Xitoy-Portugaliya munosabatlari - China–Portugal relations

Xitoy-Portugaliya munosabatlari
Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi va Portugaliyaning joylashuvi ko'rsatilgan xaritada

Xitoy
Portugaliya

Xitoy-Portugaliya munosabatlari (Portugal: Repaclices entre a República Portuguesa e a República Popular da China or Relações China-Portugal, soddalashtirilgan xitoy : 葡萄牙 共和国 与 中华人民共和国 的 关系 yoki 中葡 关系; an'anaviy xitoy : 葡萄牙 共和國 與 中華人民共和國 的 關係 yoki 中葡 關係; pinyin : Pútáoyá gònghéguó yǔ zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó de guānxì yoki zhōng pú guānxì), davomida 1514 yilgacha kuzatilishi mumkin Min sulolasi Xitoy. Zamonaviy siyosiy sub'ektlar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi va Portugaliya Respublikasi rasman 1979 yil 2 fevralda boshlangan.[1] Xitoy va Portugaliya har tomonlama strategik sheriklikni 2005 yilda o'rnatgan.[2]

Portugaliyaning Xitoy bilan taqqoslaganda nisbatan kichik iqtisodiyoti va global ta'siriga qaramay, Xitoy hukumati Portugaliya bilan munosabatlarni rivojlantirishdan manfaatdorligini bildirdi va boshqa yirik Evropa mamlakatlariga ham xalqqa shunday munosabatda bo'ldi. Ikkala xalq ham do'stona munosabatlarni davom ettiradi, bu uchta asosiy sabab bilan bog'liq - birinchisi 1999 yilda Portugaliyaning Aominani topshirishi, ikkinchisi Portugaliyaning mashhurligi Lusofon Xitoy o'zaro munosabatlarni rivojlantirishni istagan davlatlarni o'z ichiga oladi, uchinchisi esa Portugaliyaning Osiyodagi keng tarixidir.[3]

Tarix

Shuningdek qarang: Makao ustidan suverenitetni o'tkazish

Min sulolasi

Xitoy-Portugaliya munosabatlari qachon boshlangan Xorxe Alvares Xitoyning janubiy shahriga etib keldi Guanchjou 1513 yilda.[4] O'sha paytda, Portugaliya Xitoyning janubida savdo faoliyatini yo'lga qo'ydi va asta-sekin kengayib bordi Makao va ijara haqini to'lagan Ming imperiyasi.[4]

Portugaliyaning birinchi rasmiy tashrifi bo'ldi Fernao Pires de Andrade Guanchjouga missiya (1517–1518). Bu juda muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi va mahalliy Xitoy hukumati boshchiligidagi elchixonaga ruxsat berdi Tome Pires va de Andrade floti tomonidan olib kelingan Pekin.[5] Tome Piresning xitoyliklar haqidagi taassurotlari shundaki, ular "biznikiga o'xshab oq edi [brancos como nós], ularning katta qismi paxta matosida kiyinish va ipak ".[6] Uning to'liq hisobotida ularni nemislar va u "bizning oqligimiz" deb ta'riflagan va tashqi qiyofasi Ispaniyalik ayollarga o'xshash ayollar bilan taqqoslangan.[6]

Duarte Barbosa (1480–1521) xitoyliklar haqida xuddi shunday ma'lumot beradi: "buyuk savdogarlar, oq tanlilar va yaxshi ishlab chiqarilgan [huomini bianchi, grandi & ben disposti]; ularning ayollari juda chiroyli, lekin erkaklarning ham, ayollarning ham ko'zlari kichkina, erkaklarning soqollarida esa atigi uch-to'rtta soch bor, endi yo'q ".[6]

Portugaliyaliklar va xitoyliklar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar Fernuoning ukasi bilan yomonlashdi Simo de Andrade 1519 yilda Guanchjouga flot bilan kelgan. U mamlakat qonunlari va urf-odatlarini e'tiborsiz qoldirib, ustiga qal'a qurgan. Tamão oroli qaroqchilik tahdidi bahonasida. U qurdi dorga osmoq u erda va o'z dengizchilaridan birini biron bir jinoyati uchun qatl etgan, bu esa mahalliy Xitoy hukumatini xafa qilgan. U portugaliyalik kapitanning kemalari boshqa mamlakatlarnikidan oldin Xitoy bilan savdo-sotiqda ustunlik qilishi kerakligi haqidagi talablariga norozilik bildirgan xitoylik amaldorga hujum qildi.[7] Biroq, bu eng tajovuzkor harakat Simaoning qul savdosi bilan shug'ullanishi va chet elda sotish uchun xitoylik bolalarni sotib olishi edi.[8] Yo'qolayotgan bolalar odam o'ldirilganligi to'g'risida yolg'on mish-mishlar tarqaldi[7] ular portugallar tomonidan qovurilganidan keyin.[9]

