Afrikaning nam davri - African humid period - Wikipedia
The Afrikaning nam davri (AHP) - Afrikadagi iqlim davri Pleystotsen va Golotsen Afrikaning shimoliy qismi hozirgi kundan namroq bo'lgan geologik davrlar. Sahroi cho'lning katta qismini o'tlar, daraxtlar va ko'llar bilan qoplashiga o'zgarishlar sabab bo'ldi Yerning Quyosh atrofida aylanishi; o'simliklarning o'zgarishi va Sahara bu kuchaytirildi Afrika mussoni; va ortdi issiqxona gazlari, bu shuni anglatishi mumkin antropogen global isish natijasida Sahroi Kabir cho'lining qisqarishiga olib kelishi mumkin.
Oldingi paytida oxirgi muzlik maksimal, Sahro keng qamrovli edi qumtepa dalalar va asosan odamlar yashamas edi. U bugungi kunga qaraganda ancha kattaroq edi, ammo uning ko'llari va daryolari kabi Viktoriya ko'li va Oq Nil quruq yoki past darajada bo'lgan. Namlik davri taxminan 14,600–14,500 yil oldin oxirida boshlangan Geynrix voqeasi 1, bir vaqtning o'zida Bolling-Allerod isishi. Kabi daryolar va ko'llar Chad ko'li shakllangan yoki kengaytirilgan, muzliklar o'sdi Kilimanjaro tog'i va Sahro orqaga chekindi. Ikki katta quruq tebranishlar yuz berdi; davomida Yosh Dryas va qisqa 8,2 kiloyearday tadbir. Afrikaning nam davri bundan 6000-5000 yil oldin tugagan Piora tebranishi sovuq davr. Ba'zi dalillar 5500 yil oldin oxiriga ishora qilsa-da, Sahel, Arabiston va Sharqiy Afrika davrlari kabi bir necha bosqichlarda sodir bo'lgan ko'rinadi 4.2 kiloyear hodisa.
AHP Sahroi va Arab cho'llarining keng tarqalishiga olib keldi va Afrika madaniyatlariga, masalan, Fir'avn tsivilizatsiyasi. Ular shunday yashagan ovchilarni yig'uvchilar gacha qishloq xo'jaligi inqilobi va chorva mollari, echki va qo'ylar. Ular ketishdi arxeologik joylar va ulardan biri kabi asarlar dunyodagi eng qadimgi kemalar va tosh rasmlari kabilar Suzuvchilar g'ori va Akak tog'lari. Afrikadagi avvalgi nam davrlar Sahroning hozirgi yashashga yaroqsiz joylarida ushbu tosh rasmlari topilgandan keyin joylashtirilgan. Davr tugagandan so'ng, odamlar asta-sekin cho'ldan voz kechishdi, masalan, suv ta'minoti yanada xavfsiz bo'lgan mintaqalar foydasiga Nil vodiysi va Mesopotamiya, bu erda ular dastlabki murakkab jamiyatlarni vujudga keltirdilar.
Tadqiqot tarixi
Gerodot 440 yilda Miloddan avvalgi va Strabon 23 yilda Mil Sahroi sharifning mavjudligini muhokama qildi, garchi ularning ma'ruzalari dastlab ularning anekdot tabiati tufayli so'roq qilingan bo'lsa-da. 1850 yilda tadqiqotchi Geynrix Bart O'tgan ob-havoning o'zgarishi Sahroda kashfiyotdan keyin namlikning ko'payishiga olib kelishi mumkinligini muhokama qildi petrogliflar ichida Murzuq sahrosi Petrogliflarning keyingi kashfiyotlari cho'l kashfiyotchisiga olib keldi Laszló Almásy a tushunchasini kiritish Yashil Sahara 1930-yillarda. Keyinchalik 20-asrda Sahroi sharif, ko'llar borligi to'g'risida aniq dalillar[1][2] va undan yuqori Nil oqim darajasi tobora ko'proq xabar berildi[3] va bu tanilgan Golotsen Sahroda nam davrni namoyish etdi.[4]
Quyosh atrofidagi Yerning orbitasidagi o'zgarishlar mussonlarning kuchiga ta'sir qiladi degan fikr 1921 yilda ilgari surilgan edi va dastlabki tavsif qisman noto'g'ri bo'lsa-da, keyinchalik keng tarqalgan dalillar orbital iqlim nazorati aniqlandi.[1] Dastlab Afrikadagi nam davrlar muzlik bosqichlari bilan o'zaro bog'liq deb ishonilgan ("pluvial gipoteza ") oldin radiokarbonli uchrashuv keng tarqaldi.[5]
Afrikadagi nam davrning rivojlanishi va mavjudligi o'rganildi arxeologiya, iqlimni modellashtirish va paleoproksiyalar,[6] bilan arxeologik joylar,[7] qumtepalar muhim rol o'ynaydigan ko'llar, dengiz va botqoqli joylar qoldirgan konlar.[2] Polen, ko'l konlari va ko'llarning avvalgi sathlari Afrika namlik davri ekotizimlarini o'rganish uchun ishlatilgan,[8] va ko'mir va barglarning taassurotlari o'simliklarning o'zgarishini aniqlash uchun ishlatilgan.[9]
Tadqiqot masalalari
Oxirgi muzlik tsiklidan beri yog'ingarchilik o'zgarishi aniq bo'lsa-da, o'zgarishlarning kattaligi va vaqti aniq emas.[10] O'lchovlar va rekonstruktsiyalar qanday va qayerda amalga oshirilishiga qarab, har xil boshlanish sanalari, tugash sanalari, muddatlari[3] va yog'ingarchilik darajasi[11] Afrikaning nam davri uchun aniqlangan.[3] Yog'ingarchilik miqdori qayta tiklandi paleoklimat yozuvlar va iqlimni modellashtirish orqali taqlid qilish ko'pincha bir-biriga mos kelmaydi;[12] Umuman olganda, Yashil Sahroni simulyatsiya qilish muammo hisoblanadi er tizimi modellar.[13] Ko'l cho'kindi jinslari va uglerodning emirilishi suv omborining ta'siri ular quriganida uchrashuvni qiyinlashtiring.[14] O'simliklar o'zgarishi o'z-o'zidan yog'ingarchilik o'zgarishini anglatmaydi, chunki mavsumiylik, o'simlik turlarining tarkibi va o'zgarishi o'zgaradi erdan foydalanish o'simliklarning o'zgarishiga ham ta'sir qiladi.[15] Izotoplar nisbati kabi vodorod /deyteriy yog'ingarchilik qiymatini qayta tiklash uchun ishlatilgan nisbati ham turli xil jismoniy ta'sirlar ta'sirida bo'lib, bu ularning izohlanishini qiyinlashtiradi.[16]
Terminologiya
Oldingi nam davrlar ba'zan "Afrika nam davrlari" deb nomlanadi[17] va Markaziy Afrika mintaqasi uchun bir qator quruq / nam davrlar belgilangan.[18] Umuman olganda, namroq va quruqroq davrlar o'rtasidagi iqlim o'zgarishlarining bunday turlari "pluviallar "va"interpluviallar "navbati bilan.[19][a][b]
Fon va boshlanish
Afrikaning nam davri kechga to'g'ri keldi Pleystotsen[33] va erta-o'rta Golotsen,[34] Shimoliy va G'arbiy Afrikada tropik yomg'irning shimolga ko'chishi tufayli yog'ingarchilik ko'paygan.[15][35] AHP - so'nggi 100000 yil davomida past kengliklarning eng chuqur iqlim o'zgarishi[36] va nisbatan iqlim jihatidan barqaror bo'lgan Golotsen ichida ajralib turadi.[37] Bu so'zda bir qismidir Golotsenli iqlim maqbul, bu davrda Shimoliy yarim sharda yozlar bugungi kunga qaraganda iliqroq edi.[38][c] Liu va boshq. 2017[44] nam davrni 8000 yil oldin davom etgan "AHP I" ga va 8000 yildan keyingi "AHP II" ga ajratdi,[45] birinchisi ikkinchisiga qaraganda namroq.[46]
Afrikaning nam davri bunday birinchi bosqich emas edi; taxminan 230 yoshdan katta bo'lgan bunday "yashil Sahara" / nam davrlar haqida dalillar, 7-8 million yil oldin Sahroning birinchi paydo bo'lishidan kelib chiqqan,[1] masalan davomida Dengiz izotopi 5-bosqich a va c.[47] Oldingi nam davrlar Xolotsenning AHP'siga qaraganda ancha kuchli bo'lgan,[48][49] shu jumladan, juda qizg'in Eemian erta davrda Arabiston va Shimoliy Afrikadan o'tib ketadigan yo'llarni ta'minlagan nam davr[50] va keyinchalik namlangan davrlar bilan birga kengayish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan Ateriya populyatsiyalar.[51] Bunday nam davrlar odatda bilan bog'liq muzlararo, esa muzlik bosqichlari quruq davrlar bilan o'zaro bog'liq.[17]
The Bolling-Allerod isishi Afrika namlik davri boshlanishi bilan sinxron ko'rinadi[52][53][54] shuningdek, Arabistonda namlikning ko'payishiga.[55] Keyinchalik, yilda Blytt-Sernander ketma-ketligi namlik davri bilan mos keladi Atlantika davri.[56]
Afrikaning nam davridan oldingi sharoitlar
Davomida Oxirgi muzlik maksimal darajasi, Sahara va Sahel nihoyatda quruq edi[57] bugungiga qaraganda kam yog'ingarchilik[58][59] dune qatlamlari va suv sathining darajasi bilan aks ettirilgan yopiq ko'llar.[57] Saxara ancha kattaroq edi,[60] 500-800 kilometr (310-500 milya) uzoqroq janubga,[61] 5 ° kenglikdagi farq.[62] Dunes ekvatorga juda yaqin bo'lgan,[61][63][d] yomg'ir o'rmonlari foydasiga chekindi afromontan va savanna harorat, yog'ingarchilik va namlikning pasayishi bilan landshaftlar.[29][66]
O'sha paytda Sahroi yoki Arabistonda inson faoliyati to'g'risida uning quruqroq tabiatini aks ettiruvchi kam va ko'pincha bir xil dalillar mavjud.[67][68][69] Oxirgi muzlik maksimal darajasining qurg'oqchilligi iqlimning sovuqlashishi va qutbning kattaroqligi oqibatidir muz qatlamlari, siqib chiqargan musson ekvatorga kamar va G'arbiy Afrika mussonini zaiflashtirdi. Atmosfera suv aylanishi va Walker va Xadli tirajlari kuchsizroq edi.[70] Istisno quruq fazalar bog'langan Geynrix voqealari[71] ko'p bo'lganida aysberglar Shimoliy Atlantika okeanida;[72] 11500 dan 21000 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda juda ko'p miqdordagi bunday aysberglarni tashlash hozirgacha qurg'oqchilikka to'g'ri keldi subtropiklar.[73]
AHP boshlanishidan oldin, deb o'ylashadi Viktoriya ko'li, Albert, Edvard,[74] Turkana[75] va Sudd botqoqlar qurigan edi.[76] Oq Nil mavsumiy daryoga aylangan edi[76] kimning kursi[77] asosiy Nil daryosi bilan birga bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin la'natlangan qumtepalar tomonidan.[78] The Nil deltasi qisman quruq bo'lib, efemer kanallar va ochiq dengiz qatlami orasida cho'zilgan qumli tekisliklar va u qum manbaiga aylangan erglar[e] uzoqroq sharqda.[80] Kabi Afrika bo'ylab boshqa ko'llar Chad ko'li va Tanganyika ko'li, shuningdek, qisqargan edi[f] shu vaqt ichida,[81] va ikkalasi ham Niger daryosi va Senegal daryosi qoloq edilar.[82]
Erta namlik oshadi
Cho'lning ba'zi joylari, masalan, baland tog'lar kabi Qizil dengiz tepaliklari ga erishildi g'arbiy[83] yoki bilan bog'liq ob-havo tizimlari subtropik reaktiv oqim[84]Va shuning uchun yog'ingarchiliklar tortishuvlarga sabab bo'ladi. Bu faqat aniq qo'llab-quvvatlanadi Magreb shimoliy-g'arbiy Afrikada,[83] daryo oqimi bo'lsa ham[63]/teras shakllanish[85] va ko'llarning rivojlanishi Tibesti va Jebel Marra tog'lar[86][87] va qoldiq Nil oqimini shu tarzda izohlash mumkin.[88] Afrikaning tog'li joylari so'nggi muzlik maksimal davrida qurg'oqchilikka kamroq ta'sir qilgan ko'rinadi.[89]
Muzlik qurg'oqchiligining oxiri 17000-11000 yil oldin sodir bo'lgan,[87] Sahro tog'larida ilgari qayd etilgan[90][66] (ehtimol) 18,500 yil oldin.[91] Afrikaning janubiy va markaziy qismlarida 17000 va 170000 yil oldin boshlangani bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin Antarktika isish,[92][23] esa Malavi ko'li taxminan 10 000 yil avvalgacha past bo'lgan ko'rinadi.[93]
Jebel Marra va baland ko'l sathlari sodir bo'lgan Tibesti tog'lari bundan 15000 dan 14000 yilgacha[94] va eng yosh bosqichi muzlik ichida Baland atlas tog'lar Afrikaning dastlabki nam davri bilan bir vaqtda sodir bo'lgan.[95] Taxminan 14,500 yil oldin qurg'oqchil hududlarda ko'llar paydo bo'la boshladi.[96]
Boshlanishi
Namlik davri taxminan 15000 yilda boshlangan[92][97]-14,500 yil oldin.[g][33] Nam davrning boshlanishi butun Shimoliy bo'ylab deyarli bir vaqtning o'zida sodir bo'ldi[h] va Tropik Afrika,[101] ta'sirlar bilan Santo-Antuan kuni Kabo-Verde.[102][103] Arabistonda nam sharoit shimolga qarab yurish uchun taxminan ikki ming yillik vaqtni olgan,[100][104] bosqichma-bosqich avans tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadi tefroxronologik ma'lumotlar.[105]
Viktoriya ko'li yana paydo bo'ldi va toshib ketdi;[96] Albert ko'li ham toshib ketdi Oq Nil[94] 15000–14.500 yil oldin[74] va shunday qildi Tana ko'li ichiga Moviy Nil.[94] Oq Nil daryosining bir qismini suv bosdi[106] va asosiy Nilga qayta ulangan.[97][men] Misrda "Yovvoyi Nil" tomonidan keng toshqin sodir bo'ldi;[94] bu "yovvoyi Nil" davri[108] ushbu daryoda qayd etilgan eng katta toshqinlarga olib keldi,[78] toshqin toshqinlarda cho'kindi jinslar,[109] va, ehtimol, daryo bo'yidagi odam populyatsiyasiga ta'sir ko'rsatgan.[110] Bundan ham ilgari, 17000–16800 yil oldin, erigan suv dan muzliklar o'sha paytda orqaga chekinayotgan Efiopiyada - Nilda suv va cho'kindi oqimini ko'paytira boshlagan bo'lishi mumkin.[111] In Sharqiy Afrika Rift ko'llarda suv sathi taxminan 15,500 / 15,000 ga ko'tarila boshladi[112]-12000 yil oldin;[113] Kivu ko'li Taxminan 10500 yil oldin Tanganika ko'liga to'kila boshlagan.[114]
AHP boshlangan bir vaqtning o'zida Evropada 1-Geynrix hodisasi bilan bog'liq sovuq muzli iqlim tugadi[96] iqlim o'zgarishi bilan Avstraliya.[94] Atrofdagi dengiz muzining isishi va chekinishi Antarktida Afrikaning nam davri boshlanishiga to'g'ri keladi,[115] bo'lsa-da Antarktika sovuqni qaytarish bu vaqtga to'g'ri keladi[23] va qayd etilgan qurg'oqchilik oralig'iga taalluqli bo'lishi mumkin Gvineya ko'rfazi.[116]
Sabablari
Afrikaning nam davriga kuchliroq sabab bo'lgan G'arbiy Afrika mussoni[117] o'zgarishlar bilan yo'naltirilgan quyosh nurlanishi va albedo mulohazalar.[12] Bular ekvatorial Atlantika okeanidan G'arbiy Afrikaga, shuningdek, namlik importining ko'payishiga olib keladi Shimoliy Atlantika va O'rtayer dengizi Afrikaning O'rta er dengizi sohillari tomon.[118][119] Ekstratropiklarning atmosfera sirkulyasiyasi bilan va u erdan keladigan namlik o'rtasida o'zaro ta'sirlar mavjud edi Atlantika okeani va Hind okeani,[120] va musson namlagan joylar bilan namlangan joylar o'rtasida ko'payish ko'paygan ekstratropik siklonlar.[121]
