Tilshunoslik - Linguistics

Ushbu maqola o'rganish sohasi haqida. Jurnal uchun qarang Tilshunoslik (jurnal).
"Tilshunos" bu erga yo'naltiradi. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Tilshunos olim (ajratish).
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Tilshunoslik
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Tilshunoslik bo'ladi ilmiy o'rganish til.[1] Bu tilni tahlil qilishni o'z ichiga oladi shakl, til ma'no va til kontekst[2], shuningdek, tilga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan ijtimoiy, madaniy, tarixiy va siyosiy omillarni tahlil qilish.[3]

Tilshunoslar an'anaviy ravishda o'zaro bog'liqlikni kuzatish orqali inson tilini tahlil qiladilar tovush va ma'no.[4] Ning paydo bo'lishi tarixiy va evolyutsion tilshunoslik shuningdek, tillarning qanday o'zgarishi va o'sishi, xususan kengaytirilgan vaqt bo'yicha intizomiy e'tiborni oshirishga olib keldi vaqt davri.[5]

Makrolingvistik tushunchalarga o'rganish kiradi hikoya nazariya, stilistika, nutq tahlil qilish va semiotikalar. Mikrolingvistik tushunchalar esa tahlil qilish va qo'llashni o'z ichiga oladi grammatika, nutq tovushlari, paleografik belgilar, leksikografiya, tahrirlash, til hujjatlari shu qatorda; shu bilan birga nutq-til patologiyasi (fonetik nuqsonlarni va buzilishlarni davolash uchun tuzatuvchi usul kognitiv Daraja).

Ichidagi eng dastlabki faoliyat hujjatlar va tilning tavsifi ga tegishli bo'lgan Miloddan avvalgi VI asr Hind grammatik Pokini[6][7] kimning rasmiy tavsifini yozgan Sanskrit tili uning ichida Aṣṭadhyāyī.[8] Bugungi kunda zamonaviy nazariyalar grammatika o'sha paytlarda yaratilgan ko'plab printsiplardan foydalaning.[9]

Asosiy sub'ektlar

Tarixiy tilshunoslik

Asosiy maqola: Tarixiy tilshunoslik

Tarixiy lingvistika - bu tilning o'zgarishini, xususan ma'lum bir til yoki tillar guruhiga nisbatan o'rganadigan fan. Tarixiy tilshunoslik tilshunoslikda birinchi bo'lib paydo bo'lgan sub-fanlar qatoriga kirgan va 19-asr oxirida tilshunoslikning eng ko'p qo'llanilgan shakli bo'lgan.[iqtibos kerak ] Yigirmanchi asrda fokusning rasmiyatchilik tomon siljishi va generativ grammatika, ni o'rganadigan universal o'rniga tilning xususiyatlari. Biroq, tarixiy tadqiqotlar bugungi kunda lingvistik tadqiqotlarning muhim sohasi bo'lib qolmoqda. Intizomning pastki sohalariga quyidagilar kiradi tilni o'zgartirish va grammatiklashtirish tadqiqotlar. Tarixiy tilshunoslik ham til o'zgarishini o'rganadi diaxronik ravishda (o'tmish bilan hozirgi davr o'rtasidagi turli xil davrlarni taqqoslash orqali), yoki a sinxron uslub (tilning hozirgi lingvistik bosqichida mavjud bo'lgan turli xil o'zgarishlarning rivojlanishini kuzatish).

G'arbiy zamonaviy tarixiy tilshunoslik 18-asr oxiridan boshlanadi. Bu avvalgi intizomdan o'sdi filologiya,[10] qadimgi matnlar va hujjatlarni o'rganish qadimiylik.

Dastlab tarixiy tilshunoslik asos bo'lib xizmat qildi qiyosiy tilshunoslik birinchi navbatda lingvistik qayta qurish vositasi sifatida.[11] Olimlar asosan tillar oilalarini yaratish va tarixdan oldingi proto-tillarni qayta tiklash bilan shug'ullanishgan qiyosiy usul va ichki qayta qurish.[11] Dastlab asosiy e'tibor taniqli kishilarga qaratildi Hind-evropa tillari, ularning ko'plari uzoq yozma tarixga ega bo'lgan; olimlar ham o'rganganlar Ural tillari, kamroq yozma materiallar mavjud bo'lgan yana bir Evropa tillari oilasi. O'shandan beri Evropa tillaridan tashqarida ham kengaytirilgan sezilarli qiyosiy lingvistik ishlar mavjud edi, masalan Avstronesiya tillari va turli xil oilalar Mahalliy Amerika tillari, boshqalar qatorida. Qiyosiy tilshunoslik hozirgi paytda tarixiy tilshunoslikning kengroq o'ylangan intizomining faqat bir qismidir. Hind-evropa tillari uchun qiyosiy o'rganish hozirgi kunda juda ixtisoslashgan yo'nalish hisoblanadi. Tadqiqotlarning aksariyati ushbu tillarning keyingi rivojlanishi, xususan, zamonaviy standart navlarini yaratish bo'yicha olib borilmoqda.

Ba'zi olimlar, masalan, hind-evropa, Ural va boshqa oilalarni bir-biriga bog'lab, super-oilalarni o'rnatishga qaratilgan tadqiqotlar o'tkazdilar. Nostratik. Ushbu urinishlar keng qabul qilinmadi. Qarindoshlikni aniqlash uchun zarur bo'lgan ma'lumotlar vaqt chuqurligi oshgani sayin kamroq bo'ladi. Til guruhlari o'rtasidagi tasodifiy so'zlarning o'xshashligi va xilma-xilligi sababli lingvistik metodlarning vaqt chuqurligi cheklangan, ammo ko'pincha 10 000 yil chegarasi taxmin qilinadi.[12] Turli xil proto-tillarni tanishish ham qiyin; tanishish uchun bir nechta usullar mavjud, ammo faqat taxminiy natijalarga erishish mumkin.

Sintaksis va morfologiya

Asosiy maqolalar: Sintaksis va Morfologiya (tilshunoslik)

Sintaksis va morfologiya tilshunoslikning so'zlar va kabi mazmunli lisoniy birliklarning tartibi va tuzilishi bilan bog'liq bo'lgan sohalari. morfemalar. Sintaksislar tilda notiqlarning so'zlarni jumlaga qanday tartiblashini belgilaydigan qoidalar va cheklovlarni o'rganadilar. Morfologlar morfemalar tartibining o'xshash qoidalarini o'rganadilar - prefiks va qo'shimchalar kabi sub-so'z birliklari - va ularni qanday qilib so'zlarni yaratish mumkin.

