Nutqning kelib chiqishi - Origin of speech
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The nutqning kelib chiqishi ning umumiy muammolariga ishora qiladi tilning kelib chiqishi insonning fiziologik rivojlanishi sharoitida nutq organlari kabi til, lablar va ovoz organlari ishlab chiqarish uchun ishlatiladi fonologik birliklar yilda barcha inson tillari.
Fon
Ning umumiy muammolari bilan bog'liq bo'lsa-da tilning kelib chiqishi, evolyutsiya o'ziga xos inson nutq imkoniyatlar aniq va ko'p jihatdan alohida ilmiy tadqiqot sohasiga aylandi.[1][2][3][4][5] Mavzu alohida mavzudir, chunki til so'zlashishi shart emas: uni teng ravishda yozish mumkin yoki imzolangan. Nutq bu ma'noda ixtiyoriy, garchi bu til uchun standart usul bo'lsa ham.
1. Exo-labial, 2. Endo-labial, 3. Dental, 4. Alveolyar, 5. Post-alveolyar, 6. Palatalgacha, 7. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10. Faringeal, 11. Glottal, 12. Epiglottal, 13. Radikal, 14. Postero-dorsal, 15. Antero-dorsal, 16. Laminal, 17. Apikal, 18. Sub-apikal
Maymunlar, maymunlar va odamlar, boshqa ko'plab hayvonlar singari, ishlab chiqarish uchun ixtisoslashgan mexanizmlarni rivojlantirdilar tovush ijtimoiy aloqa maqsadida.[6] Boshqa tomondan, hech bir maymun yoki maymun uni ishlatmaydi til bunday maqsadlar uchun.[7][8] Bizning turimizning til, lablar va boshqa harakatlanuvchi qismlardan misli ko'rilmagan tarzda foydalanilishi nutqni alohida alohida toifaga ajratganga o'xshaydi, bu uning evolyutsion paydo bo'lishini ko'plab olimlarning nazarida qiziquvchan nazariy muammoga aylantiradi.[9]
Modallik - mustaqillik
Atama modallik axborotni kodlash va uzatish uchun tanlangan vakili formatini anglatadi. Tilning ajoyib xususiyati shundaki modallikka bog'liq emas. Agar buzilgan bolani eshitish yoki ovoz chiqarishni oldini olish kerak bo'lsa, uning tug'ma qobiliyati tilni o'zlashtirishda imzo chekishda ham o'z ifodasini topishi mumkin. Karlarning imo-ishora tillari mustaqil ravishda ixtiro qilingan va og'zaki nutq tilining barcha asosiy xususiyatlariga ega, faqat uzatish usulidan tashqari.[10][11][12][13] Bundan ko'rinib turibdiki til markazlari tanlangan modaldan qat'i nazar, inson miyasining optimal ishlashi uchun rivojlangan bo'lishi kerak.
"Modalga xos kirishlardan ajralib qolish nafaqat uyg'unlikka, balki muloqotga ham ta'sir qiladigan asab tizimidagi sezilarli o'zgarishlarni anglatishi mumkin; faqat odamlar bitta modalni yo'qotishi mumkin (masalan, eshitish) va ushbu kamchilikni qoplash uchun to'liq vakolatlar bilan muloqot qilish orqali turli xil modallik (ya'ni imzolash). "
— Mark Xauzer, Noam Xomskiy va V. Tekumseh Fitch, 2002 y. Til fakulteti: bu nima, u kimda va qanday rivojlandi?[14]
Bu xususiyat g'ayrioddiy. Hayvonlarning aloqa tizimlari muntazam ravishda ko'rinadigan narsalarni eshitiladigan xususiyatlar va effektlar bilan birlashtiradi, ammo hech kim modaga bog'liq emas. Masalan, ovozi buzilgan biron bir kit, delfin yoki qo'shiqchi o'z qo'shiq repertuarini ingl. Darhaqiqat, hayvonlar bilan aloqa qilishda, xabar va modalni ajratish mumkin emas. Qaysi xabar yuborilmasin, signalning ichki xususiyatlaridan kelib chiqadi.
Modallik mustaqilligini odatdagi ko'p modalik hodisasi bilan aralashtirib yubormaslik kerak. Maymunlar va maymunlar turlarga xos "imo-ishora" repertuariga tayanadi - ular bilan birga olib boriladigan vizual displeylardan ajralmas emotsional ekspressiv vokallar.[15][16] Insonlar, shuningdek, turga xos imo-ishora chaqiruvlari - kulish, yig'lash, yig'lash va h.k. - nutqni hamroh qiladigan beixtiyor imo-ishoralar bilan.[17][18][19] Ko'pgina hayvonlarning displeylari polimodaldir, chunki ularning har biri bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta kanallardan foydalanishga mo'ljallangan.
"Modallik mustaqilligi" ning odamlarning lingvistik xususiyati bundan kontseptual jihatdan ajralib turadi. Bu ma'ruzachiga, agar kerak bo'lsa kanallar o'rtasida almashinish paytida, bitta kanaldagi xabarning ma'lumot tarkibini kodlash imkonini beradi. Zamonaviy shahar aholisi og'zaki nutq va yozuvning turli xil shakllarida - qo'l yozuvi, matn terish, elektron pochta va boshqalarni osonlikcha almashtirmoqda. Qaysi usul tanlangan bo'lsa ham, u har qanday tashqi yordamisiz to'liq xabar tarkibini uzatishi mumkin. Masalan, telefonda gaplashayotganda, har qanday hamrohlik qiluvchi yuz yoki qo'l harakati, garchi ma'ruzachi uchun tabiiy bo'lsa ham, albatta zarur emas. Matnni yozishda yoki qo'lda imzo qo'yishda, aksincha, tovushlarni qo'shishga hojat yo'q. Ko'pgina avstraliyalik aborigen madaniyatlarida aholining bir qismi - ehtimol marosim taqiqlarini kuzatayotgan ayollar - an'anaviy ravishda o'zlarining tillarining jim (qo'l bilan imzolangan) versiyasi bilan uzoq vaqt o'zlarini cheklashadi.[20] Keyin, taqiqdan chiqarilgandan so'ng, o'sha odamlar o'tin yonida yoki qorong'ida hikoyalarni davom ettirishadi, axborot mazmunidan voz kechmasdan toza ovozga o'tishadi.
Nutq organlarining rivojlanishi
Gapirish barcha madaniyatlarda til uchun odatiy usul hisoblanadi. Odamlarning birinchi yordami bizning fikrlarimizni ovoz bilan kodlashdir - bu usul lablarni, tilni va vokal apparatining boshqa tarkibiy qismlarini boshqarish qobiliyatiga bog'liq.
Gapirish organlari, har kimning fikriga ko'ra, birinchi navbatda nutq uchun emas, balki ovqatlanish va nafas olish kabi asosiy tana funktsiyalari uchun rivojlangan. G'ayriinsoniy primatlar umuman o'xshash organlarga ega, ammo turli xil nerv nazorati bilan.[9] Maymunlar yuqori egiluvchan, boshqariladigan tillarini ovqatlanish uchun ishlatadilar, ammo ovoz berish uchun emas. Maymun ovqatlanmasa, uning tili ustidan motorni boshqarish faolsizlantiriladi.[7][8] Yoki u til bilan gimnastikani bajarmoqda yoki bu vokalist; u ikkala faoliyatni bir vaqtning o'zida amalga oshira olmaydi. Bu umuman sutemizuvchilarga tegishli bo'lgani uchun, Homo sapiens aniq nutqning tubdan farq qiladigan talablariga binoan nafas olish va yutish uchun mo'ljallangan mexanizmlarni ishlatishda alohida hisoblanadi.[21]
Til
"Til" so'zi lotin tilidan olingan til, "til". Fonetiklar til eng muhim nutq artikulyatori, undan keyin lablar degan fikrga qo'shilishadi. Tabiiy tilni fikrni ifodalash uchun tildan foydalanishning o'ziga xos usuli sifatida qarash mumkin.
Inson tili g'ayrioddiy shaklga ega. Ko'pgina sutemizuvchilarda bu asosan og'izda joylashgan uzun, tekis tuzilishdir. U orqa tomonga biriktirilgan suyak suyagi, og'zaki darajadan pastda joylashgan tomoq. Odamlarda til deyarli aylana shaklida bo'ladi sagittal (o'rta chiziq) konturi, uning ko'p qismi vertikal ravishda kengaytirilgan holda yotadi tomoq, u pastga tushirilgan holatda gipoid suyakka biriktirilgan joyda. Qisman buning natijasida supralaringeal vokal yo'lini (SVT) tashkil etuvchi gorizontal (og'iz ichi) va vertikal (tomoq-tomoq) naychalar uzunligi deyarli teng (boshqa turlarda esa vertikal qism qisqaroq) ). Jag'larimizni yuqoriga va pastga siljitganimizda, til har bir trubaning tasavvurlar maydonini mustaqil ravishda taxminan 10: 1 ga o'zgartirishi mumkin, bunda formant chastotalari mos ravishda o'zgaradi. Quvurlarning to'g'ri burchak ostida birlashtirilishi unlilarning talaffuziga imkon beradi [i], [u] va [a], buni g'ayriinsoniy primatlar qila olmaydi.[22] Hatto aniq bajarilmagan taqdirda ham, odamlarda ushbu unlilarni ajratish uchun zarur bo'lgan artikulyatsion gimnastika izchil, o'ziga xos akustik natijalarni beradi, bu esa miqdoriy inson nutqi tovushlarining tabiati.[23] Buning tasodifiy bo'lmasligi mumkin [i], [u] va [a] dunyo tillarida eng keng tarqalgan unlilar.[24] Inson tillari boshqa sutemizuvchilarga qaraganda ancha kalta va ingichka bo'lib, ko'p miqdordagi mushaklardan iborat bo'lib, bu og'iz bo'shlig'i ichida turli xil tovushlarni shakllantirishga yordam beradi. Ovoz ishlab chiqarishning xilma-xilligi, shuningdek, odamning nafas olish yo'lini ochish va yopish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lib, burundan turli miqdordagi havo chiqishi mumkin. Til va havo yo'li bilan bog'liq bo'lgan nozik vosita harakatlari odamlarni har xil tezlik va intensivlikdagi tovushlarni chiqarish uchun turli xil murakkab shakllarni yaratishga qodir.[25]
Dudoqlar
Odamlarda lablar ishlab chiqarish uchun muhimdir to'xtaydi va fricatives, ga qo'shimcha sifatida unlilar. Biroq, hech narsa lablar shu sabablarga ko'ra rivojlanganligini anglatmaydi. Primat evolyutsiyasi davrida tungi faoliyatdan kunduzgi faoliyatga o'tish buzadigan amallar, maymunlar va maymunlar (the gaplorhinlar ) olfaktsiya hisobiga ko'rishga bo'lgan ishonchni kuchaytirdi. Natijada tumshug'i kamaydi va rinarium yoki "ho'l burun" yo'qolgan. Natijada yuz va lablar mushaklari kamroq cheklangan bo'lib, ularning koeffitsientini yuz ifodasi uchun xizmat qilishga imkon berdi. Dudoqlar ham qalinlashdi va orqada yashiringan og'iz bo'shlig'i kichrayib qoldi.[25] "Shunday qilib", bir katta vakolatga ko'ra, "inson nutqi uchun juda muhim bo'lgan harakatchan, mushak lablarining evolyutsiyasi, haplorhinlarning umumiy ajdodidagi diurallik va vizual aloqa evolyutsiyasining g'oyat ajoyib natijasi bo'ldi".[26] Bizning lablarimiz nutqning o'ziga xos talablariga yaqinda moslashtirildimi yoki yo'qmi, aniq emas.