Iqlim modellari quruq inshootdan yashil sahrogacha va orqa tomonga o'zgarishning chegaraviy xatti-harakatga ega ekanligini, bu o'zgarish ma'lum bir insolatsiya darajasidan oshib ketgandan keyin sodir bo'lishini ko'rsatib bering;[122] xuddi shunday, insolatsiyaning asta-sekin tushishi ko'pincha to'satdan quruq Sahroga qaytishga olib keladi.[123] Bu ishda bo'lgan turli xil qayta aloqa jarayonlari bilan bog'liq,[15] va iqlim modellarida ko'pincha bir nechta barqaror iqlim-o'simlik holati mavjud.[124] Dengiz sathidagi harorat va issiqxona gazi o'zgarishlar Afrika bo'ylab AHP boshlanishini sinxronlashtirdi.[101]
Orbital o'zgarishlar
Afrikaning nam davri ko'payganligi bilan izohlandi insolyatsiya Shimoliy yarim sharning yozida.[15] Sababli oldingi, Yer elliptik orbitasida Quyoshga eng yaqin o'tadigan fasl - the perigelion - Shimoliy yarim sharning yozida sodir bo'ladigan maksimal yozgi insolatsiya bilan o'zgaradi.[125] 11000 dan 10000 yil oldin Yer perigelion orqali o'tgan vaqtda o'tgan yoz kunlari, quyosh nurlari miqdorini taxminan 8% ga oshirish,[33] natijada Afrika mussoni yanada kuchliroq bo'lib, uzoqroq shimolga etib boradi.[126] 15000 dan 5000 yilgacha yozgi insolatsiya bugungi kunga qaraganda kamida 4% yuqori bo'lgan.[36] The obliqlik Golotsen davrida ham kamaygan[127] ammo obliklik o'zgarishlarining iqlimga ta'siri yuqori kengliklarga yo'naltirilgan va uning mussonga ta'siri aniq emas.[128]
Yoz davomida quyosh isishi okeanga qaraganda Shimoliy Afrika quruqligida kuchli bo'lib, a hosil qiladi past bosim nam havo va yog'ingarchilikni tortadigan maydon[33] Atlantika okeanidan.[129] Ushbu ta'sir yozgi insolatsiyaning kuchayishi bilan mustahkamlandi,[130] yanada shimolga etib borgan kuchli mussonga olib boradi.[127] Ushbu aylanishning ta'siri subtropikgacha etib bordi.[14]
Muvofiqlik va ehtiyotkorlik eng muhim ikkitasi uchun javobgardir Milankovich tsikllari va nafaqat boshlanishi va to'xtashi uchun javobgardir muzlik davri[131] shuningdek, musson kuchining o'zgarishi uchun.[128] Janubiy yarim sharning mussonlari Shimoliy yarim shar mussonlarining prekretsiyaga teskari reaktsiyasiga ega bo'lishi kutilmoqda, chunki insolyatsiya o'zgarishi teskari yo'naltirilgan; bu kuzatuvni Janubiy Amerikadagi ma'lumotlar tasdiqlaydi.[132] Oldingi o'zgarish kuchaydi mavsumiylik ichida Shimoliy yarim shar uni kamaytirganda Janubiy yarim shar.[127]
Albedo haqida fikr-mulohazalar
Ga binoan iqlimni modellashtirish,[1] Orbital o'zgarishlar o'z-o'zidan Afrika bo'ylab yog'ingarchilikni ko'paytira olmaydi, masalan, 330,000 kvadrat kilometr (130,000 sqm) kabi yirik cho'l ko'llarining paydo bo'lishini tushuntirish uchun. Megachad ko'li[j][14] yoki o'simliklarning shimoliy tomon kengayishi[136][137][127] agar okean va quruqlikdagi o'zgarishlar hisobga olinmasa.[15]
O'simliklar o'zgarishi natijasida albedoning kamayishi yog'ingarchilik ko'payishining muhim omilidir.[14] Xususan, yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi o'simliklarning ko'payishiga olib keladi; vegetatsiya ko'proq quyosh nurlarini yutadi va shu sababli musson uchun ko'proq energiya mavjud bo'ladi. Bunga qo'chimcha, evapotranspiratsiya o'simliklardan ko'proq namlik qo'shadi, garchi bu ta'sir albedo ta'siriga qaraganda unchalik sezilmaydi.[57] Tuproqdagi issiqlik oqimi va bug'lanish ham o'simlik qoplami bilan o'zgaradi.[138]
Xom yog'ingarchilik o'zgarishidan tashqari, uzunligi kabi yog'ingarchilikning mavsumiyligi o'zgaradi quruq fasllar iqlim o'zgarishining o'simliklarga ta'sirini baholashda e'tiborga olish kerak,[139] shuningdek, o'g'itlash ta'siri oshdi karbonat angidrid atmosferadagi konsentratsiyalar.[138]
Albedo o'zgarishlarining boshqa manbalari:
- O'zgarishlar tuproq xususiyatlar mussonning o'zgarishiga olib keladi; cho'l tuproqlarini almashtirish bilan loamy yog'ingarchilik ko'payishiga olib keladi,[140] va nam tuproqlar[138] yoki o'z ichiga oladi organik materiya kamroq quyosh nurini aks ettiradi va namlash jarayonini tezlashtiradi.[1] Cho'l qumining o'zgarishi ham albedoni o'zgartiradi.[138]
- Albedo ko'llar va botqoqli erlar[12] iqlim modellarida yog'ingarchilikni o'zgartirishi mumkin.[140]
- Namroq Sahrodan chang hosil bo'lishining kamayishi iqlimga ta'sir qiladi[141] changni yutadigan yorug'lik miqdorini kamaytirish va shuningdek modifikatsiya qilish orqali bulut xususiyatlari, ularni kamroq aks ettiradi va yog'ingarchilikni keltirib chiqarishda samaraliroq qiladi.[1][142][143] Iqlim modellarida chang miqdori kamaygan troposfera o'simliklarning o'zgarishi bilan birga[144] tez-tez, lekin har doim ham mussonning shimol tomon kengayishini tushuntirib bera olmaydi.[145] Sahelda changning yog'ingarchiliklarga ta'siri to'g'risida umumiy kelishuv mavjud emas.[1]
Intertropik konvergentsiya zonasi o'zgaradi
Yozda iliqroq ekstratropiklar chizilgan bo'lishi mumkin Intertropik konvergentsiya zonasi (ITCZ) shimolga,[144] yog'ingarchilik o'zgarishiga olib keladi.[146] Shimoliy Afrikadan dengiz sathidagi harorat orbital ta'sirida va kuchsizroq qismida isiydi savdo shamollari, ITCZ ning shimol tomon harakatlanishiga va quruqlik va dengiz o'rtasida namlik gradiyentlarini ko'payishiga olib keladi.[57] Ikki harorat gradyenti, biri bahorda salqinroq Atlantika oroli bilan allaqachon iliqlashayotgan Afrika qit'asi o'rtasida, ikkinchisi 10 ° kenglik shimolidan iliqroq janub va iliqroq janub o'rtasidagi bu o'zgarishlarga yordam bergan bo'lishi mumkin.[147] Sharqiy Afrikada ITCZ o'zgarishlari yog'ingarchilik o'zgarishiga nisbatan kam ta'sir ko'rsatdi.[148][149] ITCZ-ning Arabistondagi o'tmishdagi mavqei ham bahslidir.[150]
Sharqiy Afrikada yog'ingarchilik o'zgarishi
Bo'lib o'tgan Afrikaning nam davri Sharqiy Afrika turli mexanizmlar tufayli yuzaga kelgan ko'rinadi.[151] Tavsiya etilgan mexanizmlar orasida yog'ingarchilikning mavsumiyligi kamayadi[152] quruq mavsumda yog'ingarchilik ko'paygani sababli,[153] quruq mavsumning qisqarishi, yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi[154] Atlantika va Hind okeanlaridan namlik oqimining ko'payishi. Atlantika namligining oqimi qisman kuchli G'arbiy Afrika va Hindiston mussonlari tomonidan qo'zg'atildi, ehtimol AHP ta'sirining Janubiy yarimsharga tarqalishining sababini tushuntirib berdi.[148][155] Sharqiy shamollarning harakati noaniq; sharqiy havo shamollari orqali namlikning ko'payishi AHP rivojlanishiga yordam bergan bo'lishi mumkin[117] ammo alternativa kuchliroq Hindiston mussoni Sharqiy Afrikadan sharqiy shamollarni tortib olgan narsa sodir bo'lishi mumkin.[156]
O'zgarishlar Kongo havo chegarasi[k][157] yoki ortdi yaqinlashish ushbu chegara bo'ylab hissa qo'shgan bo'lishi mumkin;[154][157] Kongo havo chegarasi g'arbdan kuchli shamol tufayli sharqqa siljigan bo'lar edi[155] Shimoliy Afrika ustidan atmosfera bosimining pasayishi,[158] Atlantika okeanidan qo'shimcha namlikning Sharqiy Afrikaga etib borishiga imkon beradi.[159] Sharqiy Afrikaning Atlantika namligidan ajratilgan qismlari AHP davrida sezilarli darajada namlanmagan[98] bitta saytda bo'lsa ham Somali yog'ingarchilikning mavsumiyligi kamaydi.[160]
Sharqiy Afrikada namlikni ko'payishiga turli xil ta'sir ko'rsatadigan omillar sabab bo'lishi mumkin, ammo barchasi hammasi AHP davrida bir vaqtning o'zida ishlamasligi kerak.[161][162] "Afrikaning nam davri" Afrikaning ushbu qismiga etib borganiga shubha qilingan.[163] Va nihoyat, Afrikaning tropik janubi-sharqida AHP boshlanishini boshqarishda issiqxona gazlari kontsentratsiyasining ko'payishi ishtirok etgan bo'lishi mumkin;[164] u erda orbital o'zgarishlar Shimoliy yarim sharda aksincha iqlim o'zgarishiga olib kelishi kutilmoqda.[165] Afrikaning janubi-sharqida namlik o'zgarishining sxemasi murakkabdir.[166]
Qo'shimcha omillar
- Uzoq shimoliy kengliklarda iqlim o'zgarishi AHP paydo bo'lishiga yordam bergan bo'lishi mumkin.[117] Ning qisqarishi Skandinaviya va Laurentide muzli choyshablari boshida sodir bo'lgan,[138] iqlim modellarida esa chekinish muz qatlamlari ko'pincha nam davrni simulyatsiya qilish uchun talab qilinadi.[167] Ularning mavjudligi AHP nega darhol insolatsiya cho'qqisidan boshlamaganligini tushuntirishi mumkin, chunki hanuzgacha mavjud bo'lgan muz qatlamlari iqlimni sovitgan bo'lar edi.[168]
- Dengiz sathidagi harorat Atlantika okeanidagi o'zgarishlar Afrika mussoniga ta'sir qiladi[117] va AHP paydo bo'lishiga ta'sir qilgan bo'lishi mumkin. Zaifroq savdo shamollari va undan yuqori insolyatsiya dengiz sathining iliqroq haroratiga olib keladi, quruqlik va dengiz o'rtasidagi namlik gradiyentlarini ko'paytirib yog'ingarchilik ko'payadi.[57] Shimoliy Atlantika harorat gradyanlaridagi o'zgarishlar ham o'z ichiga olgan.[129]
- Ning isishi O'rtayer dengizi Sahel yog'ingarchilik miqdorini oshiradi; bu ta'sir yaqinda sodir bo'lganlar uchun javobgardir antropogen global isish Sahelda yog'ingarchilikning vositachiligi.[1] Dengiz sathining iliqroq harorati, shuningdek, yog'ingarchilik miqdori oshganligini tushuntirishi mumkin O'rta er dengizi AHP paytida.[150]
- Qish mavsumida yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi O'rta er dengizi yog'inlarining keng fazoviy darajasi bilan o'zaro bog'liq va AHP tashkil etishda yordam berishi mumkin, ayniqsa Shimoliy Afrika,[169][170][171] shimoliy atrofida Qizil dengiz,[172] ichida Tibesti[173][174] va shimoliy Arabistonda[150] va odatda musson kelmagan yuqori kengliklarda.[147] Ushbu yog'ingarchilik Sahroning boshqa qismlariga ham tushgan bo'lishi mumkin; yozgi va qishki yog'ingarchiliklar bir-birini qoplashiga olib kelgan bo'lar edi[175] va musson va g'arbiy qism ta'siridagi iqlim zonalari orasidagi quruq maydon ho'llanib yoki umuman yo'q bo'lib ketadi.[176] O'rta er dengizi natijasida hosil bo'lgan yog'ingarchilikning bunday o'zgarishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin Shimoliy Atlantika va Arktika tebranishlari.[169]
- Qo'rqinchli Yomg'irning ko'payishi va uning kam hisoblanishini tushuntirish uchun kuzda va bahorda namlikni zudlik bilan shimolga tashish taklif qilingan iqlim modellari.[12] Iqlim modellaridan birida shimolga namlikning bunday transport vositalarining ko'payishi Sahroi kuzgi yog'ingarchilikni ko'paytiradi, ayniqsa Xolotsenning o'rtalarida va iqlimi odatdagidan namroq bo'lganda.[177]
- Zaifroq subtropik antisiklonlar 1970-1980 yillarda tushuntirish sifatida taklif qilingan.[178]
- Kabi tog 'mintaqalarida Maydob vulqon maydoni dan keyin sovuq harorat oxirgi muzlik maksimal kamaygan bo'lishi mumkin bug'lanish va shu bilan namlikning erta boshlanishiga imkon berdi.[179]
- Yerdagi o'zgarishlar geomagnit maydon namlikning o'zgarishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin.[180]
- Kabi katta ko'llardan namlikning ko'payishi Megachad ko'li yog'ingarchilikni ko'paytirgan bo'lishi mumkin, garchi bu ta'sir butun AHPni tushuntirish uchun etarli bo'lmasa.[181] Xuddi shunday rol Sharqiy Sahroda keng suv-botqoqli erlar, drenajlar va ko'llar bilan bog'liq[182] va umuman ekotizimga.[183]
- Ikki baland balandlikdagi shamol, Afrika sharqiy jeti va Tropik Easterly Jet atmosfera havosining Afrika bo'ylab oqishini va shu bilan yog'ingarchilik miqdorini modulyatsiya qilish; Tropical Easterly Jet keladi Hindiston va tropiklar orasidagi harorat gradyanlaridan quvvat oladi[58] va subtropikalar esa Afrikaning Easterly Jet-dagi harorat gradyanlaridan quvvat oladilar Sahel.[184] G'arbiy Afrikaning kuchli mussoni kuchsizlanishga olib keldi Afrika sharqiy jeti va shu tariqa Afrikadan tashqariga namlik tashish kamayadi.[155]
- Kattalashtirilgan atmosferadagi karbonat angidrid konsentrasiyalar AHPni qo'zg'atishda muhim rol o'ynagan bo'lishi mumkin,[138] ayniqsa uning ekvator bo'ylab kengayishi,[185] shuningdek, keyin qayta tiklanishi Yosh Dryas va Geynrix voqeasi 1 dengiz sathining ko'tarilgan harorati orqali.[186]
- Sahroning ba'zi qismlarida tog 'mintaqalaridan suv ta'minotining ko'payishi nam sharoitlarni rivojlanishiga yordam bergan bo'lishi mumkin.[187][188]
- Katta o'rmonlar Evroosiyo ITCZ ning shimolga siljishiga olib kelgan bo'lishi mumkin.[189]
- Boshqa taklif qilingan mexanizmlar o'z ichiga oladi konvektsiya atmosferadan yuqori chegara qatlami,[190] ortdi yashirin issiqlik oqimlari,[142] Afrikaning shimoli-g'arbiy qismida past bosim Sahroi ichiga namlikni tortib,[191] o'zgarishi quyosh davrlari[192] va murakkab atmosfera oqimi hodisalari.[193]
Effektlar
