Rorschach testi - Rorschach test

"Rorschach testi" bu erga yo'naltiradi. Guruh uchun qarang Rorschach testi (guruh).

Rorschach testi
Rorschach blot 01.jpg
Rorschach testidagi o'nta kartadan birinchisi.[1][2]
Talaffuz/ˈr.rʃɑːk/,[3] Buyuk Britaniya ham /-ʃæk/
Nemischa: [ˈʁoːɐ̯ʃax]
SinonimlarRorschach inkblot sinovi, Rorschach texnikasi, inkblot sinovi
MeSHD012392

The Rorschach testi a psixologik test qaysi sub'ektlarning tushunchalari siyohlar qayd qilinadi va undan keyin tahlil qilinadi psixologik talqin, murakkab algoritmlar yoki ikkalasi ham. Ba'zi psixologlar ushbu test yordamida insonning o'ziga xos xususiyatlarini va hissiy faoliyatini tekshirishda foydalanadilar. Buning asosini aniqlash uchun ishlatilgan fikr buzilishi, ayniqsa, bemorlar o'zlarining fikrlash jarayonlarini ochiq ta'riflashni istamaydigan holatlarda.[4] Sinov uning yaratuvchisi, shveytsariyalik psixolog sharafiga nomlangan Hermann Rorschach. Rorschaxni psixometrik tekshiruv deb hisoblash mumkin pareidoliya, ob'ektlar, shakllar yoki manzaralarni kuzatuvchining tajribasi uchun mazmunli narsalar sifatida qabul qilishning faol uslubi, eng keng tarqalgan yuzlar yoki kuzatuv vaqtida bo'lmagan boshqa shakllar.[5] 1960-yillarda Rorschach eng ko'p ishlatilgan proektiv sinov.[6]

Garchi Exner reyting tizimi (1960-yillardan beri ishlab chiqilgan) dastlabki sinov tizimining ko'plab tanqidlarini keng ko'lamli tadqiqotlar bilan ko'rib chiqilgan va ko'pincha rad etganligini da'vo qilmoqda,[7] ba'zi tadqiqotchilar savollarni ko'tarishda davom etmoqdalar. Munozara sohalariga sinovchilarning ob'ektivligi, raterlararo ishonchlilik, tekshirilishi mumkin va umumiy amal qilish muddati sinovdan, tarafkashlik testning patologiya ko'p sonli javoblarga nisbatan tarozilar, aniq tashxis qo'yadigan psixologik holatlarning cheklanganligi, test me'yorlarini takrorlay olmaslik, sud buyrug'i bilan baholashda foydalanish va o'nta siyohli rasmning ko'payishi, ularga duch kelganlar uchun testni potentsial ravishda bekor qilish.[8]

Tarix

Hermann Rorschach 1921 yilda inkblot sinovini yaratdi.

Shaxs shaxsini baholash uchun "noaniq dizaynlar" talqinidan foydalanish g'oyadan kelib chiqadi Leonardo da Vinchi va Botticelli.[iqtibos kerak ] Inklotalarni sharhlash o'yin uchun asosiy o'rinni egalladi, Gobolinks,[9] 19-asr oxiridan. Biroq, Rorschax bu kabi birinchi sistematik yondashuv edi.[10] Retschak siyoh parchalarini qo'l bilan chizgan.[11]

Rorschaxning siyoh bloklarini ishlatishi nemis shifokori tomonidan ilhomlangan bo'lishi mumkin degan taxminlar mavjud Justinus Kerner u 1857 yilda mashhur she'rlar kitobini nashr etgan, ularning har biri tasodifiy siyohdondan ilhomlangan.[12] Frantsuz psixologi Alfred Binet sifatida siyoh bloklari bilan tajriba o'tkazgan edi ijod sinovi,[13] va asrning boshidan keyin xayolot va ongni o'rganish kabi maqsadlar bilan siyohdonlardan foydalanilgan psixologik tajribalar ko'paytirildi.[14]

300 aqliy bemor va 100 ta nazorat predmetini o'rganib chiqib, 1921 yilda Rorschax o'z kitobini yozdi Psixodiagnostik, bu inkblot testining asosini tashkil qilishi kerak edi (bir necha yuz siyoh plitalari bilan tajriba o'tkazgandan so'ng, ularning diagnostik qiymati uchun o'nta to'plamni tanladi),[15] ammo keyingi yil vafot etdi. Garchi u Shveytsariya Psixoanalitik Jamiyati vitse-prezidenti bo'lib ishlagan bo'lsa-da, Rorschax kitobni nashr etishda qiynalgan va u birinchi paydo bo'lganda unchalik e'tiborni tortmagan.[16]

1927 yilda yangi tashkil etilgan Hans Xuber nashriyoti Rorschaxning kitobini sotib oldi Psixodiagnostik inventarizatsiyadan Ernst Bircher.[17] Huber test va tegishli kitobning noshiri bo'lib qoldi, Rorschach esa Shveytsariya nashriyoti Verlag Xans Xuberning ro'yxatdan o'tgan savdo belgisi, Hogrefe AG.[18] Asar "quruq, ilmiy terminologiyada yotgan zich yozilgan asar" deb ta'riflangan.[19]

Rorschax vafotidan so'ng, test sinovlari uchun dastlabki tizimni Samuel Bek takomillashtirdi, Bruno Klopfer va boshqalar.[20] Jon E. Exner ushbu keyingi o'zgarishlarning ayrimlarini sarhisob qildi keng qamrovli tizim, shu bilan birga hisobni statistik jihatdan yanada qat'iyroq qilishga harakat qilmoqda. Ba'zi tizimlar psixoanalitik kontseptsiyaga asoslangan ob'ekt munosabatlari. Exner tizimi juda mashhur bo'lib qolmoqda Qo'shma Shtatlar, ichida Evropa ba'zan boshqa usullar ustunlik qiladi,[21][22] kabi darslikda tasvirlangan Evald Bom, asl Rorschach tizimiga yaqinroq va asl nusxada chuqurroq ildiz otgan psixoanaliz tamoyillar.[iqtibos kerak ]

Rorschach hech qachon siyoh plitalarini umumiy shaxs testi sifatida ishlatilishini niyat qilmagan, balki ularni diagnostika vositasi sifatida ishlab chiqqan. shizofreniya. Faqat 1939 yilga qadar test Rorschach har doim shubha bilan qaraydigan shaxsiyatning proektiv sinovi sifatida ishlatilgan.[23] 2012 yilda a uchun intervyu oldi BBC radiosi 4 hujjatli film, Rita Signer, Rorschach arxivlari kuratori Bern, Shveytsariya, tasodifiy yoki tasodifiy dizaynlardan yiroq, Rorschax tomonidan sinov uchun tanlangan har bir dog 'iloji boricha noaniq va "ziddiyatli" bo'lishi uchun puxta ishlab chiqilgan edi.[24]