Nafas olishni nazorat qilish
G'ayriinsoniy primatlar bilan taqqoslaganda, odamlar nafas olishni boshqarishni sezilarli darajada kuchaytirdilar, bu esa ekshalatsiyani kengaytirishga imkon beradi va biz gaplashayotganda nafas olishni qisqartiradi. Biz gaplashayotganimizda, interkostal va ichki qorin mushaklari ko'krak qafasini kengaytirishi va o'pkaga havo kiritish uchun jalb qilinadi, so'ngra o'pka tushganda havo chiqarilishini nazorat qiladi. Tegishli mushaklar odamlarda noinsoniy primatlarga qaraganda sezilarli darajada ko'proq innervatsiyalangan.[27] Fotoalbom gomininlarning dalillari shuni ko'rsatadiki, umurtqali kanalning kerakli kengayishi va shuning uchun umurtqa pog'onasi o'lchovlari sodir bo'lmasligi mumkin. Avstralopitek yoki Homo erectus ammo neandertallarda va dastlabki zamonaviy odamlarda bo'lgan.[28][29]
Gırtlak
The gırtlak yoki ovoz qutisi bo'yin qismida joylashgan organ vokal burmalar uchun javobgar fonatsiya. Odamlarda gırtlak shunday bo'ladi tushdi, u boshqa primatlarga qaraganda pastroq joylashtirilgan, chunki odamlarning evolyutsiyasi tik holatga kelib, boshini orqa miya ustiga yuqoriga siljitib, hamma narsani pastga qaratgan. Gırtlakning qayta joylashishi natijasida hosil bo'ladigan tovushning diapazoni va tiniqligini oshirishga mas'ul bo'lgan uzoqroq bo'shliq paydo bo'ldi. Boshqa primatlarda deyarli tomoq yo'q; shuning uchun ularning ovoz kuchi sezilarli darajada pastroq.[25] Bizning turlarimiz bu jihatdan noyob emas: echkilar, itlar, cho'chqalar va tamarinlar baland ovozli qo'ng'iroqlar chiqarish uchun halqumni vaqtincha tushiradilar.[30] Kiyiklarning bir nechta turlari doimiy ravishda tushirilgan halqumga ega bo'lib, ularni shovullash paytida erkaklar yana tushirishlari mumkin.[31] Arslonlar, yaguarlar, gepardlar va uy mushuklari ham buni qilishadi.[32] Biroq, odam bo'lmagan odamlarda gırtlakka tushishi (Filipp Libermanning fikriga ko'ra) gigoidning tushishi bilan birga bo'lmaydi; shuning uchun til og'iz bo'shlig'ida gorizontal bo'lib qoladi, bu uning faringeal artikulyatori sifatida ishlashiga to'sqinlik qiladi.[33]
Shunga qaramay, olimlar insonning ovoz trakti haqiqatan ham "maxsus" ekanligi to'g'risida ikkala fikrda. Shimpanzedagi rivojlanish jarayonida halqum ma'lum darajada pastga tushishi, so'ngra giodial naslga o'tishi ko'rsatilgan.[34] Bunga qarshi bo'lgan Filipp Liberman ta'kidlashicha, faqat odamlar doimiy va katta miqdordagi laringeal nasldan naslga o'tishni gyoidal nasl bilan birgalikda rivojlanib, natijada egri til va 1-nisbat bilan ikki naychali vokal trakti paydo bo'lgan. Odamning o'ziga xos holatida epiglottis va velum o'rtasida oddiy aloqa endi mumkin emas, bu yutish paytida sutemizuvchilarning nafas olish va ovqat hazm qilish traktining normal ajratilishini buzadi. Bu katta xarajatlarni talab qiladiganligi sababli - ovqatni yutish paytida bo'g'ilish xavfini oshiradi - biz ushbu xarajatlardan qanday foyda ko'proq bo'lishi mumkinligini so'rashga majburmiz. Aniq foyda, shuning uchun da'vo qilingan - nutq bo'lishi kerak. Ammo bu g'oya qattiq tortishuvlarga duch keldi. E'tirozlardan biri shundaki, odamlar aslida emas jiddiy ravishda oziq-ovqat mahsuloti bo'g'ilib qolish xavfi ostida: tibbiy statistika shuni ko'rsatadiki, bunday baxtsiz hodisalar juda kam uchraydi.[35] Yana bir e'tiroz shundaki, aksariyat olimlarning fikriga ko'ra, nutq biz bilganimizcha, inson evolyutsiyasida nisbatan kech paydo bo'lgan, taxminan paydo bo'lishi bilan bir vaqtning o'zida. Homo sapiens.[36] Inson vokal traktining qayta konfiguratsiyasi kabi murakkab rivojlanish, kelib chiqishining dastlabki sanasini nazarda tutgan holda, ko'proq vaqt talab qilishi kerak edi. Vaqt jadvalidagi bu nomuvofiqlik, insonning vokal moslashuvchanligi haqidagi g'oyani susaytiradi dastlab nutq uchun tanlov bosimlari tomonidan boshqariladi.
Hech bo'lmaganda bitta orangutan ovozli qutini boshqarish qobiliyatini namoyish etdi.[37]
Miqdorni oshirib yuborish gipotezasi
Gırtlakni tushirish uchun vokal traktining uzunligini oshirish, o'z navbatida tushirish kerak formant Ovoz "chuqurroq" eshitilishi uchun chastotalar - katta hajmdagi taassurot qoldiradi. Jon Ohalaning ta'kidlashicha, odamlarda, ayniqsa erkaklarda pasaygan gırtlakning vazifasi, ehtimol nutqning o'zi emas, balki tahdidni kuchaytiradi.[38] Ohalaning ta'kidlashicha, agar tushirilgan gırtlaklar nutqqa moslashish bo'lgan bo'lsa, biz kattalar erkak erkaklari bu borada gırtlakları ancha past bo'lgan kattalar ayollariga qaraganda yaxshiroq moslashishini kutgan bo'lar edik. Darhaqiqat, ayollar har doim og'zaki testlarda erkaklardan ustun bo'lib, bu fikrlashning butun qatorini soxtalashtiradi. V.Tekumseh Fitch ham xuddi shu narsa bizning turimizdagi tomoqni tushirishning tanlangan afzalligi ekanligini ta'kidlaydi. Garchi (Fitch fikriga ko'ra) odamlarda gırtlakni dastlab tushirish nutq bilan hech qanday aloqasi bo'lmagan bo'lsa-da, keyinchalik formant shakllarining ko'payishi nutq uchun tanlangan. Miqdorni oshirib yuborish erkaklar kiyiklarida kuzatiladigan o'ta tomoqqa tushishning yagona vazifasi bo'lib qoladi. Miqdori bo'yicha mubolag'a gipotezasiga muvofiq, gırtlakning ikkinchi tushishi odamlarda balog'at yoshiga etganida, faqat erkaklarda bo'ladi. Gırtlak odamning urg'ochisiga tushadi degan e'tirozga javoban, Fitch, go'daklarini himoya qilish uchun ovoz chiqaradigan onalar ham bu qobiliyatdan foyda ko'rgan bo'lar edi.[39]
Neandertal nutqi
Aksariyat mutaxassislar neandertallarni nutq qobiliyatlari bilan zamonaviylikdan tubdan farq qilmaydigan qobiliyatga ega deb hisoblashadi Homo sapiens. Bilvosita argumentlar qatori shundaki, ularning asbob yasash va ov qilish taktikasini qandaydir nutqsiz o'rganish yoki bajarish qiyin bo'lar edi.[40] Yaqinda chiqarilgan DNK Neandertal suyaklaridan neandertallarning xuddi shu versiyasiga ega bo'lganligini bildiradi FOXP2 zamonaviy inson sifatida gen. Bir paytlar "grammatika geni" deb noto'g'ri talqin qilingan bu gen nutqda ishtirok etadigan (zamonaviy odamlarda) orofakial harakatlarni boshqarishda muhim rol o'ynaydi.[41]
1970-yillar davomida neandertallarda zamonaviy nutq qobiliyatlari yo'qligi keng tarqalgan edi.[42] Ularning vokal traktida juda baland balandlikda gyoid suyagi borligi ma'lum unli tovushlarni keltirib chiqarish imkoniyatini istisno qilar edi.
Hyoid suyagi ko'pchilikda mavjud sutemizuvchilar. Variant hosil qilish uchun ushbu tuzilmalarni bir-biriga bog'lab, til, faringeal va gırtlak harakatlarini keng doirasiga imkon beradi.[43] Endi uning tushgan pozitsiyasi o'ziga xos emasligini angladik Homo sapiens, uning vokal moslashuvchanligi bilan bog'liqligi haddan tashqari ko'tarilgan bo'lishi mumkin bo'lsa-da: erkaklar gırtlaklari pastroq bo'lishiga qaramay, ular ayollarga yoki ikki yashar chaqaloqlarga qaraganda kengroq tovushlar chiqara olmaydi. Neandertallarning gırtlak holati ular chiqarishi mumkin bo'lgan unli tovushlarning tarqalishiga to'sqinlik qilganligi to'g'risida hech qanday dalil yo'q.[44] Zamonaviy ko'rinishga ega bo'lgan hyoid suyak kashfiyoti Neandertal odam Kebara g'ori yilda Isroil uning kashfiyotchilarini neandertallarning nasl-nasabi borligi haqida bahslashishga undadi gırtlak va shu tariqa odamga o'xshash nutq imkoniyatlar.[45][46] Ammo, boshqa tadqiqotchilar gioid morfologiyasi gırtlak holatini ko'rsatmaydi, deb da'vo qilishmoqda.[9] Boshsuyagi pastki qismi, pastki jag 'va bachadon bo'yni umurtqalari va kranial yo'nalish tekisligini hisobga olish kerak.[47][48]
Morfologiyasi tashqi va o'rta quloq ning O'rta pleystotsen homininlar Atapuerca Proto-neandertal deb hisoblangan Ispaniyadagi SH, ularning zamonaviy odamlarga o'xshash va shimpanzalardan juda farq qiluvchi eshitish sezuvchanligiga ega ekanligini taxmin qiladi. Ehtimol, ular turli xil nutq tovushlarini farqlay olishgan.[49]
Gipoglossal kanal
| Gipoglossal asab | |
|---|---|
 Gipoglossal asab, servikal pleksus va ularning filiallari | |
| Tafsilotlar | |
| Identifikatorlar | |
| Lotin | nervus hipoglossus |
| Neyroanatomiyaning anatomik atamalari | |
Gipoglossal asab tilning harakatlarini boshqarishda muhim rol o'ynaydi. 1998 yilda bitta tadqiqot guruhi suyaklarning bosh suyagi asosidagi gipoglossal kanal hajmidan foydalanib, asab tolalarining nisbiy sonini taxmin qilishga urinishdi va shu asosda O'rta Pleystosen homininlari va Neandertallarning til nazorati ikkalasiga qaraganda ancha yaxshi bo'lganligini ta'kidladilar. avstralopitekinlar yoki maymunlar.[50] Keyinchalik, gipoglossal kanal hajmi va asab o'lchamlari o'zaro bog'liq emasligi isbotlandi,[51] va hozirgi vaqtda bunday dalillar inson nutqining evolyutsiyasi vaqti haqida ma'lumotga ega emasligi qabul qilindi.[52]
Nutq tovushlarining kelib chiqishi
O'ziga xos xususiyatlar nazariyasi
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Nuqtalar yonidagi unlilar: o'rab olinmagan• yumaloq |
Nufuzli maktablardan biriga ko'ra,[53][54] insonning vokal apparati klaviatura yoki raqamli kompyuter modeli bo'yicha ichki raqamli. Agar shunday bo'lsa, bu ajablanarli: anatomik va fiziologik o'xshashliklarga qaramay, shimpanzening vokal apparati haqida hech narsa raqamli klaviaturani ko'rsatmaydi. Bu inson evolyutsiyasi jarayonida analogdan raqamli tuzilishga va funktsiyaga o'tish qachon va qanday sodir bo'lganligi haqida savol tug'diradi.
Odam supralaryngeal trakt raqamli deb aytiladi, chunki bu harakatlanadigan o'tish moslamalari yoki kalitlarning joylashuvi, ularning har biri bir vaqtning o'zida u yoki bu holatda bo'lishi kerak. Masalan, ovoz kordlari tebranadi (tovush chiqaradi) yoki tebranmaydi (jim rejimda). Oddiy fizika tufayli, mos keladigan o'ziga xos xususiyati - bu holda "ovoz chiqarib" - o'rtasida biron bir joyda bo'lishi mumkin emas. Tanlovlar "o'chirish" va "yoqish" bilan cheklangan. Teng raqamli xususiyat "deb nomlanuvchi xususiyatdirburun burunlari ". Har qanday daqiqada yumshoq tanglay yoki velum ovozning burun xonasida aks etishiga imkon beradi yoki yo'l qo'ymaydi. Dudoqlar va tillarning pozitsiyalarida ikkitadan ortiq raqamli holatlarga ruxsat berilishi mumkin.
Nutq tovushlari ikkilik fonetik xususiyatlar majmuasidan tashkil topgan kompozitsion birlik degan nazariya birinchi marta 1938 yilda rus tilshunos tomonidan ilgari surilgan Roman Yakobson.[55] Ushbu yondashuvning taniqli dastlabki tarafdori edi Noam Xomskiy, uni fonologiyadan tilga, xususan, sintaksis va semantikani o'rganishga qadar kengaytirdi.[56][57][58] 1965 yilgi kitobida, Sintaksis nazariyasining aspektlari,[59] Xomskiy semantik kontseptsiyalarni o'ziga xos xususiyatlar nazariyasi modelida aniq ikkilik raqamli atom elementlarining kombinatsiyasi sifatida ko'rib chiqdi. Leksik element "bakalavr" shu asosda [+ Inson], [+ Erkak], [- Uylangan] sifatida ifodalanadi.