So'zlar bilan birga klitika, odatda, eng kichik birliklari sifatida qabul qilinadi sintaksis, aksariyat tillarda, hammasi bo'lmasa ham, ko'p so'zlarni boshqa so'zlar bilan umumiy tarzda tavsiflaydigan qoidalar bilan bog'lash mumkin grammatika o'sha til uchun. Masalan, Ingliz tili ma'ruzachilar so'zlarni tan olishadi it va itlar bilan chambarchas bog'liq, faqat tomonidan farqlanadi ko'plik morfema "-s", faqat topilgan bog'langan ga ot iboralari. Ingliz tilida so'zlashuvchilar, a fuzion til, ushbu munosabatlarni ingliz tili qoidalarini tug'ma bilishlari bilan tan oling so'z yasalishi. Ular intuitiv ravishda shunday xulosaga kelishadi it ga itlar kabi mushuk ga mushuklar; va shunga o'xshash tarzda, it ga it ovlovchi kabi taom ga idish yuvish mashinasi. Aksincha, Klassik xitoy deyarli faqat bog'lanmagan morfemalardan ("erkin" morfemalardan) foydalangan holda va juda kam morfologiyaga ega. so'zlar tartibi ma'no etkazish. (Ko'p so'zlar zamonaviy Standart xitoy ["Mandarin"], ammo birikmalar va eng ko'p ildizlar bog'langan.) Bular til morfologiyasini ifodalovchi grammatikalar sifatida tushuniladi. Notiq tomonidan tushunilgan qoidalar so'zlarning ular foydalanadigan tildagi kichik birliklardan shakllanishida va ushbu kichik birliklarning nutqda o'zaro ta'sirida muayyan qonuniyatlarni yoki qonuniyatlarni aks ettiradi. Shu tarzda, morfologiya - bu tilshunoslikning tillar ichida va ular bo'ylab so'z yasash qonuniyatlarini o'rganadigan va shu tillarda so'zlashuvchilarning bilimlarini modellashtiradigan qoidalarni shakllantirishga harakat qiladigan bo'limi.

Fonologik va orfografik asosiy so'z va uning kelib chiqishi o'rtasidagi o'zgartirishlar qisman bo'lishi mumkin savodxonlik ko'nikmalar. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, fonologiya va orfografiyada modifikatsiyaning mavjudligi morfologik jihatdan murakkab so'zlarni tushunishni qiyinlashtiradi va tayanch so'z va uning kelib chiqishi o'rtasida modifikatsiyaning yo'qligi morfologik jihatdan murakkab so'zlarni tushunishni osonlashtiradi. Morfologik jihatdan murakkab so'zlarni tarkibiga tayanch so'z kiritilganda osonroq tushuniladi.[13]

Polisintetik tillar, kabi Chukchi, ko'plab morfemalardan tashkil topgan so'zlarga ega. Chukchining "tameyŋelevtpteγt qilingan" so'zi, masalan, "qattiq bosh og'rig'im bor" degan ma'noni anglatadi, sakkizta morfemadan iborat. t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rken bo'lishi mumkin yaltiroq. Bunday tillarning morfologiyasi har biriga imkon beradi undosh va unli deb tushunish kerak morfemalar, tilning grammatikasi esa har bir morfemadan foydalanish va tushunishni bildiradi.

Morfemalarda yuzaga keladigan tovush o'zgarishlari bilan bog'liq bo'lgan intizom morfofonologiya.

Semantik va pragmatik

Asosiy maqolalar: Semantik va Pragmatik

Semantika va pragmatikalar tilshunoslikning ma'no bilan bog'liq sohalaridir. Ushbu subfildlar an'anaviy ravishda ma'no aniqlashda lingvistik va ijtimoiy kontekstning roli bilan bo'lingan. Ushbu tushunchadagi semantika asosiy ma'nolarga va kontekstdagi ma'noga oid pragmatikaga taalluqlidir. Pragmatikani qamrab oladi nutq harakati nazariya, suhbat imlikatsiya, o'zaro aloqada suhbatlashish til xatti-harakatlariga va boshqa yondashuvlarga falsafa, sotsiologiya, tilshunoslik va antropologiya.[14] Aksincha semantik, ma'lum bir tilda an'anaviy yoki "kodlangan" ma'noni tekshiradigan, pragmatik ma'no uzatilishining nafaqat tarkibiy va lingvistik bilimlarga bog'liqligini o'rganadi (grammatika, leksika ma'ruzachi va tinglovchining so'zlari, shuningdek, so'zlashuv kontekstida,[15] ishtirok etganlar haqida xulosalar qilingan har qanday oldindan mavjud bo'lgan bilimlar niyat ma'ruzachi va boshqa omillar.[16] Shu nuqtai nazardan, pragmatiklar til foydalanuvchilari qanday qilib ko'rinishni engib o'tishlari mumkinligini tushuntiradi noaniqlik chunki ma'no gapning uslubiga, joyiga, vaqtiga va boshqalarga bog'liq.[14][17]

Fonetika va fonologiya

Asosiy maqolalar: Fonetika va Fonologiya

Fonetika va fonologiya - bu tilshunoslikning tovushlar (yoki imo-ishora tillarining ekvivalent jihatlari) bilan bog'liq sohalari. Fonetika asosan tovushlarning jismoniy jihatlari, masalan, ularning akustikasi, ishlab chiqarilishi va idrok etilishi bilan shug'ullanadi. Fonologiya tovushlarning lingvistik abstraktsiyalari va toifalari bilan bog'liq.

Til navlari

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Turli xillik (tilshunoslik)

Tillar lahjalar va tillar kabi tushunchalar o'rtasida loyqa bo'linish bilan keng tarqalgan an'anaviylashuvda mavjud. Tillar ichki o'zgarishlarni boshdan kechirishi mumkin, bu esa kichik navlarni rivojlanishiga olib keladi lingvistik registrlar, aksanlar va lahjalar. Xuddi shunday, tillar boshqa tillarda so'zlashuvchilar bilan aloqa qilish natijasida yuzaga keladigan o'zgarishlarga duch kelishi mumkin va ushbu aloqa holatlaridan yangi til navlari tug'ilishi mumkin. til genezisi.

Aloqa turlari

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Kreolistika

Pidgin va kreol kabi aloqa navlari ko'pincha turli xil tillarda so'zlashadigan jamoalar o'rtasidagi doimiy aloqalar sharoitida paydo bo'ladigan til navlari hisoblanadi. Pidginlar fikrlar soddalashtirilgan grammatikalar orqali etkaziladigan cheklangan konventsiyalashgan til navlari bo'lib, ular lingvistik aloqa davom etganda yanada murakkablashishi mumkin. Kreol tillari pidginlarga o'xshash, ammo an'anaviy va barqarorlikka ega bo'lgan til navlari. Bolalar aloqa sharoitida o'sib ulg'ayganlarida, mahalliy pidjinni ona tili sifatida o'rganishlari mumkin. Ushbu egallash va uzatish jarayoni orqali yangi grammatik xususiyatlar va leksik elementlar yaratiladi va to'ldirish uchun kiritiladi bo'shliqlar pidginda oxir-oqibat to'liq tilga aylanadi.