Usul

Rorschach testi besh yoshdan to katta yoshgacha bo'lgan mavzular uchun javob beradi. Ma'mur va sub'ekt odatda stol yonida o'tirishadi, ma'mur esa mavzuning biroz orqasida. Tekshiruvchi va mavzu mavzusining yonma-yon o'tirishi imtihonchidan tortib to mavzuga tasodifiy ko'rsatmalarning ta'sirini kamaytirish uchun ishlatiladi. Boshqacha qilib aytganda, yonma-yon o'tirish imtihonchining tasodifan sub'ektning javoblariga ta'sir qilishi ehtimolini kamaytiradi.[25]Bu "tinch, ammo boshqariladigan muhit" ni engillashtirish uchun. Taxminan 18 dan 24 sm gacha bo'lgan o'lchamdagi har biri alohida oq kartada bosilgan o'nta rasmiy siyoh var.[26]Blotlarning har biri mukammal darajada ikki tomonlama simmetriya. Oq fonda beshta siyoh qorasi, ikkitasi qora va qizil siyoh va uchtasi rang-barang.[27][28][29]Sinov sub'ekti barcha siyohlarni ko'rgan va ularga javob berganidan keyin (bepul uyushma So'ngra tester ularni yana birma-bir o'rganiladigan mavzu uchun belgilangan ketma-ketlikda taqdim etadi: sub'ektdan ular dastlab ko'rgan narsalarini qaerda ko'rganliklarini va nimaga o'xshashligini qayd etishlarini so'rashadi (so'rov bosqich). Mavzudan odatda kartalarni ushlab turish so'raladi va ularni aylantirishi mumkin. Kartalar aylantiriladimi yoki boshqa shu kabi omillar, masalan, ularni aylantirish uchun ruxsat so'raladimi, shaxsiy xususiyatlarni ochib berishi va odatda baholashga yordam berishi mumkin.[30]Mavzu siyoh bloklarini ko'rib chiqayotganda, psixolog har qanday ahamiyatsiz bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, mavzusidagi hamma so'zlarni yoki ishlarni yozib oladi. Javoblarni tahlil qilish test ma'muri tomonidan jadvallar va ballar varag'i va agar kerak bo'lsa, alohida joylashuv jadvali yordamida qayd etiladi.[25]

Sinovning umumiy maqsadi haqida ma'lumot berishdir bilish va shaxsiyat kabi o'zgaruvchilar motivatsiya, javob berish tendentsiyalari, kognitiv operatsiyalar, ta'sirchanlik va shaxsiy / shaxslararo hislar. Asosiy gipoteza shundan iboratki, individual shaxs o'ziga xos sezgi majmualari va shu jumladan tashqi stimullarni sinfi ehtiyojlar, asosiy motivlar, nizolar va bu klasterlash jarayoni hayotiy vaziyatlarda ishlatiladigan jarayonning vakili ekanligi.[31]Tafsir qilish usullari bir-biridan farq qiladi. Rorschach skor tizimlari shaxs haqidagi bilimlarni osib qo'yadigan qoziqlar tizimi sifatida tavsiflangan.[32]Qo'shma Shtatlarda eng ko'p qo'llaniladigan usul Exner ishiga asoslangan.

Prognoz qilingan tasvirlar yordamida bir guruh sub'ektlarga testni boshqarish ham vaqti-vaqti bilan, lekin asosan diagnostika maqsadida emas, balki tadqiqot uchun amalga oshirilgan.[25]

Sinovni boshqarish testni talqin qilish bilan aralashtirilmasligi kerak:

Rorschach yozuvining talqini murakkab jarayon. Buning uchun shaxsiyat dinamikasi bo'yicha boy bilimlar, shuningdek, Rorschach uslubi bo'yicha katta tajriba talab etiladi. Rorschach sifatini bilish ma'mur bir necha oy ichida olish mumkin. Biroq, hatto Rorschach bo'lishga qodir va malakali bo'lganlar ham tarjimonlar odatda bir necha yil davomida "o'rganish bosqichida" qoladi.[25]

Xususiyatlari yoki toifalari

Rorschach testining talqini asosan javob tarkibiga asoslanmagan, ya'ni. nima individual inkblotda ( tarkib). Darhaqiqat, javobning mazmuni Rorschach ma'lumotlarini talqin qilish uchun ishlatiladigan o'zgaruvchilarning kengroq klasterining faqat nisbatan kichik qismidir: masalan, ma'lumot kartaga javob berishdan oldin olingan vaqt bilan ahamiyatli bo'lishi mumkin ( uzoq vaqt talab qilish kartadagi "zarba" ni ko'rsatishi mumkin).[33] Shuningdek, har qanday izohlar bilan bir qatorda, mavzu to'g'ridan-to'g'ri javob berishdan tashqari berishi mumkin.[34]

Xususan, haqida ma'lumot determinantlar (siyoh bloklarining javobni keltirib chiqargan tomonlari, masalan, shakl va rang) va Manzil (siyoh plitalarining tafsilotlari javobni keltirib chiqardi) ko'pincha qarama-qarshi dalillar mavjud bo'lsa ham, tarkibdan ko'ra muhimroq hisoblanadi.[35][36]Javoblarning "mashhurligi" va "o'ziga xosligi"[37] tahlilda asosiy o'lchovlar sifatida ham ko'rib chiqilishi mumkin.[38]

Tarkib

Rorschachning tarkibini kodlashdan maqsad, sub'ekt siyoh plitasiga javoban tasvirlaydigan ob'ektlarni toifalarga ajratishdir. Ta'riflovchi ob'ekt nomini aniqlash uchun 27 ta belgilangan kod mavjud. Kodlar tasniflangan bo'lib, ularga "inson", "tabiat", "hayvon", "mavhum", "kiyim", "olov" va "rentgen" kabi atamalarni o'z ichiga oladi. Oldindan o'rnatilgan kodga ega bo'lmagan tavsiflangan tarkib "idiografik tarkib" kodi yordamida stsenariy kodi "Idio" bo'lishi kerak. [39] Ob'ektlar, shuningdek, statistik mashhurlik (yoki aksincha, o'ziga xoslik) uchun kodlangan.[40]

Sinovdagi har qanday boshqa xususiyatlardan ko'ra, kontentga javob sub'ekt tomonidan ongli ravishda boshqarilishi mumkin va juda xilma-xil omillar kelib chiqishi mumkin, bu esa sub'ektning shaxsiyati to'g'risida xulosa chiqarish uchun faqat tarkibdan foydalanishni qiyinlashtiradi; ba'zi bir shaxslar bilan kontentni javoblari to'g'ridan-to'g'ri talqin qilinishi mumkin va ba'zida ba'zi bir ma'lumotlarning tarkibidagi tematik tendentsiyalarni tahlil qilish orqali ba'zi ma'lumotlarga ega bo'lish mumkin (bu faqat bir nechta javoblar mavjud bo'lganda mumkin), ammo umuman olganda tarkibni tahlil qilish mumkin emas barcha test yozuvlari kontekstidan tashqarida.[41]

Manzil

Mavzuga javob beradigan joyni aniqlash - Rorschach tizimida kiritilgan yana bir element. Joylashuv degani, savolga javob berish uchun siyohdonning qancha qismi ishlatilganligi. Savolga javob berish uchun butun siyoh chizig'i ishlatilgan bo'lsa, ma'murlar "W" javobini, agar tasvirning odatda tavsiflangan qismi ishlatilgan bo'lsa "D", odatiy bo'lmagan tavsiflangan yoki g'ayrioddiy detal ishlatilgan bo'lsa "Dd", agar "S" bo'lsa, orqa fonda bo'sh joy ishlatilgan. W darajasi odatda sub'ektning atrofdagi muhit bilan o'zaro aloqada bo'lish motivatsiyasi bilan bog'liq. D samarali yoki etarli darajada ishlaydiganga ega deb talqin etiladi. Dd kodli javoblarning yuqori chastotasi shaxsning ba'zi bir noto'g'ri ishlashlarini ko'rsatadi. Kodlangan S javoblari oppozitsiya yoki hamkorlik qilmaydigan test predmetini bildiradi.[26][39]