Ushbu yondashuvni qo'llab-quvvatlovchilar ma'lum bir vaqtda ma'lum bir til yoki lahjada so'zlashuvchilar tomonidan tan olingan unli va undoshlarni unchalik ilmiy qiziqish bildirmaydigan madaniy sub'ektlar deb hisoblashadi. Tabiatshunoslik nuqtai nazaridan muhim bo'lgan birliklar umumiydir Homo sapiens biologik tabiatimiz asosida. Barcha odamlar tug'ma ravishda jihozlangan atom elementlarini yoki "xususiyatlarini" birlashtirib, har kim printsipial jihatdan dunyoning istalgan tilida, o'tmish, hozirgi yoki kelajakda bo'ladigan barcha unli va undoshlarni yaratishi mumkin. O'ziga xos xususiyatlar bu ma'noda universal tilning atom komponentlari.
| Artikulyatsiya | Ovozsiz | Ovozli |
|---|---|---|
| Tishlarga qarshi pastki lab bilan talaffuz qilinadi: | [f] (fan) | [v] (van) |
| Tilga qarshi tish bilan talaffuz qilinadi: | [θ] (thichida, thbaland) | [ð] (thuz, thy) |
| Tish go'shti yaqinida til bilan talaffuz qilinadi: | [lar] (sip) | [z] (zip) |
| Til bilan talaffuz qilingan: | [ʃ] (oldindanssure) | [ʒ] (iltimossure) |
Tanqid
So'nggi yillarda fonologik o'zgarishga asoslangan tug'ma "universal grammatika" tushunchasi shubha ostiga qo'yildi. Nutq tovushlari haqida yozilgan eng keng qamrovli monografiya, Dunyo tillarining tovushlari, tomonidan Piter Ladefoged va Yan Maddizon,[24] ba'zi bir oz sonli qat'iy, diskret, universal fonetik xususiyatlarni postulyatsiya qilish uchun deyarli hech qanday asos topilmadi. Masalan, 305 ta tilni o'rganishda ular artikulyatsiya va akustik doimiylik bo'ylab hamma joyda joylashgan unlilarga duch kelishdi. Ladefoged fonologik xususiyatlarni inson tabiati bilan belgilanmaydi degan xulosaga keladi: "Fonologik xususiyatlar tilshunoslik tizimlarini tavsiflash uchun tilshunoslar o'ylab topgan asarlar sifatida eng yaxshi hisoblanadi".[60] Qarama-qarshiliklar hal qilinmagan.
O'z-o'zini tashkil etish nazariyasi
O'z-o'zini tashkil etish makroskopik tuzilmalar tizimning ko'plab tarkibiy qismlari o'rtasidagi o'zaro ta'sir tufayli o'z-o'zidan shakllanadigan tizimlarni tavsiflaydi.[61] O'z-o'zini tashkil etgan tizimlarda global tashkiliy xususiyatlarni mahalliy darajada topish mumkin emas. Og'zaki so'zlar bilan aytganda, o'z-o'zini tashkil qilish taxminan "pastdan yuqoriga" ("yuqoridan pastga" dan farqli o'laroq) tashkilot g'oyasi tomonidan ushlanadi. O'z-o'zidan tashkil etilgan tizimlarning misollari muz kristallaridan noorganik dunyodagi galaktika spirallariga qadar, leopar terisidagi dog'lardan termit uyalarining me'morchiligigacha yoki yulduzlar to'plami shakliga qadar.
Ko'pgina fonetiklarning fikriga ko'ra, til tovushlari o'z-o'zini tashkil qilish orqali o'zlarini tartibga soladi va qayta tartibga soladi[61][62][63] Nutq tovushlari sezuvchanlik xususiyatiga ega ("ularni qanday eshitasiz") va artikulyatsion ("ularni qanday yaratasiz") xususiyatlariga ega, barchasi doimiy qiymatlarga ega. Spikerlar aniqlikni emas, balki aniq ifodalashni osonlashtiradigan harakatlarni minimallashtirishga intilishadi. Tinglovchilar buning aksini qilishadi, hatto talaffuzi qiyin bo'lsa ham ajratib olish oson bo'lgan tovushlarni yoqtirishadi. So'zga chiquvchilar va tinglovchilar doimiy ravishda rollarni almashtirib turishganligi sababli, aslida dunyo tillarida uchraydigan hece tizimlari bir tomondan akustik farqlilik va boshqa tomondan artikulyatsiya qulayligi o'rtasida kelishuvga aylanadi.
Qanday qilib aniq, unli, undosh va bo'g'in tizimlari paydo bo'ladi? Agentlik asosida yaratilgan kompyuter modellari nutq hamjamiyati yoki aholi darajasida o'zini o'zi tashkil etish istiqbollarini oladi. Bu erda ikkita asosiy paradigma (1) takrorlanadigan ta'lim modeli va (2) til o'yinlari modeli. Takroriy o'qitish avloddan avlodga o'tishga qaratilgan, odatda har bir avlodda bitta agent mavjud.[64]Til o'yinlari modelida barcha agentlar bir vaqtning o'zida tilni ishlab chiqaradi, idrok etadi va o'rganadi, zarurat tug'ilganda yangi shakllarni ixtiro qiladi.[65][66]
Bir necha modellar taqlid qilish kabi nisbatan sodda tengdoshlararo ovozli shovqinlarning butun aholi tomonidan birgalikda va har xil populyatsiyalarda har xil bo'lgan tovushlar tizimini o'z-o'zidan tashkil qilishi mumkinligini ko'rsatdi. Masalan, Berrah va boshqalar tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan modellar,[67] shuningdek, de Bur,[68] va yaqinda Bayes nazariyasi yordamida qayta tuzilgan,[69] taqlid o'yinlarini o'ynayotgan bir guruh shaxslar unli tovush tizimlari bilan muhim xususiyatlarga ega bo'lgan unli tovushlarning repertuarlarini qanday qilib o'zini o'zi tashkil qilishi mumkinligini ko'rsatdi. Masalan, de Burning modelida dastlab unli tovushlar tasodifiy hosil bo'ladi, ammo agentlar vaqt o'tishi bilan takroriy ta'sir o'tkazish jarayonida bir-birlaridan o'rganishadi. Agent A repertuaridan unli tanlaydi va uni ishlab chiqaradi, muqarrar ravishda biroz shovqin bilan. Agent B bu unlini eshitadi va o'z repertuaridan eng yaqin ekvivalentni tanlaydi. Buning asl nusxaga to'g'ri kelishini tekshirish uchun B unli hosil qiladi u eshitgan deb o'ylaydi, bu erda A yana eng yaqin ekvivalentni topish uchun o'z repertuariga murojaat qiladi. Agar bu u dastlab tanlaganiga to'g'ri kelsa, o'yin muvaffaqiyatli bo'ladi, aks holda u muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi. "Takroriy ta'sir o'tkazish natijasida," de Burning so'zlariga ko'ra, "inson tillarida uchraydigan unli tizimlar paydo bo'ladi".[70]
Boshqa modelda fonetik Byörn Lindblom[71] o'z-o'zini tashkil qilish asoslari bo'yicha ovozli tizimlarning maqbul tanlovini taxminiy farqlash printsipi asosida uchdan to'qqiztagacha bo'lgan tovushlarni bashorat qila oldi.
Keyinchalik modellar fonematik kodlash va kombinatoriallikning kelib chiqishida o'z-o'zini tashkil etishning rolini o'rganib chiqdi, bu fonemalarning mavjudligi va ularning tizimli hecelerini qurish uchun muntazam ravishda qayta ishlatilishi. Per-Iv Oudeyer adaptiv yaxlit vokal taqlid qilish uchun asosiy neyron uskunalar, miyadagi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri motor va sezgir tasavvurlarni birlashtirishi, shov-shuvli shaxslar jamiyatida o'z-o'zidan vokalizatsiyaning kombinatsion tizimlarini, shu jumladan fonotaktik naqshlarni yaratishi mumkinligini ko'rsatadigan modellar ishlab chiqildi.[61][72] Ushbu modellar, shuningdek, vokalizatsiya tizimlarida statistik qonuniyatlarning shakllanishini va xilma-xilligini hisobga olish uchun morfologik va fiziologik tug'ilish cheklovlari ushbu o'z-o'zini tashkil etgan mexanizmlar bilan o'zaro qanday ta'sir qilishi mumkinligini ham ko'rsatib berdi.
Gestural nazariya
Imo-ishora nazariyasida nutq nisbatan kech rivojlanib, dastlab ishora qilingan tizimdan darajalar bo'yicha rivojlanib borishi aytilgan. Imo-ishoralar bilan aloqa qilish uchun foydalanilgan paytda ota-bobolarimiz o'z ovozlarini boshqarolmagan; ammo, ular asta-sekin ovozlarini boshqarishni boshlaganlarida, og'zaki til rivojlana boshladi.
Ushbu nazariyani uchta dalil tasdiqlaydi:
- Imo-ishora tili va vokal tili o'xshash nerv tizimlariga bog'liq. Hududlar korteks og'iz va qo'l harakatlari uchun mas'ul bo'lganlar bir-biri bilan chegaradosh.
- G'ayriinsoniy primatlar tabiatda oddiy tushunchalar va kommunikativ niyatlarni ifoda etish uchun ovozli signallarni qo'lda, yuz va boshqa ko'rinadigan imo-ishoralar foydasiga minimallashtirish. Ushbu imo-ishoralarning ba'zilari odamlarning harakatlariga o'xshaydi, masalan, "tilanchilik holati", qo'llarini cho'zib, odamlar shimpanze bilan bo'lishadi.[73]
- Oyna neyronlari
Tadqiqotlar og'zaki nutq va imzo o'xshash nerv tuzilmalariga bog'liq degan g'oyani kuchli qo'llab-quvvatladi. Imo-ishora tilini ishlatgan va chapdan azob chekayotgan bemorlaryarim shar jarohat, ularning imo-ishora tili bilan vokal bemorlar og'zaki tili bilan bir xil kasalliklarni ko'rsatdilar.[74] Boshqa tadqiqotchilar shuni ko'rsatdiki, xuddi shu yarim sharning miya mintaqalari imo-ishora paytida vokal yoki yozma tildan foydalanish paytida faol bo'lgan.[75]
Nutqda etkaziladigan fikrlarni shakllantirishda odamlar o'z-o'zidan qo'l va yuz imo-ishoralaridan foydalanadilar.[76][77] Bundan tashqari, albatta, juda ko'p imo-ishora tillari mavjudlikda, odatda bilan bog'liq kar jamoalar; yuqorida ta'kidlab o'tilganidek, ular har qanday og'zaki tilga nisbatan murakkabligi, nafisligi va ifodalash kuchi bilan tengdir. Asosiy farq shundaki, "fonemalar" tana, til, tish, lab va nafas bilan ifodalangan tananing ichida emas, balki qo'lning, tananing va yuzning ifodasi bilan ifodalanadi.
Ko'plab psixologlar va olimlar ushbu nazariya va boshqa xulq-atvor nazariyalariga javob berish uchun miyadagi oyna tizimini ko'rib chiqdilar. Nutq evolyutsiyasi omili sifatida ko'zgu neyronlarini qo'llab-quvvatlovchi dalillarga primatlardagi ko'zgu neyronlari, maymunlarni imo-ishora bilan aloqa qilishni o'rgatishning muvaffaqiyati va yosh bolalarga til o'rgatish uchun imo-ishora kiradi. Fogassi va Ferrari (2014) maymunlarda motor korteks faoliyatini, xususan, ko'zgu neyronlari joylashgan Broka hududidagi F5 maydonini kuzatdilar. Ular maymun boshqasi tomonidan amalga oshirilgan turli xil qo'l harakatlarini bajarganda yoki kuzatganda bu sohadagi elektr faolligining o'zgarishini kuzatdilar. Broca hududi tilni ishlab chiqarish va qayta ishlash uchun mas'ul bo'lgan frontal lobda joylashgan mintaqadir. Ushbu mintaqada harakatni maxsus qo'l bilan bajarish yoki kuzatish paytida olov yoqadigan ko'zgu neyronlarining kashf etilishi bir paytlar imo-ishoralar bilan amalga oshirilgan degan ishonchni qat'iy qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. Xuddi shu narsa yosh bolalarga til o'rgatishda ham amal qiladi. Biror bir narsa yoki joyni ko'rsatganda, bolada ko'zgu neyronlari xuddi harakatni qilayotganday yonadi, bu esa uzoq muddatli o'rganishga olib keladi [78]
Tanqid
Tanqidchilar ta'kidlashlaricha, umuman sutemizuvchi hayvonlar uchun tovush tezlikda masofani uzatish uchun ma'lumotni kodlash uchun eng yaxshi vosita bo'lib chiqadi. Buning dastlabki odamlarga ham taalluqli ekanligini hisobga olsak, nima uchun ular ushbu samarali usuldan voz kechib, vizual imo-ishora tizimlarining foydasiga foydalangandir - faqat keyingi bosqichda ovozga qaytish uchun.[79]
Tushuntirish uchun aytishlaricha, insoniyat evolyutsiyasining nisbatan kech bosqichida ota-bobolarimizning qo'llari vositalarni yasash va ulardan foydalanishga shunchalik talab bo'ldiki, qo'lda imo-ishora qilishning raqobatdosh talablari to'siq bo'lib qoldi. So'zlashuv tiliga o'tish faqat o'sha paytda sodir bo'lganligi aytiladi.[80] Odamlar evolyutsiyasi davomida asboblarni ishlab chiqarish va ulardan foydalanish bilan shug'ullanganligi sababli, aksariyat olimlar ushbu dalilga ishonmaydilar. (Ushbu jumboqga boshqacha yondashish uchun - signalning ishonchliligi va ishonchliligi asoslaridan biri - quyida "pantomimadan nutqgacha" ga qarang).
