo kuchlari Super Etendard va Mirage 2000. The Italiya havo kuchlari 34 bilan ishlaydi Tornado, 12 F-104, 12 AMX, 2 B-707, Italiya dengiz floti bilan operatsiya qilingan Harrier II. Buyuk Britaniyaning Qirollik havo kuchlari tomonidan boshqarilgan Harrier GR7 va Tornado erga hujum qiluvchi samolyotlar, shuningdek, bir qator qo'llab-quvvatlovchi samolyotlar. Belgiyalik, Daniya, Golland, Norvegiya va Turkcha Havo kuchlari F-16 samolyotlarini boshqargan. Ispaniya havo kuchlari joylashtirilgan EF-18s va KC-130. The Kanada havo kuchlari jami 18 ta joylashtirilgan CF-18s, operatsiyada tashlangan barcha bombalarning 10% uchun javobgar bo'lishlarini ta'minlash.

Jangchilar boshqariladigan va boshqarilmaydigan "soqov" o'q-dorilar bilan qurollangan, shu jumladan Yulka lazer bilan boshqariladigan bombalar seriyasi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Bombardimon kampaniyasi Germaniya harbiy havo kuchlari Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan beri birinchi marta nishonlarga faol hujum uyushtirdi.^[110]

AQSh B-2 ruhi yashirin bombardimonchi qo'shni AQShdagi uy bazasidan zarba berib, Ittifoq kuchlari operatsiyasida birinchi muvaffaqiyatli jangovar rolini ko'rdi.

Ushbu havo kuchi bilan ham, "RAND Corporation" tadqiqotida ta'kidlanganidek, "NATO hech qachon dushmanning radarlar tomonidan boshqariladigan SAM tahdidini zararsizlantirishga muvaffaq bo'lmadi".^[111]

Bo'shliq

"Ittifoqdosh kuchlar" operatsiyasi sun'iy yo'ldoshlardan birinchi keng ko'lamli foydalanishni qurolga rahbarlikning bevosita usuli sifatida kiritdi. Kollektiv bombardimon - bu Qo'shma To'g'ridan-to'g'ri hujum o'q-dorilarining birinchi jangovar ishlatilishi JDAM to'plam, unda inertsional-qo'llanma va GPS - an'anaviy tortishish o'q-dorilarining aniqligini 95% gacha oshirish uchun boshqariladigan quyruq fin. JDAM to'plamlari jihozlangan edi B-2. The AGM-154 qo'shma qurol (JSOW) ilgari ishlatilgan "Janubiy soat" operatsiyasi ilgari 1999 yilda.

Dengiz kuchlari

NATO dengiz kuchlari Adriatik dengizida ish olib bordi. The Qirollik floti samolyot tashuvchisini o'z ichiga olgan katta miqdordagi tezkor guruh yubordi HMSYengilmas, ishlagan Dengiz Harrier FA2 qiruvchi samolyotlar. RN ham joylashtirilgan yo'q qiluvchilar va fregatlar, va Qirollik floti yordamchisi (RFA) qo'llab-quvvatlovchi kemalarni, shu jumladan aviatsiya ta'limi / birinchi darajali qurbonlarni qabul qiluvchi kemani taqdim etdi RFAArgus. Bu birinchi marta RN yadroviy flotining dengiz osti kemasidan otilgan jangda qanotli raketalarni ishlatgan HMSAjoyib.

The Italiya dengiz floti samolyot tashuvchisini o'z ichiga olgan dengiz maxsus guruhini taqdim etdi Juzeppe Garibaldi, frekat (Maestrale ) va suv osti kemasi (Sauro sinf ).

The Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari dengiz kuchlari USS samolyot tashuvchisini o'z ichiga olgan harbiy-dengiz guruhini taqdim etdi Teodor Ruzvelt, USSVella ko'rfazi va amfibiya hujum kemasi USSKearsarge.

The Frantsiya dengiz floti samolyot tashuvchisini taqdim etdi Foch va eskortlar. The Germaniya dengiz floti fregatni joylashtirdi Reynland-Pfalz va Oker, an Oste- sinf flotiga xizmat ko'rsatuvchi kema, dengiz operatsiyalarida.