Determinantlar

Rorschach skoringi tizimlari, odatda, "determinantlar" tushunchasini o'z ichiga oladi: Bular inkblot va sub'ektning u haqidagi kontent javoblari o'rtasidagi o'xshashlikni o'rnatishga yordam beradigan omillar. Ular, shuningdek, sub'ektning dunyoni qabul qilish tomonlarini ko'rsatib, ba'zi bir asosiy tajriba-idrok munosabatlarini aks ettirishi mumkin. Rorschachning asl asari faqat ishlatilgan shakl, rang va harakat determinant sifatida. Ammo hozirgi paytda yana bir muhim determinant ko'rib chiqilmoqda soyalash,[42] bu beixtiyor siyoh plitalarining past bosib chiqarish sifati tufayli kiritilgan. Rorschach dastlab soyani e'tiborsiz qoldirdi,[43] chunki siyoh plitalari dastlab bir xil to'yinganlikni namoyish etgan, ammo keyinchalik bu muhim omil sifatida tan olingan.[44][45][46]

Shakl eng keng tarqalgan determinant bo'lib, intellektual jarayonlar bilan bog'liq. Rang javoblar ko'pincha odamning hissiy hayoti to'g'risida to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tushuncha beradi. Harakat va soyalash ta'rifida ham, talqinida ham noaniqroq ko'rib chiqilgan. Rorschax ko'rib chiqdi harakat faqat haqiqiy harakatni boshdan kechirayotgani kabi, boshqalari esa ushbu determinantning doirasini kengaytirib, sub'ekt "davom etayotgan" narsani ko'rishini anglatadi.[47]

Bir nechta determinant sub'ektning idrokini shakllantirishga hissa qo'shishi mumkin. Ikkala determinantning birlashishi hisobga olinadi, shu bilan birga ikkitadan qaysi biri asosiy hissa qo'shganligi baholanadi. Masalan, "shakl-rang"impulsga nisbatan aniqroq nazoratni nazarda tutadi"rang-shakl"Darhaqiqat, determinantlar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar va muvozanatdan kelib chiqib, shaxsiyat haqida eng oson xulosa chiqarish mumkin.[47]

Test topshiriqlarining simmetriyasi

Rorschach siyoh plitalarining ajoyib xususiyati ularning simmetriyasidir. Ko'pchilik, shubhasiz, tasvirlar tabiatining ushbu tomonini qabul qiladi, ammo Rorschax va boshqa tadqiqotchilar buni qabul qilishmagan. Rorschach nihoyat ikkinchisini tanlamasdan oldin assimetrik va nosimmetrik tasvirlarni sinab ko'rdi.[48]

U qaror uchun ushbu tushuntirishni beradi:

Asimmetrik raqamlar ko'plab sub'ektlar tomonidan rad etiladi; simmetriya zarur badiiy kompozitsiyaning bir qismini ta'minladi. Javoblarni biroz stereotipli qilishga moyilligi bilan uning kamchiliklari bor. Boshqa tomondan, simmetriya o'ng va chap qo'llar uchun shartlarni bir xil qiladi; bundan tashqari, u ba'zi bloklangan mavzular uchun talqinni osonlashtiradi. Va nihoyat, simmetriya butun sahnalarni izohlashga imkon beradi.[49]

Simmetriyaning Rorschach siyohdonidagi ta'siri boshqa tadqiqotchilar tomonidan ham o'rganilgan.[48]

Exner ball tizimi

The Exner ball tizimi, deb ham tanilgan Rorschach keng qamrovli tizimi (RCS),[50] Rorschach testini talqin qilishning standart usuli hisoblanadi. Tomonidan 1960-yillarda ishlab chiqilgan Doktor Jon E. Exner, tahlilning yanada qat'iy tizimi sifatida. U keng miqyosda tasdiqlangan va yuqori ko'rsatkichlarga ega raterlararo ishonchlilik.[7][51]1969 yilda Exner nashr etdi Rorschach tizimlari, keyinchalik "Exner tizimi" deb ataladigan narsalarning qisqacha tavsifi. Keyinchalik u bir nechta jildlarda tadqiqotni nashr etdi Rorschach: keng qamrovli tizim, uning tizimining eng ko'p qabul qilingan to'liq tavsifi.

Yangi tizimni yaratishda o'z vaqtida kamida beshta bir-biriga o'xshash, ammo oxir-oqibat turli xil usullar keng qo'llanilganligi, aksariyat oz miqdordagi imtihonchilar hech qanday tan olingan usulni qo'llamaganliklari, aksincha ularning sub'ektiv baholash to'g'risidagi qaroriga asoslanib, yoki turli xil standartlashtirilgan tizimlarning xususiyatlarini o'zboshimchalik bilan aralashtirish.[52]

Exner tizimining asosiy tarkibiy qismlari Rorschach o'zgaruvchilarining klasterizatsiyasi va ularni tahlil qilish tartibini aniqlash uchun ketma-ket qidiruv strategiyasi,[53] standartlashtirilgan ma'muriyat, ob'ektiv, ishonchli kodlash va vakolatli normativ ma'lumotlar bazasi tarkibiga kiritilgan.[54]Tizim a ga katta ahamiyat beradi kognitiv uchlik ning axborotni qayta ishlash, mavzu kirish ma'lumotlarini qanday ishlashiga bog'liq, kognitiv vositachilik, ma'lumotni o'zgartirish va identifikatsiya qilish uslubiga murojaat qilgan holda va g'oya.[55]

Tizimda javoblar ularning noaniqlik darajasi yoki bir nechta rasmlarning sintezi, javobning joylashuvi, javobni hosil qilish uchun turli xil determinantlardan qaysi biri (ya'ni, siyoh chizig'ini qanday ko'rinishga keltirishi) asosida aniqlanadi. nima o'xshashligi aytilgan), javobning shakli sifati (javob qancha darajadagi haqiqiy siyohdonning ko'rinishiga sodiqdir), javobning mazmuni (respondent aslida nimani ko'radi), aqliy darajasi javobni ishlab chiqarishda ishtirok etadigan faoliyatni va javoblarning mantiqsiz, nomuvofiq yoki nomuvofiq tomonlarini. Ma'lum qilinishicha, birinchi kartadagi mashhur javoblarga bat, nishon va gerb kiradi.[32]

Ushbu toifalar bo'yicha ballardan foydalanib, tekshiruvchi keyinchalik test ma'lumotlarining tarkibiy xulosasini ishlab chiqaradigan bir qator hisob-kitoblarni amalga oshiradi. Strukturaviy xulosaning natijalari turli xil javoblar bilan bog'liqligi isbotlangan shaxsiy xususiyatlar bo'yicha mavjud tadqiqot ma'lumotlari yordamida sharhlanadi.

Rorschach plitalari (o'nta siyoh plitalari) bilan har bir blotning mijoz tomonidan ajratilgan maydoni belgilanadi va kodlanadi - odatda "tez-tez tanlangan" yoki "kamdan-kam tanlangan". Blots maydonlarini kodlash uchun juda ko'p turli xil usullar mavjud edi. Exner S. J. Beck (1944 va 1961) tomonidan ilgari surilgan hududlarni kodlash tizimiga joylashdi. Ushbu tizim o'z navbatida Klopferning (1942) ishiga asoslangan edi.