Nutq evolyutsiyasi xronologiyasi
Tilning inson turlarida paydo bo'lish vaqti haqida ko'p narsa ma'lum emas. Yozishdan farqli o'laroq, nutq hech qanday moddiy iz qoldirmaydi, shuning uchun uni arxeologik ko'rinmas qiladi. To'g'ridan-to'g'ri lisoniy dalillarga ega bo'lmagan inson kelib chiqishi bo'yicha mutaxassislar nutq ishlab chiqarish bilan bog'liq munozarali anatomik xususiyatlar va genlarni o'rganishga kirishdilar. Bunday tadqiqotlar zamonaviymi yoki yo'qmi haqida ma'lumot berishi mumkin Homo turlari nutqqa ega edi imkoniyatlar, ular haqiqatan ham gapirishganmi yoki yo'qmi, hali ham noma'lum. Ular vokal aloqada bo'lishgan bo'lsa-da, anatomik va genetik ma'lumotlarda proto-tilni nutqdan farqlash uchun zarur bo'lgan aniqlik yo'q.
Bugungi kunda zamonaviy tillarda mavjud tarqalish va xilma-xillikka erishish uchun zarur bo'lgan vaqtni taxmin qilish uchun statistik usullardan foydalangan holda, Johanna Nichols - Kaliforniya shtatidagi Berkli universitetining tilshunosi - 1998 yilda vokal tillari kamida 100000 yil oldin bizning turimizda xilma-xillikni boshlagan bo'lishi kerak edi.[81]
Yaqinda - 2012 yilda antropologlar Charlz Perreault va Sara Metyu fonematik xilma-xillikdan foydalanib, bunga mos keladigan kunni taklif qilishdi.[82] "Fonematik xilma-xillik" tilda sezgirlik bilan farq qiladigan tovush birliklari - undoshlar, unlilar va ohanglar sonini bildiradi. Fonematik xilma-xillikning hozirgi dunyo miqyosidagi modeli zamonaviyning kengayishining statistik signalini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin Homo sapiens Afrikadan tashqarida, taxminan 60-70 ming yil oldin boshlangan. Ba'zi olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, fonematik xilma-xillik asta-sekin rivojlanib boradi va ular hozirgi fonemalar sonini to'plash uchun eng qadimgi Afrika tillari qancha vaqt bo'lganligini hisoblash uchun soat sifatida ishlatilishi mumkin. Odamlar populyatsiyasi Afrikani tark etib, dunyo bo'ylab kengayib borar ekan, ular bir qator to'siqlarni boshdan kechirdilar - bu erda juda oz sonli aholi yangi qit'a yoki mintaqani mustamlaka qilish uchun omon qoldi. Ma'lum bo'lishicha, bunday populyatsiya halokati genetik, fenotipik va fonemik xilma-xillikning kamayishiga olib kelgan. Afrika tillari bugungi kunda dunyodagi eng katta fonemik zaxiralarga ega, eng kichik zaxiralar esa Janubiy Amerika va Okeaniyada, dunyoning mustamlakaga aylantirilgan so'nggi mintaqalarida joylashgan. Masalan, Rotokalar, Yangi Gvineya tili va Piraxa, Janubiy Amerikada gapiradigan, ikkalasida atigi 11 fonema bor,[83][84] esa ! Xun, Janubiy Afrikada gaplashadigan tilda 141 fonema mavjud bo'lib, mualliflar tabiiy eksperimentdan foydalanmoqdalar - bir tomondan, Janubiy-Sharqiy Osiyodagi materikni mustamlaka qilish, uzoq vaqt izolyatsiya qilingan Andaman orollari ikkinchidan - fonematik xilma-xillikning vaqt o'tishi bilan o'sish tezligini taxmin qilish. Ushbu stavkadan foydalanib, ular dunyo tillari hozirgi zamondan boshlangan deb taxmin qilishmoqda O'rta tosh asri Afrikada, taxminan 350 ming va 150 ming yil oldin. Bu sabab bo'lgan spetsifikatsiya hodisasiga to'g'ri keladi Homo sapiens.
Ushbu va shunga o'xshash tadqiqotlar, tilshunoslar tomonidan tan olingan, chunki ular genlar va fonemalar o'rtasidagi noto'g'ri o'xshashlikka asoslanadi, chunki fonemalar genlardan farqli o'laroq tillar o'rtasida lateral ravishda uzatiladi va dunyo tillarining noto'g'ri namunalari bo'yicha Okeaniya va Amerika qit'asida fonemalari juda ko'p tillar, Afrikada esa juda kam tillari mavjud. Ularning ta'kidlashicha, fonematik xilma-xillikning dunyodagi tarqalishi chuqur til tarixini emas, balki yaqinda til bilan aloqani aks ettiradi, chunki tillar juda qisqa vaqt ichida ko'plab fonemalarni yo'qotishi yoki orttirishi mumkinligi yaxshi isbotlangan. Boshqacha qilib aytganda, genetik asoschilarning ta'sirini fonematik xilma-xillikka ta'sir qilishini kutish uchun asosli lisoniy sabab yo'q.[85][86]
Spekulyativ stsenariylar
Dastlabki taxminlar
"Tilning kelib chiqishi turli xil tabiiy tovushlar, boshqa hayvonlarning ovozlari va insonning o'z instinktiv hayqiriqlariga imo-ishoralar va imo-ishoralar yordamida taqlid va modifikatsiya tufayli qarzdor ekanligiga shubha qilolmayman."
— Charlz Darvin, 1871 yil. Insonning kelib chiqishi va jinsiy aloqada tanlov.[87]
1861 yilda tarixiy tilshunos Maks Myuller og'zaki tilning kelib chiqishiga oid spekulyativ nazariyalar ro'yxatini e'lon qildi:[88] Ushbu nazariyalar ixtiro gipotezalari nomli toifaga birlashtirildi. Ushbu farazlarning barchasi, birinchi til qanday rivojlanib borishi va odamning tabiiy tovushlarga taqlid qilishi, ma'noga ega bo'lgan birinchi so'zlarning qanday paydo bo'lganligini tushunishga qaratilgan edi.
- Ta'zim-voy. The ta'zim yoki kuku nazariyasi, Myuller nemis faylasufiga tegishli bo'lgan Johann Gottfried Herder, dastlabki so'zlarni hayvonlar va qushlarning qichqirig'iga taqlid sifatida ko'rdi. Onomatopeyadan kelib chiqqan deb hisoblangan ushbu nazariya tovush ma'nosini ma'ruzachi tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan haqiqiy ovoz bilan bog'laydi.
- Pooh-pooh. The Pooh-Pooh nazariya ko'rdi birinchi so'zlar hissiy so'zlar va undovlar sifatida og'riq, zavq, ajablanib va boshqalar bilan qo'zg'atilgan. Bu tovushlarning barchasi to'satdan nafas olish paytida paydo bo'lgan, bu boshqa tillarga o'xshamaydi. Hissiy reaktsiyalardan farqli o'laroq, nutq tili nafas chiqarishda hosil bo'ladi, shuning uchun bu aloqa shaklidagi tovushlar odatdagi nutq ishlab chiqarishida ishlatilgandan farq qiladi, bu esa ushbu nazariyani tilni egallash uchun unchalik maqbul bo'lmagan holga keltiradi.[25]
- Ding-dong. Myuller nima deb ataganini taklif qildi Ding-Dong hamma narsa tebranuvchi tabiiy rezonansga ega degan nazariya, qandaydir tarzda inson o'zining dastlabki so'zlari bilan takrorlangan. So'zlar ularning ma'nosi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan tovushdan kelib chiqadi; masalan, "halokat momaqaldiroq uchun so'z bo'ldi, portlash portlash uchun. ” Ushbu nazariya, shuningdek, onomatopeya tushunchasiga katta ishonadi.
- Yo-he-ho. The yo-he-ho nazariya kollektiv ritmik mehnatdan paydo bo'lgan tilni ko'rdi, masalan, mushaklarning harakatlarini sinxronlashtirishga urinishlar, masalan, tovushlar paydo bo'ldi ko'taring kabi tovushlar bilan almashtirib turiladi ho. Insonlarning birgalikdagi sa'y-harakatlari asosida kelib chiqishiga ishongan ushbu nazariya, odamlarga muloqot qilish uchun aytishni boshlagan so'zlar kerakligini aytadi. Bu ehtiyoj yirtqichlardan saqlanish yoki jangovar nido bo'lib xizmat qilishi mumkin edi.
- Ta-ta. Bu 1930 yilda taklif qilingan Maks Myuller ro'yxatida yo'q edi Ser Richard Paget.[89] Ga ko'ra ta-ta nazariya, odamlar dastlabki harakatlarni imo-ishoralarni taqlid qilib, ularni eshitishga imkon beradigan til harakatlari bilan qildilar.
So'zlarning birinchi manbai sifatida onomatopeyaning umumiy tushunchasi mavjud; ammo, bu nazariya bilan katta muammo mavjud. Onomatopoeia can explain the first couple of words all derived from natural phenomenon, but there is no explanation as to how more complex words without a natural counterpart came to be.[90] Most scholars today consider all such theories not so much wrong — they occasionally offer peripheral insights — as comically naïve and irrelevant.[91][92] Ushbu nazariyalar bilan bog'liq muammo shundaki, ular shu qadar tor mexanistikdir. Ular bizning ota-bobolarimiz bir vaqtlar tegishli zukkolikka duch kelgan deb taxmin qilishadi mexanizm tovushlarni ma'nolari bilan bog'lash uchun til avtomatik ravishda rivojlanib, o'zgargan.
Ishonchlilik va aldash muammolari
From the perspective of modern science, the main obstacle to the evolution of speech-like communication in nature is not a mechanistic one. Rather, it is that symbols — arbitrary associations of sounds with corresponding meanings — are unreliable and may well be false.[93] As the saying goes, "words are cheap".[94] The problem of reliability was not recognised at all by Darwin, Müller or the other early evolutionist theorists.
Animal vocal signals are for the most part intrinsically reliable. Mushuk qichqirganda, signal hayvonning qoniqish holatiga bevosita dalil bo'ladi. One can "trust" the signal not because the cat is inclined to be honest, but because it just can't fake that sound. Primate vocal calls may be slightly more manipulable,[95] but they remain reliable for the same reason — because they are hard to fake.[15] Primate social intelligence is Makiavellian — self-serving and unconstrained by moral scruples. Monkeys and apes often attempt to deceive one another, while at the same time constantly on guard against falling victim to deception themselves.[96] Paradoxically, it is precisely primates' resistance to deception that blocks the evolution of their vocal communication systems along language-like lines. Til chiqarib tashlanadi, chunki aldanishdan saqlanishning eng yaxshi usuli bu darhol tekshiriladigan signallardan tashqari barcha signallarga e'tibor bermaslikdir. So'zlar ushbu testdan avtomatik ravishda muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'ladi.[97]
So'zlarni soxtalashtirish oson. Agar ular yolg'onga aylansalar, tinglovchilar ularni soxtalashtiradigan indekslar yoki ko'rsatmalar foydasiga e'tiborsiz qoldirib, moslashadilar. Tilning ishlashi uchun tinglovchilar, ular bilan gaplashadigan odamlar odatda halol bo'lishlariga ishonishlari kerak.[98] A peculiar feature of language is "displaced reference", which means reference to topics outside the currently perceptible situation. This property prevents utterances from being corroborated in the immediate "here" and "now". For this reason, language presupposes relatively high levels of mutual trust in order to become established over time as an evolyutsion barqaror strategiya. A theory of the origins of language must, therefore, explain why humans could begin trusting cheap signals in ways that other animals apparently cannot (see signalizatsiya nazariyasi ).
"Kin selection"
"Ona tillari" gipotezasi ushbu muammoni hal qilish uchun 2004 yilda taklif qilingan.[99] W. Tecumseh Fitch suggested that the Darwinian principle of "kin selection"[100][101] — the convergence of genetic interests between relatives — might be part of the answer. Fitch suggests that spoken languages were originally "mother tongues". If speech evolved initially for communication between mothers and their own biological offspring, extending later to include adult relatives as well, the interests of speakers and listeners would have tended to coincide. Fitch argues that shared genetic interests would have led to sufficient trust and cooperation for intrinsically unreliable vocal signals — spoken words — to become accepted as trustworthy and so begin evolving for the first time.