The Gollandiya suvosti kemasini yubordi HNLMSDolfijn Yugoslaviya sohilidagi savdo embargosini qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun.^[112]

Armiya

Makedoniya va Kosovo chegarasida qo'lga olingan AQSh armiyasining tinchlikparvarlik patrulidan olingan uskunalar Harbiy muzey Belgradda

NATO quruqlikdagi qo'shinlari tarkibiga AQSh batalyoni kiritilgan 505-chi parashyut piyoda polk, 82-havo-desant diviziyasi. Ushbu bo'linma 1999 yil mart oyida Albaniyaga batalon xavfsizligini ta'minlagan bombardimon kampaniyasini qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun yuborilgan Tirana aerodrom, Apache vertolyotiga yonilg'i quyish joylari, tayyorgarlik ko'rish uchun oldinga ishlaydigan bazani tashkil etdi Bir nechta ishga tushirish raketa tizimi (MLRS) zarbalar va hujumkor quruqlikdagi operatsiyalarni amalga oshirdi va kichik guruhni an AN / TPQ-36 Firefinder radarlari Albaniya / Kosovo chegarasiga qadar bo'lgan tizim NATO havo hujumlari uchun maqsadlarni qo'lga kiritdi. Bombardimon kampaniyasidan so'ng darhol batalon Tirana aerodromida qayta tiklandi va uni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun dastlabki kirish kuchi sifatida Kosovoga o'tishga buyruq berdi. Qo'shma qo'riqchi operatsiyasi.Ishchi guruh Hawk shuningdek joylashtirildi.

Task Force Hunter, AQSh kuzatuv bo'limi IAI RQ-5 Hunter drone "A" Company from a Forces Command (FORSCOM) Corps Military Intelligence Brigade (MI Bde) was deployed to Camp Able Sentry, Makedoniya, in March, to provide real-time intelligence on Yugoslav forces inside Kosovo. They flew a total of 246 sorties,^[113] with five drones lost to enemy fire.^[114] A German Army drone battery based at Tetovo was tasked with a similar mission. Germaniya kuchlari foydalangan CL-289 UAVs from December 1998 to July 1999 to fly 237 sorties over Yugoslav positions, with six drones lost to hostile fire.^[115][116]

Natijada

Fuqarolar qurbonlari

Map showing sites in Kosovo and southern Central Serbia where NATO used munitions with depleted uranium

Human Rights Watch tashkiloti concluded "that as few as 489 and as many as 528 Yugoslav civilians were killed in the ninety separate incidents in Operation Allied Force". Refugees were among the victims. Between 278 and 317 of the deaths, nearly 60 percent of the total number, were in Kosovo. In Serbia, 201 civilians were killed (five in Vojvodina) and eight died in Montenegro. Almost two-thirds (303 to 352) of the total registered civilian deaths occurred in twelve incidents where ten or more civilian deaths were confirmed.^[117]

According to one Serbian claim, NATO tactics sometimes included second post strikes in populated areas, with the aim of destroying rescue and medical teams.^[118]

Military casualties

Tugagan uran ammunition, fired in FR Yugoslavia in 1999

Military casualties on the NATO side were limited. According to official reports, the alliance suffered no fatalities from combat operations. However, on May 5, an American AH-64 Apache crashed and exploded during a night-time mission in Albania.^[119][120] The Yugoslavs claimed they shot it down, but NATO claimed it crashed due to a technical malfunction. It crashed 40 miles from Tirana,^[121] killing the two crewmen, Army Bosh kafil ofitserlari David Gibbs and Kevin Reichert.^[122] It was one of two Apache helicopters lost in the war.^[123] A further three US soldiers were taken as prisoners of war by Yugoslav special forces while riding on a Xumvi on a surveillance mission along the Macedonian border with Kosovo.^[124] A study of the campaign reports that Yugoslav air defences may have fired up to 700 missiles at NATO aircraft, and that the B-1 bomber crews counted at least 20 surface-to-air missiles fired at them during their first 50 missions.^[122] Despite this, only two NATO manned aircraft (one F-16C^{[125][126][127]} va bitta F-117A Nighthawk )^[128][129] urib tushirildi.^[130] A further F-117A Nighthawk was damaged by hostile fire^[94][95] as were two A-10 momaqaldiroq II.^[131][132] One AV-8B Harrier crashed in the Adriatic Sea due to technical failure.^[133] NATO also lost 25 UAVs, either due to enemy action or mechanical failure.^[134] Yugoslavia's 3rd Army commander, Lt. Gen. Nebojsa Pavkovic, claimed that Yugoslav forces shot down 51 NATO aircraft, though no other source verified these numbers.^[135]