Afrikaning nam davri Sahroi sharqida va sharqiy qismida davom etdi.[44][l] janubi-sharqiy va ekvatorial Afrika. Umuman olganda, o'rmonlar va o'rmonzorlar materik orqali kengayib bordi.[195] Xuddi shunday nam epizod tropik Amerika qit'alarida ham sodir bo'ldi,[m] Xitoy, Osiyo,[n][196][197][35][57][198] Hindiston,[199] The Yaqin Sharq va Arabiston yarim oroli[196][197][35][57][198] va xuddi shu narsaga aloqador ko'rinadi orbital majburlash AHP sifatida.[196] Holotsenning mussonli epizodi qadar davom etgan Mojave sahrosi Shimoliy Amerikada.[200] Aksincha, aksariyat qismidan quruqroq epizod yoziladi Janubiy Amerika qayerda Titikaka ko'li, Junin ko‘li, zaryadsizlanishi Amazon daryosi va suvning mavjudligi Atakama pastroq edi.[201]
Zaryadsizlanishi Kongo, Niger,[202] Nil,[203] Ntem,[21] Rufiji,[204] va Sanaga daryolari ortdi.[202] Ekvatorial Afrikadan, Afrikaning shimoli-sharqidan va g'arbiy Saharadan oqadigan suv ham katta edi.[205] Daryo tizimlari morfologiyasidagi o'zgarishlar va ular allyuvial tekisliklar chiqindilarni ko'payishiga javoban sodir bo'lgan,[23][21] va Senegal daryosi qumtepalarni buzib, yana Atlantika okeaniga kirdi.[82]
Sahroning florasi va faunasi
Afrikaning nam davrida ko'llar, daryolar, botqoqli erlar va Sahroi Kabirni o'rab turgan o't va daraxtlarni o'z ichiga olgan o'simliklar Sahel[130][206][126] "Yashil Sahro" ni yaratish.[207] Dalillarga polen ma'lumotlari, arxeologik joylar, fauna faoliyati kabi dalillar kiradi diatomlar, sutemizuvchilar, ostrakodlar, sudralib yuruvchilar va shilliq qurtlar, ko'milgan daryo vodiylari, organik moddalarga boy paspaslar, loy toshlari, evaporitlar shu qatorda; shu bilan birga travertenlar va tuplar subakueous muhitda saqlanadi.[34]
O'simliklar qoplamasi keyinchalik butun Sahro bo'ylab tarqaldi[33] va ochiqdan iborat edi o't savana bilan butalar va daraxtlar.[129][208] Umuman olganda, o'simliklar shimolga qarab kengaygan[35] G'arbiy Afrikada 27-30 ° shimoliy kenglikgacha[209][9] taxminan 23 ° shimolda Sahel chegarasi bilan,[38] chunki Sahroda ko'pincha 400 kilometr (250 milya) tez-tez uchraydigan o'simliklar yashagan.[210][211]-600 kilometr (370 milya) uzoqroq janubda.[212] O'simliklarning shimoliy tomon harakatlanishi biroz vaqt talab qildi va ba'zi o'simlik turlari boshqalariga qaraganda tezroq harakatlandi.[213] Amalga oshiradigan o'simliklar C3 uglerod fiksatsiyasi keng tarqalgan bo'lib qoldi.[214]
Nam tropik tropikadan kelgan o'rmonlar va o'simliklar ko'llar va daryolar atrofida to'plangan.[215] AHP davridagi landshaft yarim cho'l va nam kelib chiqqan o'simliklarning turli xil turlari orasidagi mozaika sifatida tasvirlangan[216] oddiy o'simliklarning shimoliy tomonga siljishi o'rniga,[217] va ba'zi jigarrang yoki sariq o'simlik jamoalari saqlanib qoldi.[1] Polen ma'lumotlari ko'pincha nam tropik daraxtlar ustida o'tlarning ustunligini ko'rsatadi.[9]
Sahro iqlimi butunlay bir hil bo'lib qolmadi; uning markaziy-sharqiy qismlari g'arbiy va markaziy sektorlarga qaraganda quruqroq bo'lgan[218] va Liviya qum dengizi hali ham edi cho'l[1] toza cho'l hududlari orqaga chekingan yoki aylangan bo'lsa ham quruq /yarimarid.[219] Qurg'oqchil kamar 22 ° kenglik shimolida mavjud bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin,[220] yoki o'simlik[136] va Afrika mussoni 28-31 ° shimoliy kenglikka etgan bo'lishi mumkin;[221] umumiy sharoitda 21 ° dan 28 ° gacha shimoliy kenglik kam ma'lum.[222] Quruq joylar davom etgan bo'lishi mumkin yomg'ir soyalari tog'larning balandligi va quruq iqlim o'simliklarini qo'llab-quvvatlab, uning polen borligini tushuntirib berishi mumkin edi cho'kindi yadrolari.[223] Bundan tashqari, ko'mir va polen ma'lumotlari asosida o'simlik naqshlaridagi shimoliy-janubiy gradatsiyalar qayta tiklandi.[224]
Qoldiqlar Sahroi hayvonot dunyosidagi o'zgarishlarni qayd etish.[225] Ushbu hayvonot dunyosi o'z ichiga oladi antilopalar,[33] laqqa baliq,[226] mollyuskalar,[227] timsohlar,[33] fillar, g'azallar,[228] jirafalar,[33] xartebeest,[226][229] quyonlar,[228] begemotlar,[226][229] mollyuskalar, Nil perchlari,[230] tilapiya,[227] toshbaqalar[226] va boshqa ko'plab hayvonlar,[231] va Misrda dog'lar, bo'rilar, suvsizlar, yovvoyi hayvon va zebra sodir bo'ldi.[232] Saxarada katta podalar hayvonlar yashagan.[233] Ba'zi hayvonlar butun cho'l bo'ylab kengaygan, boshqalari esa chuqur suvli joylar bilan cheklangan.[230] Sahroda avvalgi nam davrlar hozirgi cho'lni kesib o'tishga imkon bergan bo'lishi mumkin.[220] AHP boshida ochiq maysazorlarning kamayishi aholining tiqilib qolishini tushuntirishi mumkin gepardlar nam davr boshida,[234] namlik davri ba'zi hayvonlar populyatsiyasining kengayishiga olib keldi Hubertning multimamate sichqonchasi.[235]
Sahroning ko'llari va daryolari
Bir qator ko'llar paydo bo'ldi[225] yoki Sahroda kengaygan.[178] Ularning eng kattasi edi Chad ko'li bu hozirgi hajmidan kamida o'n baravar oshdi[236] Megachad ko'lini shakllantirish.[133] Ushbu kattalashgan Chad ko'li shimoliy-janubda va sharqiy-g'arbiy yo'nalishda navbati bilan 1000 x 600 km (620 mi × 370 mi) ga etdi,[237] qamrab olgan Bodele depressiyasi[238] va ehtimol hozirgi Sahroi cho'lning 8 foizigacha.[239] Bu iqlimning o'ziga ta'sir qildi;[240] Masalan, ko'lning markazida yog'ingarchilik kamayib, uning chekkasida ko'paygan bo'lar edi.[1] Chad ko'li, ehtimol, shimoldan daryolarni to'kib yuborgan Xoggar (Taffassasset drenaji)[241] va Tibesti tog'lari va janubdan Chari -Tizimga kirish va Komadugu daryolari.[242] Chari daryosi asosiy irmoq edi[243] Tibestini quritadigan daryolar paydo bo'lganda allyuvial muxlislar[244]/ Angamma daryo deltasi shimoliy Chad ko'liga kirishda.[245] Chad ko'lining shimoliy qirg'og'ining ustun xususiyati bo'lgan Angamma deltasida fillar, begemotlar va homininlarning skeletlari topildi.[237] Ko'l Niger daryosiga to'kilgan[246] balandligi orqali Mayo Kebbi va Benue daryosi, oxir-oqibat Gvineya ko'rfazi.[242] Qadimgi qumtepa tizimlari Chad ko'li ostida qolgan.[247]
Katta orasida[248] Sahroda paydo bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan ko'llardir Megafezzan ko'li Liviyada[249] va Ptolemey ko'li Sudanda.[248][239][250] Quade va boshq. 2018 yil Ptolemey ko'li, Megafezzan ko'li kabi ba'zi ko'llarning hajmi va mavjudligi to'g'risida ba'zi shubhalarni keltirib chiqardi. Ahnet-Muydir ko'li,[251] ayniqsa Megafezzan ko'li uchun.[252] Boshqa ko'llar ma'lum Adrar Bous yilda Niger,[82] I-n-Atei Xoggar, Ine Sakane-da[253] va Taoudenni[o] yilda Mali,[255] Chemchane Mauretaniya,[256] yaqin Sebkha Mellala-da Ouargla yilda Jazoir,[257] Bilma, Dibella, Fachi[258] va Gobero Ténéré,[8] Yomon Nigerda[259] va "Sakkiz tizma" da,[260] El Atrun,[261] Gureinat ko'li, Merga,[262] "Tizma",[260] Sidigh,[262] Vadi Mansurabda,[4] Selima va Oyo Sudanda.[263] Yoa ko'li ning Ounianga ko'llari toshib ketgan, yoki er usti yoki er osti.[264] Ba'zi mintaqalarda kichik ko'llar mozaikasi rivojlangan.[250] Botqoqlik AHP davrida ham kengaygan, ammo ularning kengayishi ham, keyingi chekinishlari ham ko'llarga qaraganda sekinroq bo'lgan.[265]
Sahroning ba'zi qismlarida efemer ko'llar kabi shakllangan Bir Kiseiba va Nabta Playa Misrda ham, arxeologik yodgorliklarda ham,[266] Abu Ballas, Bir Sahara va Bir Tarfaviy Misrda ham,[262] bu keyingi Misr dinlari bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin,[267] yoki botqoq - Adrar Bous-ga o'xshash plitalar Havo tog'lari.[258] Efemer ko'llar qumtepalar orasida rivojlangan,[268] va Murzuq havzasida "chuchuk suv arxipelagi" mavjud bo'lgan ko'rinadi.[269] Bu ko'l tizimlarining barchasi baliq kabi qoldiqlarni, limnik cho'kindi jinslar[270] va keyinchalik ishlatilgan serhosil tuproqlar qishloq xo'jaligi (El Deyr, Xarga vohasi ).[271] Nihoyat, krater ko'llari yilda shakllangan vulkanik maydonlar[272] ba'zan Malxa krateri kabi kichik qoldiq ko'llar sifatida bugungi kungacha omon qolamiz[273] ichida Maydob vulqon maydoni.[272] Potentsial ravishda AHP davrida suvning ko'payishi uning boshlanishiga yordam bergan bo'lishi mumkin freatomagmatik kabi portlashlar maar shakllanishi Bayuda vulqon maydoni garchi u erda vulqon otilishi xronologiyasi AHP bilan aloqani asoslash uchun etarlicha ma'lum emas.[274]
Katta Tamanrasset daryosi[275] dan oqdi Atlas tog'lari va Xoggar g'arbga, Atlantika tomonga qarab[276] va uni kiritdi Arguin ko'rfazi yilda Mauretaniya.[277] U bir vaqtlar dunyodagi eng katta 12-suv havzasini tashkil etgan[278] va chap a dengiz osti kanyoni va daryo bo'yidagi cho'kindi jinslar.[279] U boshqa daryolar bilan birgalikda shakllandi daryolar va mangrovlar Arguin ko'rfazida.[277] Xuddi shu hududdagi boshqa daryolar ham suv osti kanyonlarini hosil qildi,[280] va dengizdagi cho'kindi jinslar cho'kindi yadrolari[281] va paydo bo'lishi dengiz osti ko'chkilari mintaqada ushbu daryolar faoliyati bilan bog'liq bo'lgan.[282]
Kabi daryolar Irxarxar yilda Jazoir, Liviya va Tunis[283] va Sahabiy va Kufra bu davrda Liviyadagi daryolar faol bo'lgan[284] garchi ularning ko'p yillik oqimi borligiga shubha bo'lsa ham;[285] ular avvalgi nam davrlarda muhimroq bo'lgan ko'rinadi.[279] Kichik suv havzalari,[286] vadis[287] va daryolar quyilishi endoreyik Vodiy Tanezzuft kabi havzalar ham AHP davrida suv tashigan.[288] In Havo, Xoggar va Tibesti tog'lari, "O'rta Teras "bu paytda bo'shatilgan edi.[289] Sahara daryolari,[284] ko'llar va ularning suv havzalari odamlar va hayvonlarning tarqalish yo'llari bo'lib xizmat qilgan bo'lishi mumkin;[290] daryolar ko'pincha bir-biri bilan bog'lanib turar edi allyuvial muxlislar.[284] Daryolar orqali tarqaladigan hayvonlarning tavsiya etilgan misollari quyidagilardir Nil timsoh va baliq Clarias gariepinus va Tilapia zillii.[223] Bu ism bo'lishi mumkin Tassili n'Ajjer, bu "daryolarning platosi" degan ma'noni anglatadi Berber, o'tgan daryo oqimlariga havola.[291]
Sahro odamlari
Birinchidan, sharoit va resurslar pishib yetilgandi ovchilarni yig'uvchilar, baliqchilar[292] va keyinroq, yaylovchilar.[293] ko'llar rivojlangan paytda Sahroga kelgan.[294] Ular shimoldan kelgan bo'lishi mumkin (Magreb yoki Kirenaika )[295][296] qaerda Kapsiya madaniyati joylashgan,[297] janub (Afrikaning Sahroi osti qismi ) yoki sharq (Nil vodiysi ).[295] Inson faoliyatining izlari topilgan Akak tog'lari[298] g'orlar va toshbo'ron qilingan joylar odamlar uchun bazampamp sifatida ishlatilgan,[299] Uan Afuda kabi g'or[298] Uan Tabu va Takarkori toshbo'ron qilingan joylar.[300] Takarkoridagi birinchi ishg'ol 10 000 dan 9000 yilgacha bo'lgan davrda sodir bo'lgan;[301] u erda insoniyatning taxminan besh ming yillik madaniy evolyutsiyasi qayd etilgan.[293] Da Gobero ichida Ténéré cho'l a qabriston topildi, undan Sahroning sobiq aholisining turmush tarzini tiklash uchun foydalanilgan,[8] va Ptolomey ko'lida Nubiya odamlar ko'l qirg'og'iga yaqinlashib, uning resurslaridan foydalangan va ehtimol u bilan shug'ullangan bo'sh vaqt tadbirlar.[302] O'sha paytda ko'plab odamlar suv bilan bog'liq manbalarga bog'liq bo'lib tuyuladi, chunki dastlabki odamlar qoldirgan ko'plab vositalar bilan bog'liq baliqchilik; shuning uchun bu madaniyat "nomi bilan ham tanilganakvalitik "[178][206] turli joylarning madaniyatlari o'rtasida sezilarli farqlar topilgan bo'lsa-da.[303] Sahroni ko'kalamzorlashtirish a ga olib keldi demografik kengayish[39] va ayniqsa Sharqiy Sahroda odamlarning bandligi AHPga to'g'ri keladi.[304] Aksincha, ishg'ol Nil vodiysi bo'ylab kamaydi, ehtimol u erda botqoqlik kengaygan.[305]
Odamlar arxeologik joylardan topilgan qurol-yarog 'bilan katta hayvonlarni ovlaydilar[306] va yovvoyi yormalar kabi AHP paytida Sahroda sodir bo'lgan brakiariya, jo'xori va urochloa qo'shimcha oziq-ovqat manbai bo'lgan.[307] Odamlar uy sharoitida ham qoramol,[56] echkilar va qo'ylar;[308] qoramollarni xonakilashtirish ayniqsa ekologik jihatdan o'zgaruvchan Sharqiy Sahroda sodir bo'lgan.[309] Chorvachilik 7000 yil muqaddam Sahroga uy hayvonlari kelganida jiddiy ravishda olib borilgan va aholining ko'payishi madaniy amaliyotdagi bu o'zgarish bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin;[292] Afrikaning shimoliy-sharqidan janubi-g'arbiy tomonga hozirgi kungacha 8000 yildan beri qoramol va echki tarqaldi.[310] Sut mahsulotlari ba'zi joylarda namoyish etildi[311] va chorvachilik chorva mollarini tez-tez tasvirlash orqali qo'llab-quvvatlanadi tosh rasmlari.[312] The Dufuna kanoesi, dunyodagi eng qadimgi kemalardan biri,[313] Holotsen namli davrga to'g'ri keladi va o'sha davrdagi suv havzalari odamlar tomonidan boshqarilganligini anglatadi.[314] Akak tog'larida bir nechta madaniy ufqlar erta va kech akak va erta, o'rta, kech va oxirgi pastoral deb nomlangan[315] ichida esa Niger The Kiffian madaniyati AHP boshlanishi bilan bog'liq edi.[316] Qadimgi tsivilizatsiyalar rivojlanib,[35] dehqonchilik va chorvachilik amalga oshirilayotgani bilan Neolitik aholi punktlari.[256][317] Ehtimol, Afrikadagi o'simliklarni uy sharoitiga keltirish AHP davrida oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining ko'payishi tufayli kechiktirilgandir, u atigi 2500 atrofida sodir bo'lgan Miloddan avvalgi.[318][319]
