1850 yildan beri muzliklarning chekinishi - Retreat of glaciers since 1850

Vashington, Oq Chak muzligining chekinishi
Glacier in Glacier Peak Wilderness, 1973
Oq Chak muzligi 1973 yilda
White Chuck Glacier in 2006; the glacier has retreated 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi).
2006 yilda xuddi shu nuqta. Muzlik 33 yil ichida 1,9 kilometr (1,2 milya) orqaga chekindi.
Umuman olganda, 2003-2010 yillarda erigan muzlarning 25 foizga yaqini Amerika (Grenlandiyadan tashqari).

The 1850 yildan beri muzliklarning chekinishi sug'orish va maishiy foydalanish uchun toza suvning mavjudligiga, tog 'dam olish joylariga, muzliklarning erishiga bog'liq bo'lgan hayvonlar va o'simliklarga va uzoq muddatda okeanlar sathiga ta'sir qiladi. O'qigan muzlikshunoslar, vaqtinchalik tasodif muzlik atmosferaning o'lchangan o'sishi bilan chekinish issiqxona gazlari ko'pincha daliliy asos sifatida keltirilgan Global isish. Kabi kenglikdagi tog 'tizmalari Himoloy, Rokki, Alp tog'lari, Kaskadlar va janubiy And, kabi izolyatsiya qilingan tropik sammitlar kabi Kilimanjaro tog'i Afrikada eng katta mutanosib muzlik yo'qotishlarni ko'rsatmoqda.

Muzliklarning massa balansi muzlikning sog'lig'ini belgilovchi omil. Agar muzlatilgan yog'ingarchilik miqdori to'planish zonasi erishi natijasida yo'qolgan muzlik muzidan oshib ketadi ablatsiya zonasi muzlik oldinga siljiydi; to'planish ablatsiyadan kam bo'lsa, muzlik orqaga chekinadi. Orqaga qaytayotgan muzliklar salbiy massa balansiga ega bo'ladi va agar ular to'planish va ablasyon o'rtasida muvozanatni topa olmasa, oxir-oqibat yo'q bo'lib ketadi.

The Kichik muzlik davri taxminan 1550 dan 1850 gacha bo'lgan davr bo'lib, dunyo avvalgi va keyingi davrlarga nisbatan nisbatan sovuqroq haroratni boshdan kechirdi. Keyinchalik, taxminan 1940 yilgacha, butun dunyo bo'ylab muzliklar orqaga chekinib, iqlim sezilarli darajada iliqlashdi. Muzliklarning chekinishi sekinlashdi va hatto vaqtincha, aksariyat hollarda, 1950-1980 yillarda global harorat sifatida o'zgarib ketdi ozgina soviydi. 1980 yildan beri juda muhim Global isish muzliklarning chekinishi tobora tezroq va hamma joyda keng tarqalishiga olib keldi, shu sababli ba'zi muzliklar umuman yo'q bo'lib ketdi va qolgan ko'plab muzliklarning mavjudligiga tahdid solmoqda. Janubiy Amerikaning And tog'lari va Osiyodagi Himoloy kabi joylarda ushbu mintaqalardagi muzliklarning yo'q bo'lib ketishi ushbu hududlarning suv ta'minotiga ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.

Tog 'muzliklarining chekinishi, xususan g'arbiy Shimoliy Amerika, Osiyo, Alp tog'lari va tropik va subtropik Janubiy Amerika mintaqalari, Afrika va Indoneziya, 19-asr oxiridan boshlab global harorat ko'tarilishi uchun dalillar keltiring. 1995 yildan buyon chekinish tezligining tezlashishi chiqish muzliklari ning Grenlandiya va G'arbiy Antarktika muz qatlamlari oldindan tasavvur qilishi mumkin a dengiz sathining ko'tarilishi, bu sohil bo'yidagi mintaqalarga ta'sir qiladi.

Muzliklarning massa balansi

Ushbu tog 'muzliklarining massa muvozanati xaritasida 1970 yildan beri sariq va qizil ranglarda siyraklashish va ko'k rangda qalinlashuv ko'rsatilgan.
So'nggi ellik yilda global muzlik massasi muvozanati WGMS va NSIDC. 1980-yillarning oxiridagi pasayish tendentsiyasi chekinayotgan muzliklarning ko'payishi va ko'payishining alomatidir.
Asosiy maqola: Muzliklarning massa balansi

Ommaviy muvozanat yoki ularning orasidagi farq to'planish va ablasyon (eritish va sublimatsiya ), muzlikning yashashi uchun hal qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega.[1] Iqlim o'zgarishi haroratda ham, qor yog'ishida ham o'zgarishga olib kelishi mumkin, natijada massa muvozanati o'zgaradi. Doimiy salbiy balansga ega bo'lgan muzlik muvozanatni yo'qotadi va orqaga chekinadi. Barqaror ijobiy muvozanat ham muvozanatdan tashqarida va muvozanatni tiklash uchun harakat qiladi. Ayni paytda deyarli barcha muzliklar salbiy massa balansiga ega va orqaga chekinmoqda.[2]

Muzliklarning orqaga chekinishi muzlikning past balandlikdagi mintaqasini yo'qotishiga olib keladi. Yuqori balandliklar sovuqroq bo'lganligi sababli, eng past qismning yo'qolishi umumiy ablatsiyani pasaytiradi va shu bilan massa muvozanatini oshiradi va muvozanatni tiklaydi. Agar muzlikning to'planish zonasining muhim qismining massa balansi manfiy bo'lsa, u iqlim bilan muvozanatda emas va sovuq iqlimsiz va / yoki muzlatilgan yog'ingarchilik ko'paymasdan eriydi.[3][4]

Orqaga chekinishni o'lchash usullari stakeni o'z ichiga oladi terminalning joylashishi, global joylashishni aniqlash xaritalash, havo xaritasi va lazer altimetriya.[3][5] Muvozanatlikning asosiy belgisi muzlikning butun uzunligi bo'ylab siyraklashmoqda. Bu akkumulyatsiya zonasining kamayganligidan dalolat beradi. Natijada nafaqat terminalda, balki akkumulyatsiya zonasi marjining marginal retsessiyasi. Aslida, muzlik endi izchil to'planish zonasiga ega emas va akkumulyator zonasiz yashay olmaydi.[4][6]

Masalan, Iston muzligi Vashington shtatida AQSh ehtimol kattaligining yarmiga qisqarishi mumkin, ammo pasayish sur'ati pasayib, bir necha o'n yillar davomida iliqroq haroratga qaramay, shu darajada barqarorlashadi. Biroq, Grinnell muzligi Montanada, AQSh yo'qolgunga qadar o'sib boruvchi tezlikda qisqaradi. Farqi shundaki, Iston muzligining yuqori qismi sog'lom va qor bilan qoplangan bo'lib, hatto Grinnell muzligining yuqori qismi ham yalang'och, eriydi va siyraklashgan. Minimal balandlik oralig'idagi kichik muzliklar iqlim bilan muvozanatga tushib qolish ehtimoli katta.[4]

O'rta kenglikdagi muzliklar

O'rta kenglik muzliklar yoki o'rtasida joylashgan Saraton tropikasi va Arktika doirasi, yoki o'rtasida Uloq tropikasi va Antarktika doirasi.[7] Ikkala hudud ham odatda baland tog'li hududlarda joylashgan tog 'muzliklaridan, vodiy muzliklaridan va hatto kichikroq muzliklardan muzliklarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.[5] Hammasi tog 'tizmalarida joylashgan, xususan Himoloy; The Alp tog'lari; The Pireneylar; Toshli tog'lar; The Kavkaz va Tinch okean sohillari Shimoliy Amerika; The Patagoniya Janubiy Amerikadagi And tog'lari; va Yangi Zelandiyadagi tog 'tizmalari.[8] Ushbu kenglikdagi muzliklar kengroq tarqalgan va ular qutbli hududlarga yaqinlashganda massa jihatidan kattaroqdir. Ular so'nggi 150 yil ichida eng ko'p o'rganilgan. Tropik zonada joylashgan misollarda bo'lgani kabi, deyarli o'rta kenglikdagi barcha muzliklar salbiy massa muvozanatida va orqaga chekinmoqda.[5]

Shimoliy yarim shar - Evroosiyo

Italiya va Shveytsariyada o'tkazilgan yillik muzliklar bo'yicha komissiya tadqiqotlarining ushbu xaritasida Alp tog'larida muzliklarning ilgarilab borishi foizlari ko'rsatilgan. 20-asr o'rtalarida orqaga chekinish tendentsiyalari kuzatildi, ammo hozirgi kabi haddan tashqari emas; hozirgi chekinishlar kichikroq bo'lgan muzliklarning qo'shimcha qisqarishini anglatadi.

Evropa

Frantsiyada barcha oltita yirik muzliklar chekinmoqda. Yoqilgan Mont Blan, Alp tog'laridagi eng baland cho'qqisi, Argentiere muzligi 1870 yildan beri 1150 m (3770 fut) orqaga chekindi.[9] Mont-Blankning boshqa muzliklari ham chekinmoqda, shu jumladan Mer de Glas uzunligi 12 km (7,5 milya) bo'lgan Frantsiyadagi eng katta muzlik, ammo 1994-2008 yillarda 500 m (1600 fut) orqaga chekingan.[10][11] Kichik muzlik davri tugaganidan beri muzlik 2300 m (7500 fut) ga chekindi.[11] The Bossons muzligi 1900 yilda Mont Blank cho'qqisidan 4,807 m (15,771 fut) dan 1050 m (3440 fut) balandlikka ko'tarilgan. 2008 yilga kelib Bossons Glacier dengiz sathidan 1400 m (4600 fut) balandlikka ko'tarilgan edi.[12]2019 yilda ETH Tsyurix tomonidan nashr etilgan yana bir tadqiqotga ko'ra, Alp tog'lari muzliklarining 2/3 qismi asr oxiriga kelib iqlim o'zgarishi sababli erib ketishga mahkum.[13][14] Eng pessimistik stsenariyda 2100 yilga kelib Alp tog'lari deyarli muzdan ozod bo'ladi, baland balandlikda esa faqat izolyatsiya qilingan muz yamoqlari qoladi.

Hammasi Turkiyadagi muzliklar chekinmoqda va muzliklar muzliklarning ingichka va chekinishi sababli terminal uchlarida proglasial ko'llarni rivojlantirmoqda.[15][16] 1970-yillarda va 2013-yillarda Turkiyadagi muzliklar 25 km dan boshlab o'z maydonlarining yarmini yo'qotdilar2 (9,7 kvadrat milya) 1970-yillarda 10,85 km2 (4,19 kv. Mil) 2013 yilda. O'rganilgan 14 ta muzlikdan beshtasi umuman yo'q bo'lib ketgan.[17]

Boshqa tadqiqotchilar Alp tog'laridagi muzliklar bir necha o'n yillar avvalgiga qaraganda tezroq chekinayotganga o'xshaydi. Tsyurix universiteti tomonidan 2009 yilda chop etilgan maqolada 89 muzlikdagi Shveytsariya muzliklarida o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar natijasida 76 ta chekinish, 5 ta statsionar va 8 ta 1973 yilda bo'lgan joydan oldinga siljish kuzatilgan.[18] The Trift muzligi 2003 yildan 2005 yilgacha 350 m (1150 fut) uzunlikni yo'qotib, qayd etilgan eng katta chekinishga ega edi.[18] Grosser Aletsch muzligi Shveytsariyadagi eng katta muzlik bo'lib, 19-asr oxiridan boshlab o'rganilmoqda. Aletsch Glacier 1880 yildan 2009 yilgacha 2,8 km (1,7 mil) orqaga chekindi.[19] Ushbu chekinish darajasi 1980 yildan beri o'sib bormoqda, bu davrning so'nggi 20 foizida sodir bo'lgan umumiy chekinishning 30% yoki 800 m (2600 fut) ga teng.[19]

Morteratsch (o'ngda) va Pers (chapda) muzliklari 2005 y

The Morteratsch muzligi Shveytsariyada 1878 yildan boshlangan muzlik uzunligini har yili o'lchash bilan olib borilgan ilmiy tadqiqotlarning eng uzoq davrlaridan biri bo'lgan. 1878 yildan 1998 yilgacha chekinish o'rtacha yillik chekinish tezligi taxminan 17 m (56 mil) bo'lgan 2 km (1,2 mil) bo'lgan. ft) yiliga. So'nggi yillarda ushbu uzoq yillik o'rtacha ko'rsatkich sezilarli darajada oshib ketdi, 1999 yildan 2005 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda muzlik yiliga 30 m (98 fut) pasayib ketdi. Xuddi shunday Italiya Alplaridagi muzliklarning atigi uchdan bir qismi 1980 yilda orqaga chekinmoqda 1999 yilga kelib ushbu muzliklarning 89% orqaga chekinayotgan edi. 2005 yilda Italiya muzliklar komissiyasi Lombardiyadagi 123 ta muzlik orqaga chekinayotganini aniqladi.[20] Tasodifiy o'rganish Sforzellina muzligi Italiyaning Alp tog'larida 2002 yildan 2006 yilgacha chekinish darajasi avvalgi 35 yilga nisbatan ancha yuqori ekanligini ko'rsatdi.[21] Lombardiyaning alp mintaqalarida joylashgan muzliklarni o'rganish uchun tadqiqotchilar 1950-yillardan 21-asrning boshlariga qadar olingan bir qator havo va erdagi tasvirlarni taqqosladilar va 1954-2003 yillar orasida u erda topilgan asosan kichikroq muzliklar o'zlarining yarmidan ko'pini yo'qotganligini aniqladilar. maydon.[22] Alp tog'laridagi muzliklarning takroriy suratga olinishi shuni ko'rsatadiki, tadqiqotlar boshlangandan buyon katta chekinishlar bo'lgan.[23]

Alp tog'larining muzliklari Evropaning boshqa hududlariga qaraganda ko'proq muzlikshunoslarning e'tiboriga sazovor bo'lishiga qaramay, tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, Evropaning shimolidagi muzliklar ham orqaga chekinmoqda. Ikkinchi jahon urushi tugaganidan beri, Storglaciären Shvetsiyada dunyodagi eng uzoq davom etgan ommaviy muvozanat bo'yicha tadqiqotlar o'tkazildi Tarfala tadqiqot stantsiyasi. In Kebnekaise Shimoliy tog'lar Shvetsiya, 1990 yildan 2001 yilgacha bo'lgan 16 ta muzliklarni o'rganish natijasida 14 ta muzlik orqaga chekinayotgani, biri oldinga siljigan va biri barqaror bo'lganligi aniqlandi.[24] Norvegiyada 19-asrning boshlaridan boshlab muzliklarni o'rganish ishlari olib borilib, 1990-yillardan beri muntazam ravishda tadqiqotlar olib borilmoqda. Ichki muzliklar odatda salbiy massa muvozanatiga ega bo'lib, 1990-yillar davomida dengiz muzliklari ijobiy massa balansini ko'rsatdi va rivojlandi.[25] Dengizdagi taraqqiyot 1989-1995 yillar oralig'ida kuchli qor yog'ishi bilan bog'liq.[25] Shu bilan birga, qorning pasayishi Norvegiya muzliklarining aksariyatini sezilarli darajada chekinishiga olib keldi.[25] 2010 yilda o'tkazilgan 31 ta Norvegiya muzliklarida o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra, 27 kishi chekinmoqda, birida o'zgarish yo'q va uchtasi ilgari.[26] Xuddi shunday, 2013 yilda so'rovda qatnashgan 33 Norvegiya muzliklaridan 26 tasi chekinmoqda, to'rttasi o'zgarishsiz qolgan va uchtasi oldinga siljigan.[26]

Norvegiyadagi Engabreen muzligi 2014 yilda dengiz sathidan 7 metrga (23 fut) yaqinlashdi, bu Evropadagi barcha muzliklarning eng past balandligi.