In 2013, Serbia's then-mudofaa vaziri Aleksandar Vuchich announced that the combined Yugoslav military and law enforcement casualties during the air campaign amounted to 956 killed and 52 missing. Vučić stated that 631 soldiers were killed and a further 28 went missing, and that 325 policemen were also among the dead with a further 24 listed as missing.^[136][137] The government of Serbia also lists 5,173 combatants as having been wounded.^[138][139] In early June 1999, while the bombing was still in progress, NATO officials claimed that 5,000 Yugoslav troops had been killed in the bombing and a further 10,000 wounded.^{[140][141][142]} NATO later revised this estimation to 1,200 soldiers and policemen killed.^[143]

Post-ish tashlash bomb damage assessment fotosurati Zastava avtomobil zavodi.

Throughout the war; 181 NATO strikes were reported against tanks, 317 against armoured personnel vehicles, 800 against other military vehicles, and 857 against artillery and mortars,^[144] after a total of 38,000 sorties, or 200 sorties per day at the beginning of the conflict and over 1,000 at the end of the conflict.^[145] When it came to alleged hits, 93 tanks (out of 600),^[146] 153 APCs, 339 other vehicles, and 389 artillery systems were believed to have been disabled or destroyed with certainty.^[147] The Department of Defence and Joint Chief of Staff had earlier provided a figure of 120 tanks, 220 APCs, and 450 artillery systems, and a Newsweek piece published around a year later stated that only 14 tanks, 12 self-propelled guns, 18 APCs, and 20 artillery systems had actually been obliterated,^[147] not that far from the Yugoslavs' own estimates of 13 tanks, 6 APCs, and 6 artillery pieces.^[135] However, this reporting was heavily criticised, as it was based on the number of vehicles found during the assessment of the Munitions Effectiveness Assessment Team, which wasn't interested in the effectiveness of anything but the ordnance, and surveyed sites that hadn't been visited in nearly three-months, at a time when the most recent of strikes were four-weeks old.^[135] The Yugoslav Air Force also sustained serious damage, with 121 aircraft destroyed (according to NATO)^[148]

Operation Allied Force inflicted less damage on the Yugoslav military than originally thought due to the use of kamuflyaj and decoys. "NATO hit a lot of dummy and deception targets. It's an old Soviet ploy. Officials in Europe are very subdued", noted a former senior NATO official in a post-war assessment of the damage.^[149] Other misdirection techniques were used to disguise targets including replacing the batteries of fired missiles with mock-ups, as well as burning tires beside major bridges and painting roads in different colors in order to emit varying degrees of heat, thus guiding NATO missiles away from vital infrastructure.^[150] It was only in the later stages of the campaign that strategic targets such as bridges and buildings were attacked in any systematic way, causing significant disruption and economic damage. This stage of the campaign led to controversial incidents, most notably the bombing of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade where three Chinese reporters were killed and twenty injured, which NATO claimed was a mistake.^[66]

Asl Avala minorasi, one of the symbols of Belgrade, destroyed by NATO bombing

Ning qarindoshlari Italiya askarlari believe 50 of them have died since the war due to their exposure to depleted uranium weapons.^[151] UNEP tests found no evidence of harm by depleted uranium weapons, even among cleanup workers,^[152] but those tests and UNEP's report were questioned in an article in Le Monde diplomatique.^[153]

Damage and economic loss

In April 1999, during the NATO bombing, officials in Yugoslavia said the damage from the bombing campaign has cost around $100 billion up to that time.^[154]

In 2000, a year after the bombing ended, 17-guruh published a survey dealing with damage and economic restoration. The report concluded that direct damage from the bombing totalled $3.8 billion, not including Kosovo, of which only 5% had been repaired at that time.^[155]

In 2006, a group of economists from the G17 Plus party estimated the total economic losses resulting from the bombing were about $29.6 billion.^[156] This figure included indirect economic damage, loss of inson kapitali va yo'qotish YaIM.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

