Toshbo'ron qilish - Stoning

Aziz Stiven, nasroniylikning birinchi shahidi, 1506 yilda bo'yalgan Marks Reyxlich (1460–1520)
(Pinakotek Myunxen )

Virasundara buyrug'i bilan toshbo'ron qilinadi Kandidan Rajasinha II (Shri-Lanka, v. 1672)

Toshbo'ron qilish, yoki lapidatsiya, ning usuli o'lim jazosi guruh otadigan joyga toshlar mavzu o'lguncha odamda ochiq jarohat. Qadim zamonlardan buyon og'ir qilmishlari uchun jazo turi sifatida tasdiqlangan. Ba'zi huquqiy tizimlarda uning qabul qilinishi so'nggi o'n yilliklarda tortishuvlarga sabab bo'ldi.

The Tavrot va Talmud toshbo'ron qilishni bir qator huquqbuzarliklar uchun jazo sifatida tayinlang. Asrlar davomida, Rabbin yahudiyligi ushbu qonunlarni amalda bajarib bo'lmaydigan holga keltiradigan bir qator protsessual cheklovlarni ishlab chiqdi. Garchi toshbo'ron qilish haqida aytilmagan Qur'on, klassik islom huquqshunosligi (fiqh kabi toshbo'ron qilishni buyurdi had (shariat - belgilangan) jazo zina (noqonuniy jinsiy aloqa) asosida hadis (Islom payg'ambariga tegishli so'zlar va harakatlar) Muhammad ). Shuningdek, u bir qator protsessual talablarni ishlab chiqdi zina amalda isbotlash deyarli mumkin emas.

Qadimgi Isroilda toshbo'ron qilish o'lim jazosining standart usuli bo'lgan. Uning ishlatilishi dastlabki nasroniylik davrida tasdiqlangan, ammo yahudiy sudlari keyingi davrlarda umuman toshbo'ron qilish jazosidan saqlanishgan. Islom olamining zamonaviygacha bo'lgan tarixida qonuniy toshbo'ron qilishning bir nechta alohida holatlari qayd etilgan. Aksariyat musulmonlar yashaydigan zamonaviy mamlakatlarning jinoyat qonunlari G'arb modellaridan kelib chiqqan. So'nggi o'n yilliklarda bir nechta shtatlar toshbo'ron qilishdi va boshqa xud (pl. of.) had) ta'sirida ularning jazo kodekslariga jazo Islomchi harakatlar. Ushbu qonunlar diniy konservatorlar uchun Muqaddas Kitobdan kelib chiqqanligi sababli alohida ahamiyatga ega, garchi amalda ular asosan ramziy rol o'ynagan va foydalanishga yaroqsiz bo'lib qolishgan.

So'nggi paytlarda toshbo'ron qilish qonuniy yoki odatiy jazo bo'lib kelgan Birlashgan Arab Amirliklari, Iroq, Qatar, Mavritaniya, Saudiya Arabistoni, Somali, Sudan, Yaman, shimoliy Nigeriya, Afg'oniston, Bruney va qabila qismlari Pokiston, shu jumladan shimoli-g'arbiy Kurram vodiysi va shimoli-g'arbiy Xvezay-Baezay mintaqasi.^[1][2][3][4] Tosh bosish qonuniy bo'lmagan ushbu mamlakatlarning ba'zilarida, jumladan Afg'oniston va Iroqda, u jangarilar, qabila rahbarlari va boshqalar tomonidan suddan tashqari amalga oshirilgan.^[2] Ba'zi boshqa mamlakatlarda, shu jumladan Nigeriya va Pokistonda toshbo'ron qilish jazoning qonuniy shakli bo'lsa-da, u hech qachon qonuniy ravishda amalga oshirilmagan. Toshbo'ron qilish inson huquqlarini himoya qiluvchi tashkilotlar tomonidan qoralanadi va toshbo'ron qilingan hukmlar xalqaro qarama-qarshiliklarga sabab bo'ldi. Zinoni toshbo'ron qilish bilan jazolash musulmon dunyosida jamoatchilikning turli darajadagi qo'llab-quvvatlashiga ega bo'lib, Pokistondagi musulmonlarning 86 foizidan musulmonlarning 6 foizigacha. Albaniya va Bosniya.

Iso va zinodan olingan ayol tomonidan Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, 1860 yilda, Iso gunohsiz odam birinchi toshni tashlashi kerakligini aytgan.

Diniy kitob va qonun

Yahudiylik

Shabbat kunini buzuvchi toshbo'ron qilingan. Qissada keltirilgan badiiy taassurot Raqamlar 15. Jeyms Tissot c.1900

Tavrot

Yahudiy Tavrot (birinchi beshta kitob Ibroniycha Injil: Ibtido, Chiqish, Levilar, Raqamlar va Ikkinchi qonun ) uchun umumiy diniy ma'lumotnoma bo'lib xizmat qiladi Yahudiylik. Toshbo'ron qilish Tavrotda eng ko'p eslatib o'tilgan qatl etish usuli hisoblanadi. (Qotillik toshbo'ron qilish bilan jazolanadigan jinoyat sifatida tilga olinmagan, ammo jabrlanuvchining oilasi a'zosiga qotilni o'ldirishga ruxsat berilgan ko'rinadi); qon uchun qasos oluvchi.) Toshbo'ron qilish bilan jazolanadigan jinoyatlar quyidagilar:

• Teginish Sinay tog'i Xudo berayotganda Muso The O'n amr, Chiqish 19:13
• Birovni o'ldiradigan ho'kizni toshbo'ron qilish kerak, Chiqish 21:28
• Buzilish Shanba, Raqamlar 15:32 –36
• O'zining "avlodlarini" berish ""Molechga " Levilar 20: 2 -5
• Ega "tanish ruh "(yoki bo'lish a nekromanser ) yoki "bo'lish"sehrgar ", Levilar 20:27
• Odamlarni boshqa dinlarga aylantirishga urinish, Qonunlar 13: 7 –11
• Xudoni la'natlash, Levilar 24:10 –16
• Bilan shug'ullanmoq butparastlik, Qonunlar 17: 2-7; yoki boshqalarni bunga yo'ldan ozdirish, Qonunlar 13: 7 –12
• Ota-onalarga qarshi "isyon" Qonunlar 21: 18-21.
• Soxta qizni bokira sifatida taqdim etish, Qonunlar 22:13 –21
• Erkak va ayolning shahardagi boshqa erkakka unashtirilgan jinsiy aloqasi, chunki u baqirmagandi, Qonunlar 22: 23-24; ikkala tomonni ham toshbo'ron qilish kerak.
• Erkak va ayol o'rtasidagi majburiy jinsiy aloqa dalada boshqa erkakka unashtirilgan, uning yig'lashini hech kim eshitmagan va uni qutqara olmagan. Qonunlar 22: 25-27; odamni toshbo'ron qilish kerak.
• Ikki erkak o'rtasidagi jinsiy aloqa, Levilar 20:13

Boshqalarni aldayotganlarni toshbo'ron qilishni tasvirlash yahudiylikdan qaytganlar, Tavrot aytadi:

Agar birodaringiz, onangizning o'g'li yoki o'g'lingiz yoki qizingiz, yoki sizning ko'nglingiz singari do'stingiz bo'lsa, yashirincha sizni aldab: Kelinglar va boshqa xudolarga xizmat qilaylikSiz ham, ota-bobolaringiz ham bilmagan narsani; [Yani] sizning atrofingizdagi odamlarning xudolari sizga yaqin yoki sizdan uzoqroqda, erning bir chetidan erning boshqa uchigacha; Sen unga rozi bo'lma va unga quloq solma; Sizning ko'zingiz unga achinmaydisiz ham ayamaysiz, Uni yashirma ham: Uni o'ldirasan; Uni o'ldirish uchun avval sizning qo'lingiz, keyin esa butun xalqning qo'li bo'ladi. Va u toshlar bilan o'ldirilsin. Chunki u seni Misr eridan, qullik uyidan olib chiqqan Xudoying Egamizdan seni haydamoqchi bo'ldi.

— Ikkinchi qonun 13:6–10^[5]

Yuqorida keltirilgan toifalarning birortasiga kirmaslik Bibliyada qayd etilgan holat Oxan, toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirilgan bilan birga o'ldirilgan qimmatbaho buyumlari uchun uning qo'ylari, boshqa chorva mollari va bolalari Erixo davomida Joshua "s Kan'on fathi.