Javob shakliga kelsak, "forma sifati" tushunchasi Rorschaxning dastlabki asarlaridan boshlab mavjud bo'lib, sub'ektiv javob sifatida, sub'ektning javob shakli siyoh plitalariga qanchalik to'g'ri kelganligi (Rorschach yuqori darajadagi ballni ko'proq "asl nusxasiga olib kelishi mumkin edi) "hali yaxshi shaklda javoblar) va ushbu kontseptsiyaga boshqa usullar amal qilgan, ayniqsa Evropada; Aksincha, Exner tizimi "yaxshi shakl" ni faqat so'zlarning paydo bo'lish chastotasi sifatida belgilaydi va uni sub'ektning populyatsiya o'rtacha ko'rsatkichiga qadar masofasini kamaytiradi.[56]

Faoliyatni baholash tizimi

Asosiy maqola: Rorschach ish faoliyatini baholash tizimi

Rorschach samaradorligini baholash tizimi (R-PAS) - bu Rorschach tadqiqot kengashining bir nechta a'zolari tomonidan yaratilgan skorlama usuli. Ular Exner skorlama tizimi yangilanishga muhtoj deb hisoblashgan, ammo Exner vafotidan so'ng, Exner oilasi Kompleks tizimga o'zgartirish kiritishni taqiqlagan.[57] Shuning uchun ular yangi tizimni o'rnatdilar: R-PAS. Bu Exnerning Keng qamrovli tizimiga qaraganda foydalanish uchun qulay bo'lgan, empirik asosda va xalqaro miqyosda to'plangan ball tizimini yaratishga urinishdir.[58] R-PAS qo'llanmasi Rorschachni boshqarish, skorlash va talqin qilish uchun keng qamrovli vosita bo'lishi uchun mo'ljallangan. Ushbu qo'llanma Rorschachning yangi boshlang'ich foydalanuvchilari uchun mo'ljallangan skorlash va sharhlash asoslari bo'lgan ikkita bobdan, so'ngra batafsil va texnik ma'lumotlarni o'z ichiga olgan ko'plab boblardan iborat.[59]

Yangilangan ballar nuqtai nazaridan mualliflar faqat adabiyotda empirik ravishda qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan o'zgaruvchilarni tanladilar. Eslatib o'tamiz, mualliflar kodlash uchun yangi o'zgaruvchilar yoki indekslarni yaratmadilar, balki o'tgan tizimlarda ishlatilgan o'zgaruvchilarni muntazam ravishda ko'rib chiqdilar.[60] Ushbu kodlarning barchasi ilgari ishlatilgan bo'lsa-da, ularning ko'plari haqiqiyroq va oson tushuniladigan qilib o'zgartirildi. Indekslar skoringi yangilandi (masalan, foydalanib foizlar va standart ballar ) Rorschach-ni boshqa mashhurlarga moslashtirish uchun shaxs o'lchovlari.

R-PAS imtihon topshiruvchilarning javoblarini to'plash uchun kodlash bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar berishdan tashqari, Rorschach ma'muriyati paytida imtihon oluvchining xatti-harakatlarini kodlash tizimini taqdim etadi. Ushbu xulq-atvor kodlari kiritilgan, chunki sinov paytida ko'rsatilgan xatti-harakatlar birovning vazifasini bajarishining aksi va berilgan javoblarni to'ldiradi. Bu kimdirning kartalarga javoblari va ularning haqiqiy xatti-harakatlari o'rtasida umumlashma qilish imkonini beradi.

R-PAS shuningdek, Rorschach o'zgaruvchilarining ko'pchiligida ballar turli mamlakatlar bo'yicha farq qilishini tan oldi.[60] Shuning uchun 1997 yildan boshlab butun dunyo tadqiqotchilarining Rorschach protokollari tuzildi.[61] O'n yildan ko'proq vaqt davomida protokollarni tuzgandan so'ng, R-PAS uchun normativ asosni ta'minlash uchun jami 15 kattalar namunalari ishlatilgan. Protokollar AQSh, Evropa, Isroil, Argentina va Braziliyada to'plangan ma'lumotlarni aks ettiradi.

Madaniy farqlar

Shimoliy Amerika Exner normativ ma'lumotlarini Evropa va Janubiy Amerika sub'ektlari ma'lumotlari bilan taqqoslash ba'zi xususiyatlarda sezilarli farqlarni ko'rsatdi, ularning ba'zilari muhim o'zgaruvchiga ta'sir qiladi, boshqalari (masalan, javoblarning o'rtacha soni) bir-biriga to'g'ri keladi.[62]Masalan, Evropa mavzularida faktura javobi odatda nolga teng (agar tizimga muvofiq, yaqinlik zarurati sifatida talqin qilinsa, evropalik uni faqatgina ishtiyoq yaqinlik uchun),[63] va "yaxshi shakl" javoblari kamroq, agar ma'lumotlar Shimoliy Amerika me'yorlari bilan o'zaro bog'liq bo'lsa, shizofreniya haqida gumon qilish mumkin.[64]Shakl ko'pincha Evropa sub'ektlari tomonidan ifodalangan yagona determinant hisoblanadi;[65] rang Amerika mavzulariga qaraganda kamroq bo'lsa-da, rang shaklidagi javoblarga nisbatan rang-barang javoblarga nisbatan nisbatan tez-tez uchraydi; chunki ikkinchisi ishlov berishda mudofaa munosabatining ko'rsatkichlari sifatida talqin qilinishi mumkin, bu farq hissiyotlarning o'z-o'zidan paydo bo'lishiga bog'liq bo'lgan yuqori qiymatdan kelib chiqishi mumkin.[63]

Shakl sifatidagi farqlar faqat madaniy jihatlarga bog'liq: turli madaniyatlarda turli xil "umumiy" narsalar namoyish etiladi (frantsuz sub'ektlari ko'pincha xameleyon mushuk va it kabi boshqa hayvonlardan farqli o'laroq, odatda "noodatiy" javob sifatida tasniflangan VIII kartada; Skandinaviyada "Rojdestvo elflari" (nisser) bu II karta uchun mashhur javob, va VI kartadagi "musiqiy asbob" yapon xalqi uchun mashhur),[66] va turli xil tillar bir xil ob'ektga nom berishda semantik farqlarni namoyish etadi (IV kartaning rasmini ko'pincha a deb atashadi trol skandinaviyaliklar va ogre frantsuzlar tomonidan).[67]Exnerning ko'plab "mashhur" javoblari (ishlatilgan Shimoliy Amerika namunalarining kamida uchdan bir qismi tomonidan berilgan), Evropa, Yaponiya va Janubiy Amerikadagi namunalarda ko'rsatilgandek, umuman olganda mashhur bo'lib tuyuladi, xususan IX kartaning "inson" javobi, X kartochkasidagi qisqichbaqa yoki o'rgimchak va men kartadagi kapalak yoki yarasalardan biri Shimoliy Amerikaga xos bo'lib tuyuladi.[67][68]