Norvegiyadagi Engabreen muzligi, chiqish muzligi Svartisen muzligi, 20-asrda bir necha yutuqlarga erishdi, ammo 1999 yildan 2014 yilgacha 200 metr (660 fut) orqaga chekindi.[27] Brenndalsbreen muzligi 2000-2014 yillar oralig'ida 56 m (184 fut) orqaga chekingan bo'lsa, Kichik muzlik davri tugaganidan beri 2 km (1,2 mil) orqaga chekingan Rembesdalsskåka muzligi 1997-2007 yillarda 200 m (660 fut) orqaga chekindi. .[28] Briksdalzbren muzligi 1996-2004 yillar oralig'ida 230 m (750 fut) orqaga chekinib, ushbu tadqiqotning so'nggi yilidagi 130 m (430 fut) ga teng; 1900 yilda u erda tadqiqotlar boshlanganidan buyon ushbu muzlikda qayd etilgan eng katta yillik chekinish.[29] Bu ko'rsatkich 2006 yilda oshib ketdi, 2005 yil kuzidan 2006 yilning kuzigacha 100 metrdan (330 fut) oshgan beshta muzliklar chekinmoqda. Jostedalsbreen muzlik, Evropaning qit'adagi eng katta muzligi, Kjenndalsbreen, Brenndalsbreen, Briksdalsbreen va Bergsetbreen 100 m dan (330 fut) ko'proq frontal chekinishga ega edi.[30] Umuman olganda, 1999 yildan 2005 yilgacha Briksdalsbreen 336 metr (1102 fut) orqaga chekindi.[30] Gråfjellsbrea, ning chiqish muzligi Folgefonna muz qopqog'i, deyarli 100 m (330 fut) chekinishga ega edi.[30]

Ispan tilida Pireneylar, yaqinda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar muzliklarning hajmi va hajmi bo'yicha muhim yo'qotishlarni ko'rsatdi Maladeta 1981–2005 yillarda massiv. Ular orasida maydonning 35,7 foizga qisqarishi, 2,41 km dan2 (600 akr) dan 1,55 km gacha2 (380 akr), muzning umumiy hajmidagi yo'qotish 0,0137 km3 (0,0033 cu mi) va muzlik termini o'rtacha balandligining 43,5 m (143 fut) ga oshishi.[31] Umuman Pireney uchun 1991 yildan beri muzli maydonning 50-60% yo'qolgan. Balaytus, Perdigurero va La Muniya muzliklari bu davrda yo'q bo'lib ketdi. Monte Perdido muzligi 90 gektardan 40 gektargacha qisqargan.[32]

Alplarda tog'larning chekinishining dastlabki sababi sifatida 1850 yildan boshlab muzliklarning pasayishi albedo, sanoat tomonidan kelib chiqqan qora uglerod aniqlanishi mumkin. Hisobotga ko'ra, bu Evropadagi muzliklarning chekinishini tezlashtirishi mumkin, aks holda taxminan 1910 yilgacha kengayishi mumkin edi.[33]

Sibir va Rossiya Uzoq Sharq

Sibir qishki iqlimning quruqligi sababli odatda qutb mintaqasi deb tasniflanadi va faqat balandliklarda muzliklarga ega Oltoy tog'lari, Verxoyansk tizmasi, Cherskiy tizmasi va Suntar-Xayata tizmasi, shuningdek, ehtimol yaqin atrofdagi juda kichik muzliklar Baykal ko'li, hech qachon kuzatilmagan va 1989 yildan beri butunlay yo'q bo'lib ketishi mumkin.[34][35][36] 1952 yildan 2006 yilgacha Aktru havzasi mintaqasida topilgan muzliklar 7,2 foizga qisqargan.[34] Ushbu qisqarish asosan muzliklarning ablatsiya zonasida bo'lgan, ba'zi muzliklar uchun bir necha yuz metrlik pasayish kuzatilgan. Oltoy mintaqasida 2006 yilgi hisobotga ko'ra so'nggi 120 yilda umumiy harorat 1,2 daraja Selsiy ko'tarilgan, bu o'sishning aksariyati 20-asr oxirlaridan beri sodir bo'lgan.[34]

Keyinchalik dengiz va umuman namroq Rossiya Uzoq Sharq, Kamchatka, qishda namlik ta'sirida Aleut pasti, 906 km atrofida juda keng muzliklarga ega2 (350 kv. Mil), 2010 yilga kelib 448 ta muzlik ma'lum.[36][37] Umuman olganda, qishda kuchli qor yog'ishi va yozning salqin harorati bo'lishiga qaramay, yozning yuqori yog'inlari janubga qaraganda ko'proq Kuril orollari va Saxalin tarixiy davrlarda erish darajasi juda yuqori bo'lgan, hatto eng yuqori cho'qqilarda ham massa balansining ijobiy darajasi uchun. In Chukotskiy yarim oroli kichik tog 'muzliklari juda ko'p, ammo muzlik darajasi g'arbdan kattaroq bo'lsa ham, Kamchatkaga qaraganda ancha kichik bo'lib, taxminan 300 kvadrat kilometrni tashkil etadi (120 kv. mil).[35]

Sibir va Rossiyaning Uzoq Sharq muzliklarining chekinishi haqidagi tafsilotlar dunyoning aksariyat boshqa muzli hududlariga qaraganda unchalik etarli bo'lmagan. Buning bir nechta sabablari bor, asosiysi bu qulab tushganidan beri Kommunizm kuzatuv stantsiyalari sonining katta qisqarishi kuzatildi.[38] Yana bir omil shundaki, Verxoyansk va Cherskiy tizmalarida muzliklar 1940-yillarda ochilishidan oldin yo'q edi, ammo o'ta uzoq Kamchatka va Chukotkada muzliklar borligi ilgari ma'lum bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, ularning o'lchamlarini kuzatish bundan ilgari ham mavjud emas edi. Ikkinchi Jahon urushi oxiriga qaraganda.[36] Shunga qaramay, mavjud yozuvlar Kamchatkadagi vulqon muzliklaridan tashqari Oltoy tog'laridagi barcha muzliklarning umumiy chekinishini ko'rsatadi. Saxoning Umumiy etmish kvadrat kilometr bo'lgan muzliklar 1945 yildan beri taxminan 28 foizga qisqargan, ba'zi joylarda har yili bir necha foizga etgan, Oltoy va Chukotkan tog'lari va Kamchatkaning vulqon bo'lmagan hududlarida esa qisqarish ancha katta.[38]

Himoloy va Markaziy Osiyo

Bu NASA tasvirida chekinayotgan muzliklarning uchida ko'plab muzli ko'llar hosil bo'lganligi ko'rsatilgan Butan -Himoloy.

Himoloy va Markaziy Osiyoning boshqa tog 'zanjirlari yirik muzli mintaqalarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. Taxminan 15000 ta muzliklarni katta Himoloylarda topish mumkin, ularning soni Hindu Kush va Qorakoram va Tyan-Shan tizmalarida ikki baravar ko'p va qutblar tashqarisidagi eng katta muzli hududni o'z ichiga oladi.[39] Ushbu muzliklar qurg'oqchil mamlakatlarni juda muhim suv ta'minoti bilan ta'minlaydi Mo'g'uliston, g'arbiy Xitoy, Pokiston, Afg'oniston va Hindiston. Dunyo miqyosidagi muzliklarda bo'lgani kabi, katta Himoloy mintaqalarida ham massa pasayishi kuzatilmoqda va tadqiqotchilar 1970-yillarning boshlari va 2000-yillarning boshlarida muz massasining 9 foizga kamayganligini ta'kidlamoqdalar.[40] Haroratning o'zgarishi muzli ko'llarning erishi va shakllanishiga va kengayishiga olib keldi, bu esa muzli ko'llarning toshqinlari (GLOF) sonining ko'payishiga olib kelishi mumkin. Agar hozirgi tendentsiyalar saqlanib qolsa, muz massasi asta-sekin kamayadi va suv resurslarining mavjudligiga ta'sir qiladi, ammo suv yo'qotilishi ko'p o'n yillar davomida muammo tug'dirishi kutilmaydi.[41]

Afg'onistonning Vaxon yo'lagida ko'rib chiqilgan 30 ta muzlikdan 28 tasi 1976-2003 yillarda sezilarli darajada chekingan, o'rtacha chekinish yiliga 11 m (36 fut) bo'lgan.[42] Ushbu muzliklardan biri Zemestan muzligi, bu davrda 560 km uzunlikning 10% emas, balki 460 m (1,510 fut) orqaga chekindi.[43] 1950-1970 yillarda Xitoyda 612 ta muzliklarni tekshirishda o'rganilgan muzliklarning 53% chekinayotgan edi. 1990 yildan keyin ushbu muzliklarning 95% chekinayotgani o'lchandi, bu esa ushbu muzliklarning chekinishi tobora keng tarqalib borayotganligini ko'rsatmoqda.[44] Muzliklar Everest tog'i Himoloy mintaqasi hammasi orqaga chekinmoqda. The Rongbuk muzligi, Everest tog'ining shimoliy tomonini quritib Tibet, yiliga 20 m (66 fut) orqaga chekinmoqda. Nepalning Xumbu mintaqasida asosiy Himoloyning old tomoni bo'ylab 1976 yildan 2007 yilgacha tekshirilgan 15 ta muzlik sezilarli darajada chekingan va o'rtacha chekinish yiliga 28 m (92 fut) ni tashkil etgan.[45] Ularning eng mashhuri Xumbu muzligi 1976 yildan 2007 yilgacha yiliga 18 m (59 fut) tezlikda chekingan.[45] Hindistonda Gangotri muzligi 1936-1996 yillarda 1177 m (3763 fut) chekinishga erishdi va 20 asrning so'nggi 25 yilida sodir bo'lgan chekinishning 850 m (2790 fut).[46][47] Biroq, muzlik hali ham 30 km (19 mil) dan oshiqroqdir.[47] Yilda Sikkim 1976 yildan 2005 yilgacha tekshirilgan 26 ta muzliklar yiliga o'rtacha 13.02 m (42.7 fut) tezlikda chekinayotgan edi.[48] Umuman olganda, Buyuk Himoloy mintaqasidagi muzliklar har yili o'rtacha 18 dan 20 m gacha (59 va 66 fut) chekinmoqda.[49] Buyuk Himoloyda muzliklarda o'sish kuzatilgan yagona mintaqa Qorakoram tizmasi Va faqat eng baland balandlikdagi muzliklarda, ammo bu yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi bilan bog'liq, shuningdek, qorlarning ko'payishi bilan bog'liq bo'lib, bu erda qorlar va muzlarning to'planib qolishi natijasida muzliklar muzlikning to'planib borishi natijasida muzlik tili o'sib boradi. 1997 va 2001 yillar orasida 68 km (42 milya) uzunlik Biafo muzligi 10 dan 25 metrgacha (33 dan 82 futgacha) o'rta muzlik qalinlashgan, ammo u ilgari surilmagan.[50]

Himoloydagi muzliklarning chekinishi bilan bir qator muzli ko'llar yaratildi. Borayotgan tashvish - bu potentsial GLOFlar Tadqiqotchilar 21 ta muzli ko'lni taxmin qilishmoqda Nepal va 24 dyuym Butan Agar odamlar oxir-oqibat muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchragan bo'lsa, odamlar uchun xavf tug'dirishi mumkin.[51] Potentsial xavfli deb topilgan bitta muzli ko'l Butannikidir Raphstreng Tsho 1986 yilda 1,6 km (0,99 milya) uzunlik, 0,96 km (0,60 milya) va 80 m (260 fut) chuqurlik o'lchagan. 1995 yilga kelib ko'l 1,94 km (1,21 milya), 1,13 km (0,70) uzunlikgacha shishgan. milya) kengligi va chuqurligi 107 m (351 fut).[52] 1994 yilda Raphstreng Tshoga tutash muzli ko'l bo'lgan Luggye Tshodan GLOF quyi oqimda 23 kishini o'ldirdi.[53]

Muzliklar Ak-shirak tizmasi yilda Qirg'iziston 1943 va 1977 yillar orasida ozgina yo'qotish va 1977 va 2001 yillar orasida qolgan massasining 20% ​​tezlashib yo'qolishini boshdan kechirdi.[54] In Tyan-Shan tog'lar, Qirg'iziston Xitoy bilan baham ko'radi va Qozog'iston Ushbu tog 'tizmasining shimoliy hududlarida olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ushbu quruq mintaqani suv bilan ta'minlashga yordam beradigan muzliklar qariyb 2 km yo'qolgan3 1955 yildan 2000 yilgacha yiliga (0,48 kub mi) muz Oksford universiteti 1974-1990 yillarda ushbu muzliklarning yiliga o'rtacha 1,28% yo'qotilganligi haqida xabar berilgan.[55]

The Pomir asosan tog 'tizmasi joylashgan Tojikiston, sakkiz mingga yaqin muzliklarga ega, ularning aksariyati umumiy chekinish holatida.[56] 20-asr davomida Tojikistonning muzliklari 20 km yo'qotdi3 (4,8 m3) muz.[56] 70 km (43 milya) uzunlik Fedchenko muzligi Tojikistonda eng yirigi va Yerdagi qutbsiz eng katta muzlik bo'lib, 1933 yildan 2006 yilgacha 1 km (0,62 milya) orqaga chekinib, 44 km2 (17 kvadrat milya) 1966 va 2000 yillar oralig'idagi qisqarish tufayli uning sirt maydonini tashkil etdi.[56] Tojikiston va Pomir tizmasining qo'shni davlatlari har yili qurg'oqchilik paytida va quruq mavsumda daryo oqimini ta'minlash uchun muzlik oqimiga juda bog'liq. Muzlik muzining davomli ravishda yo'q bo'lib ketishi qisqa muddatli ko'payishiga olib keladi, so'ngra daryolar va soylarga quyiladigan muzli eritilgan suvning uzoq muddatli pasayishiga olib keladi.[57]

Shimoliy yarim shar - Shimoliy Amerika

Lyuis muzligi, Shimoliy Kaskadlar milliy bog'i 1990 yilda eriganidan keyin

Shimoliy Amerika muzliklari, birinchi navbatda, AQSh va Kanadadagi Rokki tog'lari umurtqasi bo'ylab joylashgan va Tinch okeanining qirg'oqlari shimoliy Kaliforniya ga Alyaska. Esa Grenlandiya geologik jihatdan Shimoliy Amerika bilan bog'langan, shuningdek Arktika mintaqasining bir qismidir. Kabi oz miqdordagi suvli muzliklardan tashqari Taku muzligi, ularning oldingi bosqichida suvning muzlik davri Alyaskaning qirg'oqlarida keng tarqalgan, deyarli Shimoliy Amerikada yashovchilar chekinmoqda. Bu ko'rsatkich 1980 yilga nisbatan tez sur'atlarda o'sib bormoqda va bundan buyon har o'n yil ichida orqaga chekinish oldingisiga qaraganda ancha yuqori. Bu erda tarqalib ketgan kichik qoldiq muzliklar ham bor Syerra Nevada Kaliforniya tog'lari va Nevada.[58][59]

Kaskad oralig'i

The Kaskad oralig'i g'arbiy Shimoliy Amerikaning janubidan uzayib boradi Britaniya Kolumbiyasi Kanadada Kaliforniyaning shimoliy qismigacha. Alyaskadan tashqari, AQShdagi muzlik maydonining taxminan yarmi 700 dan ortiq muzliklarda joylashgan Shimoliy kaskadlar, ularning bir qismi Kanada-AQSh chegarasi va o'rtasida joylashgan I-90 markazda Vashington. Bular shtatning qolgan qismidagi barcha ko'llar va suv omborlarida mavjud bo'lgan juda ko'p suvni o'z ichiga oladi va quruq yoz oylarida oqim va daryo oqimining katta qismini ta'minlaydi, taxminan 870,000 m3 (1 140 000 kub yd).[60]

The Boulder muzligi 1987 yildan 2003 yilgacha 450 m (1480 fut) orqaga chekingan.
Iston muzligi 1990 yildan 2005 yilgacha 255 m (837 fut) orqaga chekingan.