Thome Pires Pekinga sayohat qilish uchun ruxsat olishidan ikki yildan ko'proq vaqt o'tdi. Fernao Pires 1518 yil sentyabr oyida juda boy yuk bilan qaytib kelgandan keyin jo'nab ketdi; uning yashash joyi, o'z xohishiga ko'ra, hech qanday noxush hodisa bilan belgilanmagan. Ushbu ekspeditsiya Kantondan ancha uzoqqa kirmadi; kemalardan biri Lew Chewsni kashf qilish uchun suzib ketdi, ammo uning yo'lini bajara olmagan holda, Fukkien materikiga qaytib keldi, u erda uning harakati Kantondagi singlisi kemalari singari muvaffaqiyatli bo'lgan.

1519 yil avgustda Fernao Piresning ukasi Simao d'Andrade Kantonga yana bir safar qildi. U Thome Piresni Pekinga sayohat qilish uchun hali ham ruxsat kutayotganini topdi, bu ruxsat 1520 yilning yanvarida kelib tushdi. Simao d'Andrade dabdabali maqtanchoq edi, u kichik qal'a qurdi va dorga osib qo'ydi va ikkinchisidan foydalanib o'zining birini osib qo'ydi. dengizchilar - bu xitoylik suverenitet tuyg'ularini janjalga aylantirgan barcha harakatlar. U boshqa millatlarga tegishli kemalarga o'z yuklaridan oldin yuk olib kelinmaslikka harakat qildi va u va uning zobitlari xitoyliklarni g'azablandilar, chunki o'g'irlangan o'g'il-qizlarni erkin sotib oldilar. Barchasiga toj kiydirish uchun, Xitoy imperatori vafot etganida, Simao buyruq berilganda portni tark etishni rad etdi. Kanton ko'chalarida bir nechta portugallar o'ldirildi va garchi 1521 yil iyun oxirida ular dengiz to'qnashuvida muvaffaqiyat qozongan bo'lsalar-da, ular dengizga chiqish yo'lida kurashib, 1521 yil 8 sentyabrda ketishlari kerak edi. Masalalar umidsiz ravishda chalkashib ketgan va bortida portugaliyalik bo'lgan Xitoy qirg'oqlariga etib boradigan har bir idish musodara qilingan.

Ushbu voqealar baxtsiz Thome Piresga munosabat bildirdi. U bir yillik sayohatdan so'ng, 1521 yil yanvar oyida Pekinga etib bordi, ammo uni qabul qilish unchalik yoqmadi. Qo'lga olish haqidagi yangiliklar Malakka, Siam orqali xitoyliklar biron bir soyali ta'sirga ega bo'lishni talab qildilar va bundan oldin Kantonda Simao d'Andrade sud ishi boshlangan edi. 1 U josus sifatida muomala qilindi va hatto boshqa elchilarga berilgan imtiyozdan ham bosh tortdi, ularga Imperator yashayotgan saroy devoriga tiz cho'kib, besh marta sajda qilishga ruxsat berildi. U Malakka tiklanguniga qadar qamoqqa olinishi kerakligi haqida Kantonga qaytarib yuborildi va u erda bir necha yil o'tgach vafot etdi.[10][11]

"1497–1550 yillarda Hindistonda Portugaliya hokimiyatining kuchayishi" Richard Stiven Uaytvay (1899):

Portugaliyalik savdo kemasi kapitani Xorxe Anrikes uchun 1552 yilda ishlab chiqarilgan xitoylik chinni vaza

"Xitoy hisobiga ko'ra" - G'arbdan kelgan chet elliklar Fa-lan-ki. ular o'lpon yig'ishganini aytganlar, to'satdan Boguega kirishdi va o'zlarining ulkan baland ovozli qurollari bilan uzoq va yaqin atrofni silkitdi. Bu haqda sudda xabar berildi va ularni zudlik bilan haydab yuborish va savdoni to'xtatish to'g'risida buyruq qaytarildi. "[12]

Karlos Augusto Montalto Xesusning "Tarixiy Makao" (1902):