Hamma til bilan aloqa qilish holatlari pidgin yoki kreolning paydo bo'lishiga olib kelmaydi va tadqiqotchilar kontakt turlarining rivojlanish ehtimoli yuqori bo'lgan kontakt vaziyatlarini o'rganishdi. Ko'pincha bu navlar vaziyatlarda paydo bo'ladi mustamlaka va qullik, bu erda kuch muvozanatining buzilishi aloqa guruhlarining boshqaning tilini o'rganishiga to'sqinlik qiladi, ammo baribir doimiy aloqalar saqlanib qoladi. Quvvat munosabatlaridagi bo'ysungan til substrat tili, dominant til esa sifatida xizmat qiladi superstrat. Ko'pincha aloqa xilma-xilligi so'zlari va leksikasi superstratdan kelib chiqadi va buni amalga oshiradi leksifikator, grammatik tuzilmalar substratdan kelib chiqqan bo'lsa-da, lekin bu har doim ham shunday emas.[18]

Dialekt

Dialekt - bu xilma-xillik ning til bu til ma'ruzachilari orasida ma'lum bir guruhga xosdir.[19] Dialektning ma'ruzachisi bo'lgan odamlar guruhi, odatda, bir-biriga ijtimoiy o'ziga xoslik bilan bog'liqdir. Bu shevani a dan ajratib turadigan narsa ro'yxatdan o'tish yoki a nutq, agar ikkinchi holatda, madaniy o'ziga xoslik har doim ham rol o'ynamaydi. Dialektlar - bu o'ziga xos grammatik va fonologik qoidalar, lingvistik xususiyatlar va uslubiy jihatlarga ega, ammo til sifatida rasmiy maqomga ega bo'lmagan nutq navlari. Lahjalar ko'pincha siyosiy va ijtimoiy sabablarga ko'ra til maqomini olish uchun harakat qiladi. Boshqa paytlarda, ayniqsa, marginallashgan ijtimoiy guruhlar bilan bog'liq bo'lganida, dialektlar marginallashgan bo'lib qoladi.[20][sahifa kerak ] Dialektlar (va keyinchalik, tillar) o'rtasidagi farqlash har doim ham leksik foydalanish yoki so'z boyligiga bog'liq bo'lmasa ham, grammatik qoidalar, sintaktik qoidalar va uslubiy xususiyatlardan foydalanishga asoslangan. "" Degan mashhur so'ztil - bu armiya va flotga ega bo'lgan dialekt "tomonidan ta'riflangan ta'rif sifatida berilgan Maks Vaynrix.

"Biz har bir inson o'z shevamizni yaxshi ko'rishimiz mumkin. Ammo bu bizni aslida boshqa shevalarga qaraganda yaxshiroq deb o'ylamasligi kerak. Lahjalar yaxshi yoki yomon, yoqimli yoki yoqimsiz, to'g'ri yoki noto'g'ri emas - ular bir-biridan shunchaki farq qiladi va bu turli millatlar, dinlar va jinslarga toqat qilgani kabi, turli dialektlarga ham toqat qilayotgani madaniyatli jamiyatning belgisidir. "[21]

Standart til

Agar dialekt uning grammatikasining lisoniy tavsifi orqali etarli darajada hujjatlashtirilsa, u o'z jamoasining ichidan kelishilgan qonunlar orqali paydo bo'lgan bo'lsa, u mamlakat yoki mintaqaning siyosati orqali siyosiy va milliy tan olinishga erishadi. Bu tilni ko'rib chiqadigan bosqich standart xilma, grammatik qonunlari hozirda uning roziligi ichidan barqarorlashgan nutq hamjamiyati ishtirokchilar, etarli evolyutsiya, improvizatsiya, tuzatish va o'sishdan keyin. Ingliz tili, ehtimol frantsuz tilidan tashqari, standart navlarga aylangan degan bosqichga kelgan tillarga misol bo'lishi mumkin.

Nisbiylik

Kabi mashhur tarzda qurilgan Sapir-Vorf gipotezasi, relyativistlar ma'lum bir tilning tuzilishi, inson uni shakllantiradigan bilim naqshlariga ta'sir ko'rsatishga qodir, deb hisoblashadi. dunyo ko'rinishi. Universalistlar, insonning tilga bo'lgan qobiliyatida bo'lgani kabi, odamni idrok qilish o'rtasida umumiylik bor deb hisoblasa, relyativistlar bu har bir tilda va odamda odamda turlicha ekanligiga ishonishadi. Sapir-Vorf gipotezasi bu fikrni amerikalik tilshunoslarning asarlari orqali ifoda etilgan bo'lsa-da. Edvard Sapir va Benjamin Li Vorf, bu Sapirning shogirdi edi Garri Xoyyer kim buni shunday atadi. 20-asr nemis tilshunosi Leo Vaysgerber nisbiylik nazariyasi haqida ham keng yozgan. Relativistlar differentsiatsiya holatini bilish darajasida va semantik sohalarda bahslashadilar. Ning paydo bo'lishi kognitiv tilshunoslik 1980-yillarda lingvistik nisbiylikka bo'lgan qiziqish ham tiklandi. Mutafakkirlar yoqadi Jorj Lakoff frantsuz tilining faylasufi bo'lsa, til turli xil madaniy metaforalarni aks ettiradi, deb ta'kidladilar Jak Derrida yozuvlari, ayniqsa haqida dekonstruktsiya,[22] tilshunoslikdagi relyativistik harakat bilan chambarchas bog'liq bo'lganligi ko'rinib turibdi, chunki u vafot etganda ommaviy axborot vositalarida qattiq tanqid qilindi.[23]

Tuzilmalar

Til tuzilmalari bu ma'no va shakl juftligi. Ma'no va shaklning har qanday o'ziga xos juftligi a Sussuriy imzo. Masalan, "mushuk" ma'nosi dunyo miqyosida turli xil tovush shakllari (og'zaki tillarda), qo'llar va yuzlar harakati ( imo-ishora tillari ) va yozma belgilar (yozma tillarda). Lingvistik naqshlar ularning ahamiyatini isbotladi bilim muhandisligi Maydon, ayniqsa, mavjud ma'lumotlarning tobora ko'payib borishi bilan.