Tanqid
Ushbu nazariyani tanqidchilar qarindoshlarni tanlash nafaqat odamlarga xos ekanligini ta'kidlamoqdalar. Ape mothers also share genes with their offspring, as do all animals, so why is it only humans who speak? Furthermore, it is difficult to believe that early humans restricted linguistic communication to genetic kin: the incest taboo must have forced men and women to interact and communicate with non-kin. So even if we accept Fitch's initial premises, the extension of the posited "mother tongue" networks from relatives to non-relatives remains unexplained.[102]
"Reciprocal altruism"
Ib Ulbuk[103] invokes another standard Darwinian principle — "reciprocal altruism"[104] — to explain the unusually high levels of intentional honesty necessary for language to evolve. "O'zaro alturizm" ni quyidagi tamoyil sifatida ifodalash mumkin agar siz mening orqamni qirib tashlasangiz, men siznikini qirib tashlayman. Tilshunoslik bilan aytganda, bu degani if you speak truthfully to me, I'll speak truthfully to you. Odb Darvinning o'zaro alturizmi, deb ta'kidlaydi Ulb pointsk, bu tez-tez o'zaro aloqada bo'lgan shaxslar o'rtasida o'rnatiladigan munosabatlardir. Til butun bir jamoada ustun bo'lishi uchun, o'zaro bog'liqlikni individual tanlovga berib qo'yishning o'rniga, universal ravishda amalga oshirish kerak edi. Ulbæk concludes that for language to evolve, early society as a whole must have been subject to moral regulation.
Tanqid
Critics point out that this theory fails to explain when, how, why or by whom "obligatory reciprocal altruism" could possibly have been enforced. Ushbu nuqsonni bartaraf etish uchun turli xil takliflar berildi.[105] A further criticism is that language doesn't work on the basis of reciprocal altruism anyway. Humans in conversational groups don't withhold information to all except listeners likely to offer valuable information in return. On the contrary, they seem to want to advertise to the world their access to socially relevant information, broadcasting it to anyone who will listen without thought of return.[106]
"Gossip and grooming"
G'iybat, ko'ra Robin Dunbar, does for group-living humans what manual parvarish does for other primates — it allows individuals to service their relationships and so maintain their alliances. As humans began living in larger and larger social groups, the task of manually grooming all one's friends and acquaintances became so time-consuming as to be unaffordable. In response to this problem, humans invented "a cheap and ultra-efficient form of grooming" — vokalni parvarish qilish. To keep your allies happy, you now needed only to "groom" them with low-cost vocal sounds, servicing multiple allies simultaneously while keeping both hands free for other tasks. Vocal grooming (the production of pleasing sounds lacking syntax or combinatorial semantics) then evolved somehow into syntactical speech.[107]
Tanqid
Critics of this theory point out that the very efficiency of "vocal grooming" — that words are so cheap — would have undermined its capacity to signal commitment of the kind conveyed by time-consuming and costly manual grooming.[98] A further criticism is that the theory does nothing to explain the crucial transition from vocal grooming — the production of pleasing but meaningless sounds — to the cognitive complexities of syntactical speech.
From pantomime to speech
According to another school of thought, language evolved from mimesis — the "acting out" of scenarios using vocal and gestural pantomime.[108][109][110] Charles Darwin, who himself was skeptical, hypothesized that human speech and language is derived from gestures and mouth pantomime.[90] This theory, further elaborated on by various authors, postulates that the genus Homo, different from our ape ancestors, evolved a new type of cognition. Apes are capable of associational learning. They can tie a sensory cue to a motor response often trained through classical conditioning.[111] However, in apes, the conditioned sensory cue is necessary for a conditioned response to be observed again. The motor response will not occur without an external cue from an outside agent. A remarkable ability that humans possess is the ability to voluntarily retrieve memories without the need for a cue (e.g. conditioned stimulus). This is not an ability that has been observed in animals except language-trained apes. There is still much controversy on whether pantomime is a capability for apes, both wild and captured.[112] For as long as utterances needed to be emotionally expressive and convincing, it was not possible to complete the transition to purely conventional signs.[93][113][114] On this assumption, pre-linguistic gestures and vocalisations would have been required not just to disambiguate intended meanings, but also to inspire confidence in their intrinsic reliability.[94] If contractual commitments[105][115] were necessary in order to inspire community-wide trust in communicative intentions, it would follow that these had to be in place before humans could shift at last to an ultra-efficient, high-speed — digital as opposed to analog — signalling format. Vokal o'ziga xos xususiyatlar (sound contrasts) are ideal for this purpose. It is therefore suggested that the establishment of contractual understandings enabled the decisive transition from mimetic gesture to fully conventionalised, digitally encoded speech.[97][116][117]
"Ritual/speech coevolution"
The ritual/speech coevolution theory was originally proposed by the distinguished social anthropologist Roy Rappaport[118] Kris Nayt kabi antropologlar tomonidan ishlab chiqilishidan oldin,[97] Jerom Lyuis,[110] Nik Enfild,[119] Camilla Power[98] va Yan Vatt.[120] Cognitive scientist and robotics engineer Luc Steels[121] biologik antropolog / nevrolog kabi bu umumiy yondashuvning yana bir taniqli tarafdori Terrens Dyakon.[122]
These scholars argue that there can be no such thing as a "theory of the origins of language". This is because language is not a separate adaptation but an internal aspect of something much wider — namely, human ramziy madaniyat bir butun sifatida.[123] Ushbu keng kontekstdan mustaqil ravishda tilni tushuntirishga urinishlarning samarasi yo'q, deydi bu olimlar, chunki ular muammoni echimsiz hal qilishmoqda. Kredit kartalarining paydo bo'lishini ular ishtirok etadigan keng tizimdan mustaqil ravishda tushuntirishga urinayotgan tarixchini tasavvur qila olamizmi? Using a credit card makes sense only if you have a bank account institutionally recognized within a certain kind of advanced capitalist society — one where communications technology has already been invented and fraud can be detected and prevented. Xuddi shu tarzda, til muayyan ijtimoiy mexanizmlar va institutlardan tashqarida ishlamaydi. For example, it would not work for an ape communicating with other apes in the wild. Not even the cleverest ape could make language work under such conditions.
"Lie and alternative, inherent in language, ... pose problems to any society whose structure is founded on language, which is to say all human societies. I have therefore argued that if there are to be words at all it is necessary to establish The Word, and that The Word is established by the invariance of liturgy."[124]
Ushbu fikr maktabining advokatlari so'zlarning arzonligini ta'kidlashadi. As digital hallucinations, they are intrinsically unreliable. Should an especially clever ape, or even a group of articulate apes, try to use words in the wild, they would carry no conviction. The primate vocalizations that qil carry conviction — those they actually use — are unlike words, in that they are emotionally expressive, intrinsically meaningful and reliable because they are relatively costly and hard to fake.
Speech consists of digital contrasts whose cost is essentially zero. As pure social conventions, signals of this kind cannot evolve in a Darwinian social world — they are a theoretical impossibility.[93] Being intrinsically unreliable, language works only if you can build up a reputation for trustworthiness within a certain kind of society — namely, one where symbolic cultural facts (sometimes called "institutional facts") can be established and maintained through collective social endorsement.[125] Har qanday holda ovchi society, the basic mechanism for establishing trust in symbolic cultural facts is collective marosim.[126] Shuning uchun tilning kelib chiqishi masalasida tadqiqotchilar oldida turgan vazifa odatda taxmin qilinganidan ko'ra ko'p qirrali. It involves addressing the evolutionary emergence of human symbolic culture as a whole, with language an important but subsidiary component.[127]
Tanqid
Critics of the theory include Noam Xomskiy, who terms it the "non-existence" hypothesis — a denial of the very existence of language as an object of study for natural science.[128] Xomskiyning o'z nazariyasi shundan iboratki, til bir zumda va mukammal shaklda paydo bo'ldi,[129] prompting his critics in turn to retort that only something that doesn't exist — a theoretical construct or convenient scientific fiction — could possibly emerge in such a miraculous way.[117] Qarama-qarshiliklar hal qilinmagan.
Twentieth century speculations
Festal origins
The essay "The festal origin of human speech", though published in the late nineteenth century,[130] made little impact until the American philosopher Susanne Langer re-discovered and publicised it in 1941.[131]
"In the early history of articulate sounds they could make no meaning themselves, but they preserved and got intimately associated with the peculiar feelings and perceptions that came most prominently into the minds of the festal players during their excitement."
— J. Donovan, 1891. The Festal Origin of Human Speech.[130]
The theory sets out from the observation that primate vocal sounds are above all hissiy jihatdan expressive. The emotions aroused are socially contagious. Because of this, an extended bout of screams, hoots or barks will tend to express not just the feelings of this or that individual but the mutually contagious ups and downs of everyone within earshot.
Turning to the ancestors of Homo sapiens, the "festal origin" theory suggests that in the "play-excitement" preceding or following a communal hunt or other group activity, everyone might have combined their voices in a comparable way, emphasizing their mood of togetherness with such noises as rhythmic drumming and hand-clapping. Variably pitched voices would have formed conventional patterns, such that choral singing became an integral part of communal celebration.
Although this was not yet speech, according to Langer, it developed the vocal capacities from which speech would later derive. There would be conventional modes of ululating, clapping or dancing appropriate to different festive occasions, each so intimately associated with that kind of occasion that it would tend to collectively uphold and embody the concept of it. Anyone hearing a snatch of sound from such a song would recall the associated occasion and mood. A melodic, rhythmic sequence of syllables conventionally associated with a certain type of celebration would become, in effect, its vocal mark. On that basis, certain familiar sound sequences would become "symbolic".
In support of all this, Langer cites ethnographic reports of tribal songs consisting entirely of "rhythmic nonsense syllables". She concedes that an English equivalent such as "hey-nonny-nonny", although perhaps suggestive of certain feelings or ideas, is neither noun, verb, adjective, nor any other syntactical part of speech. So long as articulate sound served only in the capacity of "hey nonny-nonny", "hallelujah" or "alack-a-day", it cannot yet have been speech. For that to arise, according to Langer, it was necessary for such sequences to be emitted increasingly kontekstdan tashqarida — outside the total situation that gave rise to them. Extending a set of associations from one cognitive context to another, completely different one, is the secret of metafora. Langer invokes an early version of what is nowadays termed "grammaticalization" theory to show how, from, such a point of departure, syntactically complex speech might progressively have arisen.
Langer acknowledges Emil Dyurkxaym as having proposed a strikingly similar theory back in 1912.[132] For recent thinking along broadly similar lines, see Steven Brown on "musilanguage",[133] Kris Nayt on "ritual"[97] and "play",[116][134] Jerome Lewis on "mimicry",[110][127] Stiven Mithen on "Hmmmmm"[135] Bruce Richman on "nonsense syllables"[136] va Alison Ray on "holistic protolanguage".[137]
Mirror neuron hypothesis (MSH) and the Motor Theory of Speech Perception
The mirror neuron hypothesis, based on a phenomenon discovered in 2008 by Rizzolatti and Fabbri, supports the motor theory of speech perception. The motor theory of speech perception was proposed in 1967 by Liberman, who believed that the motor system and language systems were closely interlinked.[138] This would result in a more streamlined process of generating speech; both the cognition and speech formulation could occur simultaneously. Essentially, it is wasteful to have a speech decoding and speech encoding process independent of each other. This hypothesis was further supported by the discovery of motor neurons. Rizzolatti and Fabbri found that there were specific neurons in the motor cortex of macaque monkeys which were activated when seeing an action.[139] The neurons which are activated are the same neurons in which would be required to perform the same action themselves. Mirror neurons fire when observing an action and performing an action, indicating that these neurons found in the motor cortex are necessary for understanding a visual process.[139] The presence of mirror neurons may indicate that non-verbal, gestural communication is far more ancient than previously thought to be. Motor theory of speech perception relies on the understanding of motor representations that underlie speech gestures, such as lip movement. There is no clear understanding of speech perception currently, but it is generally accepted that the motor cortex is activated in speech perception to some capacity.
"Musilanguage"
The term "musilanguage" (or "hmmmmm") refers to a pre-linguistic system of vocal communication from which (according to some scholars) ikkalasi ham musiqa va language later derived. The idea is that rhythmic, melodic, emotionally expressive vocal ritual helped bond coalitions and, over time, set up selection pressures for enhanced volitional control over the speech articulators. Patterns of synchronized choral chanting are imagined to have varied according to the occasion. For example, "we're setting off to find honey" might sound qualitatively different from "we're setting off to hunt" or "we're grieving over our relative's death". If social standing depended on maintaining a regular beat and harmonizing one's own voice with that of everyone else, group members would have come under pressure to demonstrate their choral skills.
Arxeolog Stiven Mithen speculates that the Neanderthals possessed some such system, expressing themselves in a "language" known as "Hmmmmm", standing for Holistic, manipulative, mnihoyatdamodal, musical and mtaqlid.[135]p. 169-175 In Bruce Richman's earlier version of essentially the same idea,[136] frequent repetition of the same few songs by many voices made it easy for people to remember those sequences as whole units. Activities that a group of people were doing while they were vocalizing together — activities that were important or striking or richly emotional — came to be associated with particular sound sequences, so that each time a fragment was heard, it evoked highly specific memories. The idea is that the earliest lexical items (words) started out as abbreviated fragments of what were originally communal songs.
"Whenever people sang or chanted a particular sound sequence they would remember the concrete particulars of the situation most strongly associated with it: ah, yes! we sing this during this particular ritual admitting new members to the group; or, we chant this during a long journey in the forest; or, when a clearing is finished for a new camp, this is what we chant; or these are the keenings we sing during ceremonies over dead members of our group."