Xorxe Alvares u erda padraoni o'rnatganida taxmin qilingan Tamou qo'shilishi, Malakaning yana bir qahramoni Simao de Andrade jasorat bilan urinib ko'rdi, u 1518 yilda kema va uchta junki bilan Tamouga etib keldi. Bu joyni qaroqchilik hujumlaridan himoya qilish maqsadida u qal'a qurdi; va ogohlantiruvchi vosita sifatida u qo'shni adacıkta osilgan dorini ko'targan, u erda huquqbuzar, oxir-oqibat, Portugaliyada qatl etilishning barcha ta'sirchan rasmiyatchiliklari bilan o'ldirilgan - bu Xitoy hukumatiga katta ziyon keltirgan suverenitet haqidagi taxminlar. Chet elliklar nomidan mahalliy qaroqchilar tomonidan bir necha shahar ishdan bo'shatilgan bo'lsa-da, portugallar shov-shuvli hayqiriqlar orqali ko'proq yaxshi oilalarning kantoniyalik o'g'illari va qizlari o'g'irlab ketilgani va Simao de Andrade-ga sotilganligi haqidagi nafratlari bilan yanada ko'proq nafratlanishgan. qovurilgan holda iste'mol qilinadi. Shunday qilib zararli ravishda qo'zg'atilgan chet elga qarshi xurofotlar yanada yuqori darajadagi choralar bilan ta'kidlandi: Simao de Andrade Tamou savdosi va yuk tashilishini nazorat qildi, bojlarni to'lashdan bosh tortdi va bojxona xodimlarini shafqatsizlarcha ishlatdi.4 Aynan shu Andrade qirib tashladi. mandarin va shu tariqa bunday adovatni qo'zg'atdi, Gaspar da Kruzning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu uning ba'zi kemalarning yo'qolishi bilan umidsiz chekinishi bilan tugadi; Koutoning so'zlariga ko'ra, Kanton darvozasi oldida "uzun soqolli va katta ko'zli odamlarga" kirishni taqiqlovchi katta zarhal belgilar bilan imperator farmoni qo'yilgan. Portugaliyaning Xitoy bilan bo'lgan erta aloqalarining deyarli har bir bayonotida Simlio de Andrade g'ayriinsoniy, qashshoq marplot sifatida qatl etilgan. Tamuudagi hokimiyatni o'z zimmasiga olgani uchun raandarindomning o'ta toqat qilmasligidan, keng tarqalgan qaroqchiligidan va bunday xavfli aud-nopok qirg'oqlarda portugal qal'asini tashkil etish zarurligidan hech qanday asos topilmadi; va har qanday intilishga osonlikcha ishonch berilsa-da, da'vo qilingan qonunbuzarliklar hatto ilgari surilgan narsalarga duch kelmaydi: Simao de Andrade, Ferniio Peres de Andrade singari, adolat va insonparvarlik tuyg'usi ularni norozilik bildirishga undaydigan taniqli zobitlardan biri edi. Kuy Diasni g'azab bilan ijro etish; shu sababli ularni zanjirga bog'lashdi[13][14]

"Tarixiy Makao", Karlos Augusto Montalto Xesus (1902):

Xitoylik yosh o'g'il-qizlarni Simao qul sifatida sotish uchun sotib olgan.[15]