1944 yildan 1976 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda havoning sovishi va yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi tufayli 1975 yilda Shimoliy Kaskad muzliklarining ko'pi ilgarilab bordi. 1987 yilga kelib Shimoliy Kaskad muzliklari orqaga chekinmoqda va bu sur'atlar 1970 yillarning o'rtalaridan boshlab har o'n yilda oshib borgan. 1984 yildan 2005 yilgacha Shimoliy Kaskad muzliklari o'rtacha 12,5 metrdan (41 fut) ko'proq qalinligi va ularning hajmining 20-40 foizini yo'qotdi.[4]

Shimoliy Kaskadlar bo'yicha tadqiqot olib borgan muzlikshunoslar 47 ta kuzatilgan barcha muzliklarning chekinayotganini, to'rtta muzlikning esaO'rgimchak muzligi, Lyuis muzligi, Sut ko'li muzligi va Devid muzligi - 1985 yildan beri butunlay g'oyib bo'ldi Oq Chak muzligi (yaqin Muzlik cho'qqisi ) ayniqsa dramatik misoldir. Muzlik maydoni 3,1 km dan qisqargan2 (1,2 kvadrat milya) 1958 yilda 0,9 km2 (0,35 kv. Mil.) 2002 yilga qadar. 1850-1950 yillarda Boulder muzligi janubi-sharqiy qanotida Beyker tog'i 8700 fut (2700 m) orqaga chekindi. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining o'rmon xizmati vakili Uilyam Long 1953 yilda sovuq / namroq ob-havo tufayli muzlik oldinga siljiy boshlaganini kuzatgan. 1979 yildan keyin 743 metr (2,438 fut) oldinga siljigan.[61] Muzlik 1987 yildan 2005 yilgacha 450 m (1480 fut) orqaga chekinib, unumsiz erlarni ortda qoldirdi. Ushbu chekinish qishda qorning pasayishi va yozning yuqori harorati davrida yuz berdi. Kaskadlarning bu mintaqasida qish snowpack 1946 yildan beri 25% ga kamaydi va yozgi harorat 0,7 ga ko'tarildi° C (1.2 ° F ) xuddi shu davrda. Qorning qisqarishi qishdagi yog'ingarchilikning ozgina ko'payishiga qaramay sodir bo'ldi - shuning uchun u qishning iliqroq haroratini aks ettiradi va hatto qish paytida ham muzliklarda eriydi. 2005 yil holatiga ko'ra, kuzatilgan Shimoliy Kaskad muzliklarining 67% muvozanat holatida va hozirgi iqlim davom etavermaydi. Harorat pasaymasa va muzlatilgan yog'ingarchilik ko'paymasa, bu muzliklar oxir oqibat yo'q bo'lib ketadi. Qolgan muzliklarning barqarorlashishi kutilmoqda, agar iqlim isishni davom ettirmasa, lekin hajmi ancha kamayib ketmasa.[62]

AQShning Rokki tog'lari

Eng baland cho'qqilarning panohli yon bag'irlarida Muzlik milliy bog'i yilda Montana, ismli muzliklar tez kamayib bormoqda. Har bir muzlikning maydoni o'nlab yillar davomida xaritada keltirilgan Milliy park xizmati va AQSh Geologiya xizmati. 19-asr o'rtalaridagi fotosuratlarni zamonaviy tasvirlar bilan taqqoslash, ularning 1850 yildan beri chekinganliklari to'g'risida juda ko'p dalillarni keltirib chiqaradi. O'shandan beri takroriy fotosuratlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, masalan, muzliklar Grinnell muzligi barchasi orqaga chekinmoqda. Kattaroq muzliklar endi 1850 yilda o'rganilganda avvalgi o'lchamlarining uchdan bir qismiga teng bo'lib, ko'plab kichik muzliklar butunlay yo'q bo'lib ketgan. 99 km masofaning atigi 27%2 1850 yilda muzliklar bilan qoplangan Glacier National Park (38 sq mi) maydoni 1993 yilgacha saqlanib qoldi.[63] Tadqiqotchilar 2030 yildan 2080 yilgacha Glacier National Parkdagi ba'zi muzlik muzlari yo'q bo'lib ketadi, deb hisoblashadi, agar hozirgi ob-havo o'zgarishi o'z yo'nalishini o'zgartirmasa.[64] Grinnell muzligi - bu o'nlab yillar davomida fotosuratlar bilan yaxshi hujjatlashtirilgan Muzlik milliy bog'idagi ko'plab muzliklardan biri. Quyidagi fotosuratlarda ushbu muzlikning 1938 yildan buyon chekinayotgani yaqqol aks ettirilgan.

  • 1938 T.J. Xileman YaMM

  • 1981 Karl Key (USGS)

  • 1998 Dan Fagre (USGS)

  • 2009 Lindsey Bengtson (USGS)

Yarim quruq iqlimi Vayoming hanuzgacha o'nga yaqin kichik muzliklarni qo'llab-quvvatlashga muvaffaq bo'ldi Grand Teton milliy bog'i, bularning barchasi so'nggi 50 yil ichida chekinish dalillarini namoyish etadi. Maktabdagi muzlik janubi-g'arbda joylashgan Grand Teton bog'dagi osongina erishiladigan muzliklardan biridir va u 2025 yilgacha yo'q bo'lib ketishi kutilmoqda. 1950-1999 yillarda olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, muzliklar Bridger-Teton milliy o'rmoni va Shoshone milliy o'rmoni ichida Shamol daryosi tizmasi o'sha davrda ularning kattaligining uchdan bir qismiga qisqargan. Fotosuratlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, bugungi kunda muzliklar 1890-yillarning oxirlarida birinchi marta suratga tushirilgandagina yarmiga teng. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, muzlik chekinishi so'nggi 100 yil ichida boshqa o'n yilliklardagiga qaraganda 1990 yillarda mutanosib ravishda katta bo'lgan. Gannett muzligi ning shimoli-sharqiy yonbag'rida Gannett cho'qqisi dagi eng katta bitta muzlik hisoblanadi Toshli tog'lar Kanadaning janubida. Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, u 1920 yildan buyon o'z hajmining 50 foizidan ko'prog'ini yo'qotgan, bu yo'qotishlarning deyarli yarmi 1980 yildan beri sodir bo'lgan. Glyatsiologlar Vayomindagi qolgan muzliklar 21-asrning o'rtalariga kelib yo'q bo'lib ketishiga ishonishadi.[65]

Kanada Rokki va Sohil va Kolumbiya tog'lari

Valdez muzligi o'tgan asrda 90 metr (300 fut) ga ozayib, muzlik chekkalari yaqinidagi serhosil erlarni ochib berdi.[66]

In Kanada toshlari, muzliklar, odatda, Rokki tog'larida janubga qaraganda kattaroq va keng tarqalgan. Kanada Rokki-da eng qulay joylardan biri Atabaska muzligi 325 km uzunlikdagi muzlik hisoblanadi2 (125 kvadrat milya) Kolumbiya muz maydoni. Atabaska muzligi XIX asr oxiridan boshlab 1500 m (4900 fut) ga chekindi. Uning chekinish darajasi 1980 yildan beri oshdi, 1950 yildan 1980 yilgacha sekin chekinish davridan keyin Peyto muzligi yilda Alberta taxminan 12 km maydonni egallaydi2 (4,6 sq mi) ni tashkil etdi va 20-asrning birinchi yarmida tezda chekindi, 1966 yilga kelib barqarorlashdi va 1976 yilda siqila boshladi.[67]The Illecillewaet muzligi Britaniya Kolumbiyasida Glacier National Park (Kanada), qismi Selkirk tog'lari (Rokki g'arbiy qismida) 1887 yilda birinchi suratga olinganidan beri 2 km (1,2 milya) orqaga chekindi.

Yilda Garibaldi viloyat bog'i janubi-g'arbiy qismida Britaniya Kolumbiyasi 505 km dan ortiq2 (195 kvadrat milya) yoki bog'ning 26% 18-asr boshlarida muzli muz bilan qoplangan. Muz qoplamasi 297 kmgacha kamaygan2 (115 kvadrat milya) 1987-1988 yillarga qadar va 245 km2 (95 kvadrat milya) 2005 yilga kelib, 1850 ta maydonning 50%. 50 km2 So'nggi 20 yil ichida (19 kvadrat milya) yo'qotish mintaqadagi salbiy massa balansiga to'g'ri keladi. Ushbu davr mobaynida tekshirilgan to'qqizta muzlik sezilarli darajada chekindi.[68]

Alyaska

Glacier Bay xaritasi. Qizil chiziqlarda Kichik Muzlik davri muzligining chekinishi paytida muzlik terminusi va sanalari ko'rsatilgan.
Orqaga qaytishni ko'rsatadigan xaritalar Muir muzligi 1941 yildan 1982 yilgacha

Alyaskada minglab muzliklar mavjud, ammo ularning ozi nomlangan. The Kolumbiya muzligi yaqin Valdez yilda Shahzoda Uilyam Ovoz so'nggi 25 yil ichida 15 km (9,3 milya) orqaga chekindi. Buzilgan aysberglari qisman sabab bo'lgan Exxon Valdez yog 'to'kilishi, tanker muz uchlarini oldini olish uchun yo'nalishni o'zgartirganda. Valdez muzligi xuddi shu hududda joylashgan va u buzmasa ham, ancha orqaga chekingan. "2005 yilda Alyaskaning qirg'oq bo'yidagi muzliklarini havodan o'rganish natijasida o'ndan ziyod muzliklar, ko'plab sobiq suv oqimi va buzoqlash muzliklar, jumladan, Buyuk Yassi platosi, Alsek, Ayiq va Excelsior muzliklari tezda chekinmoqda. Kuzatilgan 2000 ta muzliklarning 99% chekinmoqda. "[66] Alyaskadagi Muzli ko'rfazni uchta yirik muzlik - Guyot, Yahtse va Tindal muzliklari to'ydiradi, ularning hammasi uzunlik va qalinlikda, natijada maydonda yo'qotishlarga duch keldi. Tindal muzligi 60-yillarda orqaga chekinayotgan Gyuyot muzligidan ajralib chiqqan va shu vaqtdan beri har yili o'rtacha 500 metrdan (1600 fut) ko'proq 24 km (15 mil) orqaga chekinmoqda.[69]

Juneau Icefield tadqiqot dasturi tomonidan muzliklarning chiqishi kuzatilgan Juneau muz maydoni 1946 yildan beri. Muz maydonining g'arbiy tomonida Mendenxol muzligi, shahar atrofiga oqib o'tadi Juneau, Alyaska, 580 m (1900 fut) orqaga chekindi. Juneau muz maydonidagi o'n to'qqizta muzlikdan o'n sakkiztasi chekinmoqda va bittasi Taku muzligi oldinga siljiydi. 1948 yildan buyon o'n bitta muzlik 1 km dan ko'proq chekingan - Antler muzligi, 5,4 km (3,4 milya); Gilkey muzligi, 3,5 km (2,2 milya); Norris muzligi 1,1 km (0,68 milya) va Lemon Creek muzligi 1,5 km (0,93 milya).[70] Taku muzligi kamida 1890 yildan beri, tabiatshunos bo'lgan paytdan boshlab rivojlanib kelmoqda Jon Muir bolalaydigan katta aysberg jabhasini kuzatdi. 1948 yilga kelib qo'shni fyord bilan to'ldirilgan edi va muzlik endi buzilmaydi va oldinga siljishni davom ettira oldi. 2005 yilga kelib muzlik Taku-Poytinga etib borguncha bor-yo'g'i 1,5 km (0,93 milya) masofada joylashgan Taku-Inlet. 1988 yildan 2005 yilgacha Taku muzligining ilgarilanishi o'rtacha yiliga 17 m (56 fut) ni tashkil etdi. 1946–88 yillar davomida ommaviy muvozanat avansni kuchaytirdi; ammo, 1988 yildan buyon ommaviy balans biroz salbiy bo'lib kelmoqda, bu kelajakda ushbu qudratli muzlikning oldinga siljishini sekinlashtirishi kerak.[71]

Alyaskadagi Lemon Krik muzligidan uzoq muddatli massa balansi yozuvlari vaqt o'tishi bilan bir oz pasayib borayotgan massa muvozanatini ko'rsatadi.[72] Ushbu muzlikning o'rtacha yillik qoldig'i 1957 yildan 1976 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda har yili -0,23 m (0,75 fut) ni tashkil etdi. O'rtacha yillik qoldiq 1990 yildan 2005 yilgacha yiliga -1,04 m (3,4 fut) ga nisbatan salbiy ravishda ortib bormoqda. Muzliklarning altimetriyasini takrorlang yoki balandlikni o'lchash uchun 67 Alyaskada joylashgan muzliklarda siyraklashish tezligi 1950 yildan 1995 yilgacha (yiliga 0,7 m (2,3 fut)) va 1995 yildan 2001 yilgacha (1,8 m (5,9 fut)) taqqoslaganda ikki baravar ko'paydi. ) yiliga).[73] Bu massaning yo'qolishi bilan qalinlikning yo'qolishiga teng keladigan tizimli tendentsiyadir, bu esa ortib borayotgan chekinishni keltirib chiqaradi - muzliklar nafaqat chekinmoqda, balki ular ham ingichka bo'lib bormoqda. Yilda Denali milliy bog'i, kuzatilgan barcha muzliklar chekinmoqda, o'rtacha chekinish yiliga 20 m (66 fut). Toklat muzligining terminusi yiliga 26 m (85 fut) orqaga chekinmoqda va Muldrow muzligi 1979 yildan beri 20 m (66 fut) ga kamayib bormoqda.[74] Alyaskada yaxshi hujjatlashtirilgan haddan tashqari ko'tarilish tez rivojlanib borayotgani ma'lum bo'lgan muzliklar, hattoki kuniga 100 m (330 fut). Turli xil, Qora Rapids, Muldrow, Susitna va Yanert - bu ilgari Alyaskadagi tez sur'atlarda rivojlanib borayotgan muzliklarning ko'payishiga misoldir. Ushbu muzliklarning barchasi qisqarib bormoqda va qisqa muddatlarda to'xtab qolgan.