Mishna

The Talmud ijro etishning to'rt usulini tasvirlaydi: toshbo'ron qilish, mahkumning tomog'iga eritilgan qo'rg'oshin quyish, boshini tanasidan judo qilish va bo'g'ib o'ldirish (qarang Yahudiylikda kapital va jismoniy jazo ). The Mishna toshbo'ron qilinishi kerak bo'lgan shaxslarning quyidagi ro'yxatini beradi.^[6][7]

"Quyidagi gunohkorlarga toshbo'ron qilish amal qiladi - alo הן kangalliן

• ega bo'lgan onasi bilan munosabatlar הבא על האה
• otasining xotini bilan - uvol ātשt gāה
• kelini bilan - vol עlהכ
• odam erkak erkak erkak bilan - ulov tur
• yoki mol bilan - woll הבהמה
• Xuddi shu narsa chorva oldida o'zini ochib beradigan ayolga tegishli - وהאה המביאה את הבהמה
• kufr bilan - u
• butparast - vafot etdi
• kim o'z farzandlaridan birini Molaxga qurbon qilsa - והנותן מזרעו למולך
• o'zini taniqli ruhlar bilan ishg'ol qiladigan kishi - uwal au
• sehrgar - viydong
• Shabbat kunini buzadigan kishi - והמחלל את השבת
• otasini yoki onasini la'natlaydigan kishi - uvoll אביו وאמו
• turmush qurgan qizga tajovuz qilgan - وהבא על נערה המאורסה
• odamlarni butlarga sig'inishga undagan vasvasachi - uvitcha
• va butun bir shaharni yo'ldan ozdiradigan kishi - wiki
• jodugar (erkak yoki ayol) - u
• qaysar va isyonkor o'g'il - óבן סורר ומורה "

Xudo yolg'on gapiradigan odamlarni emas, balki o'lim jazosini qo'llashda yagona hakam deb hisoblangan Oliy Kengash jazoning og'irligiga gipotetik yuqori chegarani toshbo'ron qildi.^[8]

Qur'onning jazosi va Muso bilan Horunning toshbo'ron qilinishi (1480–1482), tomonidan Sandro Botticelli, Sistin cherkovi, Rim.

Ilk nasroniylikdan oldin, xususan Mishna, yahudiy jamiyatida umuman o'lim jazosining (va xususan toshbo'ron qilishning) foydali to'siq sifatida harakat qilishiga nisbatan shubhalar kuchaymoqda. Keyinchalik, undan foydalanish markaziy qonun chiqaruvchilar tomonidan rad etildi. Mishnada shunday deyilgan:

Insonni etti yilda bir marta o'ldiradigan Oliy Kengash halokatli deb ataladi. Ravvin Eliezer ben Azariyaning aytishicha, bu odamni yetmish yilda bir marta ham o'ldiradigan Oliy Kengashga tegishli. Ravvin Akiba va ravvin Tarfon aytadilar: "Agar biz Oliy Kengashda bo'lganimizda, hech kim o'ldirilmas edi". Rabban Shimo'n ben Gamaliel aytadiki: ular Isroilda ko'p qon to'kishgan bo'lar edi.^[9][10][11]

Keyingi asrlarda etakchi yahudiy donishmandlari o'lim jazosini amalga oshirishda juda ko'p cheklovlar qo'ydilar amalda noqonuniy. Cheklovlar begunoh odamlarning qatl qilinishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik edi va guvohlikning qabul qilinishi qiyin bo'lgan juda ko'p shartlarni o'z ichiga olgan.

Faylasuf Muso Maymonides yozgan edi: "Bitta begunoh odamni o'ldirishdan ko'ra, mingta aybdorni oqlash yaxshiroq va qoniqarli".^[12] U qonun uning jamoatchilik tushunchasini himoya qilishidan, ulug'vorligini saqlab qolish va xalqning hurmatini saqlab qolishidan xavotirda edi. U komissiya xatolarini, qonunni butunligini buzish xatolaridan ko'ra ko'proq tahdid deb bildi.^[13]

Hukm usuli

Rabbin qonunchiligida, o'lim jazosi faqat muntazam tuzilgan sudning yigirma uchta malakali a'zolaridan iborat hukmi bilan chiqarilishi mumkin. Kamida ikkita malakali guvohning ushbu jinoyatga oid eng ishonchli va ishonchli guvohliklari bo'lishi kerak, ular shuningdek, aybdorning jinoyati va uning loyihasi oqibatlari to'g'risida oldindan ogohlantirilishini tasdiqlashi kerak.^[7] Aybdor voyaga etgan va aqli raso shaxs bo'lishi kerak va jinoyat aybdorning ixtiyori bilan va boshqalarning yordamisiz sodir etilganligi isbotlanishi kerak.

Hukm chiqarilgan kuni mahkum ijro etilishga yuboriladi. The Tavrot qonuni (Levilar 19:18) "Siz qo'shningizni o'zingiz kabi sev" deb buyurgan; va ravvinlar bu muhabbatni hayotdagi ijtimoiy munosabatlar chegaralaridan tashqariga chiqarish kerak va hatto "gunohkor bo'lsa-da, baribir sizning ukangiz" bo'lgan mahkumga nisbatan qo'llanilishi kerak (Maq. 3:15; Sanh. 44a): "Sevgi ruhi unga munosib o'lim bilan namoyon bo'lishi kerak" (Sanh. 45a, 52a). Tavrot qonunida (Qonun. 24:16) "" Ota-onalar farzandlari uchun o'ldirilmaydi, farzandlar ota-onalar uchun o'ldirilmaydi; har bir inson o'z gunohlari uchun o'ldiriladi "va Rabbin huquqshunosligi ushbu tamoyilga ham, ruhda ham amal qiladi. Hukmda mahkumning mollari musodara qilinmaydi; shaxsning mol-mulki ularning qonuniy merosxo'rlariga tushadi.

The Talmud yahudiy jinoyatchilariga o'lim jazosini qo'llashni cheklaydi:

• A) jinoyat sodir etishda, ikkita guvoh ishtirokida jinoyat sodir etmaslik to'g'risida ogohlantirildi (va faqat qat'iy standartlar ro'yxatiga javob beradigan shaxslar maqbul guvoh hisoblanadi); va
• B) ogohlantirilib, xuddi shu ikki guvohning oldida jinoyat sodir etgan.^[14]

Nazariy jihatdan toshbo'ron qilish qanday amalga oshirilishini Talmudiya usuli olomonni toshbo'ron qilishdan farq qiladi. Yahudiyning so'zlariga ko'ra og'zaki qonun, yahudiy jinoyatchisi Buyuk oldida aybdor deb topilganidan keyin Oliy Kengash, ikkita haqiqiy guvoh va hukm qilingan jinoyatchi ikki qavatli bino chetiga borishadi. U erdan ikkita guvoh jinoyatchini ikki qavatli bino tomidan itarish kerak. Ikki qavatli balandlik tanlangan, chunki bu balandlik Talmud tomonidan tez va og'riqsiz halokatga olib keladi, ammo tanasi parchalanib ketadigan darajada baland emas.^[15] Jinoyatchi yiqilganidan so'ng, ikkita guvoh jinoyatchiga katta toshni tashlashi kerak - ikkala guvohdan ham toshni birga ko'tarishlari kerak. Agar jinoyatchi qulab tushishidan yoki katta toshni ezishidan o'lmagan bo'lsa, unda atrofdagi har qanday odam tezda uni topishi mumkin bo'lgan toshlar bilan toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirishi kerak.

Islom

Zinokor ayolni toshbo'ron qilish, qo'lyozma uchun rasm 1001 kecha tomonidan Abu'l Hasan G'affariy yoki uning atelyesi. Tehron, 1853–1857.

Iblisni toshbo'ron qilish, 2006 Haj

Islomiy shariat qonunlari ga asoslangan Qur'on va hadis asosiy manbalar sifatida.

Qur'on

Qur'onning matnida toshbo'ron qilish o'lim jazosining bir turi sifatida qayd etilmagan. Biroq, islom ulamolari an'anaviy ravishda Qur'on oyati ("Agar erkak yoki ayol zino qilsa, ularni toshga torting ...") degan oyat bor deb taxmin qilishgan.bekor qilindi "qonuniy kuchini saqlab qolgan holda matnli ravishda.^[16]

Qur'onning mavjud matnida, turmush qurmaganlar uchun jazo zinokor (Zani) yoki kattalar uchun (Zaniya) qamchilash:

"Zinokorlik va zino qilishda aybdor bo'lgan ayol va erkak - har birini yuzdan urib qamchi. Agar Allohga va oxirat kuniga iymon keltirsangiz, Alloh belgilagan masalada sizni rahm-shafqat qilmasin. Mo'minlardan bir guruh ularning azobiga guvohdirlar ».