Xitoy savdosini istagan Portugaliya qiroli, savdo ittifoqini taklif qilish uchun elchi va uning sardorlaridan birini yubordi. Elchini mamnuniyat bilan kutib olishdi va Nankinga quruqlik bilan jo'natishdi va Pedro de Andrade-ning sharafli xatti-harakatlari Kanton portining muhim harakatiga ega bo'ldi. Bu ofitser Hindistonga qaytib kelganida, Sekeyra gubernatori akasi Simon de Andradeni Pedroga beshta kemasi bilan Xitoyga jo'natdi; va uning ko'rsatmalari nima bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, bis harakatlarining bema'niligi faqat uning qo'polligi bilan tenglashtirildi. U xuddi past darajadagi mavjudotlar qatoriga kirgandek, u qo'pol ijod ustidan inson da'vo qilgan kabi hokimiyatga ega bo'ldi. U Kantonga qarama-qarshi bo'lgan Tamou orolini egallab oldi. Bu erda u qal'a va dorga o'rnatdi; u savdogarlarni talon-taroj qilar ekan, asosiy aholining xotinlari va qizlari do'stlaridan tortib uning garnizoniga tortib olindi va gibbet qarshilikni jazoladi. U bu erda ham to'xtamadi. Hindistondagi portugallar qullarni istashgan va Andrade u tegishli bolalar bog'chasini topdim deb o'ylagan. U har ikki jinsdagi yoshlarni sotib olish uchun o'z dizaynini nashr etdi va bu g'ayriinsoniy trafikda mahalliy aholining eng shafqatsizlari tomonidan ta'minlandi. Ammo bu jarayonlar tez orada Xitoy imperatoriga ma'lum bo'lgan va Portugaliya elchisi va uning tarafdorlari ayg'oqchilarning o'limida vafot etgan. Andrade xitoy itao yoki admiralining hujumiga uchradi va qirq kun davomida o'z flotidan ancha ustun bo'lgan flot tomonidan ta'qib qilingandan so'ng, shiddat iltifotiga ko'ra katta yo'qotish bilan qutulib qoldi. Keyingi yil Alonzo de Melo, ushbu operatsiyalardan bexabar, to'rtta kemasi bilan Kanton portiga kirdi. Ammo uning kemalari bir zumda qo'lga olindi va ekipajlar g'azablangan xitoyliklar tomonidan josus va qaroqchi sifatida qirg'in qilindi. Va keyinroq portugaliyaliklarga Xitoy bilan savdo qilishga ruxsat berilgan bo'lsa-da, bu juda cheklangan va sharmandali sharoitlarda *, ularga qaroqchilar millati sifatida qaraydigan sharoitlar, agar ular btsga ishonib topshirilmasa va qaramasalar.[16][17]

"Ingliz shoirlarining asarlari, dan Chaucer ga Kovper: Semyuel Jonson (1810) va Sholto Persi, Ruben Persi (1826) va "Persi latifalari: Aslini tanlang va tanlab oling" (pregrafiya, biografik va tanqidiy so'zlar bilan tahrirlangan serial).

"Hatto portugaliyaliklarning laskarlari va skulllari ham qullarni sotib olib, olib ketishadi. Shuning uchun ularning ko'plari safarda o'lishadi, chunki ular bir-birining ustiga to'planib, xo'jayinlari kasal bo'lib qolsa (bu xo'jayinlar ba'zan kofir va portugallarning negrlari), qullarga g'amxo'rlik qilinmaydi, hatto kofirlar o'zlari uchun kerakli ovqatni sotib ololmasliklari ham tez-tez sodir bo'ladi, bu skulllar sotib olgan qizlari bilan buzuqlikda yashashlari va ulardan ba'zilari kimningdir janjalli misolini keltirmoqda. Makaoga boradigan yo'lda o'zlarining kabinetlariga kiritinglar. Men bu erda butparastlarning erlarida sodir etilgan ortiqcha narsalarni, portugallar o'zlarini yoshlar va qizlarni yollash uchun yoyib yuborganliklari va ular shunday tarzda yashab yurishganki, butparastlarning o'zlari bundan beparvo bo'lmoqdalar. . "[18][19]

"Yaponiyaning tarixi, 1542-1651 yillardagi erta chet ellik munosabatlar davrida", Jeyms Merdok, Isoh (1903)

Natijada, xitoyliklar Kavkaz xususiyatlariga ega erkaklarning Kantonga kirishini taqiqlovchi farmon chiqardi.[14] Xitoyliklar bunga javoban Kantonda ko'plab portugallarni o'ldirishdi va portugallarni dengizga qaytarishdi.[10]

Bintan sultoni bir nechta portugaliyalikni hibsga olganidan so'ng, xitoyliklar Tome Piresning yomon ahvolda bo'lgan elchixonasining 23 a'zosini qatl qildilar va qolganlarini ular og'ir, ba'zan halokatli sharoitda yashagan qamoqxonaga tashladilar.[20]

Portugaliyaliklar savdo missiyasini olish uchun pora berganlaridan keyin Ningbo va Quanzhou, ular xitoyliklarga qarshi vahshiyona xatti-harakatlarni amalga oshirdilar va Xitoy portlariga bostirib kirishdi. Qasos sifatida, 1545 yilda Ningbo shahrining butun Portugaliya jamoasi Xitoy kuchlari tomonidan yo'q qilindi.[20][21][22][23][24] Portugaliyaliklar 1522 yil atrofida Ningboda savdo qilishni boshladilar. 1542 yilga kelib portugallar Ningboda (yoki, ehtimol, yaqin atrofdagi kichik orollarda) juda katta jamoaga ega edilar. Portugaliyaning Ningbo bazasidagi faoliyati, talon-taroj qilish va talon-taroj qilish uchun Ningbo atrofidagi ko'plab Xitoy port shaharlarini talash va hujum qilishni o'z ichiga olgan. Shuningdek, reyd paytida odamlarni qul qilib olishgan.[25] Olingan shikoyatlar, 1548 yilda vayron qilingan aholi punktiga buyruq bergan viloyat hokimiga murojaat qildi.[26][27][28][29]