Shakl sifati, ommabop kontent javoblari va joylashuvi Exner tizimidagi yagona kodlangan o'zgaruvchilar bo'lib, ular paydo bo'lish chastotasiga asoslangan va shu sababli darhol madaniy ta'sirga duchor bo'ladi; shuning uchun test ma'lumotlarini madaniy jihatdan izohlash ushbu tarkibiy qismlardan tashqariga chiqishi shart emas.[69]

Keltirilgan tillardagi farqlar shuni anglatadiki, test sinovi sub'ektning ona tilida yoki juda yaxshi o'zlashtirilgan ikkinchi tilda o'tkazilishi shart va aksincha, imtihon topshiruvchi testda ishlatiladigan tilni o'zlashtirishi kerak. Sinov javoblari, shuningdek, tahlildan oldin boshqa tilga tarjima qilinmasligi kerak, faqat ikkala tilni o'zlashtirgan klinisyen ham bo'lishi mumkin. Masalan, galstuk taqish III kartaning markaziy tafsilotlari uchun tez-tez javob bo'lib turadi, ammo frantsuz tilidagi ekvivalenti "kelebek galstuki" deb tarjima qilinganligi sababli, ushbu til nuansini qadrlamagan imtihonchi javobni kutilganidan boshqacha kodlashi mumkin.[70]

Inkblots

Quyida bosilgan o'n dona siyoh var Rorschach testi - psixodiagnostik plitalar,[71] yoki butun muallif uchun eng tez-tez uchraydigan javoblar yoki butun mualliflar fikriga ko'ra eng taniqli tafsilotlar.

KartaOmmabop javoblar[72][73][74]Izohlar[75][76]
Rorschach blot 01.jpg
Bek:ko'rshapalak, kelebek, kuya
Piotrowski:ko'rshapalak (53%), kelebek (29%)
Dana (Frantsiya):kelebek (39%)
Ko'rayotganda karta I, sub'ektlar ko'pincha qanday ishlashlarini so'rashadi va kartada nima qilishlariga ruxsat berilganligi haqidagi savollar (masalan, uni burish) juda muhim emas. Birinchi karta bo'lib, u sub'ektlar yangi va og'ir vazifani qanday hal qilishlari haqida ma'lumot beradi. Biroq, bu karta odatda mavzu uchun juda qiyin bo'lib, ommabop javoblarga ega.
Rorschach blot 02.jpg
Bek:ikki kishi
Piotrowski:to'rt oyoqli hayvon (34%, kulrang qismlar)
Dana (Frantsiya):hayvon: it, fil, ayiq (50%, kulrang)
Ning qizil tafsilotlari II karta ko'pincha qon sifatida ko'riladi va eng o'ziga xos xususiyatlardir. Ularga javoblar mavzuni g'azablanish yoki jismoniy zararni qanday boshqarishi mumkinligi haqida ko'rsatmalar berishi mumkin. Ushbu karta turli xil jinsiy munosabatlarga sabab bo'lishi mumkin.
Rorschach blot 03.jpg
Bek:ikki kishi (kulrang)
Piotrowski:inson qiyofalari (72%, kulrang)
Dana (Frantsiya):inson (76%, kulrang)
III karta odatda ba'zi bir o'zaro aloqada bo'lgan ikkita odamni o'z ichiga oladi va sub'ektning boshqa odamlar bilan qanday aloqasi borligi haqida ma'lumot berishi mumkin (xususan, javob kechikishi qiyin bo'lgan ijtimoiy o'zaro ta'sirlarni ko'rsatishi mumkin).
Rorschach blot 04.jpg
Bek:hayvon terisi, terisi, gilamchasi
Piotrowski:hayvon terisi, teri gilamchasi (41%)
Dana (Frantsiya):hayvonlarning terisi (46%)
IV karta quyuq rangi va soyasi (tushkunlikka tushganlar uchun qiyinchiliklar tug'dirishi) bilan ajralib turadi va odatda katta va ba'zan tahdid soluvchi raqam sifatida qabul qilinadi; sub'ektning unga nisbatan past darajadagi ("yuqoriga qarab") bo'lganligi haqidagi umumiy taassurot bilan kuchayib, bu vakolat tuyg'usini keltirib chiqarishga xizmat qiladi. Kartada ko'rilgan odam yoki hayvon tarkibidagi tarkib deyarli har doim ayol emas, erkak deb tasniflanadi va mavzu tomonidan ifodalangan fazilatlar erkaklar va hokimiyatga bo'lgan munosabatni ko'rsatishi mumkin. Ushbu IV karta tufayli ko'pincha "Ota kartasi" deb nomlanadi.[77]
Rorschach blot 05.jpg
Bek:ko'rshapalak, kelebek, kuya
Piotrowski:kelebek (48%), ko'rshapalak (40%)
Dana (Frantsiya):kelebek (48%), ko'rshapalak (46%)
V karta bu osonlikcha ishlab chiqilgan karta bo'lib, u odatda tahdid sifatida qabul qilinmaydi va odatda avvalgi qiyin kartalardan keyin testda "sur'at o'zgarishini" keltirib chiqaradi. Muammolarni keltirib chiqaradigan yoki tushuntirishni murakkablashtiradigan ozgina xususiyatlardan iborat bu sifatli javobni yaratish uchun eng oson usul.
Rorschach blot 06.jpg
Bek:hayvon terisi, terisi, gilamchasi
Piotrowski:hayvon terisi, teri gilamchasi (41%)
Dana (Frantsiya):hayvonlarning terisi (46%)
To'qimalarining o'ziga xos xususiyati VI karta, bu ko'pincha shaxslararo yaqinlik bilan bog'liq bo'lgan assotsiatsiyani keltirib chiqaradi; bu "seks karta" dir, ehtimol uning jinsiy tushunchalari boshqa har qanday kartaga qaraganda tez-tez xabar qilinadi, garchi boshqa kartalarda tez-tez ko'rinadigan jinsiy tarkib mavjud.
Rorschach blot 07.jpg
Bek:inson boshlari yoki yuzlari (tepada)
Piotrowski:ayollar yoki bolalarning boshlari (27%, yuqori)
Dana (Frantsiya):inson boshi (46%, yuqori)
VII karta ayollik bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin (odatda ularda ayollar yoki bolalar deb ta'riflanadigan odam figuralari) va "ona karta" vazifasini bajaradi, bu erda javob berishdagi qiyinchiliklar sub'ekt hayotidagi ayol figuralari bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin. Markaz tafsilotlari nisbatan tez-tez (ommabop bo'lmasa ham) qin deb aniqlanadi, bu esa ushbu kartani, ayniqsa, ayol jinsiy aloqasi bilan bog'liqligini keltirib chiqaradi.
Rorschach blot 08.jpg
Bek:hayvon: mushuk yoki it emas (pushti)
Piotrowski:to'rt oyoqli hayvon (94%, pushti)
Dana (Frantsiya):to'rt oyoqli hayvon (93%, pushti)
Odamlar ko'pincha yengilliklarini bildiradilar VIII kartabu ularga dam olishga va samarali javob berishga imkon beradi. V kartaga o'xshab, u "tezlikni o'zgartirish" ni anglatadi; ammo, karta to'plamdagi birinchi va juda ko'p rangli karta bo'lgan yangi ishlab chiqish qiyinchiliklarini keltirib chiqaradi. Shu sababli, murakkab vaziyatlarni yoki hissiy ogohlantirishlarni qayta ishlashni qiynaladigan yoki qiyin deb biladigan odamlar ushbu kartadan bezovta bo'lishlari mumkin.
Rorschach blot 09.jpg
Bek:inson (apelsin)
Piotrowski:yo'q
Dana (Frantsiya):yo'q
Xarakterli karta IX noaniq shakl va tarqoq, tovushsiz xromatik xususiyatlar bo'lib, umumiy noaniqlikni keltirib chiqaradi. Faqat bitta mashhur javob bor va bu barcha kartalar orasida eng kam uchraydigan narsa. Ushbu kartani qayta ishlashda qiyinchiliklarga duch kelganda, tuzilmagan ma'lumotlar bilan ishlashda muammo yuzaga kelishi mumkin, ammo bundan tashqari ushbu kartaga xos bo'lgan "tortishish" lar kam.
Rorschach blot 10.jpg
Bek:qisqichbaqa, omar, o'rgimchak (ko'k)
Piotrowski:Qisqichbaqa, o'rgimchak (37%, ko'k),
quyon boshi (31%, och yashil),
tırtıllar, qurtlar, ilonlar (28%, quyuq yashil)
Dana (Frantsiya):yo'q
X karta tuzilishi jihatidan VIII kartaga o'xshaydi, ammo uning noaniqligi va murakkabligi IX kartani eslatadi: ko'plab bir vaqtning o'zida qo'zg'atuvchilar bilan kurashish qiyin bo'lgan odamlar, ayniqsa, yoqimli kartani yoqtirmasligi mumkin. Oxirgi karta bo'lib, u sub'ektga o'zlarining ahvolini qanday his qilishlarini yoki nimani bilmoqchi ekanliklarini ko'rsatib, "chiqish" imkoniyatini berishi mumkin.