— Qur'on 24: 2 ^[17]

"Va pokiza ayollarni ayblayotganlar, keyin to'rtta guvohni olib kelmaydilar, ularni qamchilaydilar va sakson darra urdilar va ulardan hech qachon dalil keltirmadilar. Ana o'shalar fosiqlardir. Magar bundan keyin tavba qilganlar va amal qilganlar bundan mustasno." Albatta, Alloh mag'firatli va rahmlidir ".

— Qur'on 24:4-5 ^[18]

Hadis

Toshbo'ron qilish Sunnat asosan Tavrotdagi yahudiylarning toshbo'ron qilish qoidalariga amal qiladi. Bir nechta hadislarda Muhammadga turmush qurganni toshbo'ron qilishga buyruq bergani haqida aytilgan^{[tekshirib bo'lmadi ]} Yahudiy erkak va turmush qurgan^{[tekshirib bo'lmadi ]} ayol bilan maslahatlashganidan keyin noqonuniy jinsiy harakatni sodir etgan ayol Tavrot.^[19]

Ibn Umar roziyallohu anhudan rivoyat qilinadi: Yahudiy va yahudiy ayol Payg'ambarimiz huzuriga noqonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lganlikda ayblanib keltirildi. Payg'ambar yahudiylardan so'radi: "Siz (odatda) ular bilan nima qilasiz?" Ular: "Biz ularning yuzlarini qoraytiramiz va ularni sharmanda qilamiz", dedilar. U: "Agar rostgo'y bo'lsangiz, Tavrotni keltiring va o'qing", dedi. Ular (olib kelib) kelib, bir ko'zli odamdan tilovat qilishni iltimos qildilar. U qo'lini qo'ygan qismiga yetguncha qiroat qildi. Payg'ambarimiz: "Qo'lingni ko'tar!" U qo'lini ko'tarib qaradi, mana Ar-Rajm oyati paydo bo'ldi (zinokorlarni toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirish). Keyin u: "Ey Muhammad! Ularni toshbo'ron qilish kerak, lekin biz bu Ilohiy Qonunni o'zaro yashiramiz", dedi. Keyin Payg'ambar ikki gunohkorni toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirishni buyurdilar va ular toshbo'ron qilindi va men ayolni toshlardan himoya qilgan erkakni ko'rdim.

— 9-jild, 93-kitob, 633-raqam: (Qarang: 809-hadis, 8-jild)

Abdulloh ibn Umar rivoyat qiladirlar: Yahudiylar Rasulullohning oldilariga kelib, ular orasidan bir erkak va bir ayol noqonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lganliklarini aytdilar. Rasululloh ularga: "Ar-Rajm (toshbo'ron qilish) ning qonuniy jazosi to'g'risida Tavrotda (eski Ahdda) nimani topdingiz?" Dedi. Ular javob berishdi: (Ammo) biz ularning jinoyati haqida e'lon qilamiz va ularni uramiz. "Abdulloh ibn Salom:" Siz yolg'on gapirayapsiz; Tavrotda Rajmning buyrug'i bor. "Ular Tavrotni olib kelib ochdilar va ulardan biri Rajm oyatiga qo'lini tekkizdi va undan oldingi va unga amal qilgan oyatlarni o'qidi. Abdulloh ibn Salom unga:" Qo'lingni ko'tar ", dedi. Uning qo'lini ko'tarib, Rajm oyati yozilgan edi. Ular: "Muhammad haqiqatni aytdi; Tavrotda Rajm oyati bor. Keyin Payg'ambarimiz ikkalasini ham toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirishni buyurdilar. (Abdulloh ibn Umar aytdilar: "Men erkakni ayolni toshlardan saqlash uchun ayolga suyanib turganini ko'rdim".

— 4-jild, 56-kitob, 829-son:

Yana bir nechtasida badaviy odamni urishadi, yahudiy ayolni nikohdan tashqari jinsiy aloqada bo'lganligi uchun toshbo'ron qilishadi.^[20]

Toshbo'ron qilish ko'p hadislarda jazo sifatida tasvirlangan.^[21][22][23] Shia va Sunniy hadislar to'plamlari bir-biridan farq qiladi, chunki ikki an'ana bo'yicha olimlar rivoyat qiluvchilar va etkazuvchilarning ishonchliligi to'g'risida farq qiladilar Imomah. Toshbo'ron qilish bilan bog'liq shialar so'zlarini topish mumkin Kitob al-Kafi,^[24] toshbo'ron qilish bilan bog'liq sunniy so'zlarni topish mumkin Sahihi Buxoriy va Sahihi Muslim.^[25] Ushbu hadislarga asoslanib, ba'zi musulmon mamlakatlarida turmush qurgan zinokorlar o'lim jazosiga mahkum etiladi, turmush qurmaganlar o'rtasida esa o'zaro kelishilgan jinsiy aloqada bo'lish 100 zarba beradi.

Hadislar toshbo'ron qilishni jazo ostida ta'riflang shariat.^[22][23][26] Boshqalarda toshbo'ron qilish erkak va ayol o'rtasidagi noqonuniy jinsiy aloqa uchun jazo sifatida belgilanadi,^[27] qul ayol, shuningdek har qanday gomoseksual munosabatlarga aloqador har qanday odam tomonidan noqonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lish.^[22][28] Ba'zilarida sunnat, toshbo'ron qilish usuli, avval chuqur qazish va qisman odamning pastki yarmini ko'mish orqali tasvirlangan.^[29][30]

Rivoyat qilgan Abu Hurayra va Zayd bin Xolid al-Juhani: Bir badaviy Allohning Rasuliga kelib: "Ey Allohning Rasuli! Sizdan Allohdan so'rayman, mening ishimni Allohning qonunlariga binoan hukm qilishingizni". Undan ko'ra ko'proq o'rganilgan raqibi: "Ha, oramizda Allohning qonunlariga binoan hukm qiling va menga gapirishimga ijozat bering", dedi. Allohning Rasuli: "Gapir", dedi. U (ya'ni, badaviy yoki boshqa odam): "Mening o'g'lim bu odam uchun ishchi bo'lib ishlagan va u rafiqasi bilan noqonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lgan. Odamlar menga o'g'lim majburiy bo'lganligini aytishdi. tosh otib o'ldiringlar, buning o'rniga o'g'limni yuz qo'y va bir cho'rini to'lab berib fido qildim, keyin men bu haqda din ulamolaridan so'radim, ular menga o'g'lim yuz kaltak urib, surgun qilinishi kerakligini xabar berishdi. bir yil davomida va shu ayolning (erkakning) xotinini toshbo'ron qilish kerak ". Rasululloh aytdilar: "Jonim qo'lida bo'lgan Zotga qasamki, men sizning orangizda Allohning qonunlariga binoan hukm chiqaraman. Qul va qo'ylar sizga qaytarib beriladi, o'g'lingiz yuz kaltak olib, surgun qilinadi. bir yil. Siz, Unais, bu (erkak) ning xotiniga boring va agar u o'z aybiga iqror bo'lsa, uni o'ldiring. " Unais ertasi kuni ertalab o'sha ayolning oldiga bordi va u o'zini tan oldi. Allohning Rasuli uni toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirishni buyurdi.

— Sahih al-Buxoriy, 3:50:885 Shuningdek qarang Sahih al-Buxoriy, 3:49:860, 8:82:842, 9:89:303

Ash-Shayboniy rivoyat qiladi: Men Abdulloh ibn Abi Aufadan bu haqda so'radim Rajam (noqonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lganligi uchun birovni toshbo'ron qilish). U: "Payg'ambar Rajam jazosini bajardilar" deb javob berdi, men: "Nur surasi nozil bo'lishidan oldinmi yoki keyinmi?" - deb so'radim. U javob berdi: "Bilmayman".

— Sahih al-Buxoriy, 8:82:824 Shuningdek qarang Sahih al-Buxoriy, 8:82:809 9:92:432

Oysha xabar bergan: Abd b. Zam'a aytdi: Rasululloh, u mening akam, chunki u otamning karavotida qulidan tug'ilgan. Rasululloh uning o'xshashligiga qarab, Utba bilan aniq o'xshashlikni topdilar. (Ammo) u: "U seniki Abd (Zam'a), chunki bola yotog'ida tug'ilgan kishiga berilishi va zino qilganga tosh otishi kerak" dedi.