Janubiy yarim shar

Andes va Tierra del Fuego

Chekinish San-Rafael muzligi 1990 yildan 2000 yilgacha. San-Kvintin muzligi fonda ko'rsatilgan
Shuningdek qarang: Quruq And va Nam And

Markaziy va janubiy And tog'larini o'rab turgan aholining katta hududi Argentina va Chili eruvchan muzliklarning suv ta'minotiga bog'liq bo'lgan qurg'oqchil hududlarda istiqomat qilish. Muzliklarning suvi, shuningdek, ba'zi hollarda to'g'onlangan daryolarni ham etkazib beradi gidroelektr kuch. Ba'zi tadqiqotchilar, 2030 yilga kelib, hozirgi iqlim tendentsiyalari davom etsa, eng baland And tog'laridagi ko'plab yirik muzliklarning yo'q bo'lib ketishiga ishonadilar. Materikning janubiy uchida joylashgan Patagoniyada katta muzliklar 1990-yillarning boshidan beri 1 km (19,62 mil), 19-asr oxiridan boshlab 10 km (6,2 milya) orqaga chekinmoqda. Patagoniya muzliklari boshqa har qanday mintaqaga qaraganda tezroq sur'atlarda pasayib borayotgani ham kuzatilgan.[75] The Shimoliy Patagoniya muz maydoni 93 km masofani bosib o'tdi2 (36 kvadrat milya) 1945-1975 yillar orasidagi muzlik maydoni va 174 km2 (67 kvadrat milya) 1975 yildan 1996 yilgacha, bu chekinish darajasi ortib borayotganligini ko'rsatadi. Bu muzlik maydonining 8% yo'qotilishini anglatadi, barcha muzliklar sezilarli chekinishni boshdan kechirmoqda. The Janubiy Patagoniya muz maydoni has exhibited a general trend of retreat on 42 glaciers, while four glaciers were in equilibrium and two advanced during the years between 1944 and 1986. The largest retreat was on O'Higgins muzligi, which during the period 1896–1995 retreated 14.6 km (9.1 mi). The Perito Moreno muzligi is 30 km (19 mi) long and is a major outflow glacier of the Patagonian ice sheet, as well as the most visited glacier in Patagonia. Perito Moreno Glacier is in equilibrium, but has undergone frequent oscillations in the period 1947–96, with a net gain of 4.1 km (2.5 mi). This glacier has advanced since 1947, and has been essentially stable since 1992. Perito Moreno Glacier is one of three glaciers in Patagonia known to have advanced, compared to several hundred others in retreat.[76] The two major glaciers of the Southern Patagonia Icefield to the north of Moreno, Upsala and Viedma Glacier have retreated 4.6 km (2.9 mi) in 21 years and 1 km (0.62 mi) in 13 years respectively.[77] In Akonkagua daryosi Basin, glacier retreat has resulted in a 20% loss in glacier area, declining from 151 km2 (58 sq mi) to 121 km2 (47 kvadrat mil)[78] The Marinelli muzligi yilda Tierra del Fuego has been in retreat since at least 1960 through 2008.

Okeaniya

These glaciers in New Zealand have continued to retreat rapidly in recent years. Notice the larger terminal lakes, the retreat of the white ice (ice free of moraine cover), and the higher moraine walls due to ice thinning. Surat.

In New Zealand, mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890, with an acceleration since 1920. Most have measurably thinned and reduced in size, and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation as the 20th century progressed. Between 1971 and 1975 Ivory Glacier receded 30 m (98 ft) from the glacial terminus, and about 26% of its surface area was lost. Since 1980 numerous small glacial lakes formed behind the new terminal moraines of several of these glaciers. Glaciers such as Classen, Godley and Douglas now all have new glacial lakes below their terminal locations due to the glacial retreat over the past 20 years. Satellite imagery indicates that these lakes are continuing to expand. There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers, including the Tasman, Ivory, Classen, Myuller, Maud, Fahr, Grey, Godley, Ramsay, Merchison, Therma, Volta and Douglas Glaciers. The retreat of these glaciers has been marked by expanding proglacial lakes and terminus region thinning. The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976 to 2014 is 34 percent of the total.[79]

Several glaciers, notably the much-visited Tulki va Franz Josef Glaciers Yangi Zelandiyada G'arbiy Sohil, have periodically advanced, especially during the 1990s, but the scale of these advances is small when compared to 20th-century retreat. Both are more than 2.5 km (1.6 mi) shorter than a century ago. These large, rapidly flowing glaciers situated on steep slopes have been very reactive to small mass-balance changes. A few years of conditions favorable to glacier advance, such as more westerly winds and a resulting increase in snowfall, are rapidly echoed in a corresponding advance, followed by equally rapid retreat when those favorable conditions end.[80]

Tropical glaciers

Tropik glaciers are located between the Saraton tropikasi va Uloq tropikasi, in the region that lies 23° 26′ 22″ north or south of the ekvator. Strictly, a tropical glacier is located within the astronomical tropiklar; the area where the annual temperature variation is less than the daily variation, and is within the oscillation area of the Intertropik konvergentsiya zonasi.[81]

Tropical glaciers are the most uncommon of all glaciers for a variety of reasons. Firstly, the regions are the warmest part of the planet. Secondly, the seasonal change is minimal with temperatures warm year round, resulting in a lack of a colder winter season in which snow and ice can accumulate. Thirdly, few taller mountains exist in these regions upon which enough cold air exists for the establishment of glaciers. Overall, tropical glaciers are smaller than those found elsewhere and are the most likely glaciers to show rapid response to changing climate patterns. A small temperature increase of only a few degrees can have almost immediate and adverse effect on tropical glaciers.[82]

Near the Equator, ice is still found in East Africa, the Andes of South America and New Guinea. The retreat of equatorial glaciers has been documented via maps and photographs covering the period from the late 1800s to nearly the present.[83] 99.64% of tropical glaciers are in Andean mountains of South America, 0.25% on the African glaciers of Rwenzori, Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro, and 0.11% in the Irian Jaya region in New Guinea.[84]

Afrika

Furtwängler Glacier tepada Kilimanjaro in the foreground and snowfields and the Northern Icefields beyond.

Almost all Africa is in tropik va subtropik iqlim zonalari. Its glaciers are found only in two isolated ranges and the Ruwenzori Range. Kilimanjaro, at 5,895 m (19,341 ft), is the highest peak on the continent. From 1912 to 2006 the glacier cover on the summit of Kilimanjaro apparently retreated 75%, and the volume of glacial ice decreased 80% from its 1912 value due to both retreat and thinning.[85] In the 14-year period from 1984 to 1998, one section of the glacier atop the mountain receded 300 m (980 ft).[86] A 2002 study determined that were conditions to continue, the glaciers atop Kilimanjaro would disappear sometime between 2015 and 2020.[87] A March 2005 report indicated that almost no glacial ice remained on the mountain, and the paper noted this as the first time in 11,000 years that barren ground had been exposed on portions of the summit.[88] Researchers reported Kilimanjaro's glacier retreat was due to a combination of increased sublimatsiya and decreased snow fall.[1]

The Furtwängler Glacier is located near the summit of Kilimanjaro. Between 1976 and 2000, the area of Furtwängler Glacier was cut almost in half, from 113,000 m2 (1,220,000 sq ft) to 60,000 m2 (650,000 kvadrat fut).[89] During fieldwork conducted early in 2006, scientists discovered a large hole near the center of the glacier. This hole, extending through the 6 m (20 ft) remaining thickness of the glacier to the underlying rock, was expected to grow and split the glacier in two by 2007.[85]

To the north of Kilimanjaro lies Keniya tog'i, which at 5,199 m (17,057 ft) is the second tallest mountain on the continent. Mount Kenya has a number of small glaciers that have lost at least 45% of their mass since the middle of the 20th century. Tomonidan tuzilgan tadqiqotlarga ko'ra AQSh Geologik xizmati (USGS), there were eighteen glaciers atop Mount Kenya in 1900, and by 1986 only eleven remained. The total area covered by glaciers was 1.6 km2 (0.62 sq mi) in 1900, however by the year 2000 only about 25%, or 0.4 km2 (0.15 sq mi) remained.[90] To the west of Mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya, the Ruwenzori Range rises to 5,109 m (16,762 ft). Photographic evidence indicates a marked reduction in glacially covered areas over the past century. In the 35-year period between 1955 and 1990, glaciers on the Rvenzori tog'lari receded about 40%. It is expected that due to their proximity to the heavy moisture of the Kongo region, the glaciers in the Ruwenzori Range may recede at a slower rate than those on Kilimanjaro or in Kenya.[91]

Janubiy Amerika

A study by glaciologists of two small glaciers in South America reveals another retreat. More than 80% of all glacial ice in the northern Andes is concentrated on the highest peaks in small plains of approximately 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi) in size. A 1992 to 1998 observation of the Chakaltaya Muzlik ichkarida Boliviya and Antizana Glacier in Ekvador indicate that between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) and 1.9 m (6.2 ft) of ice was lost per year on each glacier. Figures for Chacaltaya show a loss of 67% of its volume and 40% of its thickness over the same period. Chacaltaya Glacier has lost 90% of its mass since 1940 and was expected to disappear altogether sometime between 2010 and 2015. Antizana is also reported to have lost 40% of its surface area between 1979 and 2007.[92] Research also indicates that since the mid-1980s, the rate of retreat for both of these glaciers has been increasing.[93] Yilda Kolumbiya, the glaciers atop Nevado del Ruiz have lost more than half their area in the last 40 years.[94]

Further south in Peru, the Andes are at a higher altitude overall, and host around 70 % of all tropical glaciers. A 1988 glacier inventory based upon data from 1970 estimated, that at that time glaciers covered an area of 2,600 km2 (1,000 sq mi).[95][96] Between 2000 and 2016, 29 % of the glacierized area was lost, the remaining area estimated at around 1,300 km2 (500 sq mi).[96] The Quelccaya muzligi is the second largest tropical icecap in the world after the Koropuna ice cap,[97] and all of the outlet glaciers from the icecap are retreating.[98] Bo'lgan holatda Qori Kalis Glacier, which is one of Quelccayas' outlet glaciers, the rate of retreat had reached 155 m (509 ft) per year during the three-year period of 1995 to 1998. The melting ice has formed a large lake at the front of the glacier since 1983, and bare ground has been exposed for the first time in thousands of years.[99]

Okeaniya

Animated map of the extent of the glaciers of the Carstensz Range from 1850 to 2003
Karstens tog'i icecap 1936 USGS
Puncak Jaya glaciers 1972. Left to right: Northwall Firn, Meren Glacier, and Carstensz Glacier. USGS. Also mid-2005 image va animatsiya.

Jan Carstensz 's 1623 report of glaciers covering the equatorial mountains ning Yangi Gvineya was originally met with ridicule, but in the early 20th century at least five subranges of the Maoke tog'lari (meaning "Snowy Mountains") were indeed still found to be covered with large ice caps. Due to the location of the island within the tropical zone, there is little to no seasonal variation in temperature. The tropical location has a predictably steady level of rain and snowfall, as well as cloud cover year round, and there has been no noticeable change in the amount of moisture which has fallen during the 20th century.

In 1913, 4,550 m (14,930 ft) high Prins Hendrik peaks (now Puncak Yamin ) was named and reported to have "eternal" snow, but this observation was never repeated.[100] The ice cap of 4,720 m (15,490 ft) Wilhelmina Peaks, which reached below 4,400 m (14,400 ft) in 1909, vanished between 1939 and 1963.[101] The Mandala / Juliana ice cap disappeared in the 1990s.[102] and the Idenburg glacier on Ngga Pilimsit dried up in 2003. This leaves only the remnants of the once continuous icecap on New Guinea's highest mountain, Karstens tog'i with the 4,884 m (16,024 ft) high Puncak Jaya summit, which is estimated to have had an area of 20 km2 (7.7 sq mi) in 1850.

For this mountain there is photographic evidence of massive glacial retreat since the region was first extensively explored by airplane in 1936 in preparation for the peak's first ascent. Between then and 2010, the mountain lost 80 percent of its ice — two-thirds of which since another scientific expedition in the 1970s.[103] That research between 1973 and 1976 showed glacier retreat for the Meren Glacier of 200 m (660 ft) while the Karstensz muzligi lost 50 m (160 ft). The Northwall Firn, the largest remnant of the icecap that once was atop Puncak Jaya, has itself split into two separate glaciers after 1942. IKONOS sun'iy yo'ldosh tasvirlari of the New Guinean glaciers indicated that by 2002 only 2.1 km2 (0.81 sq mi) glacial area remained, that in the two years from 2000 to 2002, the East Northwall Firn had lost 4.5%, the West Northwall Firn 19.4% and the Carstensz 6.8% of their glacial mass, and that sometime between 1994 and 2000, the Meren Glacier had disappeared altogether.[104] 2010 yilda Puncak-Jayadagi qolgan muzliklarga ekspeditsiya olib borilgan muzliklar har yili 7 metr (23 fut) tezlikda 32 metr (105 fut) qalinlikda va siyraklashayotganini aniqladi. At that rate, the remaining glaciers were expected to last only to the year 2015.[105]

Qutbiy mintaqalar

Despite their proximity and importance to human populations, the mountain and valley glaciers of tropical and mid-latitude glaciers amount to only a small fraction of glacial ice on the Earth. About 99 percent of all freshwater ice is in the great ice sheets of polar and subpolar Antarktida va Grenlandiya. These continuous continental-scale ice sheets, 3 km (1.9 mi) or more in thickness, cap much of the polar and subpolar land masses. Like rivers flowing from an enormous lake, numerous outlet glaciers transport ice from the margins of the ice sheet to the ocean.[106]

Islandiya

The northern Atlantic island nation of Islandiya uy Vatnajökull, which is the largest ice cap in Europe. The Breiðamerkurjökull glacier is one of Vatnajökull's outlet glaciers, and receded by as much as 2 km (1.2 mi) between 1973 and 2004. In the early 20th century, Breiðamerkurjökull extended to within 250 m (820 ft) of the ocean, but by 2004 its terminus had retreated 3 km (1.9 mi) further inland. This glacier retreat exposed a rapidly expanding lagoon, Jokulsarlon, which is filled with icebergs calved from its front. Jökulsárlón is 110 m (360 ft) deep and nearly doubled its size between 1994 and 2004. Mass-balance measurements of Iceland's glaciers show alternating positive and negative mass balance of glaciers during the period 1987–95, but the mass balance has been predominantly negative since. On Hofsjökull ice cap, mass balance has been negative each year from 1995 to 2005.[107]

Most of the Icelandic glaciers retreated rapidly during the warm decades from 1930 to 1960, slowing down as the climate cooled during the following decade, and started to advance after 1970. The rate of advance peaked in the 1980s, after which it slowed down until about 1990. As a consequence of rapid warming of the climate that has taken place since the mid-1980s, most glaciers in Iceland began to retreat after 1990, and by 2000 all monitored non-surge type glaciers in Iceland were retreating. An average of 45 non-surging termini were monitored each year by the Icelandic Glaciological Society from 2000 to 2005.[108]