1564 yilda Portugaliya Hindiston, Yaponiya va Xitoy savdosiga rahbarlik qildi, garchi ularning mag'rurligi xitoyliklar ularga bo'lgan beparvolikdan qattiq hayratga tushgan edi. Ularning Ningpo va Makaodagi vahshiyliklari va keyinchalik xizmat ko'rsatishlari samoviylarning ko'zlarini asl qiyofasiga ochib berdi va afsuski boshqa evropalik avantyuristlar uchun ular barcha g'arbiy xalqlar bir xil degan xulosaga kelishdi. Senati Makao Goa noibiga Xitoy hukumati ularga nisbatan xo'rlik qilganidan shikoyat qildi va "bu xitoyliklarga qaraganda ko'proq portugallarning o'zlariga" bog'liqligini tan oldi. Xitoyliklar 1631 yilda Portugaliyaning tijoratini Makao portiga cheklashlari shart edi.[30]

Adabiyot, o'yin-kulgi va o'qitishning ko'zgusi, 7-jild, 1845 yil

Keyinchalik xitoyliklarning chet elliklarga nisbatan qarama-qarshiliklari, aloqani o'rnatgan birinchi portugaliyaliklarning "aybdor" xatti-harakatlari natijasi bo'ldi.[31] Garchi portugal qaroqchiligining tez-tezligi Min sulolasi Xaydin siyosatini amalga oshirishga urinishdan so'ng sodir bo'lgan Vokou hujumlarining ko'payishi bilan taqqoslanmasa ham.[32]

Biroq, munosabatlarning bosqichma-bosqich yaxshilanishi va ularga qarshi yordam Vokou Xitoy qirg'oqlari bo'ylab qaroqchilar, 1557 yilga kelib Ming China portugallarga yashashga ruxsat berishga rozi bo'ldi Makao Portugaliyaning yangi savdo koloniyasida.[33] Malay tili Johor sultonligi shuningdek, portugaliyaliklar bilan munosabatlarni yaxshilagan va ular bilan yonma-yon kurashgan Aceh Sultonligi.

Portugaliyaga qarshi Xitoy-Malay ittifoqi

Malay tili Malakka Sultonligi irmoqli davlat va uning ittifoqchisi bo'lgan Min sulolasi Xitoy. 1511 yilda Portugaliya Xitoyning irmoq davlati Malakkani bosib oldi va xitoyliklar Portugaliyaga qarshi kuch bilan javob qaytarishdi.

Xitoy hukumati ko'plab portugaliyalik vakillarni qiynoqqa solgandan keyin ularni qamoqqa tashlagan va qatl etgan Guanchjou. Malakkanlar xitoyliklarga portugaliyaliklarning Malakkani bosib olishlari to'g'risida xabar berishgan va xitoyliklar portugallarga nisbatan dushmanlik bilan javob berishgan. Malakkanlar xitoyliklarga portugallar hududlarni bosib olish rejalarini shunchaki savdo faoliyati sifatida yashirib, foydalanganliklari va portugallar tomonidan sodir etilgan barcha vahshiyliklar haqida gapirishgan.[34] Malakka Sulatan xalqaro musulmonlar savdo hamjamiyati tomonidan portugaliyaliklar Goani qo'lga kiritgandan so'ng katta tahdid tug'dirgan deb aldashdi. Savdo qilish huquqidan mahrum bo'lgan va Malakka hukumati tomonidan hujumga uchragan portugallar Hindistonda bo'lgani kabi Malakkada o'zlarini savdo kuchi sifatida ko'rsatish uchun kuch ishlatishga kirishdilar.[35][36]