— Sahihi Muslim, 8:3435 Shuningdek qarang Sahihi Muslim, 17:4216, 17:4191, 17:4212

Islom fiqhi (fiqh)

Toshbo'ron qilish (arabcha: rjm Rajm, ba'zan shunday yozilgan Rajam) dastlabki, o'rta asrlar va zamonaviy davrdagi islom huquqshunosligi matnlarida keng muhokama qilingan (fiqh ).^[31]

Ga binoan an'anaviy huquqshunoslik, zinaga zino (turmush qurganlar), zino (turmush qurmaganlar), fohishabozlik, hayvonot va zo'rlash.^[32] Gomoseksual jinsiy aloqani zina sifatida tasnifi qarab farq qiladi yuridik maktab.^[33] Qur'onda zinani toshbo'ron qilish haqida zikr qilinmagan bo'lsa-da, barcha an'anaviy huquqshunoslik maktablari quyidagilar asosida kelishib oldilar. hadis agar jinoyat sodir etgan bo'lsa, toshbo'ron qilish bilan jazolanishi kerak muhsan (voyaga etgan, erkin, musulmon va turmush qurgan), ba'zilari ushbu jazoni ba'zi boshqa holatlarga va boshqa stsenariylarda belgilangan engilroq jazo choralariga ega.^[33][32] Jinoyatchilar o'z xohish-irodalari bilan harakat qilgan bo'lishlari kerak.^[33] An'anaviy huquqshunoslikka ko'ra, zina to'rtta guvohning haqiqiy kirib borganligi to'g'risidagi guvohligi bilan tasdiqlanishi kerak yoki to'rt marta takrorlangan va keyinroq qaytarib olinmagan iqror.^[33][32] The Maliki yuridik maktab, shuningdek, turmush qurmagan ayolning homiladorligini dalil sifatida ishlatishga imkon beradi, ammo jazoning oldini olish uchun bir qator qonuniy "ko'rinishlar" yordam berishi mumkin (shubuhat), masalan, yaroqsiz nikoh shartnomasining mavjudligi.^[33] Ushbu talablar zinani amalda isbotlashni deyarli imkonsiz qildi.^[32] Zo'rlash odatiy ravishda turli daliliy qoidalardan foydalangan holda turli xil huquqiy toifalar bo'yicha sudga tortilgan.^[34] Kerakli guvohlarni ko'rsatmasdan zinani ayblash deyiladi qadf (الlqذf), bu o'zi a had jinoyat^[35][36][37] Agar ular tavba qilmasalar va islohot qilmasalar, 80 ta kaltak jazosiga loyiq va guvoh sifatida qabul qilinishi mumkin emas.

Islom tushunchasiga ko'ra Li'an, o'z xotinini boshqa hech qanday guvohlarsiz ayblagan odamning guvohligi, agar u yolg'on gapirayotgan bo'lsa, Xudoning hukmiga duchor bo'lish uchun beshinchi qasam bilan haqiqatni aytayotganiga Xudo bilan to'rt marta qasam ichsa, qabul qilinishi mumkin. Bunday holatda, agar uning xotini qarshi qasam ichsa, hech qanday jazo qo'llanilmaydi.^[38][39]

Keng tarqalgan Islomiy sharhlardan biri, Al-Muvatta tomonidan Molik ibn Anas, bahsli homiladorlik zino uchun etarli dalil ekanligini va ayol toshbo'ron qilinib o'ldirilishi kerakligini ta'kidlang.^[40][41]

Hanafiy

Hanafiy huquqshunoslar ayblanuvchi a bo'lishi kerak deb hisobladilar muhsan diniy taqiqlangan jinsiy aloqa paytida, jazolanishi kerak Rajm (toshbo'ron qilish).^[42] A Muhsan bu nikoh hali ham mavjudligidan qat'i nazar, ilgari nikohda qonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lgan voyaga etgan, erkin, musulmondir.^[40] Boshqacha qilib aytganda, toshbo'ron qilish umrida hech qachon turmush qurmagan kishiga taalluqli emas (faqat jamoat joylarida urish bu kabi holatlarda majburiy jazo hisoblanadi).^[42]

Dalil sifatida hanafiy fiqhi quyidagilarni qabul qiladi: o'zini tan olish yoki to'rt erkak guvohning guvohligi (ayol guvoh qabul qilinishi mumkin emas).^[42] Hanafiylik islom huquqi adabiyotlarida toshbo'ron qilishning ikki turi ko'rsatilgan.^[42] Biri, jazo asoslanganda bayyinayoki aniq dalillar (to'rt erkak guvoh). Bunday holda, odam bog'lab qo'yilgan, chuqur qazilgan, bog'lab qo'yilgan va u qochib ketmasligi uchun chuqurning ichiga qisman ko'milgan, keyin ommaviy toshbo'ron qilish jazosi ijro etiladi.^[42] Toshbo'ron qilishga hukm qilingan ayolni qisman ko'kragiga qadar ko'mish kerak.^[43] Birinchi toshlar guvohlar va ayblovchi tomonidan tashlanadi, bundan keyin qatnashgan musulmonlar jamoati Abū anīfa va boshqa hanafiy ulamolari.^[42] Toshbo'ron qilishning ikkinchi turida, jazo o'zini tan olishga asoslangan bo'lsa, toshbo'ron qilish chuqurni qazmasdan yoki odamni qisman ko'mmasdan amalga oshirilishi kerak. Bu holda qadi (qozi) birinchi toshni boshqa musulmonlar qo'shilishidan oldin tashlashi kerak. Bundan tashqari, agar u qochib ketsa, u odamning ketishiga ruxsat beriladi.^[42]

Hanafiy ulamolari toshning qaysi hajmida ishlatilishini aniqlab berishgan Rajm, qo'lning kattaligi bo'lishi. Bu juda tez o'limga olib kelishi uchun juda katta bo'lmasligi kerak va faqat og'riqni kamaytirish uchun juda kichik bo'lmasligi kerak.^[42]

Hanafiylar An'anaga ko'ra guvohlar sudlanganlik guvohlar tomonidan chiqarilgan taqdirda guvohlar birinchi toshlarni tashlashi kerak va qadi sud hukmi e'tirof etilgan taqdirda birinchi toshlarni tashlashi shart.^[44]

Shofiy

The Shafii maktab adabiyotida hanafiylar singari islom huquqi tahlili mavjud. Biroq, har qanday holatda birinchi toshni imom yoki uning o'rinbosari tashlashi, so'ngra toshbo'ron qilingan jazoning guvohi bo'lgan musulmon jamoati tomonidan tavsiya etiladi.^[43]

Xanbali

Xanbali huquqshunos Ibn Qudama "Musulmon huquqshunoslar toshbo'ron qilib o'ldirish - bu turmush qurgan zinokor va zinokor ayol uchun belgilangan jazo ekanligi to'g'risida bir ovozdan fikr bildirmoqdalar. Jazo ko'plab urf-odatlarda qayd etilgan va Muhammadning amallari uni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi haqiqiy manba hisoblanadi. Bu fikr bundan tashqari barcha sahobalar, vorislar va boshqa musulmon olimlari tomonidan o'tkaziladi Xarijitlar."^[45]

Hanbaliy islom qonunchiligi har qanday o'zaro kelishilgan, ammo diniy noqonuniy jinsiy aloqalar bilan jazolanadi Rajm.^[46]

Maliki

Maliki huquqshunoslik maktabi (fiqh ) toshbo'ron qilish - turmush qurgan yoki beva ayol tomonidan noqonuniy jinsiy aloqada bo'lganligi, shuningdek, erkaklar o'rtasida har qanday turdagi gomoseksual munosabatlar uchun zarur bo'lgan jazo.^[22] Molik ibn Anas Malikiy fiqhiga asos solgan, turmush qurmagan ayolda homiladorlikni buning aniq isboti deb hisoblagan zina. Shuningdek, u ziddiyatli homiladorlik zinoning dalilidir va agar u homilador bo'lmasa, turmushga chiqmagan erkak tomonidan homilador bo'lgan har qanday musulmon ayolni toshbo'ron qilish kerak.^[40][41] Keyinchalik Maliki musulmon ulamolari "uxlab yotgan embrion" tushunchasini tan oldilar, u erda ajrashgan ayol toshsizlanish jazosidan qochib qutulishi mumkin edi, agar u turmushga chiqmasa va ajrashganidan keyin besh yil ichida har qanday vaqtda homilador bo'lib qolsa va u avvalgi eri tomonidan singdirilgan bo'lsa. ammo embrion besh yil davomida uxlab qoldi.^[47]