The bombing caused damage to bridges, roads and railway tracks, as well as to 25,000 homes, 69 schools and 176 cultural monuments.^[157] Furthemore, 19 hospitals and 20 health centers were damaged, including the Universitet kasalxonasi markazi doktor Dragiša Mikovich.^[158][159]NATO bombing also resulted in the damaging of medieval monuments, such as Gracanica monastiri, Peć Patriarxati va Visoki Dechani, which are on the YuNESKO "s Jahon merosi list today.^[160] The Avala minorasi, one of the most popular symbols of Belgrad, Serbia's capital, was destroyed during the bombing.^[161]

Siyosiy natija

Mangu olov yilda Belgrad, memorial to the military and civilian victims of the NATO bombing

A monument to the children killed in the NATO bombing located in Tašmajdan Park, ning bronza haykali tasvirlangan Milica Rakich

In early June, a Finnish-Russian mediation team headed by Martti Ahtisaari va Viktor Chernomyrdin traveled to Belgrade to meet with Milošević for talks on an agreement that would suspend air strikes.^[162] When NATO agreed Kosovo would be politically supervised by the United Nations, and that there would be no independence referendum for three years, the Yugoslav government agreed to withdraw its forces from Kosovo, under strong diplomatic pressure from Russia, and the bombing was suspended on June 10.^[163] The Yugoslav Army and NATO signed the Kumanovo Agreement. Its provisions were considerably less draconian than what was presented at Rambouillet, most notably Appendix B was removed from the agreement.^[164] Appendix B called for NATO forces to have free movement and to conduct military operations within the entire territory of Yugoslavia (including Serbia). The Yugoslav government had used it as a primary reason why they had not signed the Rambouillet accords, viewing it as a threat to its sovereignty.^[165]

The war ended June 11, and Russian paratroopers seized Slatina airport to become the first peacekeeping force in the war zone.^[166]As British troops were still massed on the Macedonian border, planning to enter Kosovo at 5:00 am, the Serbs were hailing the Russian arrival as proof the war was a UN operation, not a NATO operation.^[163] After hostilities ended, on June 12 the U.S. Army's 82nd Airborne, 2–505th Parachute Infantry Regiment entered Kosovo as part of Operation Joint Guardian.^[167]

Yugoslav President Milošević survived the conflict, however, he was indicted for war crimes by the Sobiq Yugoslaviya uchun Xalqaro jinoiy sud along with a number of other senior Yugoslav political and military figures.^[168] His indictment led to Yugoslavia as a whole being treated as a pariah by much of the international community because Milošević was subject to arrest if he left Yugoslavia.^[163] The country's economy was badly affected by the conflict, and in addition to electoral fraud, this was a factor in the overthrow of Milošević.^[163][169]

Thousands were killed during the conflict, and hundreds of thousands more fled from the province to other parts of the country and to the surrounding countries.^[170] Most of the Albanian refugees returned home within a few weeks or months. However, much of the non-Albanian population again fled to other parts of Serbia or to protected enclaves within Kosovo following the operation.^{[171][172][173][174][175]} Albanian guerrilla activity spread into other parts of Serbia and to the neighbouring Republic of Macedonia, but subsided in 2001.^[176] The non-Albanian population has since diminished further following fresh outbreaks of inter-communal conflict and harassment.^[177]

2002 yil dekabrda, Yelizaveta II approved the awarding of the Urush sharafi "Kosovo" to squadrons of the RAF that participated in the conflict. These were: Nos 1, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 31, 51, 101 va 216 otryadlar.^[178][179] This was also extended to the Canadian squadrons deployed to the operation, 425 va 441.^[180]

Ten years after the operation, the Republic of Kosovo mustaqilligini e'lon qildi with a new Republic of Kosovo government.^[181]

KFOR

12 iyun kuni KFOR began entering Kosovo. Its mandate among other things was to deter hostilities and establish a secure environment, including public safety and civil order.^[182]

KFOR, a NATO force, had been preparing to conduct combat operations, but in the end, its mission was only peacekeeping. Bu asoslangan edi Allied Rapid Reaction Corps headquarters commanded by then Lieutenant General Mayk Jekson ning Britaniya armiyasi. It consisted of British forces (a brigade built from 4th Armoured and 5th Airborne Brigades), a Frantsiya armiyasi Brigade, a Germaniya armiyasi brigade, which entered from the west while all the other forces advanced from the south, and Italiya armiyasi and US Army brigades.