Odamlar yaratdilar tosh san'ati kabi petrogliflar va tosh rasmlari Sahroda, ehtimol dunyodagi bunday ijodning eng katta zichligi.[320] Sahnalarga hayvonlar kiradi[126] va kundalik hayot[320] kabi suzish o'tgan namroq iqlim mavjudligini qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.[274] Petrogliflarning eng taniqli joylaridan biri bu Suzuvchilar g'ori ichida Gilf Kebir Misr tog'lari;[321] boshqa taniqli saytlar Gabal El Uweinat Misr tog'lari,[56] Arabiston[322] va Tassili n'Ajjer yilda Jazoir bu erda toshdan yasalgan rasmlar topilgan.[323] Odamlar ham ketishdi asarlar kabi Fesselsteine[p] va keramika bugungi kunda qulay bo'lmagan cho'llar mavjud.[56] Shimoliy Afrika Sharqiy Osiyo bilan birgalikda bu erda birinchi o'rinlardan birini egallaydi sopol idishlar ishlab chiqilgan[293] probably under the influence of increased availability of resources during the AHP. The humid period also favoured its development and spread in West Africa during the 10th millennium Miloddan avvalgi;[325] the so-called "wavy line" or "dotted wavy-line" motif was widespread across Northern Africa.[303]
These populations have been described as Epipaleolit, Mezolit va Neolitik[326] and produced a variety of litik tools and other assemblages.[327] Genetik and archeological data indicate that these populations which exploited the resources of the AHP Sahara probably originated in Afrikaning Sahroi osti qismi and moved north after some time, after the desert got wetter;[328] this may be reflected in the northward spread of Macrohaplogroup L va Haplogroup U6 genomic lineages.[329] In return, the AHP facilitated the movement of some Evroosiyo populations into Africa.[330] These favourable conditions for human populations may be reflected in jannat myths such as the Adan bog'i yilda Injil va Elizium va Oltin asr yilda Klassik antik davr,[331] and in the spread of the Nilo-sahara tillari.[223][303]
Additional manifestations in the Sahara
The expanded vegetation stabilized previously active qumtepalar, eventually giving rise to the present-day draa qumtepalar Great Sand Sea of Egypt for example,[268] although there is uncertainty about whether this stabilization was widespread.[332] Tuproq development and biological activity in soils are attested in the Acacus Mountains[333] va Mesak Settafet area of Libya,[334] but evidence of soil formation[335]/pedogenez[48] kabi botqoq temir[336] are described from other parts of the Sahara as well.[48] The Central and Southern Sahara saw the development of allyuvial depozitlar[178] esa sebkha deposits are known from the Western Sahara.[337] Lightning strikes into soil left lightning-altered rocks in parts of the Central Sahara.[338]
The increased precipitation also resulted recharged suv qatlamlari[339][326] kabi Nubian qumtosh qatlami; presently, water from this aquifer maintains several lakes in the Sahara, such as the Ounianga ko'llari.[340] Boshqalar er osti suvlari systems were active at that time in the Acacus Mountains, Havo tog'lari, ichida Fezzan[341] and elsewhere in Libya[342] va Sahel.[343] Raised groundwater tables provided water to plants and was discharged in depressions,[344] ko'llar[109] and valleys, forming widespread karbonat depozitlar[q] and feeding lakes.[345]
The formation of lakes[64] and vegetation reduced the export of dust from the Sahara. This has been recorded in marine cores,[346][141] including one core where dust export decreased by almost half.[347] In coastal places, such as in Ummon, dengiz sathining ko'tarilishi also reduced the production of dust.[64] In the Mediterranean, a decreased dust supply was accompanied by increased sediment input from the Nile, leading to changes in marine sediment composition.[348]
Whether the strengthening of the musson enhanced or reduced ko'tarilish off Northwestern Africa is debatable,[349] with some research suggesting that the strengthening in upwelling decreased dengiz sathidagi harorat[350][351][352] and increased the biological productivity of the sea,[349] while other research suggests that the opposite occurred; less upwelling with more moisture.[57] However, regardless of whether upwelling increased or decreased, it is possible that the strengthening of the monsoon boosted productivity off the coasts of Northern Africa because the increased river discharge delivered more nutrients to the sea.[350][351][352]
Arabiston
Yog'ingarchilik Dhofar and southwestern Arabia is brought by the African monsoon,[353] and a change to a wetter climate resembling Africa has been noted in southern Arabia[354] va Sokotra dan g'or and river deposits.[355] Golotsen paleolakes are recorded at Tayma, Jubbah,[356] ichida Vaxiba qumlari ning Ummon[357] va Mundafan.[358][359] In Rub al-Khali lakes formed between 9,000 and 7,000 years ago[360] and dunes were stabilized by vegetation,[104] although the formation of lakes there was less pronounced than in the Pleistocene.[361] The Vodiy ad-Davosir river system in central Saudiya Arabistoni became active again[358][359] with increased river runoff into the Fors ko'rfazi.[362] Episodes of increased river discharge occurred in Yaman[363] and increased precipitation is recorded in the caves of Hoti, Qunf in Ummon, Mukalla in Yemen and Hoq cave in Sokotra.[364] Freshwater sources in Arabia during the AHP became focus points of human activity[365] and herding activity between mountains and lowlands occurred.[104] Bunga qo'chimcha, karstik activity took place on exposed marjon riflari in the Red Sea and traces of it are still recognizable today.[366] Increased precipitation has been also invoked to explain decreased salinities in the Red Sea.[367]
The humid period in Arabia did not last as long as in Africa,[368] deserts did not retreat as much[197] and precipitation may not have reached the central[369] and northern part of the peninsula[370] o'tgan Yaman tog'lari;[194] northern Arabia remained somewhat drier than southern Arabia[371] and still produced dust.[372] One study has estimated that the amount of rainfall in the Red Sea did increase to no more than 1 metre per year (39 in/year).[373] Whether some former lakes in Arabia were actually botqoqlar munozarali.[374]
Sharqiy Afrika
Nil discharge was higher than today[203] and during the early African humid period, the Nile in Egypt flooded up to 3–5 metres (9.8–16.4 ft)[203] higher than it did recently before toshqinlarni nazorat qilish;[94] the increased flooding may explain why many archeological sites along the Nile were abandoned during the AHP, with violent conflicts reconstructed from the Jebel Sahaba arxeologik sayt.[77][110] Waters from the Nile filled depressions like the Fayum Depression.[288] In addition, Nile tributaries in northwestern Sudan[375] kabi Vodiy Al-Malik,[203] Vadi Xovar[r][377] va Malika vodiysi became active during the AHP.[378] Vadi Xovar was active until 4,500 years ago,[377] and at the time often contained dune-dammed lakes, botqoqlar va botqoqli erlar;[379][188] it was the largest Saharan tributary of the Nile[380] and constituted an important pathway into sub-Saharian Africa.[203] Conversely it appears that Viktoriya ko'li va Albert ko'li were not overflowing into the White Nile for all of the AHP,[381] and the White Nile would have been sustained by overflow from Turkana ko‘li.[377] There appears to be a tendency over the course of the AHP for the discharge of the Blue Nile to decrease relative to that of the White Nile.[382] The Moviy Nil qurilgan allyuvial fan at its confluence with the White Nile, and kesma by the Nile reduced flooding risk in some areas which thus became available for human use.[203]
Closed lakes in East Africa rose, sometimes by hundreds of metres.[383] Suguta ko'li da ishlab chiqilgan Suguta Valley, accompanied by the formation of river deltas where rivers such as the Baragoi River entered the lake.[384] In turn, Lake Suguta overflowed into the Kerio daryosi, this adding water to Turkana ko‘li[385] where increased discharge by the Turkvel daryosi led to the formation of a large daryo deltasi.[386] Lake Turkana itself overflowed on its northwestern side through the Lotikipi Swamp into the Oq Nil.[387][388] Deposits from this lake highstand form the Galana Boi Shakllanish.[303] This overflowing large lake was filled with chuchuk suv and was populated by humans; the societies there engaged in baliqchilik[389] but could probably also fall back on other resources in the region.[390] Zway ko'li va Lake Shala in Ethiopia joined with Lake Abiyata va Lake Langano to form a large waterbody[391] which began overflowing into the Avash daryosi.[392] Other lakes that expanded include Hayq ko'li also in Ethiopia,[393] Bogoriya ko'li, Naivasha ko'li[178] va Nakuru ko'li /Elmenteita ko'li hammasi Keniya,[394] and a lake formed in the kaldera ning Menengai vulqon.[395] A 1,600 square kilometres (620 sq mi) large and 50 metres (160 ft) deep Magadi ko'li formed in the early Holocene,[134] va Danakil Depression of Ethiopia freshwater conditions became established.[178] Finally, lakes formed in depressions on the mountains around Kivu ko'li.[396]
Muzliklar kuni Kilimanjaro tog'i expanded during the AHP[397] after a phase during the Yosh Dryas where the mountain was ice free,[398] lekin daraxt chizig'i also rose at that time, accompanied by tuproq shakllanish.[399] The wetter climate may have destabilized the neighbouring Meru tog'i volcano, causing a giant landslide that removed its summit.[400]
Eroziya in catchments of East Africa increased with the beginning of the humid period but then decreased even before its end,[401] as the increased ob-havo led to the formation of tuproqlar, these in turn to the establishment of a vegetation cover that subsequently reduced additional erosion.[402] Kattalashtirilgan ob-havo resulted in the increased consumption of atmosferadagi CO2 during the AHP.[403]
Surprisingly, and contrary to the patterns expected from precessional changes, the Sharqiy Afrika Rift also experienced a wetter climates during the AHP,[129] reaching as far south as Rukva ko'li va Lake Cheshi into the Southern Hemisphere.[404][405] In the region of the Afrikadagi Buyuk ko'llar, polen evidence points to the occurrence of forests including yomg'ir o'rmoni o'simlik[406] due to the increased precipitation,[407] while today they occur only in limited areas there.[406] Denser vegetation also occurred at Turkana ko‘li,[408] with wooden vegetation covering almost half of the dry land.[409] Development of forest vegetation around the African Great Lakes created an interconnected environment where species spread, increasing biologik xilma-xillik with effects on the future when the environment became fragmented.[410] Vegetation cover also increased in the Afar mintaqa.[411] Forests and moisture-requiring vegetation expanded in the Beyl tog'lari.[412] Different types of vegetation, including dryland vegetation, existed at Malavi ko'li va Tanganyika ko'li ammo,[413] and vegetation did not change much.[414]
In East Africa, the AHP led to improved environmental conditions in terms of food and water supply from large lakes that allowed early human populations to grow in size and survive without requiring major changes in food gathering strategies.[415] Earlier wet and dry periods in East Africa may have influenced the odamlar evolyutsiyasi[416] and allowed their spread across the Sahara[417] va ichiga Evropa.[418]
Other parts of Africa and the rainforest realm
Bosumtwi ko'li yilda Gana rose during the AHP.[419][lar] Evidence there also suggests a decrease in yong'in faoliyat bo'lib o'tdi.[421] Tropical forests expanded in the Adamava platosi ning Kamerun[422][423] and moved upward at Lake Bambili ham Kamerun.[424] Yadrosi yomg'ir o'rmoni was probably unaltered by the African humid period, perhaps with some changes in species[425][426] and an expansion of their area,[54] bo'lsa-da torf erlari ning Markaziy Kongo started developing during the African humid period and peat continues to accumulate there to this day,[427] albeit with a slowdown in the Cuvette Centrale after the end of the African humid period.[428] In Kanareykalar orollari, there is evidence of a moister climate on Fuerteventura,[429] The dafna forests changed perhaps as a consequence of the AHP.[103] Recharge of er osti suvlari levels have been inferred from Gran-Kanariya also in the Canary Islands, followed by a decrease after the end of the AHP.[430]
Levant and Mediterranean