Kanada

Shuningdek qarang: Uord Xant oroli
Bylot Ice Cap on Bylot Island, one of the Kanada Arktika orollari, August 14, 1975 (USGS)

The Kanada Arktika orollari contain the largest area and volume of land ice on Earth outside of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets[109][110] and is home to a number of substantial ice caps, including Penny va Barns ice caps on Baffin oroli, Bylot Ice Cap on Bylot oroli va Devon muzqaymoq kuni Devon oroli. Glaciers in the Canadian Arctic were near equilibrium between 1960 and 2000, losing 23 Gt of ice per year between 1995 and 2000.[111] Since this time, Canadian Arctic glaciers have experienced a sharp increase in mass loss in response to warmer summer temperature, losing 92 Gt per year between 2007 and 2009 .[112]

Other studies show that between 1960 and 1999, the Devon Ice Cap lost 67 km3 (16 cu mi) of ice, mainly through thinning. All major outlet glaciers along the eastern Devon Ice Cap margin have retreated from 1 km (0.62 mi) to 3 km (1.9 mi) since 1960.[113] On the Hazen Plateau of Ellesmere oroli, the Simmon Ice Cap has lost 47% of its area since 1959.[114] If the current climatic conditions continue, the remaining glacial ice on the Hazen Plateau will be gone around 2050. On August 13, 2005, the Eyl muzli tokchasi broke free from the north coast of Ellesmere Island. The 66 km2 (25 sq mi) ice shelf drifted into the Arctic Ocean.[115] This followed the splitting of the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf in 2002. The Ward Hunt has lost 90% of its area in the last century.[116]

Shimoliy Evropa

Arctic islands north of Norway, Finlyandiya and Russia have all shown evidence of glacier retreat. In Svalbard arxipelag, orol Shpitsbergen has numerous glaciers. Research indicates that Hansbreen (Hans Glacier) on Spitsbergen retreated 1.4 km (0.87 mi) from 1936 to 1982 and another 400 m (1,300 ft) during the 16-year period from 1982 to 1998.[117] Blomstrandbreen, a glacier in the King's Bay area of Spitsbergen, has retreated approximately 2 km (1.2 mi) in the past 80 years. Since 1960 the average retreat of Blomstrandbreen has been about 35 m (115 ft) a year, and this average was enhanced due to an accelerated rate of retreat since 1995.[118] Similarly, Midre Lovenbreen retreated 200 m (660 ft) between 1977 and 1995.[119] In Novaya Zemlya archipelago north of Russia, research indicates that in 1952 there was 208 km (129 mi) of glacier ice along the coast. By 1993 this had been reduced by 8% to 198 km (123 mi) of glacier coastline.[120]

Grenlandiya

Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland

Yilda Grenlandiya, glacier retreat has been observed in outlet glaciers, resulting in an increase of the ice flow rate and destabilization of the mass balance of the ice sheet that is their source. The net loss in volume and hence sea level contribution of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GIS) has doubled in recent years from 90 km3 (22 cu mi) per year in 1996 to 220 km3 (53 cu mi) per year in 2005.[121] Researchers also noted that the acceleration was widespread affecting almost all glaciers south of 70 N by 2005. The period since 2000 has brought retreat to several very large glaciers that had long been stable. Three glaciers that have been researched—Helgeym muzligi, Kangerdlugssuaq muzligi va Jakobshavn Isbru —jointly drain more than 16% of the Grenlandiya muz qatlami. In the case of Helheim Glacier, researchers used satellite images to determine the movement and retreat of the glacier. Satellite images and aerial photographs from the 1950s and 1970s show that the front of the glacier had remained in the same place for decades. In 2001 the glacier began retreating rapidly, and by 2005 the glacier had retreated a total of 7.2 km (4.5 mi), accelerating from 20 m (66 ft) per day to 35 m (115 ft) per day during that period.[122]

Jakobshavn Isbræ in west Greenland, a major outlet glacier of the Greenland Ice Sheet, was the fastest moving glacier in the world over the past half century. It had been moving continuously at speeds of over 24 m (79 ft) per day with a stable terminus since at least 1950. In 2002 the 12 km (7.5 mi) long floating terminus of the glacier entered a phase of rapid retreat, with the ice front breaking up and the floating terminus disintegrating and accelerating to a retreat rate of over 30 m (98 ft) per day. Boshqa .. emas. The glacier has "slammed the breaks" and is now getting thicker (growing in height) 20 meters each year.[123]

On a shorter timescale, portions of the main trunk of Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier that were flowing at 15 m (49 ft) per day from 1988 to 2001 were measured to be flowing at 40 m (130 ft) per day in the summer of 2005. Not only has Kangerdlugssuaq retreated, it has also thinned by more than 100 m (330 ft).[124]

The rapid thinning, acceleration and retreat of Helheim, Jakobshavns and Kangerdlugssuaq glaciers in Greenland, all in close association with one another, suggests a common triggering mechanism, such as enhanced surface melting due to regional climate warming or a change in forces at the glacier front. The enhanced melting leading to lubrication of the glacier base has been observed to cause a small seasonal velocity increase and the release of meltwater lakes has also led to only small short term accelerations.[125] The significant accelerations noted on the three largest glaciers began at the calving front and propagated inland and are not seasonal in nature.[126] Thus, the primary source of outlet glacier acceleration widely observed on small and large calving glaciers in Greenland is driven by changes in dynamic forces at the glacier front, not enhanced meltwater lubrication.[126] This was termed the Jakobshavns Effect by Terence Hughes at the Meyn universiteti 1986 yilda.[127] Indeed, a study published in 2015 on glacial underwater topography at 3 sites found cavities, due to warm subglacial water intrusion, which has been identified as a possible dominant force for ablation (surface erosion). Thus, suggests ocean temperature controls ice sheet surface runoff at specific sites. These findings also show that models underestimate the sensitivity of Greenland glaciers to ocean warming and resulting ice sheet runoff. Hence, without better modelling, new observations suggest that past projections of sea level rise attribution from the Greenland Ice Sheet require upward revision.[128]

According to one study, in the years 2002–2019 Greenland lost 4,550 gigaton of ice, 268 gigaton per year, on average. In 2019 Greenland lost 600 gigaton of ice in two months contributing 2.2 mm to global sea level rise[129]

Antarktida

Shuningdek qarang: Antarktidadagi muzliklarning ro'yxati va Antarktika muzli tokchalar ro'yxati
The collapsing Larsen B Ice Shelf in Antarktida is similar in area to the U.S. state of Rod-Aylend.

Antarktida is intensely cold and arid. Most of the world's freshwater ice is contained within its sheets. Its most dramatic example of glacier retreat is the loss of large sections of the Larsen muzli tokchasi ustida Antarktika yarim oroli. The recent collapse of Wordie Ice Shelf, Prince Gustav Ice Shelf, Mueller Ice Shelf, Jones Ice Shelf, Larsen-A and Larsen-B Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula has raised awareness of how dynamic ice shelf systems are.

The Antarctic sheet is the largest known single mass of ice. It covers almost 14 million km2 and some 30 million km3 muz. Around 90% of the fresh water on the planet's surface is held in this area and if melted would raise sea levels by 58 metres.[130] The continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at >0.05 °C/decade since 1957.[131]

The Antarctic sheet is divided by the Transantarktika tog'lari into two unequal sections known as the Sharqiy Antarktika muz qatlami (EAIS) and the smaller G'arbiy Antarktika muz qatlami (WAIS). The EAIS rests on a major land mass but the bed of the WAIS is, in places, more than 2,500 metres below dengiz sathi. Bo'lishi mumkin dengiz tubi if the ice sheet were not there. The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the Ross muzli tokcha, Ronne Ice Shelf, and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen dengizi.

Ice shelves are not stable when surface melting occurs, and the collapse of Larsen Ice Shelf has been caused by warmer melt season temperatures that have led to surface melting and the formation of shallow ponds of water on the ice shelf. The Larsen Ice Shelf lost 2,500 km2 (970 sq mi) of its area from 1995 to 2001. In a 35-day period beginning on January 31, 2002, about 3,250 km2 (1,250 sq mi) of shelf area disintegrated. The ice shelf is now 40% the size of its previous minimum stable extent.[132] In 2015 a study concluded that the remaining Larsen B ice-shelf will disintegrate by the end of the decade, based on observations of faster flow and rapid thinning of glaciers in the area.[133] Jones Ice Shelf had an area of 35 km2 (14 sq mi) in the 1970s but by 2008 it had disappeared.[134] Wordie Ice Shelf has gone from an area of 1,500 km2 (580 sq mi) in 1950 to 1,400 km2 (540 sq mi) in 2000.[134] Prince Gustav Ice Shelf has gone from an area of 1,600 km2 (620 sq mi) to 1,100 km2 (420 sq mi) in 2008.[134] After their loss the reduced buttressing of feeder glaciers has allowed the expected speed-up of inland ice masses after shelf ice break-up.[135] The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica (an area of roughly 487,000 square kilometres (188,000 sq mi) and about 800 kilometres (500 mi) across: about the size of France).[136] Wilkins Ice Shelf is another ice shelf that has suffered substantial retreat. The ice shelf had an area of 16,000 km2 (6,200 sq mi) in 1998 when 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) was lost that year.[137] In 2007 and 2008 significant rifting developed and led to the loss of another 1,400 km2 (540 sq mi) of area and some of the calving occurred in the Austral winter. The calving seemed to have resulted from preconditioning such as thinning, possibly due to basal melt, as surface melt was not as evident, leading to a reduction in the strength of the pinning point connections. The thinner ice then experienced spreading rifts and breakup.[138] This period culminated in the collapse of an ice bridge connecting the main ice shelf to Charcot Island leading to the loss of an additional 700 km2 (270 sq mi) between February and June 2009.[139]

Dakshin Gangotri Glacier, a small outlet glacier of the Antarctic ice sheet, receded at an average rate of 0.7 m (2.3 ft) per year from 1983 to 2002. On the Antarctic Peninsula, which is the only section of Antarctica that extends well north of the Antarctic Circle, there are hundreds of retreating glaciers. In one study of 244 glaciers on the peninsula, 212 have retreated an average of 600 m (2,000 ft) from where they were when first measured in 1953.[140] Pine Island Glacier, an Antarctic outflow glacier that flows into the Amundsen dengizi. A study from 1998 concluded that the glacier thinned 3.5 m (11 ft)± 0.9 m (3.0 ft) per year and retreated a total of 5 km (3.1 mi) in 3.8 years. The terminus of the Pine Island Glacier is a floating ice shelf, and the point at which it starts to float retreated 1.2 km (0.75 mi) per year from 1992 to 1996. This glacier drains a substantial portion of the G'arbiy Antarktika muz qatlami.[141]

A study published in 2014 found, rapid grounding line retreat in the years 1992–2011.[142] Based on a study from 2005, the greatest retreat was seen in Sjogren Glacier, which is now 13 km (8.1 mi) further inland than where it was in 1953. There are 32 glaciers that were measured to have advanced; however, these glaciers showed only a modest advance averaging 300 m (980 ft) per glacier, which is significantly smaller than the massive retreat observed.[143] Thwaites Glacier, which has also shown evidence of thinning, has been referred to as the weak underbelly of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.[141] A study published in 2014 found rapid grounding line retreat in the years 1992–2011.[142] More recently, new satellite imaging data led to calculations of Thwaites Glacier "ice shelf melt rate of 207 m/year in 2014–2017, which is the highest ice shelf melt rate on record in Antarctica."[144] Totten Glacier, is a large glacier draining a major portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. A study in 2008 concluded that Totten Glacier is currently losing mass.[145] A study published in 2015 concluded that Totten Glacier, has the largest contribution of ice thinning rate on the East Antarctic continent, and that the thinning is driven by enhanced basal melting, because of ocean processes, and affected by polynya faoliyat. Additionally, warm Circumpolar Deep Water, has been observed during summer and winter months at the nearby continental shelf below 400 to 500 meters of cool Antarctic Surface Water.[146]

A 2019 study showed that Antarctica is losing ice six times faster than it was 40 years ago. Another study showed that two glaciers, Pine Island and Thwaites, are melting five times faster than "in the early 1990s".[147]

In February 2020, it is reported from Esperanza bazasi, Antarktika yarim oroli reached a temperature of 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), the hottest on record to date for continental Antarctica. In the past 50 years, temperatures in the Antarctic Peninsula have surged 5 degrees and about 87% of the glaciers along the peninsula's west coast have retreated.[148][149][150]

Effects of glacier retreat

Shuningdek qarang: Degradatsiya

The continued retreat of glaciers will have a number of different quantitative effects. In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to sug'orish crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished. This situation is particularly acute for irrigation in South America, where numerous artificial lakes are filled almost exclusively by glacial melt.[151] Markaziy Osiyo countries have also been historically dependent on the seasonal glacier melt water for irrigation and drinking supplies. In Norway, the Alps, and the Tinch okeanining shimoli-g'arbiy qismi of North America, glacier runoff is important for hydropower.

Some of this retreat has resulted in efforts to slow down the loss of glaciers in the Alps. To retard melting of the glaciers used by certain Austrian ski resorts, portions of the Stubay and Pitztal Glaciers were partially covered with plastic.[152] In Switzerland plastic sheeting is also used to reduce the melt of glacial ice used as ski slopes.[153] While covering glaciers with plastic sheeting may prove advantageous to ski resorts on a small scale, this practice is not expected to be economically practical on a much larger scale.

Many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on glacier-fed waters to ensure the cold water habitat to which they have adapted. Chuchuk suv baliqlarining ayrim turlari omon qolish va ko'payish uchun sovuq suvga muhtoj va bu ayniqsa to'g'ri keladi go'shti Qizil baliq va tomoq alabalığı. Reduced glacial runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. O'zgarishlar okean oqimlari muzliklarning erishi natijasida chuchuk suv manbalarining ko'payishi va yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan o'zgarishlar tufayli termohalin aylanishi ning Jahon okeani, may affect existing baliqchilik upon which humans depend as well.[154]

One major concern is the increased risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF), which have in the past had great effect on lives and property.[155] Glacier meltwater left behind by the retreating glacier is often held back by morenes that can be unstable and have been known to collapse if breached or displaced by earthquakes, landslides or avalanches.[156] If the terminal moraine is not strong enough to hold the rising water behind it, it can burst, leading to a massive localized flood. The likelihood of such events is rising due to the creation and expansion of glacial lakes resulting from glacier retreat.[155] Past floods have been deadly and have resulted in enormous property damage. Towns and villages in steep, narrow valleys that are downstream from glacial lakes are at the greatest risk. In 1892 a GLOF released some 200,000 m3 (260,000 cu yd) of water from the lake of the Glacier de Tête Rousse, resulting in the deaths of 200 people in the French town of Saint-Gervais-les-Bains.[66] GLOFs have been known to occur in every region of the world where glaciers are located. Continued glacier retreat is expected to create and expand glacial lakes, increasing the danger of future GLOFs.