Nemis KFOR soldiers patrol southern Kosovo

The US contribution, known as the Initial Entry Force, was led by the US 1-zirhli diviziya. Subordinate units included TF 1–35 Armour from Baumholder, Germany, the 2nd Battalion, 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment from Fort Bragg, North Carolina, the 26-dengiz ekspeditsiya bo'limi dan Lejeune lageri, Shimoliy Karolina, the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment from Schweinfurt, Germany, and Echo Troop, 4th Cavalry Regiment, also from Schweinfurt, Germany. Also attached to the US force was the Yunoniston armiyasi 's 501st Mechanised Infantry Battalion. The initial US forces established their area of operation around the towns of Uroševac, the future Bondsteel lageri, and Gnjilane, at Monteith lageri, and spent four months – the start of a stay which continues to date – establishing order in the southeast sector of Kosovo.

The first NATO troops to enter Pristina on June 12, 1999 were Norvegiya special forces from the Forsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK) and soldiers from the Inglizlar Maxsus havo xizmati 22 S.A.S, although to NATO's diplomatic embarrassment Russian troops arrived first at the airport. The Norwegian soldiers from FSK were the first to come in contact with the Russian troops at the airport. FSK's mission was to level the negotiating field between the belligerent parties, and to fine-tune the detailed, local deals needed to implement the peace deal between the Serbians and the Kosovo Albanians.^{[183][184][185][186]}

During the initial incursion, US soldiers were greeted by Albanians cheering and throwing flowers as US soldiers and KFOR rolled through their villages.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Although no resistance was met, three US soldiers from the Initial Entry Force were killed in accidents.^[187]

Following the military campaign, the involvement of Russian peacekeepers proved to be tense and challenging to the NATO Kosovo force. The Russians expected to have an independent sector of Kosovo, only to be unhappily surprised with the prospect of operating under NATO command. Without prior communication or coordination with NATO, Russian peacekeeping forces entered Kosovo from Bosniya and seized Priştina xalqaro aeroporti.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

2010 yilda Jeyms Blunt in an interview described how his unit was given the assignment of securing the Pristina in advance of the 30,000-strong peacekeeping force and the Russian army had moved in and taken control of the airport before his unit's arrival. As the first officer on the scene, Blunt shared a part in the difficult task of addressing the potentially violent international incident. His own account tells of how he refused to follow orders from NATO command to attack the Russians.^[188]

Outpost Gunner was established on a high point in the Preševo Valley by Echo Battery 1/161 Field Artillery in an attempt to monitor and assist with peacekeeping efforts in the Russian sector. Operating under the support of 2/3 Field Artillery, 1st Armoured Division, the Battery was able to successfully deploy and continuously operate a Firefinder Radar which allowed the NATO forces to keep a closer watch on activities in the sector and the Preševo Valley. Eventually a deal was struck whereby Russian forces operated as a unit of KFOR but not under the NATO command structure.^[189]

Attitudes towards the campaign

In favor of the campaign

Warning sign about NATO klasterli bombalar near ski slopes at Kopaonik

Those who were involved in the NATO airstrikes have stood by the decision to take such action. AQSh prezidenti Bill Klinton "s Mudofaa vaziri, Uilyam Koen, said, "The appalling accounts of mass killing in Kosovo and the pictures of refugees fleeing Serb oppression for their lives makes it clear that this is a fight for justice over genocide."^[190] On CBS' Xalq bilan yuzlash Cohen claimed, "We've now seen about 100,000 military-aged men missing. ... They may have been murdered."^[191] Clinton, citing the same figure, spoke of "at least 100,000 (Kosovar Albanians) missing".^[192] Later, Clinton said about Yugoslav elections, "they're going to have to come to grips with what Mr. Milošević ordered in Kosovo. ... They're going to have to decide whether they support his leadership or not; whether they think it's OK that all those tens of thousands of people were killed. ..."^[193] In the same press conference, Clinton also said, "NATO stopped deliberate, systematic efforts at ethnic cleansing and genocide."^[193] Clinton compared the events of Kosovo to Holokost. CNN reported, "Accusing Serbia of 'ethnic cleansing' in Kosovo similar to the genocide of Jews in World War II, an impassioned Clinton sought Tuesday to rally public support for his decision to send US forces into combat against Yugoslavia, a prospect that seemed increasingly likely with the breakdown of a diplomatic peace effort."^[194]