High latitude Africa has not undergone large scale changes in the past 11,700 years;[117] The Atlas tog'lari may have blocked the monsoon from expanding further north.[431] Biroq, cave deposits showing a moister climate in southern Marokash,[144] vegetation changes in the O'rta atlas,[432] several floods in Tunis daryolar[433] and ecosystem changes which impacted dasht - mustaqil kemiruvchilar of Northern Africa have been linked to the AHP.[434]
In Pleystotsen va Golotsen humidity in the Mediterranean is often correlated to humidity in the Sahara,[435][436] va o'rtalarida Golotsen iqlimi Iberiya, Italiya, Negev va Shimoliy Afrika was wetter than today;[437] yilda Sitsiliya wettening correlates with ITCZ changes in Northern Africa.[438] Mediterranean precipitation is brought by Mediterranean tsiklonlar va g'arbiy;[435] either increased precipitation from the westerlies[439] or monsoonal precipitation extending into the Mediterranean may have rendered it wetter,[42] although the connection between the African Monsoon and Mediterranean precipitation is unclear.[440][435]
The O'rtayer dengizi became less saline during the AHP, in part due to increased precipitation from the g'arbiy[439] but also from increased river discharge in Africa, leading to the formation of sapropel layers when the increased runoff led to the Mediterranean becoming more stratified.[441][442] The S1 sapropel layer is specifically associated with the AHP[205] and with increased discharge of the Nile and other African rivers.[279] This together with decreased dust transport by wind led to changes in the sediment patterns[443] and an increased marine oziq-ovqat tarmog'i productivity in the Mediterranean,[444] which impacted the development of deep-sea mercanlar.[445]
In Levant, wetter conditions during the AHP are recorded from Jeita g'ori yilda Livan va Soreq g'ori yilda Isroil[446] esa O'lik dengiz and other southern European lakes were low during this period. This is unlike some earlier wet periods in the Sahara; possibly the stronger winter-summer insolation gradient in these earlier wet periods created a different moisture pattern than during the Holocene.[447]
Janubiy Afrika
The effects, if any, of the African humid period on Southern Africa have been unclear. Originally it was proposed that the orbitally driven changes would imply a dry period in Southern Africa which would have given way to moister conditions as the northern AHP ended,[448] as the ITCZ should shift its average position between the two hemispheres.[117] However, the lack of paleoclimatology data with sufficient time resolution from Southern Africa has made it difficult to assess the climate there during the AHP.[448] More recently obtained paleoclimate data have suggested however that southern Africa was actually wetter during the AHP rather than drier,[449][450] perhaps reaching as far as north[153] va shimoli-g'arbiy qismida joylashgan Madagaskar,[405] 23° south[154] and as far as the catchment of the Apelsin daryosi.[451] The area between Tanganyika ko'li va Malavi ko'li has been interpreted as the limit of the AHP's influence.[452]
Conversely, and consistent with the opposite reaction pattern of the Southern Hemisphere, the Zambezi daryosi reached its lowest discharge during the AHP,[453] and the AHP did not reach southeastern Africa.[454] There may have been opposite changes in precipitation between southeast Africa and tropical East Africa,[455] separated by a "hinge zone".[153] Particular changes occurred in central southern Africa, where a dry period co-occurred with an expansion of Makgadikgadi ko'li; presumably increased wetness over the Okavango daryosi catchment in the Angolan tog'lari due to the AHP nourished the lake during a dry interval.[456] In general there is little consistency between Northern and Southern Africa in terms of hydrological changes during the Golotsen.[457] Orbitally-mediated changes in Northern Hemisphere climate affected the Southern Hemisphere through oceanic pathways involving dengiz sathidagi harorat.[458] Additionally, wetter periods unrelated to the AHP may have occurred after deglaciation in Southern Africa.[459]
Numerical estimates
During the African humid period, Saharan rainfall increased to 300–400 millimetres per year (12–16 in/year),[460] and values exceeding 400 millimetres per year (16 in/year) may have spread to 19–21° northern latitude.[461] In the eastern Sahara, a gradient from 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year) increment in the north to 500 millimetres per year (20 in/year) in the south has been identified.[270] An area with less than 100 millimetres per year (3.9 in/year) may have remained in the Eastern Sahara however,[462][463] although its driest parts may have received 20-fold more precipitation than today.[344] Precipitation in the Sahara probably reached no more than 500 millimetres per year (20 in/year),[464] with large uncertainty.[189]
Other reconstructed values of the precipitation increase indicate an annual increase of about 150–320 millimetres (5.9–12.6 in) in Africa,[465] with strong regional variation.[466] From lake levels precipitation increases of 20–33%[467] or 50–100%[178]/40-150% have been inferred for East Africa,[403] with an increase of 40% reconstructed for Northern Africa.[468] In the early Holocene, there appears to have been an eastward- and northward-decreasing trend of humidity.[469] Additionally, at Tayma in Arabia a threefold increase appears to have occurred[470] and precipitation in the Vaxiba qumlari ning Ummon may have reached 250–500 millimetres per year (9.8–19.7 in/year).[471]
Effect on other climate modes
One climate model has indicated that a greener Sahara and reduced dust output would have increased tropik siklon activity, especially over the Atlantic but also in most other tropik siklon havzalari. Changes in the intensity of the storms, decreases in shamolni kesish, changes in atmospheric circulation and less dust in the atmosphere, which results in warmer oceans, are responsible for this phenomenon,[472] despite an expected decrease of tropik to'lqin activity over the Atlantic in climate models.[473] While there are no good paleotempestologiya data for the time of the African humid period that could confirm or refute this theory[474] and many of these records are specific for particular locations,[475] bo'ron faoliyat[476] including past strikes in Puerto-Riko[477] va Viyeklar appear to correlate with the strength of the G'arbiy Afrika mussoni.[478] On the other hand at Katta Bahama banki va Quruq Tortugas ning Janubiy Florida a decrease of hurricane activity took place during the AHP[479] and dust emission is not always anti-correlated to hurricane activity.[480] Finally, the northward movement of the ITCZ during the AHP may have caused a corresponding northward movement of tropik siklogenez areas and storm tracks in the Atlantic Ocean,[481] which could also explain decreased hurricane activity in the Bahamas and Dry Tortugas.[479]
The El-Nino-Janubiy tebranish is a major climate variability mode. Paleoclimatology records from Ekvador va tinch okeani indicate that during the early and middle Holocene ENSO variability was suppressed by about 30–60%, which can be only partially explained through orbital forcing.[482][483] The Green Sahara may have suppressed ENSO activity, forcing a La Nina -like climate state,[477][483] a iqlim modeli this is accompanied by decreased ko'tarilish and deepening of the termoklin in the Eastern Pacific as the Walkerning aylanishi shifts westward.[484] Bunga qo'chimcha Atlantic Nino sea surface temperature patterns develop in the Atlantic Ocean.[485][486]
Remote effects of the AHP on the monsoons of the Northern Hemisphere have also been studied.[487] In climate models, the strengthened and expanding monsoons of Africa and Asia alter the atmospheric circulation of the planet, inducing a wetter Sharqiy Osiyo mussoni and drying across tropical South America and central-eastern North America.[488][489] The reduced dust emission warms the North Atlantic and increases westerly flow into the Shimoliy Amerika mussoni, strengthening it.[487] The far-field precipitation changes reach as far as Europe and Australia.[490] Discrepancies between modelled and reconstructed northward extension[491] and precipitation in the Asian monsoon regions and the Shimoliy Amerika mussoni area may be explained through these remote effects.[492]
Dalgalanmalar
Some gaps with less precipitation took place during the kech muzlik va Golotsen.[208] Davomida Yosh Dryas 12,500–11,500 years ago, the North Atlantic and Europe became much colder again and there was a phase of drought in the area of the African humid period,[493][494] extending over both East Africa,[t][496] where lake levels dropped in many places,[497][498] janubiy Afrika[499] and West Africa. The dry interval extended to India[496] va O'rta er dengizi[500] qayerda qumtepa faoliyat sodir bo'ldi Negev.[501] At the end of the Younger Dryas, precipitation, lake levels and river runoff increased again, although south of the equator the return of humid conditions was slower than the relatively abrupt change to its north.[502][470]
Another dry phase took place about 8,200 years ago, spanning East Africa[162] and Northern Africa[u] as documented by various lines of evidence[504] such as decreased water levels in lakes.[505] It coincided with cooling in the Northern Atlantic,[506] in surrounding landmasses such as Grenlandiya[507] and around the world;[310] the drought may be related to the 8,2 kiloyearday tadbir.[493] The 8,200 year event has also been noted in the Magreb, where it is associated with a transition of the Capsian madaniyat[508] as well as with cultural changes both in the Sahara and the Mediterranean;[299] at the Gobero cemetery a population change occurred after this dry interruption.[509] This episode appears to have been caused by the draining of ice-dammed lakes in North America [510] although a low latitude origin has also been suggested.[511]
Cooling of the Northern Atlantic during Geynrix voqeasi 1 and the Younger Dryas associated with a weaker Atlantika meridionalining ag'darilish aylanishi leads to atmospheric pressure anomalies that shift the Tropical Easterly Jet and precipitation belts south, making Northern Africa drier.[167][186][512] Storm tracks shift north away from the Mediterranean.[513] Earlier Heinrich events were also accompanied by drought in North Africa.[47] Likewise, a weakening of moisture transport and a less eastward position of the Congo Air Boundary contributed to reducing precipitation in East Africa[496] although some parts of southern Africa at Malavi ko'li were wetter during the Younger Dryas.[514]
Many humidity fluctuations in the early Holocene appear to be caused by the discharge of erigan suv dan Laurentide muz qatlami into the Atlantic, which weakens the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation.[513] Some dry periods in marine cores in the Gulf of Guinea appear to coincide with events recorded in Grenlandiya muz tomirlari.[515] Other variations in precipitation observed in records have been attributed to quyosh faolligi o'zgarishlar,[11] water levels of Turkana ko‘li for example appear to reflect the 11-year quyosh aylanishi.[516]
Yilda Turkana ko‘li, water level fluctuations took place between 8,500 and 4,500 years before present, with highstands before 8,400, around 7,000 and between 5,500 and 5,000[517] and lowstands around 8,000, 10,000 and 12,000 years before present.[518] The highstands appear to be controlled by dengiz sathidagi harorat patterns in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, but also by overflow of water from Suguta ko'li va Chew Bahir basins into Lake Turkana,[517] which themselves received water from additional lakes.[388] Vulkanik va tektonik phenomena occur at Lake Turkana, but do not have the magnitude required to explain large changes in lake level.[519] Water level fluctuations have also been inferred for Chad ko'li on the basis of pollen data, especially towards the end of the AHP.[520] In Taoudenni lake fluctuations of about a quarter-millennium have been recorded[521] and frequent droughts occurred in the Eastern Sahara.[522]
Other variations appear to have occurred 9,500 – 9,000 and 7,400 – 6,800[249] as well as 10,200, 8,200, 6,600 and 6,000 years before present; they were accompanied by decreased population density in parts of the Sahara,[513] and other dry interludes in Egypt have been noted 9,400 – 9,300, 8,800 – 8,600, 7,100 – 6,900 and 6,100 – 5,900 years ago.[523] The duration and severity of dry events is difficult to reconstruct.[310] During dry episodes, humans might have headed to waterbodies which still had resources,[303] and cultural changes in the central Sahara have been linked to some dry episodes.[524] Aside from fluctuations, a southward retreat of the humid period may have been underway after 8,000 years ago[525] with a major drought around 7,800 years ago.[526]