Tarix

Yaqin Sharqda toshbo'ron qilish qadimgi zamonlardan buyon og'ir gunohlar uchun o'lim jazosi sifatida tasdiqlangan.^[48] Qadimgi Isroilda toshbo'ron qilish o'lim jazosining "taxminiy usuli" bo'lgan.^[49] Bu Eski Ahdda kufrlik, butparastlik va boshqa jinoyatlar uchun jazo sifatida tasdiqlangan bo'lib, unda butun jamoat shahar tashqarisida jinoyatchini toshbo'ron qilgan.^[50] O'lim Stiven, Yangi Ahdda aytilganidek (Havoriylar 7:58) ham shu tarzda tashkil qilingan. Pol toshbo'ron qilingan va o'lik holda qoldirilgan Lista (Havoriylar 14:19). Jozefus va Evseviy xabar bering Farziylar toshbo'ron qilingan Yoqub, Isoning ukasi, uni cho'qqisidan uloqtirgandan keyin Ma'bad dan biroz oldin Quddusning qulashi milodiy 70 yilda. Rim hukumati yahudiy jamoalariga diniy qonunlarni buzganlarga o'lim jazosini qo'llashga ruxsat berganmi yoki bu epizodlar linchalashning bir shakli bo'lganmi, degan savolga tarixchilar qo'shilmaydilar.^[50] Davomida Kechki antik davr, o'lim jazosini umuman qo'llamaslik tendentsiyasi yahudiy sudlarida ustunlik qildi.^[51] O'rta asr yahudiy sudlari o'lim jazosini chiqarish va ijro etish vakolatiga ega bo'lgan taqdirda, qonun bilan belgilab qo'yilgan jazo shart bo'lmagan taqdirda ham, ular og'ir jinoyatlar uchun buni davom ettirdilar va odatda toshbo'ron qilishdan bosh tortdilar.^[49]

Zamonamizgacha bo'lgan "kamdan-kam uchraydigan va izolyatsiya qilingan" holatlardan tashqari, so'nggi bir necha holatlardan tashqari toshbo'ron qilish to'g'risida tarixiy ma'lumot yo'q. zina Islom dunyosida qonuniy ravishda amalga oshirilmoqda.^[32] Zamonaviy davrda shariat asosidagi jinoyat qonunlari Evropa modellaridan ilhomlangan nizomlar bilan keng almashtirildi.^[52][53] Biroq, Islomiy tiklanish 20-asr oxirlarida paydo bo'lishiga olib keldi Islomchi toshni qayta tiklash va boshqalarni o'z ichiga olgan shariatni to'liq amalga oshirishga chaqiruvchi harakatlar xud jazolar.^[52][54] Ushbu harakatlarning avj olishiga bir qator omillar ta'sir ko'rsatdi, jumladan avtoritar dunyoviy rejimlar o'z fuqarolarining umidlarini qondira olmaganligi va musulmon aholining ijtimoiy-siyosiy tashkilotning madaniy jihatdan haqiqiyroq shakllariga qaytish istagi kabi. G'arbning madaniy bosqini.^[55][56] Shariat asosidagi huquqiy islohotlar tarafdorlari "G'arb qonunchiligi" rivojlanish va adolatni ta'minlash uchun imkoniyatga ega ekanligini his qildilar va islom qonunlariga qaytish yanada yaxshi natijalar berishiga umid qilishdi. Shuningdek, ular qattiq jazo choralarining qo'llanilishi jinoyatchilik va ijtimoiy muammolarga chek qo'yadi, deb umid qilishdi.^[57]

Amalda, islomlashtirish kampaniyalari konservativ musulmon identifikatsiyasi, xususan ayollar bilan bog'liq bo'lgan bir nechta ko'zga ko'ringan muammolarga qaratilgan hijob va xud ba'zi jinoyatlar uchun belgilangan jinoiy jazolar (qamchilash, toshbo'ron qilish va amputatsiya qilish).^[55] Ko'plab islomchilar uchun, xud jazolar ilohiy shariatning asosini tashkil etadi, chunki ular inson tarjimonlari tomonidan emas, balki Muqaddas Bitik maktubida ko'rsatilgan. Zamonaviy islomchilar ko'pincha, hech bo'lmaganda nazariy jihatdan, klassik huquqshunoslar tomonidan qo'llanilishini cheklash uchun ishlab chiqilgan qat'iy protsessual cheklovlarni rad etishgan.^[52] Bir qator mamlakatlar, jumladan Eron, Pokiston, Sudan va ba'zi Nigeriya shtatlari xudud qoidalarini o'zlarining jinoiy adliya tizimlariga kiritdilar, ammo bu avvalgi g'arbiy islohotlarning asosiy ta'sirini saqlab qoldi.^[52][54] Amalda, bu o'zgarishlar asosan ramziy ma'noga ega edi va yangi qoidalar amalga oshirilayotganligini namoyish qilish uchun sudga berilgan ba'zi holatlardan tashqari, hudud jazolari bekor qilinishga, ba'zan esa mahalliy siyosiy iqlimga qarab qayta tiklanishga moyil edi.^[52][53] Sudan va Eron oliy sudlari toshbo'ron qilish yoki amputatsiya qilish to'g'risidagi hukmlarni kamdan-kam ma'qullashgan va Pokiston va Nigeriyaning oliy sudlari hech qachon bunday qilmagan.^[53]

Yaqinda o'tkazilgan islohotlar doirasida toshbo'ron qilish davlat qonunchiligiga kiritilgan boshqa mamlakatlardan farqli o'laroq, Saudiya Arabistoni hech qachon jinoyat kodeksini qabul qilmagan va saudiyalik sudyalar hanuzgacha an'anaviy tarzda Xanbali huquqshunoslik.^[58] Saudiya Arabistonida o'lim jazosi deyarli faqat sud qarorining diskret tizimi asosida e'lon qilinadi (tazir ) shariat buyurganidan ko'ra (xud) klassik tamoyilga amal qilgan holda, jazo xud iloji bo'lsa, jazolardan qochish kerak.^[59]

Zamonaviy huquqiy maqom va foydalanish

2010 yil sentyabr oyidan boshlab toshbo'ron qilish ba'zi mamlakatlarning qonunchiliklariga kiritilgan jazo, jumladan Saudiya Arabistoni, Sudan, Eron, Somali, Yaman va Nigeriyaning shimoliy qismidagi asosan musulmon davlatlar uchun jazo sifatida. Zina ("turmush qurganlar tomonidan zino qilish").^[60][61][62]

2013 yil holatiga ko'ra ommaviy toshbo'ron qilish sud yoki suddan tashqari jazo turi bo'lgan mamlakatlarni ko'rsatadigan xarita.^[1]

Afg'oniston

Toshbo'ron qilish noqonuniy hisoblanadi Afg'oniston, lekin ba'zida qabila rahbarlari tomonidan amalga oshiriladi^{[2][63][64][65]} va Tolibon isyonchilari mamlakatning ayrim hududlarida sudsiz.^{[64][65][66][67]} Oldin Tolibon hukumati, Afg'onistonning aksariyat hududlari, poytaxtdan tashqari, Kobul, sarkardalar yoki qabila rahbarlari tomonidan nazorat qilingan. Afg'oniston huquq tizimi alohida jamoaning mahalliy madaniyati va uning rahbarlarining siyosiy yoki diniy mafkurasiga bog'liq edi. Toshbo'ron qilish qonunsiz hududlarda ham sodir bo'lgan, bu erda hushyorlar ushbu harakatni siyosiy maqsadlarda sodir etishgan. Toliblar hokimiyatni egallab olgandan so'ng, bu muayyan og'ir jinoyatlar uchun jazo turiga aylandi yoki zino. Tolibon hukumati qulaganidan keyin Karzay ma'muriyati toshbo'ron qilishni jazo sifatida ishlatishni nazarda tutmagan 1976 yilgi jinoyat kodeksini qayta ijro etdi. 2013 yilda, Adliya vazirligi zino uchun jazo sifatida ommaviy toshbo'ron qilishni taklif qildi.^[68] Biroq, hukumat ushbu taklif oshkor bo'lganidan va xalqaro norozilikni qo'zg'atgandan keyin orqaga chekinishi kerak edi.^[65] Afg'onistonda toshbo'ron qilish rasman taqiqlangan bo'lsa-da, bu jinoyat sifatida vaqti-vaqti bilan xabar berishni davom ettirmoqda.^{[66][69][70][71]}

Bruney

Bruney tomonidan e'lon qilingan yangi jazo kodeksiga binoan, 2019 yil 3 apreldan boshlab, gey jinsiy aloqada va zinoda aybdor deb topilgan har qanday musulmon shaxslar toshbo'ron qilinadi. Jazoga "bir guruh musulmonlar guvoh bo'ladi".^[72] Bruney rasmiy ravishda ommaviy toshbo'ron qilishni jazoning sud shakli sifatida qabul qilgan birinchi Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi mamlakatga aylandi.