Foydalanish

Qo'shma Shtatlar

Rorschach testi deyarli faqat psixologlar tomonidan qo'llaniladi. Sud psixologlari Rorschachdan 36% foydalanadilar.[78]Qamoqqa olish holatlarida, psixologlarning 23% Rorschachdan bolani tekshirishda foydalanadilar.[79]Boshqa bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, baholash xizmatlari bilan shug'ullanadigan klinik psixologlarning 161 nafardan 124 nafari (77%) Rorschachdan foydalanadi,[80] va 80% psixologiya magistratura dasturlari undan foydalanishni o'rgatadi.[81]Boshqa bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, klinik psixologlar tomonidan foydalanish atigi 43% ni tashkil etgan, shu bilan birga maktab psixologlari tomonidan bu vaqt 24% dan kam bo'lgan.[78]

Davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari armiyasining tibbiy korpusi bosh psixiatr Dr. Duglas Kelley va psixolog Gustav Gilbert birinchisidan oldin fashistlarning etakchilik guruhidagi 22 ayblanuvchiga Rorschach testini o'tkazdi Nürnberg sudlari.[82]

Birlashgan Qirollik

Buyuk Britaniyadagi ko'plab psixologlar uning samaradorligiga ishonishmaydi va u kamdan kam qo'llaniladi.[83] Garchi uning ilmiy asoslanganligiga shubha bilan qaramasdan, ba'zi psixologlar uni terapiya va murabbiylikda "o'zini aks ettirishni rag'batlantirish va insonning ichki dunyosi to'g'risida suhbatni boshlash usuli sifatida" ishlatishadi.[23] Biroq, ba'zi bir ruhiy kasalliklar tashkilotlari tomonidan hali ham qo'llanilmoqda Tavistok klinikasi.[84] 2000 yilda o'tkazilgan so'rovnomada axloq tuzatish muassasalaridagi psixologlarning 20% ​​Rorschachdan, 80% esa MMPI.[85]

Yaponiya

Rorschaxning kitobi nashr etilgandan ko'p o'tmay, uning nusxasi Yaponiyaga yo'l oldi va uni mamlakatning etakchi psixiatrlaridan biri ikkinchi qo'l kitob do'konidan topdi. U shunchalik taassurot qoldirdiki, u hech qachon kamaymagan sinov uchun g'azabni boshladi.[86] Yaponiyaning "Rorschach" jamiyati dunyodagi eng yirik tashkilot bo'lib, sinov "muntazam ravishda keng ko'lamli maqsadlarga ega".[24] 2012 yilda test taqdimotchi Jo Fidgen tomonidan tasvirlangan BBC radiosi 4 dasturi Doktor Inkblot, Yaponiyada "har qachongidan ham mashhur".[84]

Qarama-qarshilik

Biroz skeptiklar Rorschach inkblot sinovini ko'rib chiqing psevdologiya,[8][87] chunki bir qator tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, 1950-yillardan beri test ma'murlari tomonidan chiqarilgan xulosalar o'xshash edi sovuq o'qish.[88] 1959 yil nashrida Ruhiy o'lchov yilnomasi, Li Kronbax (Psixometrik Jamiyat va Amerika Psixologik Uyushmasining sobiq prezidenti)[89] sharhida keltirilgan: "Amaliy mezonlarni bashorat qilish uchun test bir necha bor muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi. Adabiyotda Rorschach talqinlariga tayanishni rag'batlantiradigan hech narsa yo'q". Bundan tashqari, yirik sharhlovchi Raymond J. Makkol (154-bet) shunday deb yozadi: "O'n minglab Rorschach testlari o'sha paytdan beri (avvalgi sharhdan) yuzlab o'qitilgan mutaxassislar tomonidan o'tkazilgan bo'lsa-da, shaxsning dinamikasi va xulq-atvori faraz qilingan, bu munosabatlarning aksariyati hech qachon empirik ravishda tasdiqlanmagan, test haqida 2000 dan ortiq nashrlar paydo bo'lishiga qaramay. "[90] Uni ishlatishga moratoriy 1999 yilda e'lon qilingan.[91]

2003 yilda Vud va uning hamkasblari tomonidan qilingan hisobotda turli xil qarashlar mavjud edi: "50 yildan ortiq tadqiqotlar Li J. Kronbaxning (1970) yakuniy hukmini tasdiqladi: ba'zi Rorschach ballari, garchi tarafdorlari tomonidan ilgari surilgan da'volardan juda pastroq bo'lsa ham, ular egalik qilishadi". tasodifdan kattaroq kuchlilik "(636-bet). [...] Uning shizofreniya tadqiqotida fikrlash buzilishining o'lchovi sifatida ahamiyati yaxshi qabul qilingan. Shuningdek, u qaramlik tadqiqotlarida, kamroq bo'lsa-da, dushmanlik haqidagi ishlarda muntazam ravishda qo'llaniladi. Bundan tashqari, muhim dalillar Rorschachdan aql va fikr buzilishining klinik o'lchovi sifatida foydalanilishini asoslaydi. "[92]

Sinov materiallari

Sinovning asosiy sharti shundaki, ob'ektiv ma'no, go'yoki ma'nosiz siyoh parchalariga javoblardan olinishi mumkin. Rorschach inkblot testining tarafdorlari, sub'ektning noaniq va ma'nosiz stimulga bo'lgan munosabati ularning fikrlash jarayonlari haqida tushuncha berishi mumkin deb hisoblashadi, ammo bu aniq emas Qanaqasiga bu sodir bo'ladi. Shuningdek, yaqinda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, dog'lar umuman ma'nosiz emas va bemor odatda dog'larning mazmunli va noaniq tomonlariga javob beradi.[7] Reber (1985) qoralanganlarni mijoz va terapevt o'rtasida faqat ".. o'zaro ta'sir vositasi .." deb ta'riflaydi va quyidagicha xulosa qiladi: ".. Rorschachning foydaliligi sinovchining sezgirligi, hamdardligi va tushunuvchanligiga bog'liq. Rorschaxning o'zi. Ikkala tomon ham ishongan taqdirda devor qog'ozi yoki gilamcha haqida qizg'in dialog amalga oshiriladi. "[93]