Tilshunoslar o'zlarining tuzilmalariga e'tibor qaratib, ona tilida so'zlashuvchilar biladigan (har doim ham ongli ravishda emas) tillardan foydalanish qoidalarini tushunishga harakat qilishadi. Barcha lingvistik tuzilmalarni bir necha darajadagi tahlillar asosida ongli qoidalar (sub) bo'yicha birlashtirilgan tarkibiy qismlarga ajratish mumkin. Masalan, "o'ninchi" so'zining ikki xil darajadagi tahlilini ko'rib chiqing. Ichki so'z tuzilishi darajasida (morfologiya deb ataladi) "o'ninchi" so'zi raqamni ko'rsatadigan bir lingvistik shakldan va tartiblilikni ko'rsatadigan boshqa shakldan iborat. Ushbu shakllarning kombinatsiyasini tartibga soluvchi qoida "th" tartib belgisining "o'n" raqamiga amal qilishini ta'minlaydi. Ovoz tuzilishi darajasida (fonologiya deb nomlanuvchi) strukturaviy tahlil shuni ko'rsatadiki, "o'ninchi" dagi "n" tovushi yolg'iz gapiriladigan "o'n" dagi "n" tovushidan farq qiladi. Garchi ingliz tilida so'zlashuvchilarning aksariyati "o'ninchi" so'z qismlarining ichki tuzilishini tartibga soluvchi qoidalardan ongli ravishda xabardor bo'lishsa-da, uning tovush tuzilishini tartibga soluvchi qoidani kamroq bilishadi. Tilshunoslar bu kabi qoidalarni topishga va tahlil qilishga e'tibor qaratdilar, bu esa ona tilida so'zlashuvchilarning tildan qanday foydalanishini boshqaradi.

Grammatika

Grammatika ishlab chiqarish va foydalanishni boshqaradigan qoidalar tizimidir so'zlar ma'lum bir tilda. Ushbu qoidalar tovushga tegishli[24] shuningdek, ma'noga tegishli va shunga o'xshash qoidalarning tarkibiy qismlarini o'z ichiga oladi fonologiya (fonetik tovush tizimlarini tashkil etish), morfologiya (so'zlarning shakllanishi va tarkibi), va sintaksis (iboralar va jumlalarning shakllanishi va tarkibi).[25] Zamonaviy grammatika tamoyillari bilan shug'ullanadigan ramkalar o'z ichiga oladi tizimli va funktsional tilshunoslik va generativ tilshunoslik.[26]

Tilni grammatik jihatdan o'rganishga yo'naltirilgan kichik sohalarga quyidagilar kiradi.

  • Fonetika, nutq tovushini hosil qilish va idrok etishning fizik xususiyatlarini o'rganish va ularning akustik va artikulyatsion xususiyatlarini o'rganish
  • Fonologiya, ma'nolarni ajratib turadigan tovushlarni ma'ruzachi ongida mavhum elementlar sifatida o'rganish (fonemalar )
  • Morfologiya, o'rganish morfemalar, yoki so'zlarning ichki tuzilmalari va ularni qanday o'zgartirish mumkinligi
  • Sintaksis, so'zlarning birlashib grammatik so'z birikmalarini qanday hosil qilishini o'rganish jumlalar
  • Semantik, so'zlarning ma'nosini o'rganish (leksik semantika ) va sobit so'z birikmalari (frazeologizm ), va ular qanday qilib birlashganda ma'nolari jumlalar, shuningdek boshqarish va hal qilish noaniqlik.[27]
  • Pragmatik, qanday o'rganish so'zlar ichida ishlatiladi kommunikativ harakatlar va situatsion kontekst va lisoniy bo'lmagan bilimlarning ma'no uzatishda tutgan o'rni [28]
  • Nutqni tahlil qilish, til ishlatilishini tahlil qilish matnlar (og'zaki, yozma yoki imzolangan)
  • Stilistika, nutqni kontekstga joylashtiradigan lingvistik omillarni o'rganish (ritorika, diktsiya, stress)
  • Semiotikalar, belgilar va belgilar jarayonlarini o'rganish (semioz), ko'rsatma, belgilash, o'xshashlik, o'xshashlik, metafora, ramziy ma'no, ishora va aloqa

Nutq

Diskurs - bu ijtimoiy amaliyot sifatida til (Baynxem, 1995) va ko'p qavatli tushuncha. Ijtimoiy amaliyot sifatida nutq yozma va og'zaki matnlar orqali turli xil mafkuralarni o'zida mujassam etadi. Nutqni tahlil qilish ushbu mafkuralarni o'rganishi yoki fosh qilishi mumkin. Diskurs turli vaziyatlarga qarab tanlangan janrga ta'sir qiladi va nihoyat, mikro darajada, nutq tilga fonologik yoki leksiko-grammatik darajada matn (og'zaki yoki yozma) sifatida ta'sir qiladi. Grammatika va nutq tizimning bir qismi sifatida bog'langan.[29] Muayyan nutq ma'lum bir maqsadda shu tarzda ishlatilganda tilning xilma-xilligiga aylanadi va a deb nomlanadi ro'yxatdan o'tish.[30] Ehtimol aniq bo'lishi mumkin leksik ma'lum bir ixtisoslashuv doirasidagi odamlar jamoasining tajribasi tufayli o'yinga kiritilgan qo'shimchalar (yangi so'zlar). Shuning uchun registrlar va nutqlar ulardan foydalanish orqali ajralib turadi lug'at va ba'zida uslubni qo'llash orqali ham. Masalan, tibbiy birodarlikdagi odamlar o'zlarining muloqotlarida tibbiyot sohasiga ixtisoslashgan ba'zi tibbiy terminologiyalardan foydalanishlari mumkin. Bu ko'pincha "tibbiy nutq" ning bir qismi deb nomlanadi va hokazo.

Leksika

The leksika ma'ruzachi ongida saqlanadigan so'zlar va atamalar katalogidir. Leksika quyidagilardan iborat so'zlar va bog'langan morfemalar kabi so'zlar yolg'iz turolmaydigan qismlardir affikslar. Ba'zi tahlillarda qo'shma so'zlar va ba'zi bir iborali iboralar sinflari va boshqa so'zlashuvlar ham leksikaning bir qismi hisoblanadi. Lug'atlar ma'lum bir til leksikasini alifbo tartibida ro'yxatlash urinishlarini anglatadi; odatda bog'langan morfemalar kiritilmaydi. Leksikografiya, semantikaning sohasi bilan chambarchas bog'liq bo'lib, so'zlarni an ga xaritalash fani ensiklopediya yoki a lug'at. Yangi so'zlarni yaratish va qo'shilishi (leksikonga) biriktirish yoki neologizatsiya,[31] va yangi so'zlar chaqiriladi neologizmlar.

Spikerning tilga layoqati leksikada saqlanadigan so'zlar soniga bog'liq deb ko'pincha ishonishadi. Biroq, bu ko'pincha tilshunoslar tomonidan afsona sifatida qabul qilinadi. Tildan foydalanish qobiliyati ko'plab tilshunoslar tomonidan asosan grammatika sohasiga kiradi va ular bilan bog'liq vakolat, so'z boyligining o'sishi bilan emas. Hatto juda kichik leksikon ham nazariy jihatdan cheksiz ko'p jumla ishlab chiqarishga qodir.