5-may kuni Bruney Sultoni o'lim jazosiga amaldagi moratoriy (faoliyatni kechiktirish yoki to'xtatib qo'yish) Shariat Jinoyat kodeksiga taalluqli ekanligini tasdiqladi va Bruneyni Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Qiynoqlarga qarshi konvensiyasini (UNCAT) ratifikatsiya qilishga majbur qildi. ).

Indoneziya

2009 yil 14-sentabrda Acehning amaldagi qonunchilik kengashi turmush qurgan zinokorlarni toshbo'ron qilishga chaqiruvchi nizomni qabul qildi.^[73] Biroq, keyin hokim Irvandi Yusuf nizomni imzolashdan bosh tortdi va shu bilan uni qonuniy kuchga ega bo'lmagan qonunni va ba'zi fikrlarga ko'ra, hanuzgacha qonun sifatida saqlab qoldi qoralama, haqiqiy qonun o'rniga.^[74] 2013 yil mart oyida Aceh hukumati toshbo'ron qilish qoidasini o'zining yangi jinoyat kodeksining loyihasidan olib tashladi.^[75]

Eron

Eron sud hokimiyati toshbo'ron qilishga rasman 2002 yilda moratoriy qo'ygan; ammo, 2007 yilda Eron sud hokimiyati 10 yil oldin zino qilgani uchun sudlangan odam toshbo'ron qilinganini tasdiqladi. Qazvin viloyat.^[76] 2008 yilda sud idoralari parlamentga tasdiqlash uchun taqdim etilgan qonunchilikdagi kitoblardan jazoni olib tashlashga harakat qildilar.^[77] 2009 yilda Mashhadda ikki kishini toshbo'ron qilishgan, Razavi Xuroson viloyati zino qilganlik uchun jazo sifatida.^[78] 2013 yilda qabul qilingan o'zgartirilgan jinoyat kodeksida endi zino uchun jazo sifatida toshbo'ron qilishni belgilaydigan aniq til mavjud emas. Huquqiy ekspertlarning fikriga ko'ra, zino uchun jazo sifatida toshbo'ron qilish to'g'risidagi aniq ko'rsatma Eronning yangi Jinoyat kodeksidan olib tashlangan bo'lsa-da, toshbo'ron qilish mumkin bo'lgan jazo turi bo'lib qolmoqda, chunki Jinoyat kodeksi hanuzgacha ushbu ro'yxatda keltirilgan bo'lib, qachon ishlatilishi kerakligini ko'rsatmasdan va ruxsat beradi. asoslanadigan jazo fiqh tosh otish qoidalarini o'z ichiga olgan (an'anaviy islom huquqshunosligi).^[79][80] 2013 yilda Eron parlamenti Adliya komissiyasining vakili, Jinoyat kodeksida toshbo'ron qilish bundan buyon nazarda tutilmagan bo'lsa-da, jazo kodeksiga muvofiq tatbiq etiladigan shariat bo'yicha amaldagi jazo bo'lib qolishini tasdiqladi.^[79][81] Eronda eng taniqli holat toshbo'ron qilish edi Soraya Manutchehri 1986 yilda.

Usullari

Ning 2008 yilgi versiyasida Islom Jinoyat kodeksi Eron zino uchun toshbo'ron qilish jazosi qanday amalga oshirilishini batafsil bayon qildi va hatto ba'zi sharoitlarda bu jazo uning qurbonlariga o'limdan saqlanishiga imkon berishi mumkinligiga ishora qildi:^[82]

102-modda. Zinokor erkak beligacha, zinokor ayol esa ko'kragiga yaqin bo'lgan ariqqa ko'miladi va keyin toshbo'ron qilinadi.

103-modda. Agar toshbo'ron qilish jazosiga hukm qilingan shaxs dafn etilgan xandaqdan qochib qutulgan bo'lsa, agar zino guvohlik bilan isbotlansa, u holda jazo uchun qaytarib beriladi, ammo o'zlarining iqrorlari bilan isbotlangan bo'lsa, ular qaytarilmaydi. .^[82]

104-modda - toshbo'ron qilishda ishlatiladigan toshning kattaligi mahkumni bir yoki ikkita otish bilan o'ldirish uchun juda katta bo'lmasligi va shu bilan birga tosh deb atash uchun juda kichik bo'lmasligi kerak.^[82]

Ishning tafsilotlariga qarab toshbo'ron qilish masalani nazorat qiluvchi sudya yoki zinoning asl guvohlaridan biri tomonidan boshlanishi mumkin.^[82] Certain religious procedures may also need to be followed both before and after the implementation of a stoning execution, such as wrapping the person being stoned in traditional burial dress before the procedure.^[83]

The method of stoning set out in the 2008 code was similar to that in a 1999 version of Iran's penal code.^[84] Iran revised its penal code in 2013. The new code does not include the above passages, but does include stoning as a had punishment.^[80] For example, Book I, Part III, Chapter 5, Article 132 of the new Islamic Penal Code (IPC) of 2013 in the Islamic Republic of Iran states, "If a man and a woman commit zina together more than one time, if the death penalty and flogging or stoning and flogging are imposed, only the death penalty or stoning, whichever is applicable, shall be executed".^[85] Book 2, Part II, Chapter 1, Article 225 of the Iran's IPC released in 2013 states, "the hadd punishment for zina of a man and a woman who meet the conditions of ihsan shall be stoning to death".^[85][86]

Iroq

2007 yilda, Du'a Khalil Aswad, a Yazidiy girl, was stoned by her fellow tribesmen in northern Iroq for dating a Muslim boy.^[87]

In 2012 at least 14 youths were stoned to death in Baghdad, apparently as part of a Shi'ite militant campaign against Western-style "emo " fashion.^[88]

An Iraqi man was stoned to death by IS, in August 2014, in the northern city of Mosul after one Sunni Islamic court sentenced him to die for the crime of adultery.^[89]

Nigeriya

Since the sharia legal system was introduced in the predominantly Muslim north of Nigeriya in 2000, more than a dozen Nigerian Muslims have been sentenced to death by stoning for sexual offences ranging from adultery to homosexuality. However, none of these sentences has actually been carried out. They have either been thrown out on appeal, commuted to prison terms or left unenforced, in part as a result of pressure from human rights groups.^{[90][91][92][93]}

Pokiston

Qismi sifatida Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization measures, stoning to death (rajm ) at a public place was introduced into law via the 1979 Xudo farmonlari as punishment for adultery (zina) and rape (zina-bil-jabr) when committed by a married person.^[94] However, stoning has never been officially utilized since the law came into effect and all judicial executions occur by hanging.^[95] The first conviction and sentence of stoning (of Fehmida and Allah-Bakhsh) in September 1981 was overturned under national and international pressure. A conviction for adultery of Safia Bibi, a 13-year-old blind girl who alleged that she was raped by her employer and his son, was reversed and the conviction was set aside on appeal after bitter public criticism. Another conviction for adultery and sentence of stoning (of Shahida Parveen and Muhammad Sarwar) in early 1988 sparked outrage and led to a retrial and acquittal by the Federal Sharia Court. In this case the trial court took the view that notice of divorce by Shahida's former husband, Khushi Muhammad, should have been given to the Chairman of the local council, as stipulated under Section-7(3) of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961. This section states that any man who divorces his wife must register it with the Union Council. Otherwise, the court concluded that the divorce stood invalidated and the couple became liable to conviction under the Adultery ordinance. In 2006, the ordinances providing for stoning in the case of adultery or rape were legislatively demoted from overriding status.^[96]

Extrajudicial stonings in Pakistan have been known to happen in recent times. In March 2013, Pakistani soldier Anwar Din, stationed in Parachinar, was publicly stoned to death for allegedly having a love affair with a girl from a village in the country's north western Kurram agentligi.^[97] On 11 July 2013, Arifa Bibi, a young mother of two, was sentenced by a tribal court in Dera G'ozixon tumani, yilda Panjob, to be stoned to death for possessing a cell phone. Members of her family were ordered to execute her sentence and her body was buried in the desert far away from her village.^[2][98]