— Richman, B. 2000. How music fixed "nonsense" into significant formulas: on rhythm, repetition, and meaning. In N. L. Wallin, B. Merker and S. Brown (eds), The Origins of Music: An introduction to evolutionary musicology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 301-314.
As group members accumulated an expanding repertoire of songs for different occasions, interpersonal call-and-response patterns evolved along one trajectory to assume linguistic form. Meanwhile, along a divergent trajectory, polyphonic singing and other kinds of music became increasingly specialized and sophisticated.
To explain the establishment of syntactical speech, Richman cites English "I wanna go home". He imagines this to have been learned in the first instance not as a combinatorial sequence of free-standing words, but as a single stuck-together combination — the melodic sound people make to express "feeling homesick". Someone might sing "I wanna go home", prompting other voices to chime in with "I need to go home", "I'd love to go home", "Let's go home" and so forth. Note that one part of the song remains constant, while another is permitted to vary. If this theory is accepted, syntactically complex speech began evolving as each chanted mantra allowed for variation at a certain point, allowing for the insertion of an element from some other song. For example, while mourning during a funeral rite, someone might want to recall a memory of collecting honey with the deceased, signaling this at an appropriate moment with a fragment of the "we're collecting honey" song. Imagine that such practices became common. Meaning-laden utterances would now have become subject to a distinctively linguistic creative principle — that of recursive embedding.
Hunter-gatherer egalitarianism
Many scholars associate the evolutionary emergence of speech with profound social, sexual, political and cultural developments. One view is that primate-style dominance needed to give way to a more cooperative and egalitarian lifestyle of the kind characteristic of modern hunter-gatherers.[140][141][127]
O'zaro sub'ektivlik
Ga binoan Maykl Tomasello, the key cognitive capacity distinguishing Homo sapiens from our ape cousins is "sub'ektlararo ". This entails burilish and role-reversal: your partner strives to read your mind, you simultaneously strive to read theirs, and each of you makes a conscious effort to assist the other in the process. The outcome is that each partner forms a representation of the other's mind in which their own can be discerned by reflection.
Tomasello argues that this kind of bi-directional cognition is central to the very possibility of linguistic communication. Drawing on his research with both children and chimpanzees, he reports that human infants, from one year old onwards, begin viewing their own mind as if from the standpoint of others. He describes this as a cognitive revolution. Chimpanzees, as they grow up, never undergo such a revolution. The explanation, according to Tomasello, is that their evolved psychology is adapted to a deeply competitive way of life. Wild-living chimpanzees from despotic social hierarchies, most interactions involving calculations of dominance and submission. An adult chimp will strive to outwit its rivals by guessing at their intentions while blocking them from reciprocating. Since bi-directional intersubjective communication is impossible under such conditions, the cognitive capacities necessary for language don't evolve.[142][143][144]
Counter-dominance
In the scenario favoured by David Erdal and Andrew Whiten,[145][146] primate-style dominance provoked equal and opposite coalitionary resistance — counter-dominance. During the course of human evolution, increasingly effective strategies of rebellion against dominant individuals led to a compromise. While abandoning any attempt to dominate others, group members vigorously asserted their personal autonomy, maintaining their alliances to make potentially dominant individuals think twice. Within increasingly stable coalitions, according to this perspective, status began to be earned in novel ways, social rewards accruing to those perceived by their peers as especially cooperative and self-aware.[140]
Reverse dominance
While counter-dominance, according to this evolutionary narrative, culminates in a stalemate, anthropologist Christopher Boehm[147][148] extends the logic a step further. Counter-dominance tips over at last into full-scale "reverse dominance". The rebellious coalition decisively overthrows the figure of the primate alpha-male. No dominance is allowed except that of the self-organized community as a whole.
As a result of this social and political change, hunter-gatherer egalitarianism is established. As children grow up, they are motivated by those around them to reverse perspective, engaging with other minds on the model of their own. Selection pressures favor such psychological innovations as imaginative empathy, joint attention, moral judgment, project-oriented collaboration and the ability to evaluate one's own behavior from the standpoint of others. Underpinning enhanced probabilities of cultural transmission and cumulative cultural evolution, these developments culminated in the establishment of hunter-gatherer-style egalitarianism in association with intersubjective communication and cognition. It is in this social and political context that language evolves.[127]
Scenarios involving mother-infant interactions
"Putting the baby down"
According to Dean Falk's "putting the baby down" theory, vocal interactions between early hominin mothers and infants sparked a sequence of events that led, eventually, to our ancestors' earliest words.[149] The basic idea is that evolving human mothers, unlike their monkey and ape counterparts, couldn't move around and forage with their infants clinging onto their backs. Loss of fur in the human case left infants with no means of clinging on. Frequently, therefore, mothers had to put their babies down. As a result, these babies needed reassurance that they were not being abandoned. Mothers responded by developing "motherese" — an infant-directed communicative system embracing facial expressions, body language, touching, patting, caressing, laughter, tickling and emotionally expressive contact calls. The argument is that language somehow developed out of all this.
- Tanqid
While this theory may explain a certain kind of infant-directed "protolanguage" — known today as "motherese" — it does little to solve the really difficult problem, which is the emergence among adults of syntactical speech.[iqtibos kerak ]
Kooperativ naslchilik
Evolutionary anthropologist Sarah Hrdy[150] observes that only human mothers among great apes are willing to let another individual take hold of their own babies; further, we are routinely willing to let others babysit. She identifies lack of trust as the major factor preventing chimp, bonobo or gorilla mothers from doing the same: "If ape mothers insist on carrying their babies everywhere ... it is because the available alternatives are not safe enough." The fundamental problem is that ape mothers (unlike monkey mothers who may often babysit) do not have female relatives nearby. The strong implication is that, in the course of Homo evolution, allocare could develop because Homo mothers did have female kin close by — in the first place, most reliably, their own mothers. Kengaytirilmoqda Buvi gipotezasi,[151] Hrdy argues that evolving Homo erectus females necessarily relied on female kin initially; this novel situation in ape evolution of mother, infant and mother's mother as allocarer provided the evolutionary ground for the emergence of intersubjectivity. She relates this onset of "cooperative breeding in an ape" to shifts in life history and slower child development, linked to the change in brain and body size from the 2 million year mark.
Primatologist Klaus Zuberbühler[152] uses these ideas to help explain the emergence of vocal flexibility in the human species. Co-operative breeding would have compelled infants to struggle actively to gain the attention of caregivers, not all of whom would have been directly related. A basic primate repertoire of vocal signals may have been insufficient for this social challenge. Natural selection, according to this view, would have favored babies with advanced vocal skills, beginning with babbling (which triggers positive responses in care-givers) and paving the way for the elaborate and unique speech abilities of modern humans.
Was "mama" the first word?
These ideas might be linked to those of the renowned structural linguist Roman Jakobson, who claimed that "the sucking activities of the child are accompanied by a slight nasal murmur, the only phonation to be produced when the lips are pressed to the mother's breast ... and the mouth is full".[153] He proposed that later in the infant's development, "this phonatory reaction to nursing is reproduced as an anticipatory signal at the mere sight of food and finally as a manifestation of a desire to eat, or more generally, as an expression of discontent and impatient longing for missing food or absent nurser, and any ungranted wish." So, the action of opening and shutting the mouth, combined with the production of a nasal sound when the lips are closed, yielded the sound sequence "Mama", which may, therefore, count as the very first word. Peter MacNeilage sympathetically discusses this theory in his major book, The Origin of Speech, linking it with Dean Falk's "putting the baby down" theory (see above).[154] Needless to say, other scholars have suggested completely different candidates for Homo sapiens ' very first word.[155]
Niche construction theory
While the biological language faculty is genetically inherited, actual languages or dialects are culturally transmitted, as are social norms, technological traditions and so forth. Biologists expect a robust co-evolutionary trajectory linking human genetic evolution with the evolution of culture.[156] Individuals capable of rudimentary forms of protolanguage would have enjoyed enhanced access to cultural understandings, while these, conveyed in ways that young brains could readily learn, would, in turn, have become transmitted with increasing efficiency.
In some ways like beavers, as they construct their dams, humans have always engaged in uy qurilishi, creating novel environments to which they subsequently become adapted. Selection pressures associated with prior niches tend to become relaxed as humans depend increasingly on novel environments created continuously by their own productive activities.[157][158] According to Steven Pinker,[159] language is an adaptation to "the cognitive niche". Variations on the theme of ritual/speech co-evolution — according to which speech evolved for purposes of internal communication within a ritually constructed domain — have attempted to specify more precisely when, why and how this special niche was created by human collaborative activity.[97][118][122]
Kontseptual asoslar
Strukturaviylik
"Consider a knight in chess. Is the piece by itself an element of the game? Certainly not. For as a material object, separated from its square on the board and the other conditions of play, it is of no significance for the player. It becomes a real, concrete element only when it takes on or becomes identified with its value in the game. Suppose that during a game this piece gets destroyed or lost. Can it be replaced? Of course, it can. Not only by some other knight but even by an object of quite a different shape, which can be counted as a knight, provided it is assigned the same value as the missing piece."
— de Saussure, F. (1983) [1916]. Course in General Linguistics. Translated by R. Harris. London: Dakvort. 108-09 betlar.
Shveytsariyalik olim Ferdinand de Sossyur founded linguistics as a twentieth-century professional discipline. Saussure regarded a language as a rule-governed system, much like a board game such as chess. In order to understand chess, he insisted, we must ignore such external factors as the weather prevailing during a particular session or the material composition of this or that piece. The game is autonomous with respect to its material embodiments. In the same way, when studying language, it's essential to focus on its internal structure as a social institution. External matters (masalan., the shape of the human tongue) are irrelevant from this standpoint. Saussure regarded 'speaking' (parole) as individual, ancillary and more or less accidental by comparison with "language" (langue), which he viewed as collective, systematic and essential.
Saussure showed little interest in Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Nor did he consider it worthwhile to speculate about how language might originally have evolved. Saussure's assumptions in fact cast doubt on the validity of narrowly conceived origins scenarios. His structuralist paradigm, when accepted in its original form, turns scholarly attention to a wider problem: how our species acquired the capacity to establish ijtimoiy institutlar umuman.
Xulq-atvor
"The basic processes and relations which give verbal behavior its special characteristics are now fairly well understood. Much of the experimental work responsible for this advance has been carried out on other species, but the results have proved to be surprisingly free of species restrictions. Recent work has shown that the methods can be extended to human behavior without serious modification."
— Skinner, BF (1957). Og'zaki xatti-harakatlar. Nyu-York: Appleton Century Crofts. p. 3.
In the United States, prior to and immediately following World War II, the dominant psychological paradigm was xulq-atvor. Within this conceptual framework, language was seen as a certain kind of behaviour — namely, verbal behavior,[160] to be studied much like any other kind of behavior in the animal world. Rather as a laboratory rat learns how to find its way through an artificial maze, so a human child learns the verbal behavior of the society into which it is born. The phonological, grammatical and other complexities of speech are in this sense "external" phenomena, inscribed into an initially unstructured brain. Language's emergence in Homo sapiens, from this perspective, presents no special theoretical challenge. Human behavior, whether verbal or otherwise, illustrates the malleable nature of the mammalian — and especially the human — brain.
Chomskyan Nativism
Nativism is the theory that humans are born with certain specialized kognitiv modullar enabling us to acquire highly complex bodies of knowledge such as the grammar of a language.
"There is a long history of study of the origin of language, asking how it arose from calls of apes and so forth. That investigation in my view is a complete waste of time because language is based on an entirely different principle than any animal communication system."
— Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and Problems of Knowledge. Kembrij, Massachusets: MIT Press. p. 183.
1950-yillarning o'rtalaridan boshlab, Noam Xomskiy,[161][162] Jerri Fodor[163] and others mounted what they conceptualized as a 'revolution' against behaviorism. Retrospectively, this became labelled 'the kognitiv inqilob '.[164][165] Whereas behaviorism had denied the scientific validity of the concept of "mind", Chomsky replied that, in fact, the concept of "body" is more problematic.[166] Behaviourists tended to view the child's brain as a tabula rasa, initially lacking structure or cognitive content. According to B. F. Skinner, for example, richness of behavioral detail (whether verbal or non-verbal) emanated from the environment. Chomsky turned this idea on its head. The linguistic environment encountered by a young child, according to Chomsky's version of psixologik natizm, is in fact hopelessly inadequate. No child could possibly acquire the complexities of grammar from such an impoverished source.[167] Far from viewing language as wholly external, Chomsky re-conceptualized it as wholly internal. To explain how a child so rapidly and effortlessly acquires its natal language, he insisted, we must conclude that it comes into the world with the essentials of grammar already pre-installed.[168] Xomskiyning so'zlariga ko'ra, boshqa hech qanday tur genetik jihatdan til fakulteti bilan ta'minlanmagan - yoki haqiqatan ham unga o'xshash masofadan boshqa narsalar bilan ta'minlanmagan.[169] Bunday fakultetning paydo bo'lishi Homo sapiens, shu nuqtai nazardan, biologik fanga katta nazariy vazifani qo'yadi.