Malakkan Sultonining Xitoy imperatoriga portugal bosqini ustidan shikoyat qilgani portugallarni Xitoyga kelganlarida xitoyliklar tomonidan dushmanlik bilan kutib oldi.[37][38][39][40][41] Malakadan qochganidan keyin Bintan shahrida joylashgan Malakka Sultoni xitoyliklarga xabar yubordi, bu portugaliyalik banditizm va Xitoydagi zo'ravonlik faoliyati bilan birlashib, Xitoy hukumatining 23 portugaliyalikni qatl etishiga va qolganlarini qamoqxonalarda qiynoqqa solishiga olib keldi. Portugaliyaliklar Xitoyda savdo qilish uchun postlar o'rnatib, Xitoyda reydlar o'tkazgandan so'ng, xitoyliklar bunga javoban portugallarni butunlay yo'q qildilar Ningbo va Quanzhou[20] Xitoy zindonlarida vafot etganlar orasida Portugaliyaning savdo vakili Pires ham bor edi.[21][22][23]

Xitoylar portugaliyalik flotni mag'lub etdi Birinchi Tamao jangi (1521), shunchalik ko'p portugallarni o'ldirish va asirga olishdi, ular o'zlarining junklarini tashlab, faqat uchta kemasi bilan orqaga chekinishga majbur bo'lishdi va faqat xitoyliklar so'nggi hujumni boshlaganlarida shamol Xitoy kemalarini shamol sochib yuborgani uchun Malakka tomon qochib ketishdi.[42]

Xitoyliklar amalda Portugaliya elchixonasini garovda ushlab turishdi va portugaliyaliklardan ag'darilgan Malakkan Sultonini (podshoh) o'z taxtiga qaytarishni talab qilish uchun uni savdolashish vositasi sifatida ishlatishdi.[43]

Xitoyliklar bir nechta portugallarni kaltaklab, bo'g'ib o'ldirish va qolganlarini qiynoqqa solish orqali qatl etishga kirishdilar. Boshqa portugaliyalik mahbuslar temir zanjirga o'ralgan va qamoqda saqlangan.[44] Xitoyliklar Pires elchixonasi tasarrufidagi Portugaliyaning barcha mol-mulki va mollarini musodara qildilar.[45]

1522 yilda Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho diplomatik aloqalarni o'rnatish uchun yuborilgan boshqa portugal flotining qo'mondoni etib tayinlandi.[46] Xitoyliklar Koutino boshchiligidagi Portugaliya kemalarini mag'lubiyatga uchratishdi Tamaoning ikkinchi jangi (1522). Jang paytida ko'plab portugallar qo'lga olindi va kemalar yo'q qilindi. Portugaliyaliklar Malakkaga chekinishga majbur bo'lishdi.[47][48]

Xitoyliklar Piresni ular uchun xat yozishga majbur qilishdi, ular portugaliyaliklardan ag'darilgan Malakkan Sultonni o'z taxtiga qaytarishni talab qilishdi. Malayning Xitoydagi elchisi xatni topshirishi kerak edi.[49]

Xitoyliklar Malakka taxtidan tushirilgan sultonga (qirolga) xitoyliklar asirlikda bo'lgan Portugaliya elchixonasi taqdiri to'g'risida xabar yuborishgan. Uning javobini olgach, xitoylik amaldorlar jasadlarini bir necha bo'laklarga bo'laklab, Portugaliya elchixonasini qatl etishga kirishdilar. Ularning jinsiy a'zolari og'iz bo'shlig'iga kiritilgan. Portugaliyaliklar ko'p joylarda jamoat oldida qatl etildi Guanchjou xitoyliklar tomonidan qasddan portugallar ularning ko'zlarida ahamiyatsiz ekanligini ko'rsatish uchun.[50] Ko'proq portugaliyalik kemalar tushib, xitoyliklar tomonidan tortib olinganida, xitoyliklar keyinchalik ularni jinsiy a'zolarini kesib, jasadlarini boshini tanasidan judo qilish va portugaliyaliklarni tana a'zolarini kiyishga majbur qilish orqali qatl etishdi, xitoylar esa musiqa bilan nishonladilar. Jinsiy a'zolar va boshlar omma oldida namoyish qilish uchun o'ralgan holda namoyish qilingan va keyin ular tashlangan.[51]

Portugaliyaliklarga va ularning Vuyu orolidagi Fujian va Chjanchjou shahridagi Yue Makonidagi bazalarini o'rnatishiga javoban, Shuangyu Wenzhou shahridagi orol va Guangdongdagi Nan'ao oroli, Xitoy imperatori o'ng qo'mondon o'rinbosari Chju Van savdogarlar va ko'chmanchilarni yo'q qildi va Shuangyu portugal bazasini chet elliklar bilan dengiz orqali savdo qilishni taqiqlash uchun majburan yo'q qildi.[52]