Xayoliy va ko'rinmas korrelyatsiyalar

1960-yillarda psixologlar Loren va Jan Chapman tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, Rorschaxning hech bo'lmaganda ma'lum bir kuchliligi illyuziya bilan bog'liq.[94][95] O'sha paytda beshta belgi ko'pincha diagnostika deb talqin etiladi gomoseksualizm 1) dumba va anus; 2) ayollar kiyimlari; 3) erkak yoki ayol jinsiy a'zolar; 4) erkak yoki ayol xususiyatlarisiz odam figuralari; va 5) erkak va ayol xususiyatlariga ega inson figuralari.[95][96] Chapmans gomoseksualizmga tashxis qo'yish uchun Rorschachdan foydalanganliklari to'g'risida 32 ta tajribali testchilarni so'roq qilishdi. Bu vaqtda gomoseksualizm a psixopatologiya, va Rorschach eng mashhur proektiv sinov edi.[6] Sinovchilar gomoseksual erkaklar beshta belgini heteroseksual erkaklarga qaraganda tez-tez ko'rsatganligini xabar qilishdi.[95][97] Despite these beliefs, analysis of the results showed that heterosexual men were just as likely to report these signs, which were therefore totally ineffective for determining homosexuality.[94][96][97] The five signs did, however, match the guesses students made about which imagery would be associated with homosexuality.[96]

The Chapmans investigated the source of the testers' false confidence. In one experiment, students read through a stack of cards, each with a Rorschach blot, a sign and a pair of "conditions" (which might include homosexuality). The information on the cards was fictional, although subjects were told it came from case studies of real patients.[94] The students reported that the five invalid signs were associated with homosexuality, even though the cards had been constructed so there was no association at all.[96][97] The Chapmans repeated this experiment with another set of cards, in which the association was negative; the five signs were never reported by homosexuals. The students still reported seeing a strong positive correlation.[6][97] These experiments showed that the testers' prejudices could result in them "seeing" non-existent relationships in the data. The Chapmans called this phenomenon "xayoliy korrelyatsiya " and it has since been demonstrated in many other contexts.[94][95]

A related phenomenon called "invisible correlation" applies when people fail to see a strong association between two events because it does not match their expectations.[95] This was also found in clinicians' interpretations of the Rorschach. Homosexual men are more likely to see a monster on Card IV or a part-animal, part-human figure in Card V.[6][96] Almost all of the experienced clinicians in the Chapmans' survey missed these valid signs.[6][94] The Chapmans ran an experiment with fake Rorschach responses in which these valid signs were always associated with homosexuality. The subjects missed these perfect associations and instead reported that invalid signs, such as buttocks or feminine clothing, were better indicators.[94]

In 1992, the psychologist Styuart Sutherland argued that these artificial experiments are easier than the real-world use of the Rorschach, and hence they probably underestimated the errors that testers were susceptible to. He described the continuing popularity of the Rorschach after the Chapmans' research as a "glaring example of irrationality among psychologists".[94]

Tester projection

Some critics argue that the testing psychologist must also project onto the patterns. A possible example sometimes attributed to the psychologist's subjective judgement is that responses are coded (among many other things), for "Form Quality": in essence, whether the subject's response fits with how the blot actually looks. Superficially this might be considered a subjective judgment, depending on how the examiner has internalized the categories involved. But with the Exner system of scoring, much of the subjectivity is eliminated or reduced by use of frequency tables that indicate how often a particular response is given by the population in general.[7] Another example is that the response "bra" was considered a "sex" response by male psychologists, but a "clothing" response by females.[98]In Exner's system, however, such a response is always coded as "clothing" unless there is a clear sexual reference in the response.[7]

Third parties could be used to avoid this problem, but the Rorschach's raterlararo ishonchlilik so'roq qilingan. That is, in some studies the scores obtained by two independent scorers do not match with great consistency.[99]This conclusion was challenged in studies using large samples reported in 2002.[100]

Amal qilish muddati

When interpreted as a projective test, results are poorly verifiable. The Exner system of scoring (also known as the "Comprehensive System") is meant to address this, and has all but displaced many earlier (and less consistent) scoring systems. It makes heavy use of what factor (shading, color, outline, etc.) of the inkblot leads to each of the tested person's comments. Disagreements about test validity remain: while the Exner proposed a rigorous scoring system, latitude remained in the actual interpretation, and the clinician's write-up of the test record is still partly subjective.[101]Reber (1985) comments ".. there is essentially no evidence whatsoever that the test has even a shred of validity."[93]

Nevertheless, there is substantial research indicating the utility of the measure for a few scores. Several scores correlate well with general aql-idrok. One such scale is R, the total number of responses; this reveals the questionable side-effect that more intelligent people tend to be elevated on many pathology scales, since many scales do not correct for high R: if a subject gives twice as many responses overall, it is more likely that some of these will seem "pathological". Also correlated with intelligence are the scales for Organizational Activity, Complexity, Form Quality, and Human Figure responses.[102]The same source reports that validity has also been shown for detecting such conditions as shizofreniya va boshqalar psixotik kasalliklar; thought disorders; va shaxsiyatning buzilishi (shu jumladan chegara kishilik buzilishi ). There is some evidence that the Deviant Verbalizations scale relates to bipolyar buzilish. The authors conclude that "Otherwise, the Comprehensive System doesn't appear to bear a consistent relationship to psychological disorders or symptoms, personality characteristics, potential for violence, or such health problems as cancer".[103](Cancer is mentioned because a small minority of Rorschach enthusiasts have claimed the test can predict cancer.)[104]

Ishonchlilik

Bu ham o'ylangan[kim tomonidan? ] that the test's reliability can depend substantially on details of the testing procedure, such as where the tester and subject are seated, any introductory words, verbal and nonverbal responses to subjects' questions or comments, and how responses are recorded. Exner has published detailed instructions, but Wood et al.[98] cites many court cases where these had not been followed. Similarly, the procedures for coding responses are fairly well specified but extremely time-consuming leaving them very subject to the author's style and the publisher to the quality of the instructions (such as was noted with one of Bohm's textbooks in the 1950s[105]) as well as clinic workers (which would include examiners) being encouraged to cut corners.[106][107]

United States courts have challenged the Rorschach as well. Jones v Apfel (1997) stated (quoting from Attorney's Textbook of Medicine) that Rorschach "results do not meet the requirements of standardization, reliability, or validity of clinical diagnostic tests, and interpretation thus is often controversial".[108] Yilda State ex rel H.H. (1999) where under cross-examination Dr. Bogacki stated under oath "many psychologists do not believe much in the validity or effectiveness of the Rorschach test"[108] va US v Battle (2001) ruled that the Rorschach "does not have an objective scoring system."[108]

Population norms

Another controversial aspect of the test is its statistical norms. Exner's system was thought to possess normative scores for various populations. But, beginning in the mid-1990s others began to try to replicate or update these norms and failed. In particular, discrepancies seemed to focus on indices measuring narsisizm, disordered thinking, and discomfort in close relationships.[109] Lilienfeld and colleagues, who are critical of the Rorschach, have stated that this proves that the Rorschach tends to "overpathologise normals".[109] Although Rorschach proponents, such as Hibbard,[110] suggest that high rates of pathology detected by the Rorschach accurately reflect increasing psychopathology in society, the Rorschach also identifies half of all test-takers as possessing "distorted thinking",[111] a noto'g'ri ijobiy stavka unexplained by current research.