Prezident Klintonnikiga tegishli Davlat departamenti also claimed Yugoslav troops had committed genocide. The New York Times reported, "the Administration said evidence of 'genocide' by Serbian forces was growing to include 'abhorrent and criminal action' on a vast scale. The language was the State Department's strongest up to that time in denouncing Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević."^[195] The Department of State also gave the highest estimate of dead Albanians. In May 1999, Defence Secretary William Cohen suggested that there might be up to 100,000 Albanian fatalities."^[196] Post-war examinations revealed these statements and casualty figures to have been exaggerated.^[197][198]

Five months after the conclusion of NATO bombing, when around one third of reported gravesites had been visited thus far, 2,108 bodies had been found, with an estimated total of between 5,000 and 12,000 at that time;^[199] Yugoslav forces had systematically concealed grave sites and moved bodies.^[200][201] Since the war's end, after most of the mass graves had been searched, the body count has remained less than half of the estimated 10,000 plus. It is unclear how many of these were victims of war crimes.^[202]

The Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Vakillar palatasi passed a majburiy bo'lmagan qaror on March 11, 1999 by a vote of 219–191 conditionally approving of President Clinton's plan to commit 4,000 troops to the NATO peacekeeping mission.^[203] In late April, the House Appropriations Committee approved $13 billion in emergency spending to cover the cost of the air war, but a second non-binding resolution approving of the mission failed in the full House by a vote of 213–213.^[204] The Senat had passed the second resolution in late March by a vote of 58–41.^[205]

Criticism of the campaign

There has also been criticism of the campaign. The Clinton administration and NATO officials were accused of inflating the number of Kosovar Albanians killed by Serbs.^[206][207] Ommaviy axborot vositalarini nazorat qiluvchi guruh Accuracy in Media charged the alliance with distorting the situation in Kosovo and lying about the number of civilian deaths in order to justify U.S. involvement in the conflict.^[208]

In an interview with Radio-Television Serbia journalist Danilo Mandić on April 25, 2006, Noam Xomskiy referred to the foreword to John Norris' 2005 book Collision Course: NATO, Russia, and Kosovo, unda Strob Talbott, the Deputy Secretary of State under President Clinton and the leading U.S. negotiator during the war, had written that "It was Yugoslavia's resistance to the broader trends of political and economic reform—not the plight of Kosovar Albanians—that best explains NATO's war."^[209] On May 31, 2006, Bred DeLong rebutted Chomsky and quoted from elsewhere in the passage which Chomsky had cited,^[210] "the Kosovo crisis was fueled by frustration with Milošević and the legitimate fear that instability and conflict might spread further in the region" and also that "Only a decade of death, destruction, and Milošević brinkmanship pushed NATO to act when the Rambouillet talks collapsed. Most of the leaders of NATO's major powers were proponents of 'third way' politics and headed socially progressive, economically centrist governments. None of these men were particularly hawkish, and Milošević did not allow them the political breathing room to look past his abuses."^[210][211]

The Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti Ustavi does not allow military interventions in other sovereign countries with few exceptions which, in general, need to be decided upon by the Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Xavfsizlik Kengashi. The issue was brought before the UNSC by Russia, in a draft resolution which, inter-alia, would affirm "that such unilateral use of force constitutes a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter". China, Namibia and Russia voted for the resolution, the other members against, thus it failed to pass.^{[212][213][o'lik havola ]} Uilyam Blum wrote that "Nobody has ever suggested that Serbia had attacked or was preparing to attack a member state of NATO, and that is the only event which justifies a reaction under the NATO treaty."^[214]

Isroil tashqi ishlar vaziri Ariel Sharon criticised the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia as an act of "brutal interventionism" and said Israel was against "aggressive actions" and "hurting innocent people" and hoped "the sides will return to the negotiating table as soon as possible".^[215] However, later into the campaign, Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyaxu expressed support for NATO's mission in the war and Israel provided medical assistance to 112 Kosovar Albanian refugees and housed them in Israel.^{[216][217][218]}