In February 2014, a couple in a remote area of Belujiston province was stoned to death after being accused of an adulterous relationship.^[99] On 27 May 2014, Farzana Parveen, a 25-year-old married woman who was three months pregnant, was killed by being attacked with batons and bricks by nearly 20 members of her family outside the high court of Lahor in front of "a crowd of onlookers" according to a statement by a police investigator. The assailants, who allegedly included her father and brothers, attacked Farzana and her husband Mohammad Iqbal with batons and bricks. Her father Mohammad Azeem, who was arrested for murder, reportedly called the murder an "honor killing" and said "I killed my daughter as she had insulted all of our family by marrying a man without our consent."^[100] The man whose second wife Farzana had become, Iqbal, told a news agency that he had strangled his previous wife in order to marry Farzana, and police said that he had been released for killing his first wife because a "compromise" had been reached with his family.^[101]

Saudiya Arabistoni

Legal stoning sentences have been reported in Saudiya Arabistoni.^[102][103] There were four cases of execution by stoning reported between 1981 and 1992.^[104]

Sudan

In May 2012, a Sudanese court convicted Intisar Sharif Abdallah of adultery and sentenced her to death; the charges were appealed and dropped two months later.^[105] In July 2012, a criminal court in Xartum, Sudan, sentenced 23-year-old Layla Ibrahim Issa Jumul to death by stoning for adultery.^[106] Xalqaro Amnistiya reported that she was denied legal counsel during the trial and was convicted only on the basis of her confession. The organization designated her a vijdon mahbusi, "held in detention solely for consensual sexual relations", and lobbied for her release.^[105] In September, Article 126 of the 1991 Sudan Criminal Law, which provided for death by stoning for apostasy, was amended to provide for death by hanging.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Somali

In October 2008, a girl, Aisha Ibrahim Duhulow, was buried up to her neck at a Somaliyalik football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people. The stoning occurred after she had allegedly pleaded guilty to adultery in a sharia court in Kismayo, a city that was controlled by Islomchi isyonchilar. According to the insurgents she had stated that she wanted sharia law to apply.^[107] However, other sources state that the victim had been crying, had begged for mercy and had to be forced into the hole before being buried up to her neck in the ground.^[108] Xalqaro Amnistiya later learned that the girl was in fact 13 years old and had been arrested by al-Shabab militia after she had reported being gang-raped by three men.^[109]

In September 2014, Somali al Shabaab militants stoned a woman to death, after she was declared guilty of adultery by an informal court.^[110]

Birlashgan Arab Amirliklari

Stoning is a legal form of judicial punishment in UAE. In 2006, an chet elga was sentenced to death by stoning for committing adultery.^[111] Between 2009 and 2013, several people were sentenced to death by stoning.^{[112][113][114]} In May 2014, an Asian housemaid was sentenced to death by stoning in Abu Dhabi.^{[115][116][117]}

IShID

Several adultery executions by stoning committed by IS have been reported in the autumn of 2014.^{[118][119][120]} The Islamic State's magazine, Dabiq, documented the stoning of a woman in Raqqa as a punishment for adultery.^{[121][yaxshiroq manba kerak ]}

In October 2014, IS released a video appearing to show a Syrian man stone his daughter to death for alleged adultery.^[120][122]

Ko'rishlar

Qo'llab-quvvatlash

Among Christians

The late American Calvinist and Christian Qayta qurish ruhoniy Rousas John (R. J.) Rushdoony, his son Mark and his son-in-law Gary North, supported the reinstatement of the Mosaic law's penal sanctions. Under such a system, the list of civil crimes which carried a death sentence by stoning would include gomoseksualizm, zino, qarindoshlar, lying about one's bokiralik, hayvonot, sehrgarlik, butparastlik yoki murtadlik, public kufr, false prophesying, o'g'irlash, zo'rlash, and bearing false witness in a capital case.^{[123][124][125][126]}

Among Muslims

A survey conducted by the Pyu tadqiqot markazi in 2013 found varying support in the global Muslim population for stoning as a punishment for adultery (sex between people where at least one person is married; when both participants are unmarried they get 100 lashes). Highest support for stoning is found in Muslims of the Middle East-North Africa region and South-Asian countries while generally less support is found in Muslims living in the Mediterranean and Central Asian countries. Support is consistently higher in Muslims who want Shariat to be the law of the land than in Muslims who do not want Sharia.^[127] Support for stoning in various countries is as follows:

South Asia:

Pokiston (86% in all Muslims, 89% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Afg'oniston (84% in all Muslims, 85% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Bangladesh (54% in all Muslims, 55% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land)^[127][128]

Middle East-North Africa:

Falastin hududlar (81% in all Muslims, 84% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Misr (80% in all Muslims, 81% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Iordaniya (65% in all Muslims, 67% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Iroq (57% in all Muslims, 58% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land)^[127][128]

Southeast Asia:

Malayziya (54% in all Muslims, 60% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Indoneziya (42% in all Muslims, 48% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Tailand (44% in all Muslims, 51% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land)^[127][128]

Sub-Saharan Africa:

Niger (70% in all Muslims), Jibuti (67%), Mali (58%), Senegal (58%), Gvineya-Bisau (54%), Tanzaniya (45%), Gana (42%), Kongo DR (39%), Kamerun (36%), Nigeriya (33%)^[127][128]

Central Asia:

Qirg'iziston (26% in all Muslims, 39% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Tojikiston (25% in all Muslims, 51% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Ozarbayjon (16%), kurka (9% in all Muslims, 29% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land)^[127][128]

Southern and Eastern Europe:

Rossiya (13% in all Muslims, 26% in Muslims who say sharia should be the law of the land), Kosovo (9% in all Muslims, 25% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Albaniya (6% in all Muslims, 25% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land), Bosniya (6% in all Muslims, 21% in Muslims who say Sharia should be the law of the land)^[127][128]

Places where substantial numbers of Muslims did not answer the survey's question or are undecided about whether they support stoning for adultery include Malaysia (19% of all Muslims), Kosovo (18%), Iraq (14%), Democratic Republic of the Congo (12%) and Tajikistan (10%).^[128]

Qarama-qarshilik

Stoning has been condemned by several human rights organizations. Some groups, such as Xalqaro Amnistiya^[129] va Human Rights Watch tashkiloti, oppose all capital punishment, including stoning. Other groups, such as RAWA (Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan ), or the International Committee against Stoning (ICAS), oppose stoning o'z-o'zidan as an especially cruel practice.

Specific sentences of stoning, such as the Amina Lawal case, have often generated international protest. Groups such as Human Rights Watch,^[130] while in sympathy with these protests, have raised a concern that the Western focus on stoning as an especially "exotic" or "barbaric" act distracts from what they view as the larger problems of capital punishment. They argue that the "more fundamental human rights issue in Nigeria is the dysfunctional justice system."

In Iran, the Stop Stoning Forever Campaign was formed by various women's rights activists after a man and a woman were stoned to death in Mashhad in May 2006. The campaign's main goal is to legally abolish stoning as a form of punishment for adultery in Iran.^[131]

Inson huquqlari

Stoning is condemned by human rights groups as a form of shafqatsiz va g'ayrioddiy jazo va qiynoq, and a serious violation of human rights.^[132][133]

Ayollarning huquqlari

Stoning has been condemned as a violation of ayollar huquqlari and a form of kamsitish ayollarga qarshi. Although stoning is also applied to men, the vast majority of the victims are reported to be women.^{[134][135][136]}According to the international group Women Living Under Muslim Laws stoning "is one of the most brutal forms of violence perpetrated against women in order to control and punish their sexuality and basic freedoms".^[137]

Amnesty International has argued that the reasons for which women suffer disproportionately from stoning include the fact that women are not treated equally and fairly by the courts; the fact that, being more likely to be savodsiz than men, women are more likely to sign confessions to crimes which they did not commit; and the fact that general discrimination against women in other life aspects leaves them at higher risk of convictions for adultery.^[138]

LGBT huquqlari

Stoning also targets homosexuals and others who have same-sex relations in certain jurisdictions. In Mauritania,^[1] northern Nigeria,^[139] Somalia,^[1] Bruney,^[72] and Yemen,^[1] the legal punishment for sodomiya is death by stoning.