The accusation of "over-pathologising" has also been considered by Meyer et al. (2007). They presented an international collaborative study of 4704 Rorschach protocols, obtained in 21 different samples, across 17 different countries, with only 2% showing significant elevations on the index of perceptual and thinking disorder, 12% elevated on indices of depression and hyper-vigilance and 13% elevated on persistent stress overload—all in line with expected frequencies among non-patient populations.[112]

Ilovalar

The test is also controversial because of its common use in court-ordered evaluations.[iqtibos kerak ] This controversy stems, in part, from the limitations of the Rorschach, with no additional data, in making official diagnoses from the Ruhiy kasalliklarning diagnostikasi va statistik qo'llanmasi (DSM-IV ).[113]Irving B. Vayner (co-developer with John Exner of the Comprehensive system) has stated that the Rorschach "is a measure of personality functioning, and it provides information concerning aspects of personality structure and dynamics that make people the kind of people they are. Sometimes such information about personality characteristics is helpful in arriving at a differential diagnosis, if the alternative diagnoses being considered have been well conceptualized with respect to specific or defining personality characteristics".[114]In the vast majority of cases, anyway, the Rorschach test wasn't singled out but used as one of several in a battery of tests,[115] and despite the criticism of usage of the Rorschach in the courts, out of 8,000 cases in which forensic psychologists used Rorschach-based testimony, the appropriateness of the instrument was challenged only six times, and the testimony was ruled inadmissible in only one of those cases.[81] One study has found that use of the test in courts has increased by three times in the decade between 1996 and 2005, compared to the previous fifty years.[115] Others however have found that its usage by forensic psychologists has decreased.[116]

Exner and others have claimed that the Rorschach test is capable of detecting o'z joniga qasd qilish.[117][118][119]

Protection of test items and ethics

Psychologists object to the publication of psychological test material out of concerns that a patient's test responses will be influenced ("astarlangan ") by previous exposure. The Kanada psixologik assotsiatsiyasi takes the position that, "Publishing the questions and answers to any psychological test compromises its usefulness" and calls for "keeping psychological tests out of the public domain."[120] The same statement quotes their president as saying, "The CPA's concern is not with the publication of the cards and responses to the Rorschach test per se, for which there is some controversy in the psychological literature and disagreement among experts, but with the larger issue of the publication and dissemination of psychological test content".

From a legal standpoint, the Rorschach test images have been in the jamoat mulki for many years in most countries, particularly those with a mualliflik huquqi muddati of up to 70 years post mortem auctoris. They have been in the public domain in Hermann Rorschach's native Switzerland since 1992 (70 years after the author's death, or 50 years after the cut-off date of 1942), according to Shveytsariya mualliflik huquqi to'g'risidagi qonun.[121][122] They are also in the public domain under Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari mualliflik huquqi to'g'risidagi qonun[123][124] where all works published before 1923 are considered to be in the public domain.[125] This means that the Rorschach images may be used by anyone for any purpose. Uilyam Poundstoun was, perhaps, first to make them public in his 1983 book Katta sirlar, where he also described the method of administering the test.[iqtibos kerak ]

The Amerika psixologik assotsiatsiyasi (APA) has a code of ethics that supports "freedom of inquiry and expression" and helping "the public in developing informed judgments".[126]It claims that its goals include "the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work", and it requires that psychologists "make reasonable efforts to maintain the integrity and security of test materials". The APA has also raised concerns that the dissemination of test materials might impose "very concrete harm to the general public". It has not taken a position on publication of the Rorschach plates but noted "there are a limited number of standardized psychological tests considered appropriate for a given purpose".[127] A public statement by the Britaniya psixologik jamiyati expresses similar concerns about psychological tests (without mentioning any test by name) and considers the "release of [test] materials to unqualified individuals" to be misuse if it is against the wishes of the test publisher.[128]Uning 1998 yilgi kitobida Psixologiyada axloq, Jerald Koocher notes that some believe "reprinting copies of the Rorschach plates ... and listing common responses represents a serious unethical act" for psychologists and is indicative of "questionable professional judgment".[129]Other professional associations, such as the Italian Association of Strategic Psychotherapy, recommend that even information about the purpose of the test or any detail of its administration should be kept from the public, even though "cheating" the test is held to be practically impossible.[130]

On September 9, 2008, Hogrefe attempted to claim copyright over the Rorschach ink blots during filings of a complaint with the Jahon intellektual mulk tashkiloti qarshi Braziliyalik psychologist Ney Limonge. These complaints were denied.[131] Further complaints were sent to two other websites that contained information similar to the Rorschach test in May 2009 by legal firm Schluep and Degen of Switzerland.[132][133]

Psychologists have sometimes refused to disclose tests and test data to courts when asked to do so by the parties citing ethical reasons; it is argued that such refusals may hinder full understanding of the process by the attorneys, and impede cross-examination of the experts. APA ethical standard 1.23(b) states that the psychologist has a responsibility to document processes in detail and of adequate quality to allow reasonable scrutiny by the court.[134]

Controversy ensued in the psychological community in 2009 when the original Rorschach plates and research results on interpretations were published in the "Rorschach test" article on Vikipediya.[135] Hogrefe & Huber Publishing, a German company that sells editions of the plates, called the publication "unbelievably reckless and even cynical of Wikipedia" and said it was investigating the possibility of legal action.[135] Due to this controversy an edit filter was temporarily established on Wikipedia to prevent the removal of the plates.[136]

Jeyms Xeylman, an favqulodda yordam xonasi physician involved in the debate, compared it to the publication of the eye test chart: though people are likewise free to memorize the eye chart before an eye test, its general usefulness as a diagnostic tool for eyesight has not diminished.[135] For those opposed to exposure, publication of the inkblots is described as a "particularly painful development", given the tens of thousands of research papers which have, over many years, "tried to link a patient's responses to certain psychological conditions."[135] Controversy over Wikipedia's publication of the inkblots has resulted in the blots being published in other locations, such as Guardian[137] va Globe and Mail.[138] O'sha yili[qachon? ] two psychologists filed a complaint against Heilman with the Saskaçevan medical licensing board, arguing that his uploading of the images constituted unprofessional behavior.[139] In 2012 two articles were published showing consequences of the publication of the images in Wikipedia. The first one studied negative attitudes towards the test generated during the Wikipedia-Rorschach debate,[140] while the second suggested that reading the Wikipedia article could help to fake "good" results in the test.[141]

Publication of the Rorschach images is also welcomed by critics who consider the test to be psevdologiya. Benjamin Radford, muharriri Skeptik so'rovchi magazine, stated that the Rorschach "has remained in use more out of tradition than good evidence" and was hopeful that publication of the test might finally hasten its demise.[142]

Shuningdek qarang

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