Xitoylik savdogarlar Portugaliyaning nazorati ostiga o'tgandan keyin Malakka boykot e'lon qilishdi va ba'zi xitoyliklar Java kemalarni ishlatib, shaharni Portugaliyadan qaytarib olishga harakat qilgan musulmonlarning urinishlarida yordam bergan. Portugaliyaning Malakkani zabt etishga urinishdagi muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishdagi Yava xitoyliklarning ishtiroki "Semarang va Cerbon Malay Annals" da qayd etilgan.[53] savdo xitoyliklar portugallar o'rniga Malayziya va Yava bilan ish olib borishdi.[54]

Xitoylik qullarning savdosi tufayli xitoyliklarning dushmanligi Portugaliyada xitoylik qullarni sotish va sotib olishni taqiqlovchi 1595-yilgi qonunni qabul qildi.[55] 1624-yil 19-fevralda Portugaliya qiroli har qanday jinsdagi xitoyliklarni qulga olishni taqiqladi.[56][57]

Makaoning qutqarilishi

Va nihoyat, 1550-yillarning boshlarida Kanton ma'murlari "franglar" ning strategik ahamiyatini - uzoqdan kelgan bu g'alati barbarlarni, savdo-sotiqda mahoratli, urushda samarali, ammo ularning soni kamligini tan olishdi. Asta-sekin ular foydali va kamroq tahlikali ekanliklarini isbotladilar. Shaxsiy harakat qilgan tartibsiz odamlar, Xitoy dengizining avanturistlari toj xitoy-yapon biznesiga aralashib, Xitoy-Yaponiya yo'lini monopollashtirgandan so'ng muzokara kuchiga ega bo'ldilar. Zodagon Leonel de Sousa 1553 yilda mintaqaga kelgan va mandarinlar bilan barcha portugallar nomidan muzokara o'tkazishga muvaffaq bo'lgan. 1554 yilda, nihoyat, ular kumush va ipak bilan muomala qila boshlaganlaridan o'n yil o'tgach, Pearl daryosining og'zida tashkil etish uchun ruxsat olindi.[58]

Qing sulolasining portugal ko'chmanchilarini Ningbo qirg'ini

Davomida Tsing sulolasi, Ningbo hukumati 1800-yillarda Ningbo atrofida kanton kemalariga hujum qilgan portugallarni yo'q qilish va qirg'in qilish uchun kanton qaroqchilari bilan shartnoma tuzdi. Qirg'in "muvaffaqiyatli" bo'lib o'tdi, portugaliyaliklardan 40 nafari va faqat 2 xitoylik o'lgan. Bu "deb nomlanganNingpo qirg'ini "portugaliyalik qaroqchilar xitoyliklarga nisbatan vahshiyona munosabatda bo'lganligini va Makaodagi portugal hukumati qaroqchilarga to'sqinlik qilishi kerakligini ta'kidlagan ingliz muxbir tomonidan.

Xitoy qaroqchiligi

Vakolatining pasayishi Tsing sulolasi tijorat ahamiyatiga ega bo'lgan ko'plab qaroqchilar guruhlarining ko'payishiga imkon berdi Pearl River deltasi, savdo kemalarini egallab olgan, dengiz qirg'og'idagi aholiga hujum qilgan yoki ularni o'lpon to'lashga majbur qilgan, lekin dastlab Evropaning yuk tashishlariga xalaqit bermagan. Ushbu qaroqchi guruhlarning eng muhimi, Cheung Po Tsay boshchiligida 1805 yilda portugal kemalari bilan to'qnashgan Qizil Bayroq floti bo'ldi, ammo 1807 yil may oyida portugaliyalik leytenant Pereyra Barretoning qo'li bilan qattiq mag'lubiyatga uchradi. -kema eskadrilyasi.[59]

Portugaliya dengiz floti tomonidan bir necha bor mag'lub bo'lgandan so'ng, 20 aprel kuni, Quan Apon Chay hozirda 280 ga yaqin kema, 2000 ta qurol va 25000 dan ortiq odam bo'lgan qurol-yarog 'va qurollarini rasmiy ravishda etkazib berdi. Portugaliyaliklar hech narsaga da'vo qilmadilar, bu xitoyliklarda katta taassurot qoldirdi. Cheung Po Tsay kelajakda rasmiy tashriflarni amalga oshiradi Leal Senado Makaoning jangda qatnashgan bir nechta portugal zobitlari bilan uchrashishi, ular orasida Gonsalvesh Karocha ham bor.[iqtibos kerak ]