The potential for major dengiz sathining ko'tarilishi depends mostly on a significant melting of the polar ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica, as this is where the vast majority of glacial ice is located. If all the ice on the polar ice caps were to melt away, the oceans of the world would rise an estimated 70 m (230 ft). Although previously it was thought that the polar ice caps were not contributing heavily to sea level rise (IPCC 2007), recent studies have confirmed that both Antarctica and Greenland are contributing 0.5 millimetres (0.020 in) a year each to global sea level rise.[157][158][159] The Thayts muzligi alone, in Western Antarctica is "currently responsible for approximately 4 percent of global sea level rise. It holds enough ice to raise the world ocean a little over 2 feet (65 centimeters) and backstops neighboring glaciers that would raise sea levels an additional 8 feet (2.4 meters) if all the ice were lost."[160][144] The fact that the IPCC estimates did not include rapid ice sheet decay into their sea level predictions makes it difficult to ascertain a plausible estimate for sea level rise but a 2008 study found that the minimum sea level rise will be around 0.8 metres (2.6 ft) by 2100.[161]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ a b Mote, Philip W.; Kaser, Georg (2007). "The Shrinking Glaciers of Kilimanjaro: Can Global Warming Be Blamed?". Amerikalik olim. 95 (4): 318–325. doi:10.1511/2007.66.318. Olingan 23-noyabr, 2020.
  2. ^ Alex S. Gardner; Geir Moholdt; J. Graham Cogley; Bert Wouters; Anthony A. Arendt; John Wahr; Etienne Berthier; Regine Hock; W. Tad Pfeffer; Georg Kaser; Stefan R. M. Ligtenberg; Tobias Bolch; Martin J. Sharp; Jon Ove Hagen; Michiel R. van den Broeke; Frank Paul (May 17, 2013). "A Reconciled Estimate of Glacier Contributions to Sea Level Rise: 2003 to 2009" (PDF). Ilm-fan. 340 (6134): 852–857. Bibcode:2013Sci...340..852G. doi:10.1126/science.1234532. PMID  23687045. S2CID  206547524. Olingan 23-noyabr, 2020.
  3. ^ a b Xabbard, Bryn; Neil F. Glasser (May 20, 2005). Glyatsiologiya va muzlik geomorfologiyasidagi dala texnikasi. Vili. 179-198 betlar. ISBN  978-0470844274. Olingan 23-noyabr, 2020.
  4. ^ a b v d Pelto, M.S. (2010). "Forecasting temperate alpine glacier survival from accumulation zone observations". Kriyosfera. 4 (1): 67–75. Bibcode:2010TCry....4...67P. doi:10.5194/tc-4-67-2010. Olingan 23-noyabr, 2020.
  5. ^ a b v Clark, Peter U. (September 28, 2009). Abrupt Climate Change: Final Report, Synthesis and Assessment Product. DIANE Publishing Company. 39-45 betlar. ISBN  9781437915693.
  6. ^ "2013 State of the climate: Mountain glaciers". NOAA. 2014 yil 12-iyul. Olingan 23-noyabr, 2020.
  7. ^ Schultz, Jürgen (September 7, 2005). Dunyoning ekozonalari: geosferaning ekologik bo'linishlari (2 nashr). Springer. ISBN  978-3540200147.
  8. ^ Hensen, Robert (October 30, 2006). Iqlim o'zgarishi uchun qo'pol qo'llanma. DK. ISBN  9781843537113.
  9. ^ White, Christopher (September 3, 2013). The Melting World: A Journey Across America's Vanishing Glaciers. Sent-Martin matbuoti. p. 133. ISBN  978-0312546281.
  10. ^ Fort, Monique (2014). Landscapes and Landforms in France. Springer Niderlandiya. p. 172. ISBN  9789400770218.
  11. ^ a b Pelto, Mauri (April 4, 2010). "Mer de Glace, Glacier Retreat-A Receding Sea". From a Glacier's Perspective. Olingan 1 mart, 2015.
  12. ^ "Glacier des Bossons and Glacier de Taconnaz". Glaciers Online. Swiss Education. 2011 yil 7 mart. Olingan 1 mart, 2015.
  13. ^ Two-thirds of glacier ice in the Alps 'will melt by 2100'
  14. ^ Modelling the future evolution of glaciers in the European Alps under the EURO-CORDEX RCM ensemble
  15. ^ "Glacier loss may cost political instability: Expert". www.aa.com.tr. Olingan 2020-04-15.
  16. ^ sabah, daily (2019-07-30). "Glaciers melting faster in southeast Turkey, sparking concerns". Daily Sabah. Olingan 2020-04-15.
  17. ^ Rocchio, Laura (July 1, 2015). "Turkish glaciers shrink by half". NASA. Olingan 23-noyabr, 2020.
  18. ^ a b "The Swiss Glaciers Glaciological Report (Glacier) No. 125/126" (PDF). Tsyurix universiteti. 2009. pp. 14–17. Olingan 11 aprel, 2015.
  19. ^ a b Jouvet, Guillaume; Matthias Huss; Martin Funk; Heinz Blatter (2011). "Modelling the retreat of Grosser Aletschgletscher, Switzerland, in a changing climate" (PDF). Glaciology jurnali. 57 (206): 1033–1045. Bibcode:2011JGlac..57.1033J. doi:10.3189/002214311798843359. Olingan 11 aprel, 2015.
  20. ^ Malinverni, Eva; Croci, Claudia; Sgroi, Fabrizio (February 2008). "Glacier Monitoring by Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques in Open Source Environment" (PDF). EARSeL eProceedings. Olingan 18 aprel, 2015.
  21. ^ Cannone, Nicoletta; Diolaiuti, G; Guglielmin, M; Smiraglia, C (2008). "Accelerating Climate Change Impacts on Alpine Glacier Forefield Ecosystems in the European Alps" (PDF). Ekologik dasturlar. 18 (3): 637–648. doi:10.1890/07-1188.1. hdl:11383/16260. PMID  18488623. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2015 yil 18 aprelda. Olingan 18 aprel, 2015.
  22. ^ Diolaiuti, Guglielmina; Maragno, D.; d'Agata, C.; Smiraglia, C.; Bocchiola, D. (April 2011). "Glacier retreat and climate change: Documenting the last 50 years of Alpine glacier history from area and geometry changes of Dosdè Piazzi glaciers (Lombardy Alps, Italy)". Jismoniy geografiyada taraqqiyot. 35 (2): 161–182. doi:10.1177/0309133311399494. S2CID  129844246.
  23. ^ "Onlayn muzliklar". Swiss Education. Olingan 18 aprel, 2015.
  24. ^ Wikland, Maria; Holmlund, Per (2002). "Swedish Glacier front monitoring program – compilation of data from 1990 to 2001" (PDF). Stockholm: Tarfala Research Station, University of Stockholm. 37-40 betlar. Olingan 28 iyun, 2015.
  25. ^ a b v Nesje, Atle; Bakke, Jostein; Dahl, Svein Olaf; Lie, Øyvind; Matthews, John A. (2008). "Norwegian mountain glaciers in the past, present and future" (PDF). Global va sayyora o'zgarishi. 60 (1): 10–27. Bibcode:2008GPC....60...10N. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.08.004. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2016-11-07 kunlari. Olingan 2015-05-25.
  26. ^ a b "Glacier length change observations". Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate. 2014 yil 16 sentyabr. Olingan 25 may, 2015.
  27. ^ "Engabreen". Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate. 2014 yil 16 sentyabr. Olingan 25 may, 2015.
  28. ^ "Hardangerjøkulen". Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate. 16 sentyabr 2014 yil. Arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2015 yil 26 mayda. Olingan 25 may, 2015.
  29. ^ Nesje, Atle (December 2005). "Briksdalsbreen in western Norway: AD 1900–2004 frontal fluctuations as a combined effect of variations in winter precipitation and summer temperature". Golotsen. 15 (8): 1245–1252. Bibcode:2005Holoc..15.1245N. doi:10.1191/0959683605hl897rr. S2CID  129921361.
  30. ^ a b v Nussbaumer, Samuel U.; Nesje, Atle; Zumbühl, Heinz J. (May 2011). "Historical glacier fluctuations of Jostedalsbreen and Folgefonna (southern Norway) reassessed by new pictorial and written evidence". Golotsen. 21 (3): 455–471. Bibcode:2011Holoc..21..455N. doi:10.1177/0959683610385728. S2CID  128490189.
  31. ^ J. Chuecaia; López-Moreno (2007). "Recent evolution (1981–2005) of the Maladeta glaciers, Pyrenees, Spain: extent and volume losses and their relation with climatic and topographic factors". Glaciology jurnali. 53 (183): 547–557. Bibcode:2007JGlac..53..547C. doi:10.3189/002214307784409342.
  32. ^ Serrano, E .; E. Martinez; F. Lampre (2004). "Desaparición de Glaciares Pirenaicos Españoles". Olingan 1 iyul, 2015.
  33. ^ Painter, Thomas; Flanner, Mark; Kaser, Georg; Marzeion, Ben; VanCuren, Richard; Abdalati, Waleed (September 17, 2013). "End of the Little Ice Age in the Alps forced by industrial black carbon". Milliy fanlar akademiyasi materiallari. 110 (88): 15216–15221. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11015216P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302570110. PMC  3780880. PMID  24003138.
  34. ^ a b v Surazakov, A.B.; Aizem, V.B.; Aizem, E.M.; Nikitin, S.A. (2007). "Glacier Changes in the Siberian Altai Mountains, Ob river basin, (1952–2006) estimated with high resolution imagery". Atrof-muhitni o'rganish bo'yicha xatlar. 2 (4): 045017. Bibcode:2007ERL.....2d5017S. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/045017.
  35. ^ a b Dyurgerov, Mark B.; Meier, Mark F. (2005). "Muzliklar va o'zgaruvchan Yer tizimi: 2004 yildagi surat" (PDF). Kolorado universiteti. Olingan 6 iyul, 2015.
  36. ^ a b v Ananicheva, M.D .; Krenke, A.N .; Barri, R.G. (2010 yil 6 oktyabr). "AOGCM stsenariylari bo'yicha yaqin kelajakda Shimoliy-Sharqiy Osiyo tog 'muzliklari". Kriyosfera. 4 (4): 435–445. Bibcode:2010Tryry .... 4..435A. doi:10.5194 / tc-4-435-2010.
  37. ^ Jons, Vivien; Solomina, Olga (2015 yil 6-iyun). "Kamchatka geografiyasi". Global va sayyora o'zgarishi. 134 (132): 3–9. Bibcode:2015GPC ... 134 .... 3J. doi:10.1016 / j.gloplacha.2015.06.003.
  38. ^ a b "Global muzliklarning o'zgarishi: faktlar va raqamlar Shimoliy Osiyo" (PDF). Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi. Olingan 17 iyul, 2015.
  39. ^ "Himoloy haqidagi faktlar". Tabiat. 2011 yil 11 fevral. Olingan 26 avgust, 2015.
  40. ^ Lagari, Javaid (2013 yil 11-noyabr). "Iqlim o'zgarishi: muzliklarning erishi energiya noaniqligini keltirib chiqaradi". Tabiat. 502 (7473): 617–618. doi:10.1038 / 502617a. PMID  24180016.
  41. ^ "Baland tog'li Osiyodagi muzliklardagi bilim bo'shliqni toraytirish". Baland tog'li Osiyodagi muzlikshunoslik bo'yicha xalqaro simpozium. Xalqaro tog'larni rivojlantirish xalqaro markazi. 2015 yil 9 mart. Olingan 26 avgust, 2015.
  42. ^ Xaritashya, Umesh K .; Bishop, Maykl P.; Shroder, Jon F.; Bush, Endryu B. G.; Bulley, Genri N. N. (2009). "Afg'onistonning Vaxon Pomiridagi muzliklarning o'zgarishini kosmik asosda baholash" (PDF). Iqlim o'zgarishi. 94 (1–2): 5–18. Bibcode:2009ClCh ... 94 .... 5H. doi:10.1007 / s10584-009-9555-9. S2CID  155024036.
  43. ^ Pelto, Mauri (2009 yil 23-dekabr). "Zemestan muzligi, Afg'oniston chekinmoqda". Amerika Geofizika Ittifoqi. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2015.
  44. ^ Sandeep Chamling Rai; Trishna Gurung ia; va boshq. "Nepal, Hindiston va Xitoyda muzliklar, muzliklarning chekinishi va keyingi ta'sirlari haqida umumiy ma'lumot" (PDF). WWF Nepal dasturi. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2015.
  45. ^ a b Bajracharya, Mool. "Everest tog'idagi Nepalda muzliklar, muzli ko'llar va muzli ko'llar toshqinlari" (PDF). Xalqaro tog'larni rivojlantirish xalqaro markazi. Olingan 10 yanvar, 2010.
  46. ^ Naytani, Ajay K.; Neynval, H.C .; Sati, K. K .; Prasad, C. (2001). "Gangotri muzligining chekinishining geomorfologik dalillari va uning xususiyatlari" (PDF). Hozirgi fan. 80 (1): 87–94. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2015.
  47. ^ a b "Gangotri muzligining chekinishi". NASA Yer Observatoriyasi. 2004 yil 23 iyun. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2015.
  48. ^ Raina, V. K. (2010). "Himoloy muzliklari - muzliklarni o'rganish, muzliklarning orqaga chekinishi va iqlim o'zgarishini zamonaviy tarzda ko'rib chiqish" (PDF). Atrof-muhit va o'rmonlar vazirligi. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2015.
  49. ^ Antval, Ashish; Joshi, Varun; Sharma, Archana; Anthwal, Smriti (2006). "Himoloy muzliklarining chekinishi - iqlim o'zgarishi ko'rsatkichi". Tabiat va fan. 4 (4): 53–59. Olingan 16-noyabr, 2015.
  50. ^ Xevitt, Kennet (2006). "Qorakoram anomaliyasi? Muzlikning kengayishi va" balandlik effekti ", Qorakoram Himoloyi". Tog'larni tadqiq qilish va rivojlantirish. 25 (4): 332–340. doi:10.1659 / 0276-4741 (2005) 025 [0332: tkagea] 2.0.co; 2.
  51. ^ "Nepalda muzli ko'llar va muzli ko'llarning toshqinlari" (PDF). Xalqaro tog'larni rivojlantirish xalqaro markazi. 2011. p. 31. Olingan 22-noyabr, 2015.
  52. ^ Qader Mirza, M. Monirul (2005 yil 13-iyul). Janubiy Osiyoda iqlim o'zgarishi va suv resurslari. Teylor va Frensis Ltd. p. 143. ISBN  978-0203020777. Olingan 22-noyabr, 2015.