On April 29, 1999, Yugoslavia filed a complaint at the Xalqaro sud (ICJ) at Gaaga against ten NATO member countries (Belgium, Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United States) and alleged that the military operation had violated Article 9 of the 1948 Genocide Convention and that Yugoslavia had jurisdiction to sue through Article 38, para. 5 ofRules of Court.^[219] On June 2, the ICJ ruled in an 8–4 vote that Yugoslavia had no such jurisdiction.^[220] Four of the ten nations (the United States, France, Italy and Germany) had withdrawn entirely from the court's "optional clause." Because Yugoslavia filed its complaint only three days after accepting the terms of the court's optional clause, the ICJ ruled that there was no jurisdiction to sue either Britain or Spain, as the two nations had only agreed to submit to ICJ lawsuits if a suing party had filed their complaint a year or more after accepting the terms of the optional clause.^[220] Despite objections that Yugoslavia had legal jurisdiction to sue Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada and Portugal,^[220] the ICJ majority vote also determined that the NATO bombing was an instance of "humanitarian intervention" and thus did not violate Article 9 of the Genocide Convention.^[220]

Xalqaro Amnistiya released a report which stated that NATO forces had deliberately targeted a civilian object (NATO Serbiya Radio Televiziyasining bosh qarorgohini bombardimon qildi ), and had bombed targets at which civilians were certain to be killed.^[221][222] The report was rejected by NATO as "baseless and ill-founded". A week before the report was released, Carla Del Ponte, the chief prosecutor for the Sobiq Yugoslaviya uchun Xalqaro jinoiy sud had told the Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Xavfsizlik Kengashi that her investigation into NATO actions found no basis for charging NATO or its leaders with war crimes.^[223]

A majority of U.S. House Republicans voted against two resolutions, both of which expressed approval for American involvement in the NATO mission.^[224][225]

Moscow criticised the bombing as a breach of international law and a challenge to Russia's status.^[226]

2000 ga yaqin Serbiyalik amerikaliklar va urushga qarshi faollar protested in Nyu-York shahri against NATO airstrikes, while more than 7,000 people protested in Sidney.^[227] Substantial protests were held yilda Gretsiya, and demonstrations were also held in Italyancha cities, Moskva, London, Toronto, Berlin, Shtutgart, Zaltsburg va Skopye.^[227]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Averre, Derek. "Priştindan Tsxinvaligacha: Rossiyaning G'arb bilan aloqalarida Ittifoq kuchlari operatsiyasi merosi" Xalqaro ishlar 85 # 3 (2009), 575-591 betlar JSTOR-da
• Byman, Doniyor. L va Vaksman, Metyu C. "Kosovo va Buyuk havo kuchlari bahslari". Xalqaro xavfsizlik, Jild 24, № 4. 2000. Pp. 5-38.
• Nyu-York Tayms—Xitoy elchixonasini portlatish: aybning keng tarmog'i, 2000 yil 17 aprel.

Tashqi havolalar

• Kosovo Ittifoq kuchlari operatsiyasi - Harakatlardan keyin hisobot, 2000 yil yanvar
• Ittifoq kuchlari operatsiyasi NATO
• NATO havo kampaniyasida tinch aholi o'limi Human Rights Watch tashkiloti
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• Rasmiy ravishda tasdiqlangan / hujjatlashtirilgan NATO vertolyotining yo'qolishi
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• "Ittifoqdosh kuchlar" operatsiyasi bo'yicha adabiyotlar ro'yxati
• Serbiyaning Axborot operatsiyalari Ittifoq kuchlari - Mudofaaga oid texnik axborot markazi
• Serbiyaning "Ittifoq kuchlari" operatsiyasi paytida o'tkazgan axborot operatsiyalari - Storming Media, Pentagon xabar bermoqda
• Serbiyaning "Ittifoq kuchlari" operatsiyasi paytida o'tkazgan axborot operatsiyalari - Havo universiteti
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• Milosevich nima uchun u qilganida ko'tarildi, tomonidan qisqa ekspozitsiya Rand korporatsiyasi