Right to private life

Human rights organizations argue that many acts targeted by stoning should not be illegal in the first place, as outlawing them interferes with people's right to a private life. Amnesty International said that stoning deals with "acts which should never be criminalized in the first place, including consensual sexual relations between adults, and choosing one’s religion".^[132]

Misollar

The stoning of Saint Stephen (1863) by Gabriel-Jules Thomas

Qadimgi

• Palamedes of Greek mythology, according to some sources stoned to death as a traitor.
• Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, d. 100 BC, grandfather of later triumvir Markus Aemilius Lepidus
• Pancras of Taormina, about AD 40
• Yoqub Jeyms, in AD 62, after being condemned by the Oliy Kengash
• Ehtimol Avliyo Timo'tiy (by Hellenistic pagans), after AD 67
• Constantine-Silvanus, asoschisi Poliskiylar, stoned in 684 in Armaniston
• Chase (son of Ioube), Muslim Byzantine official of Arab origin, stoned in 915 at Athens
• Saint Eskil, Anglo-Saxon monk stoned to death by Swedish Vikings, about 1080
• Moctezuma II, 1520, last Aztec Emperor (according to Western accounts; whereas, according to Aztec accounts, the Spanish killed him)

Averted

• Ksenofon uning eslatib turadi Anabasis, 4th century BCE, that several people are accused and suggested stoned, but averted, including Xenophon himself

Zamonaviy

• Soraya Manutchehri, 1986, stoned to death in Iran after unconfirmed accusations of adultery
• Mahboubeh M. and Abbas H., at Behest-e Zahra cemetery, southern Tehron, Iran, 2006. The public was not invited to the stoning, and the incident was not reported to the media. However it was spread by word of mouth to a journalist and women's rights activist. The activist gathered information and further exposed the happening to the world. In response to this, several women's rights activists, lawyers and members of the Networks of Volunteers went on to form the Stop Stoning Forever campaign to stop stoning in Iran.
• Du’a Khalil Aswad, 2007, a 17-year-old stoned to death in Iroq
• Solange Medina, 2009, a 20-year-old stoned to death in Syudad Xuares, Chixuaxua, Meksika^[140]
• Gustavo Santoro, 2010, a small town mayor in Meksika believed to have been murdered by stoning^[141]
• Murray Seidman, 2011, a 70-year-old senior in Lansdowne, Pensilvaniya, yaqin Filadelfiya, stoned to death by 28-year-old John Thomas after allegedly making sexual advances towards the younger man. Thomas' defence is that he did it because the Old Testament says to kill homosexuals in certain situations.^[142] Thomas pled guilty and was sentenced to 20-40 years imprisonment. ^[143]

Averted

• Amina Lawal was sentenced to death by stoning in Nigeria in 2002 but freed on appeal.
• Sakineh Muhammadiy Ashtiani was sentenced to death by stoning in Iran in 2007, but the sentence is under review.
• Safiya Husseini was sentenced to death by stoning in Nigeria but freed on appeal.^[144]
• Shaheen Abdel Rahman in Fujeirah, United Arab Emirates in 2006^[145]
• Zoleykhah Kadkhoda in Iran^[146][147]

Muqaddas Kitob

In Tanax (Eski Ahd ):

• The son of an Israelite woman and an Egyptian man, for cursing God (Leviticus 24:10–23 )
• A man who gathered wood on Shanba (Raqamlar 15: 32-36 )
• Achan (Joshua 7 )
• Adoniram Shoh Raxabom 's tax man (1 Kings 12:18 )
• Naboth, (1 Kings 21 )
• Zakariyo ben Yoxayada, who denounced the people's disobedience to the commandments (2 Solnomalar 24: 20-21, perhaps also Matthew 23:35 )

In Yangi Ahd:

• Aziz Stiven, accused of blasphemy c. AD 31 (Acts 6:8–14, 7:58–60 ).
• Pavlus havoriy, stoned at Lista at the instigation of Jews. He was left for dead, but then revived. (Acts 14:19 )

Talmudda

• Yeshu the Nazarene "will be led out to be stoned" (Sanhedrin 43a)^[148]

Averted

In Tanax va Eski Ahd:

• Muso (Exodus 17:4 )
• Muso va Aaron (Numbers 14:6–10 )
• Dovud (1 Samuel 30:6 )

In Yangi Ahd:

• The Yuhanno xushxabari chapter 8 gives the story of Iso va zinodan olingan ayol, in which people wanted to stone the woman.
• Iso (John 8:59, John 10:31 )
• Kapitani Ma'bad and his officers feared that they might be stoned by the people of Jerusalem for preventing the Havoriylar from preaching about Jesus (Acts 5:26 )
• Pol va Barnabo, after provoking a division between believers and non-believers in Iconium (Acts 14:4 )

Adabiyotda

• Sherli Jekson "Lotereya " depicts an annual lottery in which one member of a small, isolated American community is ritually stoned to death as a sacrifice. It explores themes of gunohkorlik, man's inherent evil and the destructive nature of observing ancient, outdated rituals. "Uchun musiqiy videoSiz qo'rqqan odam "tomonidan Merilin Menson is based on the story.
• Robert A. Xaynlayn "s Begona yurtdagi musofir reaches its climax with a stoning execution.
• Freidoune Sahebjam 's 1990 book La Femme Lapidée is based on the story of a woman who was stoned to death in Iran in 1986. The book was the basis of the 2008 film, The Stoning of Soraya M..
• Simon Perry's All Who Came Before climaxes with a stoning as Barabbas enters Jerusalem.^[149]
• Princess: A true story of life behind the veil in Saudi Arabia tomonidan Jean Sasson describes a girl sentenced to death by stoning.
• In the 2003 novel Kite Runner tomonidan Xolid Xosseini, a couple are stoned to death at a soccer stadium in Afghanistan.
• In the 2008 novel "Qorong'i o'rmon "tomonidan Lyu Tsixin, Wallfacer Rey Diaz was stoned to death by his own people for putting the entire world in danger.

Kino va televidenieda

• A Stoning in Fulham County, 1988 – A made-for-TV movie surrounding the vigilante stoning in an American Amish jamiyat.^[150]
• Monty Pythonning Brayan hayoti presents a Jesus of Nazareth-era stoning in a humorous context, ending with a massive boulder being dropped on the Jewish official, not the victim. The film mentions that women are not allowed at stonings, yet almost all of the stone-throwers turn out to be women disguised as men.
• Shirley Jackson's "Lotereya " was made into a short (20 minute) film by Larry Yust in 1969 as part of an educational release for Encyclopædia Britannica's "Short Story Showcase".^[151]
• Film Kite Runner depicts the stoning of an adulteress by the Toliblar in a public stadium during a football match.
• Film Missiya Istanbul depicts the stoning of an adulteress in Kobul, by the fictional terrorist group Abu Nazir until it is interrupted by the protagonist Vikas Sagar.
• The Stoning of Soraya M., a 2008 film
• Zorba The Greek, a 1946 novel by Nikos Kazantzakis and 1964 movie with Anthony Quinn, has a grim stoning scene where the woman is rescued only to be stabbed at the scene.
• Usama (2003) by director Siddiq Barmak depicts a woman being buried in preparation for stoning.
• In one CSI: Miami 2011 episode a female college bully is murdered by lapidation.
• Yilda ledi Gaga 's music video for her song Judas, a scene depicts Gaga being stoned to death.
• Although Islamic law prescribes stoning for married adulterers, the television series Sleeper Cell, about an underground radical Islamist group, depicts a scene where a member is stoned for treason.
• In Spartacus: War of the Damned (2010–13), Season 3, Episode 2, a slave is stoned by the Roman public.
• Yilda Timbuktu (2014), a film about Islamist insurgents in Timbuktu, Mali, a man and woman are depicted buried up to the neck and stoned to death.

Shuningdek qarang

• Ishikozume (Yaponiya)
• Shab Qadar Incident
• Stoning of the Devil

Jismoniy shaxslar

• Malak Ghorbany
• Amina Lawal
• Stoning of Du'a Khalil Aswad

Adabiyotlar

Tashqi havolalar

• Toshbo'ron qilish to'g'risida tez-tez beriladigan savollar
• Toshbo'ron qilish va inson huquqlari
• Toshbo'ron qilish va Islom
• Kitob al-Xududdan ko'chirma (Islomda belgilangan jazolarga oid kitob)
• Khaleej Times (Birlashgan Arab Amirliklari: Fujayra Shariah sudi zino qilgani uchun odamni toshbo'ron qilishga o'ldirishni buyurdi - 2006 yil 11 iyun)
• Tosh otishga qarshi musulmonlar
• QuranicPath - toshbo'ron qilishga qarshi Qur'on
• 1991 yil Eronda o'limni toshbo'ron qilish videosi: WMV formati | RealPlayer
• Grafika: Toshbo'ron qilish anatomiyasi (National Post, 2010 yil 20-noyabr)
• Xalqaro Amnistiya-2008, "Eronda toshbo'ron qilishni to'xtatish kampaniyasi"