Nutq harakati nazariyasi
Biologik murakkablikni tushuntirishning usullaridan biri bu taxmin qilingan funktsiyaga murojaat qilishdir. Nufuzli faylasufning so'zlariga ko'ra Jon Ostin,[170] nutqning asosiy vazifasi ijtimoiy dunyoda faoldir.
Nutq amallari, ushbu nazariya tanasiga ko'ra, uch xil darajada tahlil qilish mumkin: eloksionar, illokatsion va perlokatsion. Amal mahalliy ba'zi bir lingvistik tovushlarni ishlab chiqarish sifatida qaralganda - masalan, chet tilida to'g'ri talaffuz qilishni mashq qilish. Amal ilokatsion bu birgalikda qabul qilingan yoki tushunilgan dunyoga aralashuvni tashkil etar ekan. Va'da berish, turmush qurish, ajrashish, e'lon qilish, bildirish, ruxsat berish, e'lon qilish va hk. ilokatsion sezgi. Amal joy ajratuvchi tinglovchilarga bevosita psixologik ta'siri nuqtai nazaridan qaralganda. "Boo!" Deb chaqalog'ini qo'rqitmoqda. "perlocutionary" harakatiga misol bo'lar edi.
Ostin uchun so'zlar bilan "ish qilish", avvalambor, joylashishni anglatadi ilokatsion kuch. Buning siri jamoatchilik ishtiroki yoki kelishuvdir. "To'g'ri" (an'anaviy ravishda kelishilgan) protsedura bo'lishi kerak va barcha manfaatdorlar uning to'g'ri bajarilganligini qabul qilishlari kerak.
"Bizning misollarimizdan biri, masalan, nikoh marosimi paytida aytilgan" men qilaman "degan so'z (bu ayolni mening qonuniy turmush o'rtog'im qilib oling) edi. Mana shu so'zlarni aytganda biz qilish bir narsa - ya'ni, turmush qurish, aksincha hisobot berish bir narsa, ya'ni bu biz uylanmoqdamiz. "
— Ostin, JL (1962). Qanday qilib so'zlar bilan narsalarni qilish kerak. Oksford: Oksford universiteti matbuoti. 12-13 betlar.
Agar ruhoniy er-xotinni erkak va xotin deb e'lon qilsa, uning so'zlari faqatgina tegishli vakolatli bo'lgan taqdirda va faqat marosim tegishli ravishda o'tkazilgan holda, marosimga to'g'ri keladigan bo'lsa, illocutionary kuchga ega bo'ladi. Ostinning ta'kidlashicha, agar kimdir pingvinni suvga cho'mdirmoqchi bo'lsa, bu harakat bekor bo'ladi. Fizika, kimyo yoki biologiyaga hech qanday aloqasi bo'lmagan sabablarga ko'ra, og'zaki formuladan qat'i nazar, suvga cho'mish pingvinlarga qo'llanilishi noo'rin.[171]
Ushbu nazariya majmuasi nutqning kelib chiqishi bilan bog'liq spekulyativ stsenariylarga ta'sir qilishi mumkin. "Ishlarni so'z bilan bajarish" nafaqat tilga, balki umuman ijtimoiy xulq-atvorga oid umumiy tushuncha va kelishuvlarni nazarda tutadi. Maymunlar tuzilgan tovushlar ketma-ketligini yaratishi va shu tarzda bir-biriga ta'sir qilishi mumkin. Joylashtirish uchun ilokatsion Biroq, ular jismoniy va biologik bo'lmagan sohaga - umumiy shartnomaviy va boshqa nomoddiy narsalarga kirishlari kerak edi. Ushbu yangi bilim sohasi faylasuflar "institutsional faktlar" deb ataydigan narsalardan iborat - ularning mavjudligi, paradoksal ravishda, jamoat e'tiqodi yoki e'tiqodiga bog'liq.[125][172] Bir nechta primatologlar, evolyutsion psixologlar yoki antropologlar g'ayriinsoniy primatlarning kelajakdagi maqsadlar yo'lida birgalikda diqqat qilish, barqaror sadoqat yoki hamkorlik zarur darajalariga qodir deb hisoblashadi.[142][144][173]
Biosemiotiklar
"genetik kodni ochish bizning iyeroglifikadan ancha eski tilga egaligimizni, hayotning o'zi kabi qadimgi tilni, barcha tillarda eng jonli til - hatto uning harflari ko'rinmas va so'zlari ko'milgan bo'lsa ham tanamiz hujayralari. "
— Beadle, G.; Beadle, M. (1966). Hayot tili. Genetika faniga kirish. Nyu-York: Doubleday and Co.
Biosemiotiklar nisbatan yangi intizom bo'lib, asosan 1960-yillarning boshlarida genetik kod kashf etilishidan ilhomlangan. Uning asosiy taxminlari shu Homo sapiens kodlar va belgilarga tayanishda yolg'iz emas. Til va ramziy madaniyat biologik ildizlarga ega bo'lishi kerak, demak semiotik printsiplar hayvonot dunyosida ham qo'llanilishi kerak.
DNKning molekulyar tuzilishini kashf qilish, hayotni oxir-oqibat fizikaning asosiy qonunlari nuqtai nazaridan tushuntirish mumkin degan fikrga zid bo'lgan. Genetik alfavitdagi harflar "ma'noga" ega bo'lib tuyuldi, ammo ma'no fizikada hech qanday o'rin egallaydigan tushuncha emas. Tabiatshunoslar hamjamiyati dastlab bu qiyinchilikni "ma'lumot" tushunchasini qo'llash orqali hal qildi, ma'lumotni ma'nodan mustaqil deb hisobladi. Ammo jumboqning boshqacha echimi shundaki, fizika qonunlari o'z-o'zidan tabiat hodisalarini tushuntirish uchun hech qachon etarli emas. Aytaylik, Quyosh sistemamizdagi sayyoralarning o'ziga xos fizikaviy va kimyoviy xususiyatlarini tushuntirish uchun olimlar fizika qonunlari Quyosh paydo bo'lishidan keyin sodir bo'lgan hodisalarning muayyan ketma-ketliklari bilan qanday cheklanganligini aniqlashlari kerak.
Ga binoan Xovard Patti, xuddi shu printsip er yuzidagi hayot evolyutsiyasiga taalluqlidir, bu jarayonda ba'zi "muzlatilgan baxtsiz hodisalar" yoki "tabiiy cheklovlar" vaqti-vaqti bilan yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan evolyutsion natijalar sonini kamaytirgan. Kodlar, agar ular evolyutsion vaqt davomida barqarorligini isbotlasalar, ushbu turdagi cheklovlardir. Bunday "muzlatilgan baxtsiz hodisa" DNKning o'zini o'zi takrorlanadigan molekula sifatida paydo bo'lishi edi, ammo er yuzidagi hayot tarixi har biri yangi paydo bo'lishi sifatida kontseptsiya sifatida tasavvur qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan taqqoslanadigan dramatik hodisalar ketma-ketligi bilan tavsiflangan kod.[174] Shu nuqtai nazardan qaraganda, og'zaki nutqning evolyutsion tarzda paydo bo'lishi aslida yana bir xil voqea bo'ldi.[175][176][177]
Nogironlik tamoyili
1975 yilda isroillik nazariy biolog Amotz Zaxavi[178][179][180] yangi nazariyani taklif qildi, ammo munozarali bo'lsa ham, signallarning qanday rivojlanishi haqida Darvin fikrida hukmronlik qildi. Zaxavining "nogironlik printsipi" samarali bo'lishi uchun signallar ishonchli bo'lishi kerakligini ta'kidlaydi; ishonchli bo'lish uchun, ularga qilingan jismoniy mablag 'aldashni foydasiz qiladigan darajada yuqori bo'lishi kerak.
Paradoksal ravishda, agar bu mantiq qabul qilinadigan bo'lsa, tabiatdagi signallar samarali bo'lishga emas, aksincha, ishlab chiqilgan va vaqt va kuchni behuda sarflashga aylanadi. Tovus quyrug'i - bu klassik tasvir. Zaxavining nazariyasi shundan iboratki, no'xat erkaklar maqtanchoqlari va xiyla-nayranglarini qidirib topganligi sababli, ular shunchaki qimmatga tushadigan sifatni namoyish etishni talab qilishadi, chunki faqat chinakam tovus to'lashga qodir edi. Aytishga hojat yo'q, hayvonot dunyosidagi barcha signallar tovus quyrug'i kabi juda aniq emas. Ammo Zaxavi to'g'ri bo'lsa, barchasi uchun tanadan sarmoyalar kerak bo'ladi - bu signal beruvchini qandaydir tarzda "nogiron" qiladigan vaqt va kuch sarflash.
Hayvonlarning ovozi (Zaxaviyning so'zlariga ko'ra) ishonchli, chunki ular signal beruvchi tanasining holatini ishonchli aks ettiradi. Halollikdan hiyla-nayrang chaqirig'iga o'tish uchun hayvon boshqa tana holatini qabul qilishi kerak edi. Har qanday tana harakati o'zining maqbul boshlang'ich pozitsiyasiga ega bo'lganligi sababli, bu holatni yolg'on xabarni chiqarish uchun o'zgartirish haqiqatan ham mo'ljallangan harakatni bajarishga xalaqit beradi. Xiyonat qilish yo'li bilan erishilgan yutuqlar noto'g'ri pozitsiyani hisobga olgan holda etkazilgan zararni qoplay olmaydi va shuning uchun fony xabar uning narxiga arzimaydi.[180]p. 69 Bu, xususan, nega maymun va maymunlarning ovozli signallari inson tili tomonidan ishlab chiqariladigan turli xil nutq tovushlari bilan solishtirganda shunchalik o'zgaruvchan bo'lib rivojlanganligini tushuntirishi mumkin. Shimpanze vokalizatsiyasining aniq egiluvchanligi odamni kuzatuvchini hayratlanarli holga keltirishi mumkin, chunki biz egilmaslikni "soxta qilish" ma'nosida sezgir halol bo'lish bilan bog'lashimiz kerak.
Agar biz ushbu nazariyani qabul qilsak, nutqning paydo bo'lishi nazariy jihatdan imkonsiz bo'lib qoladi. Bunday turdagi aloqa rivojlana olmaydi.[93] Muammo shundaki, so'zlar arzon. Ularning akustik xususiyatlari haqida hech narsa tinglovchilarni ularning asl va soxta emasligiga ishontira olmaydi. Birovning tiliga, ehtimol tanadagi eng moslashuvchan organga ishonishning har qanday strategiyasi, misli ko'rilmagan halollik va ishonchni taxmin qiladi. Darvin mutafakkirlari bugungi kungacha jamoatchilik miqyosidagi hamkorlik va ishonchning kerakli darajasini tushuntirishga qiynalishgan.
Ta'sirchan standart darslik Hayvon signallari, tomonidan Jon Maynard Smit va Devid Xarper.[181] Ushbu mualliflar aloqa xarajatlarini ikki qismga bo'lishadi, (1) aniq signal uzatilishini ta'minlash uchun zarur bo'lgan sarmoyalar; (2) har bir signal ishonchli va soxta emasligiga kafolat berish uchun zarur bo'lgan sarmoyalar. Mualliflarning ta'kidlashicha, ikkinchi toifadagi xarajatlar nisbatan past bo'lishi mumkin, ammo ular nolga teng emas. Hatto nisbatan yumshatilgan, kooperativ ijtimoiy sharoitda ham, masalan, genetik qarindoshlar o'rtasida aloqa yuzaga kelganda - ishonchliligini kafolatlash uchun bir oz mablag 'sarflanishi kerak. Muxtasar qilib aytganda, juda samarali aloqa tushunchasi - muvaffaqiyatli etkazish uchun zarur bo'lgan harajatlardan tashqari barcha xarajatlarni yo'q qilish - biologik jihatdan haqiqiy emas. Shunga qaramay nutq aynan shu toifaga kiradi.
Grafik xarajatlar va foyda natijasida har xil signal intensivligini ko'rsatadi. Agar ikkita shaxs har xil xarajatlarga duch kelsa, lekin foydasi bir xil bo'lsa yoki foydasi boshqacha, lekin narxi bir xil bo'lsa, ular turli darajalarda signal berishadi. Signal qanchalik baland bo'lsa, yanada ishonchli sifatni anglatadi. Yuqori sifatli shaxs signallarning yuqori intensivligidagi foydalarga nisbatan xarajatlarni maksimal darajaga ko'taradi, past sifatli shaxs esa signallarning past intensivligidagi xarajatlarga nisbatan o'zlarining foydalarini maksimal darajada oshiradi. Yuqori sifatli shaxs ko'proq xavf-xatarga duchor bo'lishini ko'rsatmoqda (katta xarajat), uni halol signallar nuqtai nazaridan tushunish mumkin, bu qimmat. Siz qanchalik kuchliroq bo'lsangiz, signalning narxini shunchalik oson ko'tarishingiz mumkin, bu sizni yanada jozibali juftlik sherigiga aylantiradi. Sifatsiz shaxslar ma'lum bir signalni qabul qilishga qodir emaslar va shuning uchun turmush o'rtog'ini jalb qilish ehtimoli kamroq bo'ladi.[182]
Kognitiv tilshunoslik
Kognitiv tilshunoslik lingvistik tuzilmani doimiy ravishda ishlatilishdan kelib chiqadigan deb hisoblaydi. Ma'ruzachilar tovushlarni hosil qilish orqali ma'nolarni etkazishning yangi usullarini abadiy kashf etmoqdalar va ba'zi hollarda ushbu yangi strategiyalar odatiy holga aylanadi. Fonologik tuzilish va semantik tuzilish o'rtasida sababiy bog'liqlik mavjud emas. Buning o'rniga har bir yangi tovush va ma'no juftligi hayoliy sakrashni o'z ichiga oladi.