Uslub

Stilistika shuningdek, yozma, imzolangan yoki og'zaki ravishda o'rganishni o'z ichiga oladi nutq turli xil nutq jamoalari orqali, janrlar, va tahririyat yoki hikoya ommaviy axborot vositalaridagi formatlar.[32] Bunda matnlarni lingvistik va tonal uslubining jihatlari bo'yicha o'rganish va izohlash kiradi. Uslubiy tahlil xususiylikni tavsiflashni tahlil qilishni talab qiladi lahjalar va registrlar nutq jamoalari tomonidan ishlatiladi. Uslubiy xususiyatlarga quyidagilar kiradi ritorika,[33] diktsiya, stress, satira, kinoya, dialog va fonetik o'zgarishlarning boshqa shakllari. Uslubiy tahlil shuningdek, tilni kanonik adabiyot asarlarida, ommabop fantastika, yangiliklar, reklama va ommaviy madaniyatdagi boshqa aloqa shakllarida o'rganishni ham o'z ichiga olishi mumkin. Odatda bu ma'ruzachidan ma'ruzachiga va jamoadan jamoaga o'zgaradigan muloqotning o'zgarishi sifatida qaraladi. Qisqacha aytganda, stilistika - bu matnning talqini.

1960-yillarda, Jak Derrida Masalan, yozma tilni o'zaro muloqotning lingvistik vositasi sifatida o'rganishni taklif qilib, nutq va yozuv o'rtasidagi farqni yanada yaxshilaydi.[34] Paleografiya shuning uchun yozma skriptlarning evolyutsiyasini (alomat va belgi sifatida) tilda o'rganadigan intizom.[35] Tilni rasmiy o'rganish ham shunga o'xshash sohalarning o'sishiga olib keldi psixolingvistika, bu tilning ongdagi vakili va funktsiyasini o'rganadigan; neyrolingvistika, miyada tilni qayta ishlashni o'rganadigan; biolingvistika tilning biologiyasi va evolyutsiyasini o'rganadigan; va tilni o'rganish bolalar va kattalar bir yoki bir nechta tilni qanday egallashini o'rganadigan tadqiqot.

Yondashuvlar

Shuningdek qarang: Til nazariyasi

Gumanistik

Gumanistik tilshunoslikning asosiy printsipi shundaki, til odamlar tomonidan yaratilgan ixtiro. A semiotik lingvistik tadqiqotlar an'anasi tilni ko'rib chiqadi a imo-ishora tizimi ma'no va shaklning o'zaro ta'siridan kelib chiqadi.[36] Lingvistik darajalarni tashkil etish ko'rib chiqiladi hisoblash.[37] Tilshunoslik mohiyati bilan bog'liq deb qaraladi ijtimoiy va madaniyatshunoslik chunki turli tillar shakllangan ijtimoiy o'zaro ta'sir tomonidan nutq hamjamiyati.[38] -Ni ifodalovchi ramkalar gumanistik tilning ko'rinishini o'z ichiga oladi tarkibiy tilshunoslik, Boshqalar orasida.

Strukturaviy tahlil har bir lingvistik darajani: fonetik, morfologik, sintaktik va diskursni eng kichik birliklarga ajratishni anglatadi. Ular tuzilmalar va qatlamlar ierarxiyasi doirasida o'zaro bog'liqligini o'rganish uchun zaxiralarga (masalan, fonema, morfema, leksik sinflar, iboralar turlari) to'planadi.[39] Funktsional tahlil tarkibiy tahlilga har bir birlik ega bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan semantik va boshqa funktsional rollarni tayinlashni qo'shadi. Masalan, ot so`z birikmasi gapning predmeti yoki predmeti vazifasini bajarishi mumkin; yoki agent yoki sabrli.[40]

Funktsional lingvistika, yoki funktsional grammatika - bu tarkibiy tilshunoslikning bir bo'lagi. Gumanistik ma'lumotnomada atamalar strukturalizm va funktsionalizm ularning boshqa insoniy fanlardagi ma'nosi bilan bog'liq. Rasmiy va funktsional strukturalizmning farqi shundaki, ikkala yondashuv tillarning nima uchun ularga xos xususiyatlarga ega bo'lishini tushuntiradi. Funktsional tushuntirish til uchun vosita degan fikrni keltirib chiqaradi aloqa, yoki aloqa tilning asosiy vazifasi. Binobarin, lingvistik shakllar ularning funktsional qiymati yoki foydasiga murojaat qilish bilan izohlanadi. Boshqa strukturalistik yondashuvlar ikki tomonlama va ko'p qatlamli til tizimining ichki mexanizmlaridan kelib chiqadigan istiqbolga ega.[41]

Biologik

Boshqa tilshunoslik asoslari boshlang'ich nuqtasi sifatida til a degan tushunchani oladi biologik hodisa odamlarda. Generativ grammatika bu an tug'ma lingvistik tuzilish.[42] Strukturaviy tilshunoslikdan farqli o'laroq, Generative Grammar bu tushunchani rad etadi ma'no yoki ijtimoiy o'zaro ta'sir tilga ta'sir qiladi.[43] Buning o'rniga, barcha inson tillari a kristallangan tuzilish sabab bo'lishi mumkin mutatsiya faqat odamlarda.[44] Tilshunoslikni o'rganish ushbu faraz qilingan tuzilmani o'rganish sifatida qaraladi.[45]

Kognitiv tilshunoslik, aksincha, tug'ma grammatika tushunchasini rad etadi va inson miyasining lingvistikasini qanday yaratishini o'rganadi inshootlar tadbirdan sxemalar,[46] va kognitiv cheklovlarning ta'siri va tarafkashlik inson tili haqida.[47] Xuddi shunday neyro-lingvistik dasturlash, tiliga. orqali murojaat qilinadi hislar.[48][49][50] Kognitiv tilshunoslar mujassamlash tegishli iboralarni izlash orqali bilim modal sxemalar.[51]

Yaqindan bog'liq bo'lgan yondashuv evolyutsion tilshunoslik[52] kabi til birliklarini o'rganishni o'z ichiga oladi madaniy replikatorlar.[53][54] Qanday qilib tilni o'rganish mumkin nusxalari va moslashadi uchun aql ning individual yoki nutq hamjamiyati.[55][56] Qurilish grammatikasi qo'llanadigan ramka mem sintaksisni o'rganish uchun tushuncha.[57][58][59][60]

Ba'zida generativ va evolyutsion yondashuv deyiladi rasmiyatchilik va funktsionalizm navbati bilan.[61] Ushbu ma'lumotnoma atamalarning ishlatilishidan farq qiladi insoniyat fanlari.[62]

Metodika

Tilshunoslik birinchi navbatda tavsiflovchi.[2] Tilshunoslar tilning xususiyatlarini ma'lum bir xususiyat yoki ishlatilishning "yaxshi" yoki "yomon" ekanligi to'g'risida sub'ektiv hukm qilmasdan tasvirlaydilar va tushuntiradilar. Bu boshqa fanlarda amaliyotga o'xshaydi: a zoolog ma'lum bir tur boshqa turga qaraganda "yaxshiroq" yoki "yomon" ekanligi to'g'risida sub'ektiv hukm qilmasdan hayvonot dunyosini o'rganadi.