Oxiri
The African humid period ended about 6,000–5,000 years ago,[14][527] an ending date of 5,500 years hozirgacha tez-tez ishlatiladi.[528] After vegetation declined,[58] the Sahara became barren and was claimed by sand.[126] Shamol eroziyasi increased in northern Africa,[529] and dust export from the now-desert[513] and from dried up lakes[530] such as the Bodélé Basin grew; Bodélé today is the largest single source of dust on Earth.[531] The lakes dried up, mezik vegetation disappeared, and sedentary human populations were replaced by more mobile cultures.[14] The transition from the "green Sahara" to the present-day dry Sahara is considered to be the greatest environmental transition of the Holocene in northern Africa;[532] today almost no precipitation falls in the region.[33] The end of the AHP but also its beginning could be considered a "climate crisis" given the strong and extended impact.[506] Drying extended as far as the Kanareykalar orollari[533] va janubi-sharqiy Eron.[534]
The Piora tebranishi cold period in the Alp tog'lari[535] coincides with the end of the AHP;[331][536] the period 5,600–5,000 kalibrlangan years ago was characterized by widespread cooling and more variable precipitation changes around the world[536] including a cooling of sea surface temperatures on both sides of the Shimoliy Atlantika.[537] Some changes in climate possibly extended into southeastern Avstraliya,[538] Markaziy Amerika[539] va ichiga Janubiy Amerika qaerda neoglacial boshlangan.[540]
A major pan-tropical environmental change took place about 4,000 calibrated years ago.[541] This change was accompanied by the collapse of ancient civilizations, severe drought in Africa, Asia and the Middle East and the retreat of muzliklar kuni Kilimanjaro tog'i[542] va Keniya tog'i.[543]
Xronologiya
Whether the drying happened everywhere at the same time and whether it took place in centuries or millennia is unclear[228][35][126] in part due to disagreeing records[221][544] and has led to controversy,[44][210] and such a disagreement on timing also exists with respect to the expected vegetation changes.[157][195] Marine cores usually indicate an abrupt change[545][123] but not without exceptions[44] esa polen data do not, perhaps due to regional and local differences in vegetation.[546] Er osti suvlari and local vegetation can modify local conditions;[292] groundwater-fed water bodies for example persisted longer than those nourished by rain.[230]
Most recently, the idea has taken hold that the end of the African humid period occurred from north to south in a stepwise fashion.[547][548][292] In the western Sahara and east Africa it ended within 500 years[549] with a one-step drying 6,000 – 5,000 years ago north of the present-day monsoon belt. Farther south, precipitation decrease was more protracted[12][101][550] and closer to the equator the AHP ended between 4,000 and 2,500 years ago.[101][12] A later end in northeast Africa about 4,000 years ago may reflect the different configuration of landmasses and thus monsoon behaviour,[551] while other research has found a westward propagating drying trend.[100]
Some evidence points to a two-phase change in climate with two distinct dry transitions[552] caused by the existence of two different steps of insolation decrease at which climate changes.[553] Distinct environmental changes may have occurred in Central Africa, Western Africa and East Africa.[210] Finally, sometimes the 4.2 kiloyear hodisa is considered to be the true end of the AHP,[511] especially in central Africa.[554]
Increased variability in precipitation may have preceded the end of the AHP; this is commonly observed before a sudden change in climate.[555] Yilda Gilf Kebir, between 6,300 and 5,200 years ago apparently a qishki yog'ingarchilik regime became established as the AHP ended.[172] Later fluctuations in climate that produced brief humid spells also took place,[556] such as a moister period between 500 Miloddan avvalgi – 300 Idoralar yilda Rim Northern Africa and along the O'lik dengiz[557] and an earlier one 2,100 years before present in the western Sahel.[103]
Sahara and Sahel
After a first brief lake level drop between 5,700 and 4,700 calibrated years ago that might reflect climate variability towards the end of the African humid period,[558] water levels in Megachad ko'li decreased quickly after 5,200 years before present.[559] It shrank to about 5% of its former size,[237] with the deeper northern Bodele basin drying up entirely about 2,000[243]-1,000 years ago[560] as it was disconnected from the southern basin where its major tributary, the Chari daryosi, enters Lake Chad.[237] The dried out basin was now exposed to the Harmattan winds, which blow dust out of the dry lake bed,[561] making it the single largest source of dust in the world.[562] Dunes formed in the dried-up Sahara[563] or began moving again after stabilizing during the AHP.[564]
The tropical vegetation was replaced by desert vegetation, in some places suddenly and in others more gradually.[565] Bo'ylab Atlantika coast, the vegetation retreat was slowed by a stage of dengiz sathining ko'tarilishi that increased soil moisture levels, delaying the retreat by about two millennia.[566][567] In Libya at Wadi Tanezzuft the end of the humid period was also delayed by leftover water in dune systems and in the Tassili mountains until 2,700 years ago, when river activity finally ceased.[67][568] A brief moist pulse between 5,000 – 4,000 years ago in the Tibesti led to the development of the so-called "Lower Teras ".[569] The Egyptian Sahara might still have been vegetated until 4,200 years ago, based on depictions of savanna atrof-muhit Fifth Dynasty tombs in Egypt.[570]
Da Yoa ko'li, bu er osti suvlari -fed, vegetation decreased and became desert vegetation between 4,700–4,300 and 2,700 years ago, while the lake became gipersalin 4,000 years ago.[571][572][573] However, the climate there may have been affected by the Tibesti tog'lari and the end of the AHP thus delayed,[559] va fossil groundwater left by the AHP nourishes the lake to this day.[574] In the central Sahara, water resources in the mountains persisted longer.[575]
East Africa and Arabia
In northern East Africa, water levels dropped rapidly about 5,500 years ago[181] while in Hoti cave in Arabia a southward retreat of the Hindiston mussoni took place about 5,900 years ago.[104] Drying is also documented from Ummon,[111] nd rivers and lakes of Arabia became intermittent or entirely dry.[576] The Moviy Nil basin became less moist[111] with a noticeable decrease of Nile discharge about 4,000 years ago.[443] Decreased discharge of the Nile led to the cessation of sapropel deposition and loyqa activity off its delta.[94]
Some data from Efiopiya va Afrika shoxi indicate that drying there may have begun already 7,000–8,000 years ago or earlier.[498][355] Reconstructions from Lake Abiyata in Ethiopia suggest that the end of the African humid period took the form of severe qurg'oqchilik rather than a gradual decrease of precipitation.[577] Drying in Arabia commenced about 7,000 calibrated years ago[365] and there are large disparities in the timing between various parts of Arabia[40] but a tendency towards an quruq climate between 6,000 and 5,000 years ago has been observed[578] which continued until 2,700 years ago.[357] In Beyl tog'lari va Sanetti platosi of Ethiopia vegetation changes signalling a drier climate took place around 4,600 years ago.[579]
Forest cover in the area of the African Great Lakes decreased between 4,700 and 3,700 years ago,[406] although drying at Viktoriya ko'li had begun around 8,000 years ago,[413] at Lake Rukwa 6,700 years ago,[404] at Lake Tanganyika about 6,000 years ago[413] va da Edvard ko'li major changes in lake chemistry consistent with drying are noted 5,200 years ago. There a minor recovery in vegetation took place between 2,500 and 2,000 years ago, followed by a much more rapid appearance of grasses accompanied also by substantial yong'in faoliyat. This might have been the most severe drought of the Lake Edward region in the Golotsen, with many lakes such as Jorj ko'li dropping significantly or drying up altogether.[580] Other lakes such as Nakuru, Turkana, Lake Chew Bahir, Abbe ko'li va Zway ko'li also dropped between 5,400–4,200 years ago.[581] Decreased vegetation cover in the catchment of the Moviy Nil 3600-4000 yil oldin boshlangan daryoda cho'kindi tashishning ko'payishi bilan bog'liq.[582]
AHP ning oxiri Turkana ko‘li hozirgi kundan taxminan 5300 yil oldin sodir bo'lgan va ko'l sathining pasayishi bilan birga bo'lgan[583] va uning hududidagi boshqa ko'llardan Turkana ko'liga toshib ketishining to'xtashi.[386] 5000 dan 4200 gacha, Turkana ko‘li sho'rlanib, suv sathidan chiqadigan suv sathidan pasayib ketdi Nil.[584] AHP oxiriga kelib ko'lda va boshqa mintaqaviy ko'llarda suv harorati ko'tarilgan ko'rinadi, so'ngra uning tugashidan keyin pasayish kuzatiladi[585] ehtimol insolyatsiya AHP tugashi paytida amal qilgan mavsumiylik tartibi.[586] Turkana ko'lida suv sathining pasayishi Nil va daryolariga ham ta'sir ko'rsatdi Oldindan unga bog'liq bo'lgan jamiyatlar.[587]
O'rta er dengizi
Liviya va O'rta atlas asta-sekin quruqlashdi,[565] va quritish Marokash taxminan 6000 kishi bo'lib o'tdi radiokarbon yillar oldin,[552] Haydovchilar uchun sharoitlar Iberiya 6000 dan 4000 yil ilgari Afrikadagi namlik davri tugagan, ehtimol bu tobora tez-tez kuzatilayotgan ijobiy natijalar bilan bog'liq Shimoliy Atlantika tebranishi epizodlar va ITCZ siljishi.[588][589] O'rta dengizning shimoliy qirg'og'ida yanada murakkab o'zgarishlar topildi.[590] A 4.2 kiloyear hodisa dan chang yozuvlarida qayd etilgan O'rta er dengizi[591] va Atlantika okeanining aylanishidagi o'zgarishlar sabab bo'lishi mumkin.[592]
Tropik G'arbiy Afrika
Yilda Bosumtwi ko'li Afrikaning nam davri taxminan 3000 yil oldin tugagan[126] 5,410 ± 80 yil oldin 3170 ± 70 yil oldin tugagan qisqa namlashdan keyin. Bu avvalgi, ammo shunga o'xshash o'zgarishlar g'arbiy tomonda Senegal va keyinchalik, ammo shunga o'xshash o'zgarishlar Kongo muxlisi vaqt o'tishi bilan yog'ingarchilik zonasining janubga siljishini aks ettiradi.[512] Ba'zi quritish Sahel va the o'rtasida bir vaqtning o'zida sodir bo'ldi Gvineya ko'rfazi.[186] Gvineo-Kongoli mintaqasidagi ba'zi ko'llar qurib qolgan, boshqalari esa nisbatan ta'sirlanmagan.[566]
AHP oxirida G'arbiy Afrikada quruqroq iqlimga moyillik kuzatilmoqda.[593] U erda 5000 dan 3000 yil muqaddam zich o'simliklar tobora yupqalashgan,[580] va o'simliklarning katta buzilishlari taxminan 4200 va 3000-2.500 atrofida sodir bo'lgan[594]/ 2400 yil oldin kalibrlangan.[595] Namroq bo'lgan sharoitning qisqacha qaytishi 4000 yil oldin sodir bo'lgan[506] 3500 dan 1700 yil avval katta quruq faza sodir bo'lgan.[593] Qurg'oqchilik 5,200–3,600 yil oldin Sahroda o'rnatildi.[596] Yilda Senegal zamonaviy tipdagi o'simliklar taxminan 2000 yil oldin paydo bo'lgan.[597]
Markaziy Afrika
Keyinchalik janubda ekvator hozirgi kungacha 6100 dan 3000 gacha kalibrlangan savanna o'rmonlar hisobiga kengaytirilgan bo'lib, o'tish davri hozirgi kungacha 2500 kalibrlangan yilgacha davom etishi mumkin;[541] 4 ° janubiy va 7 ° shimoliy kenglik oralig'idagi hudud uchun boshqa vaqt tahminiga ko'ra 4500-1300 yil oldin o'rmon qoplami kamaygan.[566] In Adamava platosi (Kamerun[598]), the Ubangui platosi (Markaziy Afrika Respublikasi[598]) va Kamerun vulqon chizig'i tog 'o'rmonlari Afrikaning nam davri oxirida g'oyib bo'ldi.[599] Adamava platosida savanna 4000 yil avval kalibrlanganidan beri doimiy ravishda kengayib bordi.[595] Bunday o'zgarish ham sodir bo'ldi Benin va Nigeriya 4500 dan 3400 yilgacha kalibrlangan.[566] Tropik mintaqalarda ko'plab o'simliklarning o'zgarishi, ehtimol, uzoqroq vaqtga bog'liq edi quruq mavsum[600] va ehtimol ITCZ ning kichikroq kengligi.[595]
Afrikaning janubiy yarim shari
Janubiy yarim sharda Malavi ko'li quritish keyinroq - hozirgi zamondan 1000 yil oldin boshlangan - xuddi 8000 yil muqaddam boshlangan Afrika nam davri kabi.[585] Aksincha, suv sathining ko'payishi Etosha pan (Namibiya ) AHP oxirida ITCZ ning janubga qarab harakatlanishi bilan bog'liq ko'rinadi[601] bo'lsa-da stalagmit Namibiyadagi Dante g'oridagi o'sish ma'lumotlari AHP davrida iqlimi namroq bo'lgan deb talqin qilingan.[449]