Ularning kitoblarida, Biz yashaydigan metafora, Jorj Lakoff va Mark Jonson ushbu yondashuvni kashshof qilishga yordam berdi va buni ta'kidladi metafora inson tafakkurini o'ziga xos qiladigan narsa. Ularning fikriga ko'ra, barcha tillar metafora bilan singib ketgan tashkil etadi insonga xos - ya'ni aniq mavhum - fikr. To'g'ridan-to'g'ri idrok etilmaydigan narsalarni - vaqt, hayot, aql, aql, jamiyat yoki adolat kabi nomoddiy narsalarni tasavvur qilish uchun biz harakat, joylashuv, masofa, kattalik va shu kabi aniqroq va bevosita seziladigan hodisalardan chiqishdan boshqa ilojimiz yo'q. oldinga. Lakoff va Jonsonning so'zlariga ko'ra, dunyodagi barcha madaniyatlarda odamlar o'xshash tanish metaforalarga murojaat qilishadi g'oyalar joylar, fikrlash harakatga keladi va ong tanadir. Masalan, biz "dalilimizdagi muhim nuqtaga kelish" g'oyasini so'zma-so'z bir jismoniy joydan ikkinchisiga sayohat qilgandek ifodalashimiz mumkin.
Metafora, ta'rifga ko'ra, tom ma'noda to'g'ri emas. To'liq aytganda, ular fantastika - pedantik nuqtai nazardan, hatto yolg'on. Ammo metafora uydirmalariga murojaat qila olmasak, hatto "g'oyalar", fikrlar, "aqllar" va boshqalar kabi tumanli hodisalarning kontseptual tasavvurlarini shakllantira olamizmi yoki yo'qmi shubhali.
Ushbu g'oyalarning nutqning kelib chiqishidagi hozirgi fikrlashga ta'sir etishi noaniq bo'lib qolmoqda. Bitta taklif shundan iboratki, maymunlar aloqasi ijtimoiy sabablarga ko'ra metaforaga qarshi turishga intiladi. Ular Darvin (axloqiy jihatdan tartibga solingan) ijtimoiy dunyosida yashaganliklari sababli, bu hayvonlar kuchli raqobatdosh bosim ostida emas patent uydirmalarini haqiqiy kommunikativ valyuta sifatida qabul qilish. Maymunlarning vokal aloqasi egiluvchan bo'lib, o'ta moslashuvchan tilni chetga surib qo'yadi, chunki tinglovchilar soxta bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan har qanday signalga shubha bilan qarashadi. Seziladigan aniqlikka bo'lgan bunday talab metafora bilan aniq mos kelmaydi. Bundan kelib chiqadiki, na aniq nutq va na insonning o'ziga xos mavhum tafakkuri ajdodlarimiz yanada hamkorlik qilib, bir-birlarining kommunikativ niyatlariga ishonch hosil qilguncha rivojlana olmagan bo'lishi mumkin.[117]
Tabiatshunoslik va ijtimoiy fan talqinlari
Ijtimoiy haqiqat
Amerikalik faylasufning fikriga ko'ra odamlar bir-biri bilan suhbatlashganda Jon Searl, ular boshqa turlar yashaydigan haqiqiy dunyoda emas, balki o'zimizga xos bo'lgan umumiy virtual sohada harakatlarni amalga oshirmoqdalar. Jismoniy ob'ektni harakatga keltirish uchun mushak harakatlarini tarqatishdan farqli o'laroq, joylashtirish ilokatsion kuch jismoniy harakat talab etilmaydi (nutqni ishlab chiqarish uchun til / og'iz harakati bundan mustasno) va har qanday o'lchash moslamasi aniqlay oladigan ta'sir qilmaydi. Buning o'rniga, bizning harakatlarimiz mutlaqo boshqacha darajada amalga oshiriladi ijtimoiy haqiqat. Ushbu turdagi haqiqat bir ma'noda gallyutsinativ bo'lib, jamoaviy qasddan hosil bo'ladi. Bu "qo'pol faktlar" dan emas, balki baribir mavjud bo'lgan, hech kimning e'tiqodidan qat'i nazar, mavjud bo'lgan faktlardan iborat, ammo "institutsional faktlardan" iborat bo'lib, siz ularga ishonganingizdagina mavjuddir. Hukumat, nikoh, fuqarolik va pul "institutsional faktlar" ga misoldir. Oddiy testni qo'llash orqali "qo'pol" va "institutsional" faktlarni farqlash mumkin. Hech kim haqiqatga ishonmadi deylik - bu hali ham to'g'ri bo'ladimi? Agar javob "ha" bo'lsa, u "qo'pol". Agar javob "yo'q" bo'lsa, u "institutsional" bo'ladi.[125]
"O'zimizga o'xshagan ozmi-ko'pmi ibtidoiy jonzotlarning bir guruhini tasavvur qiling ... Endi tasavvur qilingki, ular guruh bo'lib harakat qilib, ular yashaydigan joy atrofida to'siq, devor qurishadi ... Devor tajovuzkorlarni chetlab o'tish va saqlash uchun mo'ljallangan guruh a'zolari ... Faraz qilaylik, devor asta-sekin chiriydi, qolgan toshlar qatori qolguncha, u asta-sekin buzilib ketadi, ammo yashovchilar toshlar chizig'ini bajarishga qodir bo'lgandek muomala qilishda davom etishadi. Faraz qilaylik, aslida ular toshlar chizig'ini xuddi kesib o'tmaslik kerakligini tushungandek muomala qiladilar ... Bu siljish institutsional haqiqatni yaratishda hal qiluvchi qadamdir. Bu hayvonlar va jamiyatlardan farqli o'laroq, odamlarda o'ziga xos deb o'ylaydigan narsalarni yaratishdagi hal qiluvchi harakatdan kam emas. "
— Jon R. Searl (1995). Ijtimoiy haqiqat qurilishi. Bepul matbuot. p. 134.[125]
Umuman tilning nutqi va xususan nutq faktlari, shu nuqtai nazardan, "qo'pol" emas, balki "institutsional". Masalan, so'zning semantik ma'nosi, uning foydalanuvchilari qanday tasavvur qilsa, shunaqa. "So'zlar bilan ish qilish" bu virtual dunyoda ishlash deganidir, bu haqiqat bo'lib tuyuladi, chunki biz ularni umumiy deb bilamiz. Ushbu noaniq dunyoda fizika, kimyo va biologiya qonunlari amal qilmaydi. Bu nima uchun illokatsion kuchni mushak kuchini sarf qilmasdan tarqatish mumkinligini tushuntiradi. Maymunlar va maymunlar "qo'pol" dunyoda yashaydilar. Ta'sir qilish uchun ular baqirishlari, baqirishlari, tahdid qilishlari, yo'llaridan ozdirishlari yoki boshqa yo'llar bilan jismoniy kuch sarflashlari kerak. Agar ular shaxmat o'ynashga taklif qilinsa, ular donalarini bir-birlariga tashlashga qarshi turolmaydilar. Nutq unday emas. Tegishli sharoitlarda bir nechta til harakati parlamentni ochish, nikohni bekor qilish, ritsarlik huquqini berish yoki urush e'lon qilish uchun etarli bo'lishi mumkin.[172] Darvinshunoslik asosida bunday zohiriy sehr birinchi bo'lib qanday ishlay boshlaganini tushuntirish uchun biz qanday, qachon va nima uchun so'rashimiz kerak Homo sapiens institutsional faktlarning keng doirasini o'rnatishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.
Tabiatmi yoki jamiyatmi?
"Qo'pol faktlar ", so'zlashuv terminologiyasida faylasuf Jon Searl,[125] inson e'tiqodidan qat'i nazar, baribir haqiqat bo'lgan faktlardir. Siz tortishish kuchiga ishonmaysiz deylik: jarlikdan sakrab o'tsangiz, baribir yiqilasiz. Tabiatshunoslik bu kabi faktlarni o'rganishdir. "Institutsional faktlar" - bu insonda haqiqiy maqomga ega bo'lgan uydirmalar ijtimoiy institutlar. Monetar va tijorat faktlari bu kabi uydirmalar. Bugungi global valyuta tizimining murakkabligi, biz ularga ishonganimizdagina faktlardir: ishonchni to'xtatib turing va faktlar mos ravishda eriydi. Shunga qaramay, institutsional faktlar odamlarning e'tiqodiga asoslangan bo'lsa-da, bu ularni shunchaki buzilish yoki gallyutsinatsiya qilmaydi. Cho'ntagimdagi bu ikki besh funtlik banknotalar o'n funtga teng ekanligiga ishonch hosil qiling. Bu shunchaki mening sub'ektiv e'tiqodim emas: bu ob'ektiv, shubhasiz haqiqat. Ammo endi tasavvur qiling-a, aholining valyuta tizimiga bo'lgan ishonchi qulaydi. To'satdan cho'ntagimdagi haqiqatlar eriydi.
"Institutsional faktlar" tushunchasining ilmiy asoslanganligiga shubha qiladigan olimlar kiradi Noam Xomskiy, ular uchun til ijtimoiy emas. Xomskiyning fikriga ko'ra, til tabiiy ob'ekt (individual miyaning tarkibiy qismi) va uni o'rganish, shuning uchun tabiatshunoslikning bir bo'lagi. Tilning kelib chiqishini tushuntirishda ushbu intellektual lagerdagi olimlar ijtimoiy bo'lmagan o'zgarishlarga murojaat qilishadi - Xomskiy misolida tasodifiy genetik mutatsiya.[169] Xomskiy, agar biron bir kishi unga ishonmasa ham, mutantdan boshqa hech kim mavjud bo'lmagan taqdirda ham - hatto mutant gorilning miyasida ham til mavjud bo'lishi mumkin - va agar ko'rib chiqilayotgan gorilla uning mavjudligini bilmagan bo'lsa ham, aslida hech qachon gapirmasa ham .[183] Qarama-qarshi falsafiy lagerda bo'lganlar, an'anaga ko'ra Ferdinand de Sossyur, agar hech kim so'zlarga yoki qoidalarga ishonmasa, ular shunchaki mavjud bo'lmaydi, deb ta'kidlaydilar. Ushbu olimlar, o'z navbatida, tilni asosan institutsional deb hisoblaydilar va tilshunoslikni mavzu sifatida ko'rib chiqish kerak degan xulosaga kelishadi ijtimoiy fan. Tilning evolyutsion paydo bo'lishini tushuntirishda ushbu intellektual lagerdagi olimlar ijtimoiy munosabatlardagi chuqur o'zgarishlarni talab qilmoqdalar.[105][144][184]
Tanqid. Darvin olimlari bugungi kunda "tabiiy" va "ijtimoiy" fanlarni an'anaviy ravishda ajratib turishning ahamiyatini kam ko'rishmoqda. Darvinizm zamonaviy shaklida tabiatdagi hamkorlik va raqobatni o'rganish - bu ijtimoiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan mavzu.[185] Buning fonida evolyutsion tilshunoslar va darvin antropologlari orasida an'anaviy intizomiy to'siqlar nutqning kelib chiqishini tekshirish uchun zararli oqibatlarga olib kelishi mumkinligi to'g'risida xabardorlik kuchaymoqda.[186][187][188]
Shuningdek qarang
- Hayvonlarning aloqasi
- Hayvonlarda aldash
- Evolyutsion antropologiya
- Evolyutsion tilshunoslik
- Tillarning kelib chiqishi to'g'risida esse
- Inson evolyutsiyasi
- Tilni o'rganish
- Lingvistik antropologiya
- Lingvistik universallar
- Tilning neyrobiologik kelib chiqishi
- Jamiyatning kelib chiqishi
- Tilning kelib chiqishi
- Jismoniy antropologiya
- Proto-til
- Proto-inson tili
- Zamonaviy odamlarning so'nggi Afrika kelib chiqishi
- Signal nazariyasi
- Ijtimoiy evolyutsiya
- Ijtimoiy-madaniy evolyutsiya
- Ramziy madaniyat
- Umumjahon grammatika
Izohlar
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Tashqi havolalar
- Interactive sagittal section
- Design features of speech
- Evolution of speech (anatomical and neural bases).
- Ritual and the origins of language.
- Xomskiyni dekodlash
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