Retsept Boshqa tomondan, ma'lum lingvistik qo'llanmalarni boshqalarga nisbatan targ'ib qilishga urinish bo'lib, ko'pincha ma'lum bir lahjani afzal ko'radi yoki "akrolekt ". Buning maqsadi bo'lishi mumkin a lingvistik standart, bu katta geografik hududlar bo'yicha aloqalarga yordam berishi mumkin. Shu bilan birga, bu bitta til yoki shevada so'zlashuvchilarning boshqa tillar yoki shevalarda so'zlashuvchilarga ta'sir o'tkazishga urinishi bo'lishi mumkin (qarang. Tilshunoslik imperializmi ). Retseptivizmning o'ta versiyasini orasida topish mumkin tsenzuralar, ular jamiyat uchun zararli deb hisoblagan so'zlar va tuzilmalarni yo'q qilishga urinayotganlar. Biroq, retsept tegishli ravishda qo'llanilishi mumkin tilni o'rganish, kabi ELT, bu erda ba'zi bir asosiy grammatik qoidalar va leksik elementlarni sinab ko'rayotgan ikkinchi tilda so'zlashuvchi bilan tanishtirish kerak sotib olmoq til.

Antropologiya

Tillarni tavsiflashning maqsadi ko'pincha jamoalar haqidagi madaniy bilimlarni ochib berishdir. Dan foydalanish antropologik lingvistik manbalar bo'yicha tekshiruv usullari uning lisoniy xususiyatlari orqali nutqiy hamjamiyat orasida ma'lum madaniy xususiyatlarni aniqlashga olib keladi. Bundan tashqari, u vosita sifatida keng qo'llaniladi til hujjatlari, kuratishga intilish bilan yo'qolib ketish xavfi ostida bo'lgan tillar. Ammo, hozirgi paytda lingvistik surishtiruv antropologik metoddan foydalanib, tillarning o'zgarishi va rivojlanishi bilan kechadigan kognitiv, tarixiy, sotsiolingvistik va tarixiy jarayonlarni, shuningdek, umumiy antropologik so'rovda madaniyatni qazish uchun lingvistik usuldan foydalaniladi. Antropologik so'rov barcha jihatlarda odatda tildan foydalanishga asoslangan turli xil o'zgarishlarni va nisbiylikni aniqlaydi.

Manbalar

Zamonaviy tilshunoslarning aksariyati shuni taxmin qilgan holda ishlaydi og'zaki ma'lumotlar va imzolangan ma'lumotlar ga qaraganda ancha asoslidir yozma ma'lumotlar.[iqtibos kerak ] Buning sababi

  • Nutq, uni ishlab chiqarish va idrok etishga qodir bo'lgan barcha insonlar uchun universal bo'lib ko'rinadi, ammo ular ko'p bo'lgan madaniyatlar va yozma aloqada bo'lmagan nutq jamoalari;
  • Nutqda har doim yozma ravishda yozib olinmaydigan xususiyatlar, shu jumladan fonologik qoidalar, tovush o'zgarishi va nutqdagi xatolar;
  • Barcha tabiiy yozuv tizimlari og'zaki tilni (yoki potentsial imzolangan tilni) aks ettiradi piktografik shunga o'xshash skriptlar Dongba yozish Naxsi gomofonlar bir xil piktogramma va yozuv tizimlarida matn uchun ishlatiladi ikki til yozilayotgan og'zaki tilga mos ravishda o'zgarishi;
  • Odamlar yozuvni ixtiro qilishdan oldin nutq rivojlandi;
  • Shaxslar og'zaki tilda gaplashishni va qayta ishlashni o'zlaridan ko'ra osonroq va tezroq o'rganadilar yozish.

Shunga qaramay, tilshunoslar yozma tilni o'rganish foydali va qimmatli bo'lishi mumkin degan fikrga qo'shilishadi. Ishonchli tadqiqot uchun korpus tilshunosligi va hisoblash lingvistikasi, yozma til ko'pincha katta miqdordagi lingvistik ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlash uchun ancha qulaydir. Og'zaki tilning katta korpuslarini yaratish qiyin va ularni topish qiyin va odatda ko'chirildi va yozilgan. Bundan tashqari, tilshunoslar turli formatlarda bo'lib o'tadigan matnli nutqqa murojaat qilishdi kompyuter vositasida aloqa lingvistik so'rov uchun hayotiy sayt sifatida.

O'rganish yozuv tizimlari o'zlari, grafemika, har qanday holatda ham tilshunoslikning bir bo'lagi hisoblanadi.

Tahlil

20-asrgacha tilshunoslar tilni a diaxronik tarixiy bo'lgan samolyot. Bu ularning til xususiyatlarini taqqoslashi va tilni o'sha davr bilan keyingi davr o'rtasida qanday o'zgarganligi nuqtai nazaridan tahlil qilishga urinishini anglatardi. Biroq, bilan Sussuriy 20-asrda tilshunoslikka ko'proq e'tibor qaratildi sinxron yondashuv, bu erda tadqiqot bir vaqtning o'zida mavjud bo'lgan turli xil til o'zgarishlari o'rtasidagi tahlil va taqqoslashga qaratilgan edi.

Boshqa darajada sintagmatik lingvistik tahlil tekisligi jumla sintaksisida so'zlarni ketma-ketligini taqqoslashni talab qiladi. Masalan, so'zlar orasidagi sintagmatik munosabat tufayli "the" artiklidan keyin ism qo'shiladi. The paradigmatik samolyot esa, asoslangan tahlilga e'tibor qaratadi paradigmalar yoki ma'lum bir matnga kiritilgan tushunchalar. Bunday holda, bir xil kontseptual tushunishga erishish uchun bir xil turdagi yoki sinfdagi so'zlar bir-biri bilan almashtirilishi mumkin.