  53. ^ Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi. "Global isish muzli ko'llarni toshqin xavfini keltirib chiqarmoqda - 2002 yil 16 aprel". UNEP yangiliklari 2002/20. Olingan 22-noyabr, 2015.
  54. ^ T. E. Xromova, M. B. Dyurgerov va R. G. Barri (2003). "Yigirmanchi asrning oxirlarida Markaziy Osiyodagi Oq-Shirak tizmasidagi muzlik darajasidagi o'zgarishlar tarixiy ma'lumotlar va ASTER tasvirlari asosida aniqlandi". Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 30 (16): 1863. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1863K. doi:10.1029 / 2003gl017233. OSTI  813623.
  55. ^ Kirbi, Aleks (2003 yil 4 sentyabr). "Qozog'iston muzliklarining tez eriydi'". BBC yangiliklari.
  56. ^ a b v Qayumov, A. "Iqlim o'zgarishi sharoitida Tojikistonning muzlik manbalari" (PDF). Tojikiston hukumati huzuridagi atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish qo'mitasining davlat gidrometeorologiya agentligi. Olingan 31 yanvar, 2016.
  57. ^ Novikov, V. "Tojikiston 2002 yil, Atrof muhit holati to'g'risida hisobot". Iqlim o'zgarishi. Tabiatni muhofaza qilish ilmiy-tadqiqot laboratoriyasi (Tojikiston). Olingan 31 yanvar, 2016.
  58. ^ Guegel, Toni (2008). Sierra Nevada Byways: Sierra Nevada-ning 51 ta eng yaxshi backcountry haydovchilari (Backcountry Byways). Wilderness Press. p. 2018-04-02 121 2. ISBN  978-0-89997-473-6. Olingan 2011-10-15.
  59. ^ Kastor, Stiven B.; Keyt G, Papke, Richard O. Meevvig (2004). Nevada shtatidagi sanoat minerallari geologiyasi bo'yicha 39-forum materiallari. Nevada konlari va geologiya byurosi. p. 192. Olingan 2011-10-15.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  60. ^ Pelto, Mauri S. "Yaqinda global muzliklarning chekinishiga umumiy nuqtai". Olingan 2011-10-15.
  61. ^ Mauri S. Pelto; Kliff Hedlund (2001). "Shimoliy Kaskad muzliklarining terminus harakati va javob berish vaqti, Vashington, AQSh". Glaciology jurnali. 47 (158): 497–506. Bibcode:2001JGlac..47..497P. doi:10.3189/172756501781832098.
  62. ^ Mauri S. Pelto. "Shimoliy kaskadli muzlik terminusidagi xatti-harakatlar". Nichols kolleji. Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  63. ^ AQSh Geologik xizmati. "Muzliklar milliy bog'idagi muzliklar monitoringi". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013 yil 18 fevralda. Olingan 25 aprel, 2003.
  64. ^ AQSh Geologik xizmati, AQSh Ichki ishlar vazirligi. "Montana shtatidagi Glacier National Park-da muzliklardan chekinish". Olingan 21 yanvar, 2020.
  65. ^ Vayoming suv resurslari ma'lumotlar tizimi kutubxonasi (1990 yil 11 iyul). "Vayominning shamol daryosi tizmasidagi muzli muzqaymoq".
  66. ^ a b v Mauri S. Pelto. "Yaqinda global muzliklarning chekinishiga umumiy nuqtai". Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  67. ^ Kanada kriyosfera axborot tarmog'i. "Kanada muzliklarining o'tmishdagi o'zgaruvchanligi". Olingan 14 fevral, 2006.
  68. ^ J. Koch, B. Menounos va J. Klague (2009). "Garibaldi provinsiyasi bog'ida, Britaniyaning Kolumbiyadagi janubiy Sohil tog'larida muzlik o'zgarishi, kichik muzlik davridan beri". Global va sayyora o'zgarishi. 66. (3–4) 161–178 (3–4): 161–178. Bibcode:2009GPC .... 66..161K. doi:10.1016 / j.gloplacha.2008.11.006.
  69. ^ Bryus F. Molniya. "Muzli ko'rfazida va Yakutat ko'rfazida (Alyaska, 1888–2003) suv oqimining ko'tarilmasligi va tez ko'tarilib boruvchi suvsiz muzliklarning parallel ravishda orqaga chekinishi".. Olingan 6 sentyabr, 2003.
  70. ^ Mauri S. Pelto va Maynard M. Miller. "1948–2005 yillardagi Juneau muzli muzliklarining terminali harakati". Shimoliy kaskadli muzliklar iqlimi loyihasi. Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  71. ^ Mauri S. Pelto va boshq. (2008). "Taku muzligining muvozanat oqimi va massa muvozanati, Alyaska 1950–2006". Kriyosfera. 2 (2): 147–157. Bibcode:2008Tryry .... 2..147P. doi:10.5194 / tc-2-147-2008.CS1 maint: mualliflar parametridan foydalanadi (havola)
  72. ^ Maynard M. Miller; Mauri S. Pelto. "Limon-Kriki muzligining massiv balans o'lchovlari, Juneau Icefield, Alyaska, 1953-2005". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2016 yil 13 avgustda. Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  73. ^ Entoni A. Arendt; va boshq. (2002 yil 19-iyul). "Alyaska muzliklarining tez isrof bo'lishi va ularning dengiz sathining ko'tarilishiga qo'shgan hissasi". Ilm-fan. 297 (5580): 382–386. Bibcode:2002 yil ... 297..382A. doi:10.1126 / science.1072497. PMID  12130781. S2CID  16796327.
  74. ^ Gay V. Adema; va boshq. "Denali erishi: iqlim o'zgarishining Denali milliy bog'i va qo'riqxonasi muzliklariga ta'siri" (PDF). Olingan 9 sentyabr, 2007.
  75. ^ "Patagoniya muzi tez chekinishda". BBC yangiliklari. 2000 yil 27 aprel.
  76. ^ Skvarca, P. va R. Naruse (1997). "Perito Moreno, Janubiy Patagoniya muzligining dinamik harakati". Glaciologiya yilnomalari. 24 (1): 268–271. Bibcode:1996AnGla..24..268S. doi:10.1017 / S0260305500012283.
    Casassa, G., H. Brecher, A. Rivera va M. Aniya (1997). "O'Higgins muzligining bir asrlik tarixi, Patagoniya". Glaciologiya yilnomalari. 24 (1): 106–110. doi:10.1017 / S0260305500012015.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  77. ^ EORC (2005 yil 15-iyul). "Janubiy Amerikaning Patagoniyasida ulkan muzliklar keng miqyosda chekinmoqda". Yerni kuzatish tadqiqot markazi. Olingan 13 iyun, 2009.
  78. ^ Brown, F., Rivera, A., Acuna, C.; Rivera; Acunya (2008). "Akonkagua havzasidagi muzliklarning so'nggi o'zgarishlari, Chili markaziy Andlari" (PDF). Glaciologiya yilnomalari. 48 (2): 43–48. Bibcode:2008AnGla..48 ... 43B. doi:10.3189/172756408784700572.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  79. ^ Salinger, Jim; Fitsarris, Bler; Chinn, Trevor (2014 yil 29-iyul), "Yangi Zelandiyaning Janubiy Alplari muzlarining uchdan bir qismini yo'qotdi", Suhbat, olingan 18-fevral, 2015
  80. ^ Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Ichki ishlar vazirligi (2000 yil 4-may). "Yangi Zelandiya muzliklari".
  81. ^ Kaser va Osmaton (2002). Tropik muzliklar. Kembrij. 17-18 betlar. ISBN  978-0-521-63333-8.
  82. ^ Perrexumbert, Raymond (2005 yil 23-may). "Tropik muzliklarning chekinishi". RealClimate. Olingan 8 mart, 2010.
  83. ^ Xastenrat, Stefan (2008). Ekvatorial muzliklarning turg'unligi: fotosurat hujjatlari. Madison, Vis.: Sundog nashriyoti. p. 142. ISBN  978-0-9729033-3-2. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013-05-15.
  84. ^ Osmaton va Kaser (2002). Tropik muzliklar. Nyu-York: Kembrij. p. 19. ISBN  978-0-521-63333-8.
  85. ^ a b "Kilimandjaro qorlari yo'qolib bormoqda, muzliklarda muz yo'qotilishi ko'paymoqda". Ogayo shtati universiteti. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2006 yil 1 sentyabrda. Olingan 31 avgust, 2006.
  86. ^ Endryu Viyloxovskiy (1998 yil 6 oktyabr). "Kilimanjaroda muzlik tanazzuli".
  87. ^ Lonni G. Tompson; va boshq. (2002 yil 18 oktyabr). "Kilimanjaro Ice Core Records: Tropik Afrikada Golosen iqlimining o'zgarishi dalili". Ilm-fan. 298 (5593): 589–593. Bibcode:2002 yil ... 298..589T. doi:10.1126 / science.1073198. PMID  12386332. S2CID  32880316.
    Ogayo shtati universiteti. "Afrika muz yadrosi tahlili katastrofik qurg'oqchilikni, muz maydonlarining qisqarishini va tsivilizatsiya siljishlarini aniqlaydi". Ogayo shtati tadqiqotlari yangiliklari. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2004 yil 13 martda. Olingan 3 oktyabr, 2002.
  88. ^ Cheksiz, Guardian (2005 yil 14 mart). "Kilimanjaro tog'ining cho'qqisi, chunki u 11000 yildan beri bo'lmagan". The Guardian.
    Tayson, Piter. "Yupqa havoda yo'qolib ketish". Bulutlar ustidagi vulqon. NOVA. Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  89. ^ Tompson, Loni G.; va boshq. (2002). "Kilimanjaro Ice Core Records: Tropik Afrikada Holotsen iqlim o'zgarishiga dalil" (PDF). Ilm-fan. 298 (5593): 589–93. Bibcode:2002 yil ... 298..589T. doi:10.1126 / science.1073198. PMID  12386332. S2CID  32880316. Olingan 31 avgust, 2006.
  90. ^ AQSh Geologik xizmati. "Afrika muzliklari" (PDF). AQSh Geologik tadqiqotlari professional hujjati 1386-G-3.
  91. ^ Endryu Viyloxovskiy. "Rvenzoridagi muzlik tanazzuli". Olingan 20 iyul, 2007.
  92. ^ Tegel, Shimo'n (2012-07-17). "Antisana muzliklari: Iqlim o'zgarishi qurbonlari". GlobalPost. Olingan 13 avgust 2012.
  93. ^ Bernard Franku. "10-15 yil ichida And tog'larining kichik muzliklari yo'q bo'lib ketishi mumkin". UniSci, Xalqaro ilmiy yangiliklar. Olingan 22 yanvar, 2001.
  94. ^ Xugel, Kristian; Ceballos, Xorxe Luis; Pulgarin, Bernardo; Ramirez, Xayr; Türet, Jan-Klod (2007). "Kolumbiyadagi vulqon-muzliklarning o'zaro ta'siri natijasida yuzaga keladigan xavflarni qayta ko'rib chiqish va qayta baholash" (PDF). Glaciologiya yilnomalari. 45 (1): 128–136. Bibcode:2007AnGla..45..128H. doi:10.3189/172756407782282408.
  95. ^ AQSh Geologik xizmati, AQSh Ichki ishlar vazirligi. "Janubiy Amerika muzliklari - Peru muzliklari". Olingan 15 oktyabr, 2019.
  96. ^ a b Sexauz, Torsten; Malz, Fillip; Lipp, Stefan; Cochachin, Alejo; Braun, Matias (sentyabr, 2019). "2000 yildan 2016 yilgacha Peru bo'ylab tropik muzliklarning o'zgarishi - massa muvozanati va maydon o'zgarishi". Kriyosfera. 13 (10): 2537–2556. Bibcode:2019TCry ... 13.2537S. doi:10.5194 / tc-13-2537-2019.
  97. ^ Kochtitskiy, Uilyam X.; Edvards, Benjamin R.; Enderlin, Ellin M.; Marino, Jersi; Marinque, Nelida (2018). "Nevadoning Koropuna muz qopqog'ida (Peru) muzliklarning o'zgarishi stavkalari yaxshilandi". Glaciology jurnali. 64 (244): 175–184. Bibcode:2018JGlac..64..175K. doi:10.1017 / jog.2018.2. ISSN  0022-1430.
  98. ^ Isitish belgisi bilan 25 yil ichida Andda 1600 yillik muz eriydi 2013 yil 4-aprel kuni Nyu-York Tayms
  99. ^ Berd Polar tadqiqot markazi, Ogayo shtati universiteti. "Peru - Kelkaya (1974–1983)". Muz yadrosi Paleoklimatologiya tadqiqot guruhi. Olingan 10 fevral, 2006.
  100. ^ E.J. Brill, Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 1913, p. 180.
  101. ^ Yan Allison va Jeyms A. Peterson. "Irian Jaya, Indoneziya va Yangi Zelandiya muzliklari". AQSh Geologik xizmati, AQSh Ichki ishlar vazirligi. Olingan 28 aprel, 2009.
  102. ^ Klayn, A.G.; Kincaid, JL (2008). "Puncak Mandala muz qatlamining yo'q bo'lib ketishi to'g'risida, Papua". Glaciology jurnali. 54 (184): 195–198. Bibcode:2008JGlac..54..195K. doi:10.3189 / S0022143000209994.
  103. ^ McDowell, Robin (2010 yil 1-iyul). "Indoneziyaning so'nggi muzligi bir necha yil ichida eriydi'". Jakarta Globe. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 16 avgustda. Olingan 2011-10-23.
  104. ^ Joni L. Kincaid va Endryu G. Klayn. "Irian Jaya muzliklarining 2000 yildan 2002 yilgacha IKONOS sun'iy yo'ldosh tasvirlaridan o'lchangani kabi chekinishi". (PDF). 61-Sharqiy qor konferentsiyasi, Portlend, Men, AQSh, 2004 yil. Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  105. ^ Jakarta Globe (2010 yil 2-iyul). "Papua muzligining sirlari yo'qolib bormoqda: olimlar". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 11 avgustda. Olingan 2010-09-14.
  106. ^ Kuski, Timoti (2010). Yer va kosmik fan ensiklopediyasi. Faylga oid ma'lumotlar. p. 343. ISBN  978-0-8160-7005-3. Olingan 2011-10-15.
  107. ^ Sveinsson, El Gretar Blondal (2008 yil 11-13 avgust). "XXV shimoliy gidrologik konferentsiya" (PDF). Shimoliy gidrologiya assotsiatsiyasi. Olingan 2011-10-15.
  108. ^ Sigurdsson, Oddur, Trausti Jonsson va Tomas Yoxannesson. "Islandiyada 1930 yildan beri muzlik-termini o'zgarishlari va yozgi harorat o'rtasidagi bog'liqlik" (PDF). Gidrologik xizmat, Milliy energetika boshqarmasi. Olingan 7 sentyabr, 2007.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  109. ^ Radich, V .; Xok, R. (2010). "Muzliklarning mintaqaviy va global hajmi muzliklarni inventarizatsiya qilish bo'yicha statistik ma'lumotlardan olingan". J. Geofiz. Res. 115 (F1): F01010. Bibcode:2010JGRF..115.1010R. doi:10.1029 / 2009jf001373. S2CID  39219770.
  110. ^ O'tkir M .; Burgess, D. O .; Kogli, J. G.; Ekklstoun, M .; Labine, C .; Volken, G. J. (2011). "XXI asrda Kanadaning Arktikadagi muzliklarida haddan tashqari eritma". Geofiz. Res. Lett. 38 (11): L11501. Bibcode:2011GeoRL..3811501S. doi:10.1029 / 2011gl047381. S2CID  130713775.