Mexanizmlar
Nam davrning oxiri o'zgarishni aks ettiradigan ko'rinadi insolyatsiya Golosen davrida,[101] chunki yozgi insolatsiyaning tobora pasayib borishi Yer yarim sharlari orasidagi insolatsiya gradiyentlarining pasayishiga olib keldi.[602] Ammo insolatsiya o'zgarishiga qaraganda quritish ancha keskin bo'lganga o'xshaydi;[123] yoki yo'qligi aniq emas chiziqli emas mulohazalar iqlimning keskin o'zgarishiga olib keldi va bu jarayon boshqariladimi yoki yo'qmi, aniq emas orbital o'zgarishlar, keskin edi.[126] Shuningdek, Janubiy yarim shar isitildi va bu ITCZ ning janubga siljishiga olib keldi;[603] Orbital harakatga asoslangan insolatsiya Janubiy yarimsharda Golosenga nisbatan ko'paygan.[115]
Yog'ingarchilik kamayganligi sababli o'simliklar kamayib, o'z navbatida albedo va yog'ingarchilik miqdori yanada kamayadi.[130] Bundan tashqari, o'simliklar AHP oxiriga kelib yog'ingarchilik miqdorining ko'payishiga javob bergan bo'lishi mumkin[127] garchi bu qarashga e'tiroz bildirilgan bo'lsa ham.[604] Bu yog'ingarchilikning to'satdan o'zgarishiga olib kelishi mumkin edi, garchi bu nuqtai nazardan shubhalanayotgan bo'lsa-da, ko'p joylarda Afrikaning nam davrining oxiri to'satdan emas, asta-sekin bo'lgan.[605] Yuqori va pastki kenglikdagi o'simliklar iqlim o'zgarishiga turlicha javob berishi mumkin; masalan, o'simliklarning turli xil jamoalari AHP ni oxiriga etkazishi mumkin edi.[73]
Boshqa taklif qilingan mexanizmlar:
- O'zgargan holda qutb insolatsiyasining pasayishi kosmik nur oqimlari o'sishiga yordam berishi mumkin dengiz muzi va yuqori kengliklarda sovutish, bu esa o'z navbatida ekvatordan qutbgacha bo'lgan harorat gradyanlarining kuchayishiga olib keladi subtropik antisiklonlar va yanada qizg'in ko'tarilish masalan Benguela oqimi.[180]
- Balki yuqori kenglikdagi aylanishlarning o'zgarishi muhim rol o'ynagan bo'lishi mumkin,[602] boshqasining potentsial paydo bo'lishi kabi erigan suv /muzli rafting hozirgi pulsdan 5700 yil oldin.[603] Golotsen o'rtalarida insolatsiyaning pasayishi iqlim tizimini o'zgarishlarga sezgirroq qilgan bo'lishi mumkin, nima uchun avvalgi taqqoslanadigan impulslar namlik davrini yaxshilik bilan tugatmaganligini tushuntirib berdi.[606]
- Bunga dalillar mavjud muzliklar yilda Tibet kabi Nanga Parbat davomida kengaytirilgan Golotsen, ayniqsa AHP oxiriga yaqin.[607] Yilda iqlim modellari, qor va muzning ko'payishi Tibet platosi hind va afrika mussonlarining zaiflashishiga olib kelishi mumkin, ikkinchisining oldingisidan 1500-2000 yilgacha zaiflashishi mumkin.[608]
- Hind okeanining dengiz sathidagi haroratning pasayishi Sharqiy Afrikaning qurishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin, ammo bu okeandan harorat ko'rsatkichlari bo'yicha kelishuv mavjud emas.[159] Bundan tashqari, harorat o'zgarishiga oid dalillar mavjud emas Gvineya ko'rfazi AHP tugashini tushuntirishi mumkin bo'lgan muhim vaqtda.[181]
- Qo'shimcha teskari aloqa jarayonlarida tuproqning qurishi va yog'ingarchilik kamayganidan keyin o'simliklarning yo'qolishi,[126] bu shamolni boshqarishiga olib kelgan bo'lar edi deflyatsiya tuproqlarning.[609]
- Ning kengayishi dengiz muzi atrofida Antarktida taxminan 5000 yil oldin sozlangan yana bir ijobiy fikr bildirgan bo'lishi mumkin.[610]
- Sahroning kengayib borayotgan quruq kamari mintaqalarni itarib yubordi siklogenez ichida O'rta er dengizi shimoli-g'arbiy-shimoliy yo'nalishda, natijada shamol o'zgaradi[611] qismlarida yog'ingarchilik rejimi o'zgaradi Italiya.[612]
- Yuqori kengliklarda iqlim o'zgarishi AHP ni tugatish sababi sifatida taklif qilingan. Xususan, taxminan 6000-5000 yil oldin Arktika bilan sovuqroq bo'ldi dengiz muzi kengaymoqda, Evropada va Shimoliy Afrika tashqarisida harorat pasaymoqda va Atlantika meridionalining ag'darilish aylanishi zaiflashish.[181] Ushbu sovutish tendentsiyasi susaytirishi mumkin Tropik Easterly Jet va shu tariqa Afrika ustidan tushadigan yog'ingarchilik miqdori kamaygan.[613]
Yog'ingarchilikning orbital ta'sirida o'zgarishi quyosh aylanishi; xususan, AHP nihoyasiga etkazish bosqichidagi quyosh faolligi maksimal darajasi orbital ta'sirini kamaytirishi va shu bilan yog'ingarchilik darajasini barqarorlashtirishi mumkin, quyosh faolligi minimasi esa orbital ta'sirini kuchaytirdi va shu bilan suv sathining tez pasayishiga olib keldi. Turkana ko‘li.[614] Boshqa tomondan, Viktoriya ko'lida quyosh o'zgarishi goh qurg'oqchilikka, goh namlikka olib keladi, ehtimol ITCZdagi o'zgarishlar tufayli.[603]
Inson vositachiligidagi potentsial o'zgarishlar
Taxminan 2000 yil oldin Sharqiy Afrikada o'simliklarning katta o'zgarishlariga sabab bo'lishi mumkin inson keng qamrovli o'rmonlarni kesishni o'z ichiga olgan faoliyat temir davomida ishlab chiqarish Temir asri.[615] Shu kabi o'zgarishlar kuzatilgan Adamava platosi[616] (Kamerun[598]), ammo keyinchalik arxeologik joylarning sanasi Kamerundagi odamlarning kengayishi va atrof-muhitning buzilishi o'rtasida hech qanday bog'liqlik topmadi.[617] G'arbiy Afrika bo'ylab xuddi shunday yomg'ir o'rmonlarining tanazzulga uchrashi 3000 va 2000 yil oldin sodir bo'lgan[618] va degradatsiya "uchinchi ming yillik tropik o'rmon inqirozi" deb ham ataladi.[619] Iqlim vositachiligidagi jarayonlar Sharqiy Afrikada erdan foydalanish o'zgarishi ta'sirini kuchaytirgan bo'lishi mumkin.[410] Boshqa tomondan, Sudan va Saxil savannasida inson faoliyati unchalik ta'sir qilmaganga o'xshaydi,[237] va Markaziy Afrikada o'rmonlarning o'zgarishi antropogen o'zgarishlarning kamligi yoki umuman yo'qligi bilan iqlim o'zgarishi bilan aniq boshlangan.[620] Savol paleoekologlar va arxeologlar o'rtasida qizg'in munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi.[621]
Afrikada namlik davrida Afrikada odamlar faol bo'lishgan bo'lsa-da, 1999 yilda Klauzen va uning hamkasblari tomonidan tahlil qilingan iqlim modellari shuni ko'rsatadiki, uning oxiri tushuntirish sifatida inson faoliyatiga muhtoj emas.[622] garchi o'simliklarning o'zgarishi inson faoliyati tufayli yuzaga kelgan bo'lsa.[212] Keyinchalik shunday deb taklif qilishdi o'tlab ketish taxminan 5500 yil oldin AHP ning tugashiga sabab bo'lishi mumkin;[292] nima uchun Sahroi sahro cho'lga aylanganini odam boshlanishisiz inson ta'siridan izohlashi mumkin muzlik davri; odatda Sahara cho'lining mavjudligi yuqori kenglikdagi muzliklarning kengayishi bilan bog'liq.[334] Keyinchalik olib borilgan tadqiqotlar, aksincha, odamlarning chorvadorligi AHP ni oxirini yarim ming yilga kechiktirgan bo'lishi mumkin degan fikrni ilgari surdi.[623] chunki odamlar tomonidan haydaladigan hayvonlar podalari yaxshi yaylov sharoitlarini qidirib, yaylovlarning o'simliklarga nisbatan muvozanatli ta'siriga va shu bilan o'simliklarning yuqori sifatiga olib kelishi mumkin.[624][625] Biroq, AHP tugaganidan keyin chang chiqindilarining ko'payishini tushuntirish uchun chorva mollarini ko'paytirish talab qilingan.[626]
Global
Shimoliy tropikada umumiy quritish tendentsiyasi kuzatiladi[627] 5000 dan 4500 yilgacha kalibrlangan mussonlar zaiflashdi.[628] Osiyo mussoni 5000-4000 yil oldin yog'ingarchilik miqdori kamaygan.[20] 5500 yil oldin qurg'oqchilik qayd etilgan Mo'g'uliston[629] va taxminan 5500-5000 yil oldin qurg'oqchilik sharoitlari bo'lgan Sharqiy Amerika Florida, Nyu-Xempshir va Ontario.[630][631] Quritish tendentsiyasi ham qayd etilgan Karib dengizi va Markaziy Atlantika.[632]
Aksincha, Janubiy Amerikada mussonning shartli majburlashga mos keladigan teskari uslubda harakat qilishiga dalillar mavjud;[627] suv sathi Titikaka ko'li O'rta Golotsen davrida past bo'lgan va AHP tugaganidan keyin yana ko'tarila boshlagan.[633] Xuddi shunday, namlikning ko'payishi tendentsiyasi ham sodir bo'ldi Toshli tog'lar Ushbu paytda[634] u atrofida quruqroq faza bilan birga bo'lsa-da Tahoe ko'li, Kaliforniya va G'arbiy Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari.[635]
Oqibatlari
Odamlar
Arxeologik joylarda kuzatilganidek, Shimoliy Afrikada aholi soni 6300-5200 yil oldin kamaygan[126] ming yildan kamroq vaqt ichida,[609] shimoldan boshlanadi.[636] Ichki Arabistonda taxminan 5300 yil oldin ko'plab aholi punktlari tark qilingan.[134] Biroz Neolitik cho'ldagi odamlar er osti suvlarini ekspluatatsiya qilish tufayli uzoq vaqt davom etishdi.[552]
Turli xil odamlarning quritilishiga turli xil aholi populyatsiyalari javob berishdi,[326] G'arbiy Saxaradagi javoblar Markaziy Sahrodagilardan farq qiladi.[8] Markaziy Sahroda chorvachilik ovchilarni yig'ish faoliyati o'rnini egalladi[637] va boshqalar ko'chmanchi turmush tarzi yarim harakatsiz turmush tarzini almashtirdi[638] da kuzatilganidek Akak tog'lari Liviya.[309] Ko'chmanchi turmush tarzi Sharqiy Sahroda ham rivojlangan /Qizil dengiz tepaliklari AHP tugashiga javoban.[639] Uy hayvonlaridan foydalanishda qoramollardan qo'ylar va echkilarga o'tish yuz berdi, chunki ular quruq iqlim sharoitlariga mos keladi, bu o'zgarish tosh san'ati bu vaqtda mollar g'oyib bo'ldi.[640]
Arabistondagi sug'orish tizimlarining rivojlanishi quritish tendentsiyasiga moslashish bo'lishi mumkin.[365] Resurslarning pasayishi inson populyatsiyasini moslashishga majbur qildi,[641] umuman baliq ovi va ovchilik dehqonchilik va chorvachilik foydasiga kamaydi.[642] Biroq, AHP nihoyasiga yetishi oqibatida odamlarning oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqarishga ta'siri munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi.[643]
Issiq epizod va bir paytga to'g'ri kelgan qurg'oqchilik hayvon va odamlarning unchalik qulay bo'lmagan hududlarga ko'chishini boshlagan bo'lishi mumkin[586] va ko'rinishi yaylovchilar qaerda ilgari baliqchilik - Turkana ko'lida bo'lganidek, mustaqil jamiyatlar mavjud edi.[389] Odamlar ko'chib o'tishdi Nil, qaerda jamiyat Qadimgi Misr bilan fir'avnlar va piramidalar oxir-oqibat bular tomonidan soxtalashtirilgan iqlim qochqinlari[644][609][645] ehtimol yangilangan ko'ngilni aks ettiradi;[331] shuning uchun AHP ni oxiri Qadimgi Misrning tug'ilishi uchun javobgar deb hisoblash mumkin.[645][1] Nil daryosidagi quyi suv sathlari, shuningdek, vodiyni o'rnatilishiga yordam bergan Kerma.[646] Xuddi shunday jarayon ham rivojlanishiga olib kelgan bo'lishi mumkin Garamantian tsivilizatsiya.[647] Odamlarning daryolar bo'yidagi yanada mehmondo'st sharoitlariga va sug'orishni rivojlantirishga yo'naltirilgan bunday ko'chishlari ham davomida sodir bo'lgan Furot, Dajla va Indus, rivojlanishiga olib keladi Shumer va Xarappa tsivilizatsiyalari.[648][73] Aholining tog'li hududlarga siljishi haqida ham xabar berilgan Havo tog'lari, Xoggar va Tibesti.[468] Kabi boshqa joylarda Akak tog'lari populyatsiyalar aksincha qolgan vohalar[649][556] va ovchilar ham Afrika Shoxida qolishdi.[161]
Ammo Nilning o'zi umuman ta'sirlanmadi;[381] The 4.2 kiloyear hodisa[650] va AHP ning oxiri .ning qulashi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin Eski Shohlik Misrda[35] O'sha paytgacha taxminan 4160 yil o'tgach, Nil toshqini uch o'n yil davomida barbod bo'lganida.[651] AHP tugaganidan keyin yog'ingarchilikning davomiy pasayishi, oxiriga sabab bo'lishi mumkin Akkad qirolligi yilda Mesopotamiya.[652] Oxiri Garamantian tsivilizatsiya, shuningdek, boshqa tarixiy voqealar muhimroq bo'lishiga qaramay, iqlim o'zgarishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin;[653] 1600 yil oldin Tanezzuft vohasida bu albatta quritish tendentsiyasiga tegishli.[649]
Markaziy Afrikada o'rmonlar uzilib qoldi va savannalar ning harakatlanishi va o'sishini osonlashtiradigan ba'zi joylarda hosil bo'lgan Bantu so'zlashuvchi aholi;[605] bular o'z navbatida ekotizimga ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.[654] O'simliklar o'zgarishi qishloq xo'jaligini tashkil etishga yordam bergan bo'lishi mumkin.[620] Yog'ingarchilikning nisbatan sekin pasayishi odamlarga o'zgaruvchan iqlim sharoitiga moslashishga ko'proq vaqt berdi.[415]
Madaniy o'zgarishlar, masalan, iqlim o'zgarishi natijasida ham sodir bo'lishi mumkin[655] gender rollarining o'zgarishi, rivojlanishi elita,[656] mavjudligining ko'payishi odamlarning dafn marosimlari ilgari mol dafn etilishi ustun bo'lgan joyda,[657] Sahroda yodgorlik me'morchiligining ko'payishi ham tobora salbiy iqlimga javob bo'lishi mumkin.[637] Iqlim o'zgarishi davrida qoramollarni xonakilashtirishning tarqalishi[309] va chorvadorlar qurib borayotgan Sahrodan janub tomon qochib qutulishganda[658][659] bu hodisalar bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin, garchi chorva mollarini uyg'unlashtirish tarqalishining aniq jarayoni tafsilotlari hali ham tortishuvlarga sabab bo'lmoqda.[655] Va nihoyat, AHP oxirida qishloq xo'jaligi amaliyotidagi o'zgarishlar ko'paytirish bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin bezgak va uning qo'zg'atuvchisi Plazmodium falciparum; o'z navbatida ular kelib chiqishi bilan o'zaro bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin inson genomi kabi variantlar o'roqsimon hujayra kasalligi bezgakka chidamliligi bilan bog'liq.[660]