Tarix

Elias Lyonrot (1802–1884) tilshunos bo'lib, yig'ish va yig'ish bo'yicha uzoq sayohat qilgan lirik she'rlar va xalq balladalar erning turli qismlaridan (asosan Kareliya ) deb nomlangan epik to'plamga Kalevala,[63] keyinchalik ma'lum bo'lgan, masalan, muallifni qisman ilhomlantirgan J. R. R. Tolkien o'zini o'zi yaratish afsonaviy.[64]
Asosiy maqola: Tilshunoslik tarixi

Nomenklatura

20-asrgacha bu atama filologiya, birinchi marta 1716 yilda tasdiqlangan,[65] odatda tilni o'rganishga murojaat qilish uchun ishlatilgan, keyinchalik u asosan tarixiy ahamiyatga ega edi.[66][67] Beri Ferdinand de Sossyur ning ahamiyatiga qat'iy talab sinxron tahlil ammo, bu diqqat o'zgargan[68] va muddat filologiya hozirda odatda "til grammatikasini, tarixi va adabiy an'analarini o'rganish" uchun ishlatiladi, ayniqsa AQShda[69] (bu erda filologiya hech qachon juda mashhur "til haqidagi fan" deb hisoblanmagan).[65]

Garchi "tilshunos" atamasi "til talabasi" ma'nosida 1641 yildan boshlangan bo'lsa-da,[70] "tilshunoslik" atamasi birinchi marta 1847 yilda tasdiqlangan.[70] Endi bu tilni ilmiy o'rganish uchun ingliz tilidagi odatiy atama,[iqtibos kerak ] Garchi lingvistik fan ba'zan ishlatiladi.

Tilshunoslik a ko'p intizomiy tabiiy fanlar, ijtimoiy va gumanitar fanlar vositalarini birlashtirgan tadqiqot sohasi.[71][72][73] Deyvid Kristal singari ko'plab tilshunoslar bu sohani birinchi navbatda ilmiy deb tasavvur qilishadi.[74] Atama tilshunos tilni o'rganadigan yoki ushbu sohada tadqiqotchi bo'lgan shaxsga yoki ma'lum tillarni tavsiflash va tahlil qilish uchun fan vositalaridan foydalanadigan shaxsga tegishli.[75]

Dastlabki grammatikalar

Asosiy maqola: Filologiya

Tilni rasmiy o'rganish boshlandi Hindiston bilan Pokini, miloddan avvalgi 6-asr 3.959 qoidalarini tuzgan grammatik Sanskritcha morfologiya. Pashinining sanskritcha tovushlarni sistematik ravishda tasnifi undoshlar va unlilar va so'z turkumlari, masalan, ismlar va fe'llar, bu turga ma'lum bo'lgan birinchi misol edi. In Yaqin Sharq, Sibawayh, fors, milodiy 760 yilda o'zining monumental asarida arab tiliga batafsil tavsif bergan, Al-kitob fi al-nahv (Alktاb fy الlnحw, Grammatika bo'yicha kitob), bir-biridan farq qilgan birinchi muallif tovushlar va fonemalar (tovushlar lingvistik tizim birliklari sifatida). G'arbning tillarni o'rganishga bo'lgan qiziqishi Sharqqa qaraganda biroz kechroq boshlandi,[76] ammo mumtoz tillarning grammatikachilari hind dunyosidagi zamondoshlari bilan bir xil usullarni qo'llamadilar yoki bir xil xulosaga kelmadilar. G'arbda tilga bo'lgan dastlabki qiziqish grammatik tavsif emas, balki falsafaning bir qismi edi. Semantik nazariya bo'yicha birinchi tushunchalar Aflotun uning ichida Kratilus dialog, bu erda u so'zlar abadiy va g'oyalar dunyosida mavjud bo'lgan tushunchalarni bildiradi deb ta'kidlaydi. Ushbu asar so'zni birinchi bo'lib ishlatgan etimologiya so'z ma'nosining tarixini tavsiflash. Miloddan avvalgi 280 yil atrofida, ulardan biri Buyuk Aleksandr vorislari universitetga asos solishdi (qarang Musaeum ) ichida Iskandariya bu erda filologlar maktabi qadimiy matnlarni o'rgangan va o'qitgan Yunoncha boshqa tillarda so'zlashuvchilarga. Ushbu maktab birinchi bo'lib "so'zini ishlatgangrammatika "hozirgi ma'noda, Aflotun bu so'zni asl ma'nosida shunday ishlatgan"téchnē grammatikḗ " (Τέχνηaromuμiκή), "yozuv san'ati", bu ham Aleksandrin maktabining eng muhim asarlaridan biri Dionisiy xuruji.[77] Davomida O'rta yosh, tilni o'rganish filologiya, qadimgi tillar va matnlarni o'rganish mavzusi ostida o'tkazildi, bu kabi o'qituvchilar tomonidan qo'llanilgan. Rojer Ascham, Volfgang Ratke va Jon Amos Komenskiy.[78]

Qiyosiy filologiya

18-asrda birinchi foydalanish qiyosiy usul tomonidan Uilyam Jons ko'tarilishini uchqunlantirdi qiyosiy tilshunoslik.[79] Bloomfield "dunyodagi birinchi buyuk ilmiy lingvistik ish" ga tegishli Jeykob Grimm, kim yozgan Deutsche Grammatik.[80] Tez orada boshqa mualliflar Evropaning boshqa til guruhlari bo'yicha o'xshash qiyosiy tadqiqotlar yozdilar. Tilni o'rganish kengaytirildi Hind-evropa umuman tilga Wilhelm von Gumboldt Bloomfield quyidagilarni ta'kidlaydi:[80]

Ushbu tadqiqot o'zining asosini Prussiya davlat arbobi va olimi Vilgelm fon Gumbolt (1767–1835) qo'lida oldi, ayniqsa Java ning adabiy tili bo'lgan Kavi haqidagi asarining birinchi jildida. Verschedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts tomonidan joylashtirilgan. (Inson tili tuzilishining xilma-xilligi va uning inson irqining aqliy rivojlanishiga ta'siri to'g'risida).

20-asrning rivojlanishi

20-asr boshlarida tarixiy va qiyosiy lingvistikadan sinxronik tahlilga e'tiborning o'zgarishi kuzatildi. Strukturaviy tahlil Leonard Bloomfield tomonidan takomillashtirildi, Lui Xelmslev; va Zellig Xarris usullarini ham ishlab chiqqan nutqni tahlil qilish. Funktsional tahlil Praga lingvistik doirasi va André Martinet. As sound recording devices became commonplace in the 1960s, dialectal recordings were made and archived, and the audio-lingual method provided a technological solution to foreign language learning. The 1960s also saw a new rise of comparative linguistics: the study of language universals yilda linguistic typology. Towards the end of the century the field of linguistics became divided into further areas of interest with the advent of language technology and digitalised korpuslar.