  111. ^ V. Abdalatiya; va boshq. (2004). "Kanada Arktika arxipelagidagi muzliklarning balandlik o'zgarishi" (PDF). Geofizik tadqiqotlar jurnali. 109 (F4): F04007. Bibcode:2004JGRF..109.4007A. doi:10.1029 / 2003JF000045. hdl:2060/20040171503.
  112. ^ Gardner, A. S .; Moholt, G.; Vouters, B .; Volken, G. J .; Burgess, D. O .; Sharp, M. J .; Kogli, J. G.; Braun, C. (2011). "Kanadadagi Arktika arxipelagidagi muzliklar va muzliklardan ommaviy yo'qotish keskin oshdi". Tabiat. 473 (7347): 357–360. Bibcode:2011 yil natur.473..357G. doi:10.1038 / tabiat10089. PMID  21508960. S2CID  205224896.
  113. ^ Devid O. Burgess va Martin J. Sharpa (2004). "Devon muz qopqog'i mintaqasidagi so'nggi o'zgarishlar, Nunavut, Kanada". Arktika, Antarktika va Alp tadqiqotlari. 36 (2): 261–271. doi:10.1657 / 1523-0430 (2004) 036 [0261: RCIAEO] 2.0.CO; 2. ISSN  1523-0430.
  114. ^ Braun, Karsten; Xardi, D.R. & Bredli, R.S. (2004). "1959–2002 yillarda to'rtta Arktika platosidagi baland muzliklarning massa muvozanati va maydon o'zgarishi" (PDF). Geografiska Annaler. 86 (A): 43-52. doi:10.1111 / j.0435-3676.2004.00212.x. S2CID  7512251.
  115. ^ National Geographic. "Kanadaning Arktikasida ulkan muz tokchasi buzildi". Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  116. ^ Derek R. Myuller, Uorvik F. Vinsent va Martin O. Jeffri (2003 yil oktyabr). "Arktikadagi eng katta muz qatlamining parchalanishi va shu bilan birga epizhel ko'lining yo'qolishi". Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 30 (20): 2031. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.2031M. doi:10.1029 / 2003GL017931. S2CID  16548879.CS1 maint: mualliflar parametridan foydalanadi (havola)
  117. ^ Glowaksi, Pyotr. "Glyatsiologiya va atrof-muhit monitoringi". Xornsunddagi tadqiqotlar. Olingan 14 fevral, 2006.
  118. ^ GreenPeace (2002). "Arktik muhit bizning ko'zimiz oldida eriydi". Global isish - Shpitsbergendagi Greenpeace rasmlari. Olingan 14 fevral, 2006.
  119. ^ Devid Rippin, Yan Uillis, Nil Arnold, Endryu Xodson, Jon Mur, Jek Koler va Xelgi Byornsson (2003). "Raqamli balandlik modellaridan aniqlangan Svalbard, Midre Lovenbreen, geometriyasi va subglasial drenajidagi o'zgarishlar" (PDF). Er yuzidagi jarayonlar va er shakllari. 28 (3): 273–298. Bibcode:2003ESPL ... 28..273R. doi:10.1002 / esp.485.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  120. ^ Aleksey I. Sharov (2005). "Evropa Arktikasida muz sohillarining o'zgarishini o'rganish" (PDF). Geo-dengiz maktublari. 25 (2–3): 153–166. Bibcode:2005 yil GML .... 25..153S. doi:10.1007 / s00367-004-0197-7. S2CID  131523457.
  121. ^ Rignot, E. & Kanagaratnam, P. (2006 yil 17-fevral). "Grenlandiya muz qatlamining tezlik tuzilishidagi o'zgarishlar". Ilm-fan. 311 (5763): 986–990. Bibcode:2006 yil ... 311..986R. doi:10.1126 / science.1121381. PMID  16484490. S2CID  22389368.
  122. ^ Yan Xovat. "Tezlik bilan tezlashayotgan muzliklar dengiz sathining ko'tarilish tezligini oshirishi mumkin". Santa Cruz, UC, 2005 yil 14-27 noyabr. 10, № 14. Olingan 27-noyabr, 2007.
  123. ^ Jonathan Amos (2019 yil 14-may). "Yakobshavn Isbrae: Grenlandiyaning qudratli muzligi tormozni bosdi". BBC. Olingan 1 iyul 2019. Ilgari bu balandlik yiliga 20 metrga pasaygan bo'lsa, endi yiliga 20 metrga qalinlashmoqda.
  124. ^ M Truffer, Alyaska universiteti Feyrbanks; M Fahnestok, Nyu-Xempshir universiteti. "Muzliklar tizimiga ta'sir ko'rsatishning dinamikasi: Grenlandiya va Antarktidaning I-chi suv muzliklari va muz oqimlari va chiqish muzliklari". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2006 yil 22 aprelda.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  125. ^ S. Das, I, Jouin, M. Behm, I. Xovat, M. King, D. Lizarralde, M. Bhatiya (9 may 2008). "Supraglacial ko'lni drenajlash paytida Grenlandiya muz qatlami bazasida sinish tarqalishi". Ilm-fan. 320 (5877): 778–781. Bibcode:2008 yil ... 320..778D. doi:10.1126 / science.1153360. hdl:1912/2506. PMID  18420900. S2CID  41582882.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  126. ^ a b M. Pelto. "Moulinlar, buzoqli jabhalar va Grenlandiyadan chiqadigan muzliklarning tezlashishi". Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  127. ^ T. Xyuz (1986). "Yakobshanvlar effekti". Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 13 (1): 46–48. Bibcode:1986 yilGeoRL..13 ... 46H. doi:10.1029 / GL013i001p00046.
  128. ^ Erik Rignot; Yan Fenty; Yun Xu; Cilan Cai; Kris Kemp (2015). "G'arbiy Grenlandiyada dengiz bilan tugaydigan muzliklarning kesilishi". Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 42 (14): 5909–5917. Bibcode:2015GeoRL..42.5909R. doi:10.1002 / 2015GL064236. PMC  6473555. PMID  31031446.
  129. ^ "Grenlandiya 2 oy ichida 600 milliard tonna muzni yo'qotdi, bu global dengiz sathini 2,2 mm ko'tarish uchun etarli". SciTechDaily. KALIFORNIYA UNIVERSITETI - IRVINE. Olingan 10 iyul 2020.
  130. ^ Yerdagi muzning fizik xususiyatlari, Iqlim o'zgarishi 2001 yil: I ishchi guruh: Ilmiy asos. Iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha hukumatlararo panel (IPCC)
  131. ^ Erik J. Stayg, Devid P. Shnayder, Skott D. Rezerford, Maykl E. Mann, Xosefino C. Komizo va Drew T. Shindell (2009). "1957 yildan beri Antarktika muz qatlamining isishi". Tabiat. 457 (7228): 459–62. Bibcode:2009 yil Natur.457..459S. doi:10.1038 / nature07669. PMID  19158794. S2CID  4410477.CS1 maint: mualliflar parametridan foydalanadi (havola)
  132. ^ Milliy qor va muz haqida ma'lumot markazi (2002 yil 21 mart). "Antarktidada Larsen B muzli tokchasi qulab tushdi". Dunyo muzlagan kriyosfera. Olingan 5-noyabr, 2009.
  133. ^ NASA (2015 yil 14-may). "NASA tadqiqotlari Antarktidaning Larsen B muzli tokchasi yakuniy aktiga yaqinlashishini namoyish etdi".
  134. ^ a b v A. J. Kuk va D. G. Vaughan (2009). "So'nggi 50 yil ichida Antarktika yarim orolidagi muzli tokchalar o'zgaruvchanligiga umumiy nuqtai" (PDF). Kriyosfera muhokamalari. 3 (2): 579–630. Bibcode:2009TCD ..... 3..579C. doi:10.5194 / tcd-3-579-2009.
  135. ^ Rignot, E .; Kasassa, G.; Gogineni, P .; Krabill, V.; Rivera, A .; Tomas, R. (2004). "Larsen B muzli shelfining qulashi ortidan Antarktika yarim orolidan tezlashtirilgan muz oqimi" (PDF). Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 31 (18): L18401. Bibcode:2004 yilGeoRL..3118401R. doi:10.1029 / 2004GL020697. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2011-11-23 kunlari. Olingan 2011-10-22.
  136. ^ Antarktika xavfi - Britaniyaning Antarktika tadqiqotlari
  137. ^ M. Humbert, A. Braun va A. Moll (2009). "Uilkins muzli tokchasining so'nggi 15 yil ichida o'zgarishi va uning barqarorligi to'g'risida xulosalar". Kriyosfera. 3 (1): 41–56. Bibcode:2009Tryry .... 3 ... 41B. doi:10.5194 / tc-3-41-2009.
  138. ^ Mauri S. Pelto. "Muzli tokchadagi beqarorlik". Olingan 7 avgust, 2016.
  139. ^ ESA (2009 yil 13-iyun). "Sun'iy yo'ldosh tasvirlari mo'rt Uilkins muzli tokchasida beqarorlik borligini ko'rsatadi". Evropa kosmik agentligi.
  140. ^ "Ilmiy tadqiqotlar Antarktika yarim orolidagi chekinishda muzliklarni topdi". Amerika ilm-fanni rivojlantirish bo'yicha assotsiatsiyasi. 2005 yil 21 aprel.
  141. ^ a b Rignot, E. J. (1998 yil 24-iyul). "G'arbiy Antarktika muzligining tez pasayishi". Ilm-fan. 281 (5376): 549–551. Bibcode:1998 yil ... 281..549R. doi:10.1126 / science.281.5376.549. PMID  9677195.
  142. ^ a b Rignot, E .; Mouginot, J .; Morlighem, M.; Serussi, X.; Scheuchl, B. (2014). "1992 yildan 2011 yilgacha G'arbiy Antarktidaning qarag'ay oroli, Tvayt, Smit va Koler muzliklarining keng tarqalgan va tezkor ravishda chekinishi".. Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 41 (10): 3502–3509. Bibcode:2014GeoRL..41.3502R. doi:10.1002 / 2014GL060140.
  143. ^ "Antarktika muzliklari chekinishni namoyish qilmoqda". BBC yangiliklari. 2005 yil 21 aprel.
  144. ^ a b Prats-Iraola, P.; Bueso-Bello, J .; Mouginot, J .; Scheuchl, B .; Ritsoli, P.; Rignot, E .; Milillo, P. (2019-01-01). "G'arbiy Antarktidaning Tvaytz muzligining bir hil bo'lmagan chekinishi va muzning erishi". Ilmiy yutuqlar. 5 (1): eaau3433. Bibcode:2019SciA .... 5.3433M. doi:10.1126 / sciadv.aau3433. ISSN  2375-2548. PMC  6353628. PMID  30729155.
  145. ^ Rignot, Erik; va boshq. (2008). "Radar interferometriyasi va mintaqaviy iqlimni modellashtirish natijasida so'nggi {Antarktida} muz massasining yo'qolishi". Tabiatshunoslik. 1 (2): 106–110. Bibcode:2008 yil NatGe ... 1..106R. doi:10.1038 / ngeo102.
  146. ^ Grinbaum, J. S .; Blankenship, D. D .; Yosh, D. A .; Rixter, T. G.; Roberts, J. L .; Aitken, A. R. A .; Legresi, B .; Shreder, D. M.; Warner, R. C .; Van Ommen, T. D .; Siegert, J. J. (2012). "Sharqiy Antarktidadagi Totten muzligi ostidagi bo'shliqqa okeanga kirish". Tabiatshunoslik. 8 (4): 294–298. Bibcode:2015NatGe ... 8..294G. doi:10.1038 / ngeo2388.
  147. ^ Rozan, Oliviya (2019 yil 16-may). "Antarktidaning muzlari 90-yillarga qaraganda 5 marta tezroq eriydi". Ecowatch. Olingan 19 may 2019.
  148. ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/07/antarctica-logs-hottest-temperature-on-record-with-a-reading-of-183c
  149. ^ https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2020/02/07/antarctica-just-hit-65-degrees-its-warmest-temperature-ever-recorded
  150. ^ https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/base-antarctica-recorded-temperature-64-9-degrees-if-confirmed-it-n1132541
  151. ^ "Eriydigan muzliklar Peruga tahdid solmoqda". BBC yangiliklari. 2003 yil 9 oktyabr.
  152. ^ M. Olefs va A. Fischer. "Alp tog'lari chang'i kurortlarida qor va muzning pasayishini kamaytirish bo'yicha texnik tadbirlarni qiyosiy o'rganish" (PDF). "Sovuq mintaqalarda fan va texnologiyalar, 2007". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2011 yil 18 avgustda. Olingan 6 sentyabr, 2009.
  153. ^ ENN (2005 yil 15-iyul). "Muzliklarning qoplanishi global isishni to'xtatmaydi, ammo chang'ichilarni baxtli qiladi". Atrof-muhit yangiliklari tarmog'i. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2006 yil 17 fevralda.
  154. ^ Baliqchilikni iqlim o'zgarishiga moslashtirish iqtisodiyoti. OECD Publishing. 2011. 47-55 betlar. ISBN  978-92-64-09036-1. Olingan 2011-10-15.
  155. ^ a b "Global isish muzli ko'llarni toshqin xavfini keltirib chiqarmoqda" (Matbuot xabari). Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Atrof-muhit dasturi. 16 Aprel 2002. Arxivlangan asl nusxasi 2005 yil 26 mayda. Olingan 14 noyabr 2015.
  156. ^ Nepal, Hindiston va Xitoyda muzliklar, muzliklarning chekinishi va undan keyingi ta'sirlar haqida umumiy ma'lumot (PDF) (Hisobot). WWF Nepal dasturi. Mart 2005. p. 3.
  157. ^ Rahmstorf S, Cazenave A, Cherkov JA; va boshq. (2007 yil may). "Prognozlarga nisbatan so'nggi iqlim kuzatuvlari". Ilm-fan. 316 (5825): 709. Bibcode:2007 yil ... 316..709R. doi:10.1126 / science.1136843. PMID  17272686. S2CID  34008905.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  158. ^ Velicogna, I. (2009). "GRACE tomonidan aniqlangan Grenlandiya va Antarktida muzlaridan muz massasini yo'qotish tezligining oshishi". Geofizik tadqiqotlar xatlari. 36 (19): L19503. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3619503V. CiteSeerX  10.1.1.170.8753. doi:10.1029 / 2009GL040222.
  159. ^ Kazenave, A .; Dominh, K .; Gineyut, S .; Bertier, E .; Llovel, V.; Ramillien, G.; Ablain, M .; Larnicol, G. (2009). "2003-2008 yillarda dengiz sathidagi byudjet: GRACE kosmik gravimetriyasi, sun'iy yo'ldosh altimetriyasi va Argo bo'yicha qayta baholash". Global va sayyora o'zgarishi. 65 (1): 83–88. Bibcode:2009GPC .... 65 ... 83C. doi:10.1016 / j.gloplacha.2008.10.004.
  160. ^ Jamoa, Kerol Rasmussen tomonidan, NASA Yer haqidagi yangiliklar. "Antarktika muzligidagi ulkan bo'shliq tez yemirilishidan darak beradi". Iqlim o'zgarishi: Sayyoraning muhim belgilari. Olingan 2019-02-05.
  161. ^ Pfeffer WT, Harper JT, O'Neel S; Harper; O'Neel (sentyabr 2008). "21-asr dengiz sathining ko'tarilishiga muzliklarning qo'shilishidagi kinematik cheklovlar". Ilm-fan. 321 (5894): 1340–3. Bibcode:2008 yil ... 321.1340P. doi:10.1126 / science.1159099. PMID  18772435. S2CID  15284296.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Tashqi havolalar