Odam bo'lmagan
Sahroda hayvonlar va o'simliklarning populyatsiyalari parchalanib ketgan va ba'zi qulay hududlar bilan cheklangan, masalan, tog 'tizmalarining nam joylari; Masalan, bu faqat alohida suv havzalarida saqlanadigan baliqlar va timsohlarga tegishli. O'rta er dengizi o'simliklar[661][662] kabi sarvlar juda tog'larda ham turing,[663] ba'zilari bilan birga sudralib yuruvchilar quritish natijasida tog'larda qolib ketgan bo'lishi mumkin.[664] The qamchi o'rgimchak Musicodamon atlanteus , ehtimol, o'tgan nam sharoitlarning qoldig'i.[665] Bufalo turlari Syncerus antiquus Ehtimol, ob-havoning qurishi natijasida paydo bo'lgan yaylovchilarning kuchaygan raqobatidan yo'q bo'lib ketgan.[666] Afrikaning Buyuk ko'llar mintaqasining qurishi ikkiga bo'lingan gorilla populyatsiyalar g'arbiy va sharqiy populyatsiyalarga bo'linib ketdi,[407] va shunga o'xshash populyatsiya hasharotlar turlari o'rtasida bo'lingan Chalinus albitibialis va Chalinus timnaensis Shimoliy Afrika va Yaqin Sharqda ham u yerdagi cho'llarning kengayishi sabab bo'lishi mumkin.[667] AHP davrida Sahroda keng tarqalgan jirafalar Sahelga ko'chib o'tishga majbur bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin; bu Megachad ko'lining ajralib turuvchi ta'siri bilan birgalikda jirafaning pastki turlarini rivojlanishiga ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.[668] Iqlim o'zgarishi inson ta'siriga va Misrda bir qator yirik sutemizuvchilarning yo'q bo'lib ketishiga sabab bo'lishi mumkin.[669]
The Dahomey Gap[v] 4500–3200 yillarni tashkil etgan hozirgacha, AHP oxiriga to'g'ri keladi.[671] The portali port ga o'tish tufayli O'rta dengizda pasayib ketdi oligotrofik Afrika daryolaridan oqish kamayganligi sababli sharoitlar.[444] Cho'l lakasi Saxaradagi ochiq jinslarda hosil bo'lgan.[672]
Global iqlim
Subtropik botqoqli joylarning qisqarishi, ehtimol atmosferaning pasayishiga olib keldi metan oldin 5500 dan 5000 yilgacha bo'lgan konsentratsiyalar boreal botqoqli hududlar kengayib, subtropik botqoqli joylarning yo'qolishini qoplab, atmosferada metan kontsentratsiyasining yuqori bo'lishiga olib keladi.[506] Aksincha, ortadi atmosferadagi metan ichida aniqlangan konsentratsiyalar Grenlandiya muz tomirlari taxminan 14 700 yil oldin,[96] va atmosferadagi karbonat angidrid erta Golotsenning pasayishi AHP tufayli yuzaga keladigan o'simliklarning kengayishiga taalluqli bo'lishi mumkin.[673] Keyinchalik karbonat angidrid konsentratsiyasi taxminan 7000 yildan keyin oshdi, chunki biosfera qurg'oqchilikning ko'payishiga javoban uglerod chiqara boshladi.[652]
Okeandagi quruqlikdan kelib chiqqan chang miqdorining to'satdan ko'payishi burg'ulash yadrosi yopiq Keyp Blan, Mavritaniya, 5,500 yil avvalgi AHP ni bir necha asrlarda sodir bo'lganligini aks ettiradi deb talqin qilingan.[674] Potentsial qurigan ko'l havzalari chang uchun muhim manba bo'ldi.[573][116] Bugungi kunda Sahroi dunyodagi yagona yirik chang manbai bo'lib, iqlim va ekotizimlarga juda ta'sir qiladi,[675] o'sishi kabi Amazon yomg'ir o'rmonlari.[676]
5500-5000 yil avvalgi davr ham global iqlimdagi katta o'zgarishlarga guvoh bo'lgan, shu jumladan global sovishni boshlagan Neoglasial.[677] Bir iqlim modelida AHP oxirida Sahroning cho'lga aylanishi atmosferada va okeanda qutblarga etkaziladigan issiqlik miqdorini kamaytiradi va 1-2 ° C (1,8-3,6 ° F) gacha sovishini keltirib chiqaradi, ayniqsa qishda The Arktika va kengayishi dengiz muzi. Arktikada qayta tiklangan harorat haqiqatan ham sovishini ko'rsatadi, ammo iqlim modeliga qaraganda unchalik sezilmaydi.[678] Bundan tashqari, iqlim modelidagi ushbu iqlim o'zgarishi kuchaygan salbiy bilan birga keladi Arktika tebranishi davlatlar, kuchsizroq subpolar gyre va yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi va sovuq havoning tarqalishi Evropaning katta qismida; paleoklimat ma'lumotlarida ham bunday o'zgarishlar kuzatilgan.[679] Ushbu topilmalar Sahroning vegetatsiya holati Shimoliy yarim sharning iqlimiga ta'sir qilishini anglatadi.[680] O'z navbatida, bu yuqori kenglikdagi sovutish Afrika bo'ylab yog'ingarchilikni yanada kamaytirishi mumkin.[613]
Bugungi holat
Hozirda afrikalik Musson 5 ° janubdan 25 ° shimoliy kenglikgacha bo'lgan iqlimga hali ham ta'sir qiladi; shimoliy 10 ° atrofida joylashgan kengliklar yog'ingarchilikning asosiy qismini mussondan oladi[w] yozda, kamroq miqdordagi yog'ingarchilik shimolga to'g'ri keladi. Shunday qilib shimol tomonda cho'llar namroq joylar vegetatsiya paytida topilishi mumkin.[127] Markaziy Sahroda yillik yog'ingarchilik yiliga 50-100 millimetrdan oshmaydi (yiliga 2,0-3,9).[682] Shimoldan ham uzoqroqda, cho'lning chekka qismi joylashgan maydonga to'g'ri keladi g'arbiy yog'ingarchilik olib keling;[2] ular eng janubiy Afrikaga ham ta'sir qiladi.[683] Cho'kish Shimoliy Afrikaning ba'zi qismlari ustidan o'tadigan havo cho'llarning mavjudligi uchun javobgardir, bu esa yanada ko'payadi radiatsion sovutish cho'l ustida.[1] Iqlim o'zgaruvchanligi bugungi kungacha mavjud bo'lib, Sahel aziyat chekmoqda qurg'oqchilik 1970 va 1980 yillarda yog'ingarchilik 30% ga kamayganida va oqimining oqishi Niger daryosi va Senegal daryosi undan ham ko'proq,[684] yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi kuzatiladi.[1]
Sharqiy Afrikada musson ekvatorial hududda mart-may oylarida "uzoq yomg'ir" va oktyabr-noyabr oylarida "qisqa yomg'ir" deb ataladigan ikki yomg'ir mavsumiga olib keladi.[685] ITCZ navbati bilan mintaqa bo'ylab shimolga va janubga qarab harakatlanganda;[686] Hind okeanidan olingan yog'ingarchilikdan tashqari Atlantika ham mavjud[x]- Kongo havo chegarasining g'arbiy qismida Kongo tomonidan olinadigan yog'ingarchilik.[681][685] Arabistonda musson masofasidan uzoqroqqa kirmaydi Arab dengizi va ba'zi joylar ta'sirida qishki yog'ingarchilik tomonidan olib kelingan tsiklonlar dan O'rtayer dengizi.[687] Sharqiy Afrika ham musson aylanishi ta'sirida.[688]
Kelajakdagi global isishning ta'siri
Ning ba'zi simulyatsiyalari Global isish va ortdi karbonat angidrid konsentrasiyalari Sahel / Saxarada yog'ingarchilik miqdori sezilarli darajada oshganligini ko'rsatdi. Bu o'simlikning hozirgi cho'lga tarqalishiga olib kelishi mumkin, garchi u genotsentning o'rtalariga nisbatan kamroq bo'lsa[124] va, ehtimol, cho'lning shimolga siljishi, ya'ni eng shimoliy Afrikaning qurishi.[689] Yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi Shimoliy Afrikadan kelib chiqadigan chang miqdorini kamaytirishi mumkin,[690] effektlari bilan bo'ron Atlantika okeanidagi faollik va dovul hujumlarining kuchayishi Karib dengizi, Meksika ko'rfazi va Sharqiy qirg'oq Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari.[474]
The 1,5 ° S darajadagi global isish haqida maxsus hisobot va IPCC Beshinchi baholash hisoboti global isish Sharqiy Afrikaning aksariyat qismida, Markaziy Afrikaning ayrim qismida va G'arbiy Afrikaning asosiy nam mavsumida yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishiga olib kelishi mumkinligini ko'rsatmoqda, garchi ushbu proektsiyalar bilan bog'liq bo'lgan noaniqliklar ayniqsa G'arbiy Afrika uchun.[691] Bundan tashqari, 20-asrning oxiri quritish tendentsiyasi global isish tufayli bo'lishi mumkin.[692] Boshqa tomondan, G'arbiy Afrika[693] va Sharqiy Afrikaning ayrim qismlari ma'lum mavsumlar va oylar davomida qurib ketishi mumkin.[693][692] Hozirgi vaqtda Sahel yashil rangga aylanib bormoqda, ammo yog'ingarchilik 20-asr o'rtalarida erishilgan darajaga qadar to'liq tiklanmagan.[689]
Iqlim modellari ta'siri haqida aniq natijalarga erishdi antropogen global isish Sahara / Sahelda yog'ingarchilik. Inson tomonidan yaratilgan iqlim o'zgarishi AHPga olib kelgan tabiiy iqlim o'zgarishiga qaraganda turli xil mexanizmlar orqali sodir bo'ladi.[694] 2003 yilda o'tkazilgan bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, Sahroi O'simliklar intruziyalari atmosferada kuchli ko'tarilishdan keyin bir necha o'n yil ichida yuz berishi mumkin karbonat angidrid[695] ammo Sahroning 45 foizdan ko'prog'ini qamrab olmaydi.[38] Ushbu iqlimiy tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, o'simliklarning kengayishi faqatgina sodir bo'lishi mumkin o'tlatish yoki o'simliklarning o'sishidagi boshqa bezovtaliklar unga xalaqit bermaydi.[696]
Bir tomondan Sahroni ko'kalamzorlashtirish mumkin qishloq xo'jaligi va pastoralizm shu paytgacha yaroqsiz hududlarga kengayish uchun, ammo yog'ingarchilikning ko'payishi ham ko'payishiga olib kelishi mumkin suv bilan yuqadigan kasalliklar va toshqin.[697] Havoning namroq bo'lishidan kelib chiqqan holda kengaytirilgan inson faoliyati, 20-asr o'rtalarida namlik davridan keyingi qurg'oqchilik ko'rsatganidek, iqlim o'zgarishiga ta'sir qilishi mumkin.[698]
Shuningdek qarang
Izohlar
- ^ Ga nisbatan qo'llanilgan boshqa shartlar Golotsen AHP yoki korrelyatsion iqlim fazalari "Golotsen nam davri" bo'lib, u Arabiston va Osiyodagi o'xshash epizodni ham qamrab oladi;[20] "Holotsen Plyuvial";[21] "Golotsen nam fazasi";[22] "Kibangien A"Markaziy Afrikada;[23] "Makalian" Neolitik shimoliy Sudan davri;[24] "Nabtianning nam fazasi"[25] yoki "Nabtian davri" Sharqiy O'rta er dengizi va 14000-6000 namlik davri uchun Levant;[26] "Neolitik plyuvial ";[27] "Neolitik subpluvial ";[22] "Nuakhoten"G'arbiy Sahroi 6500 - 4000 yil oldin;[28] va "Tsxadien"Markaziy Sahroda bundan 14000 - 7500 yil oldin.[28]
- ^ Shartlar "Leopoldvillien"[29] va Ogolien quruq davrga tatbiq etilgan oxirgi muzlik maksimal,[30] ikkinchisi "Kanemian" ga teng;[31] "Kanemiya quruq davri" deganda 20000-13000 yil o'rtasidagi quruq davr tushuniladi hozirgacha ichida Chad ko'li maydon.[32]
- ^ AHPga to'g'ri keladigan giptsitermal,[39] Arabistondan yozib olingan,[40] The Karib dengizi[41] va O'rta er dengizi.[42] Da Ashenge ko'li, AHP boshlanishi iqlim isishi bilan birga kechdi.[43]
- ^ Shuningdek, faol qumtepalar ham shakllangan Arabiston, Isroil[64] va ochiq dengiz tubi Fors ko'rfazi[65] bu erda chang hosil bo'lishi ko'paygan.[55]
- ^ Dune bilan qoplangan joylar.[79]
- ^ Biroq, ba'zi ko'llar sovuq harorat pasaygan joylarda saqlanib qoldi bug'lanish.[31]
- ^ Ilgari u taxminan 9000 yil oldin boshlangan deb o'ylar edi, ehtimol u oldinroq boshlanganligi va Yosh Dryas;[57] eski gipotezadan butunlay voz kechilmagan.[98] Ko'l sathining ba'zi egri chiziqlari ko'l sathining 15000 ± 500 va 11,500–10,800 yil oldin, undan oldin va keyin bosqichma-bosqich ko'payishini ko'rsatadi. Yosh Dryas.[99]
- ^ Sharqiy Sahroda birinchi bo'lib boshlanganmi yoki yo'qmi, aniq emas.[100]
- ^ Dastlab bu voqea 7000 yoki 13000 yil oldin sodir bo'lgan deb ishonilgan,[97] ammo so'nggi taklif 14000-15000 yil oldin Nil daryosining qayta ulanganligini ko'rsatadi.[107]
- ^ Megachad ko'li kengaytirilgan Chad ko'li[133] bilan solishtirish mumkin bo'lgan o'lchamga ega bo'lgan Kaspiy dengizi[134] bu bugungi eng katta ko'l.[135]
- ^ Kongo havo chegarasi - bu Hind okeanidan namlikni ko'taruvchi shamollar Atlantika okeanining shamollari bilan to'qnashadigan joy.[154]
- ^ Shu jumladan Afar mintaqa.[194]
- ^ Karib dengizida nam davr o'rtalarida aniqlangan.Golotsen Afrikaning nam davri bilan o'zaro bog'liq bo'lgan va undan oldin quruqroq sharoitlar bo'lgan.[41]
- ^ Qaerda Janubiy Osiyo mussoni uzoqroq ichkariga kirib bordi[11] va taxminan 14 800 yil oldin boshlanib, yanada qizg'in edi.[92]
- ^ Tuz U erda qolgan konlar XVI asrda boshlangan.[254]
- ^ Fesselsteine toshlardan yasalgan buyumlar bo'lib, ular hayvonlarni cheklash vositasi sifatida talqin etiladi.[324]
- ^ Shaklida kalkretlar, "ko'l bo'rlar ", rizolitlar, travertenlar va tufa.[345]
- ^ Shuningdek, Sariq Nil[376]
- ^ 8000 yil avval ko'l sathining pasayishi yomg'ir kamarining shimolga siljishi bilan bog'liq.[420]
- ^ Yosh Dryas Afrikaning tropik janubi-sharqida namroq yoki quruqroq bo'lganligi to'g'risida qarama-qarshi dalillar mavjud.[495]
- ^ Uning Osiyoda ham sodir bo'lganligi aniq emas; Ehtimol, yozuvlarda tanib bo'ladigan iqlim o'zgarishini boshlash juda qisqa edi.[503]
- ^ Dahomey Gap - janubda o'rmonsiz mintaqa Benin, Gana va Bormoq[670] bu Gvineo-Kongoli o'rmon kamarida bo'shliqni hosil qiladi.[566]
- ^ Musson yomg'irlarining asosiy maydoni ITCZ bilan mos kelmaydi.[681]
- ^ Atlantika okeani ham Sahel uchun musson yog'ingarchilik manbai hisoblanadi.[3]
Adabiyotlar
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