Tadqiqot yo'nalishlari

Ecolinguistics

Ecolinguistics explores the role of language in the life-sustaining interactions of humans, other species and the physical environment. The first aim is to develop linguistic theories which see humans not only as part of society, but also as part of the larger ecosystems that life depends on. The second aim is to show how linguistics can be used to address key ecological issues, from climate change and biologik xilma-xillikni yo'qotish to environmental justice.[81]

Sotsiolingvistika

Sotsiolingvistika is the study of how language is shaped by social factors. This sub-discipline focuses on the synchronic approach of linguistics, and looks at how a language in general, or a set of languages, display variation and varieties at a given point in time. The study of language variation and the different varieties of language through dialects, registers, and idiolects can be tackled through a study of style, as well as through analysis of discourse. Sociolinguists research both style and discourse in language, as well as the theoretical factors that are at play between language and society.

Developmental linguistics

Developmental linguistics is the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language bolalik davrida. Some of the questions that developmental linguistics looks into is how children acquire different languages, how adults can acquire a second language, and what the process of language acquisition is.

Neyrolingvistika

Neyrolingvistika is the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psixolingvistika va nazariy tilshunoslik, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, miya tasviri, electrophysiology, and computer modelling. Amongst the structures of the brain involved in the mechanisms of neurolinguistics, the cerebellum which contains the highest numbers of neurons has a major role in terms of predictions required to produce language.[82]

Amaliy tilshunoslik

Asosiy maqola: Amaliy tilshunoslik

Linguists are largely concerned with finding and tasvirlash the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. Amaliy tilshunoslik takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as language education, leksikografiya, tarjima, language planning, which involves governmental policy implementation related to language use, and tabiiy tilni qayta ishlash. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer.[83] Applied linguists actually focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, and not literally "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics. Moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g., conversation analysis) and anthropology. (Qurilgan til fits under Applied linguistics.)

Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Nutq sintezi va nutqni aniqlash use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of hisoblash lingvistikasi yilda mashina tarjimasi, computer-assisted translation va tabiiy tilni qayta ishlash are areas of applied linguistics that have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modelling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.

Linguistic analysis is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed millati of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim.[84] This often takes the form of an intervyu by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted either in the asylum seeker's mahalliy til orqali tarjimon or in an international lingua franca like English.[84] Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved.[84] Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done either by private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.[84]

Semiotikalar

Semiotikalar is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs, and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless, semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, nutqni tahlil qilish, text linguistics va til falsafasi. Semiotics, within the linguistics paradigm, is the study of the relationship between language and culture. Tarixiy jihatdan, Edvard Sapir va Ferdinand De Saussure 's structuralist theories influenced the study of signs extensively until the late part of the 20th century, but later, post-modern and post-structural thought, through language philosophers including Jak Derrida, Mixail Baxtin, Mishel Fuko, and others, have also been a considerable influence on the discipline in the late part of the 20th century and early 21st century.[85] These theories emphasize the role of language variation, and the idea of subjective usage, depending on external elements like social and cultural factors, rather than merely on the interplay of formal elements.

Language documentation

Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry (into the history and culture of language) with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages and their grammars. Leksikografiya involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a linguistic vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a lug'at. Hisoblash lingvistikasi is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. Specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of tarjima va sharhlash, shuningdek language education – the teaching of a second or xorijiy til. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education and teaching which are based on linguistic research.

Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics, linguists have been concerned with describing and analysing previously undocumented languages. Bilan boshlanadi Frants Boas in the early 1900s, this became the main focus of American linguistics until the rise of formal linguistics in the mid-20th century. This focus on language documentation was partly motivated by a concern to document the rapidly g'oyib bo'lish languages of indigenous peoples. The ethnographic dimension of the Boasian approach to language description played a role in the development of disciplines such as sotsiolingvistika, anthropological linguistics va lingvistik antropologiya, which investigate the relations between language, culture, and society.

The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has also gained prominence outside North America, with the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages becoming a primary focus in many university programmes in linguistics. Language description is a work-intensive endeavour, usually requiring years of field work in the language concerned, so as to equip the linguist to write a sufficiently accurate reference grammar. Further, the task of documentation requires the linguist to collect a substantial corpus in the language in question, consisting of texts and recordings, both sound and video, which can be stored in an accessible format within open repositories, and used for further research.[86]

Tarjima

The sub-field of tarjima includes the translation of written and spoken texts across media, from digital to print and spoken. To translate literally means to transmute the meaning from one language into another. Translators are often employed by organizations such as travel agencies and governmental embassies to facilitate communication between two speakers who do not know each other's language. Translators are also employed to work within hisoblash lingvistikasi setups like Google tarjima, which is an automated program to translate words and phrases between any two or more given languages. Translation is also conducted by publishing houses, which convert works of writing from one language to another in order to reach varied audiences. Academic translators specialize in or are familiar with various other disciplines such as technology, science, law, economics, etc.

Clinical linguistics

Clinical linguistics is the application of linguistic theory to the field of nutq-til patologiyasi. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to treat aloqa and swallowing disorders.

Chaika (1990) showed that people with schizophrenia who display speech disorders like rhyming inappropriately have attentional dysfunction, as when a patient was shown a color chip and then asked to identify it, responded "looks like clay. Sounds like gray. Take you for a roll in the hay. Heyday, May Day." The color chip was actually clay-colored, so his first response was correct.'

However, most people suppress or ignore words which rhyme with what they've said unless they are deliberately producing a pun, poem or rap. Even then, the speaker shows connection between words chosen for rhyme and an overall meaning in discourse. People with schizophrenia with speech dysfunction show no such relation between rhyme and reason. Some even produce stretches of gibberish combined with recognizable words.[87]

Hisoblash lingvistikasi

Hisoblash lingvistikasi is the study of linguistic issues in a way that is "computationally responsible", i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties and their implementations. Computational linguists also work on computer language and software development.

Evolyutsion tilshunoslik

Asosiy maqola: Evolyutsion tilshunoslik

Evolyutsion tilshunoslik is the study of the emergence of the language faculty through inson evolyutsiyasi, and also the application of evolyutsion nazariya to the study of cultural evolution among different languages. It is also a study of the dispersal of various languages across the globe, through movements among ancient communities.[88] Evolutionary linguistics is a highly interdisciplinary field, including linguists, biologists, neuroscientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and others. By shifting the focus of investigation in linguistics to a comprehensive scheme that embraces the natural sciences, it seeks to yield a framework by which the fundamentals of language are understood.

Sud lingvistikasi

Sud lingvistikasi is the application of linguistic analysis to sud tibbiyoti. Forensic analysis investigates the style, language, lexical use, and other linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence in courts of law. Forensic linguists have also used their expertise in the framework of criminal cases.

Shuningdek qarang

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Bibliografiya

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Tashqi havolalar

Kutubxona resurslari haqida
Tilshunoslik