Zamonaviy davr

Bilan bog'liq bo'lgan hujjatlarni imzolagan mamlakatlar Kamar va yo'l tashabbusi

19-20-asrlarda Xitoy notinch davrlarni boshdan kechirar ekan, Portugaliya o'z mustamlakasini saqlab qoldi Makao o'z qo'shinlarini joylashtirib, ijara haqini to'lashdan bosh tortgan va qarorga qarshi chiqqan Tsin imperiyasi. 1939 yilda, Mao Szedun o'zining "Xitoy inqilobi va Xitoy kommunistik partiyasi" kitobida Portugaliyani "baxtsiz kichkina mamlakat" deb ta'riflagan.[60] 1949 yilda Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi tashkil etilishi bilan rasmiy diplomatik aloqalar 1979 yildan keyin rasmiy ravishda o'rnatilmagan edi Chinnigullar inqilobi Portugaliyada boshlangan edi dekolonizatsiya.[4] Xitoy hukumati Makaoni Portugaliya ma'muriyati davrida Xitoy hududi sifatida ko'rib chiqdi.

Portugaliya va Xitoy o'rtasidagi munosabatlar Aomin kelajagi bilan bog'liq muzokaralar olib borilgandan va 1999 yilda Makaoni Xitoy suverenitetiga qaytarish to'g'risida yakuniy kelishuvga erishilgandan so'ng yaxshilana boshladi.[1][61] Makao Xitoyga qaytib kelganidan so'ng, Portugaliyaning Xitoy bilan aloqalari asosan madaniy va iqtisodiy almashinuvga aylandi.[62]

Ikki tomonlama munosabatlar

Ikki mamlakat o'rtasidagi tovar ayirboshlash uzoq vaqtdan beri davom etib kelayotgan Makao kelajagi va iqtisodiy islohotlar masalasi hal qilingandan so'ng oshdi Den Syaoping 1980-yillarning boshlarida. 2002 yilda ikki mamlakat o'rtasidagi savdo hajmi 380 million dollarga baholandi.[1]

Xitoyning Portugaliyaga eksporti to'qimachilik mollari, tikuvchilik buyumlari, poyabzal, plastmassa, akustik uskunalar, po'lat materiallar, keramika buyumlari va yoritish uskunalari.[1] Xitoy Portugaliyaning to'qqizinchi yirik savdo sherigidir.[63][64]

Portugaliyaning Xitoyga eksporti elektr kondensatorlar va qo'shimcha qismlar, birlamchi plastmassa, qog'oz, dorivor, to'qimachilik buyumlari va sharobdir.[1][63][65]

Portugaliya Shanxayda qatnashdi Expo 2010 o'zaro savdoni yanada rivojlantirish.[66]

Zamonaviy madaniy almashinuvlar

Xo'roz yilini nishonlash paytida xitoyliklar Lunar Yangi yil 2017 yilning 28 yanvarida tushgan ulkan xo'roz Portugaliyaning ramzi mashhur portugaliyalik rassom tomonidan yaratilgan Joana Vasconcelos, dan Xitoyga olib kelingan Lissabon xitoyliklarni Yangi yil tabrigi bilan tabriklash.[67]

Qo'shimcha o'qish

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  40. ^ Alija Gordon, Malayziya sotsiologik tadqiqot instituti (2001). Indoneziya-Malay arxipelagida Islomning targ'iboti. Malayziya sotsiologik tadqiqot instituti. p. 136. ISBN  983-99866-2-7. (Michigan universiteti)
  41. ^ Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch India, Gaaga instituti (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, 124-jild. M. Nijxof. p. 446.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola) (Michigan universiteti)
  42. ^ Tome Pires; Armando Kortesao; Fransisko Rodriges (1990). Armando Kortesa (tahrir). Tome Piresning Suma oriental: 1512-1515 yillarda Malakka va Hindistonda yozilgan Sharq, Qizil dengizdan Xitoygacha bo'lgan voqealar; va, Frantsisko Rodrigesning kitobi: Banda va Molukkalarni kashf etgan armadaning uchuvchisi-mayori: qizil dengizda sayohatning avtoulovi, dengiz qoidalari, almanak ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xl. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. In the meantime, after the departure of Simão de Andrade, the ship Madalena, which belonged to D. Nuno Manuel, coming from Lisbon under the command of Diogo Calvo, arrived at Tamão with some other vessels from Malacca, among them the junk of Jorge Álvares, which the year before could not sail with Simão de Andrade's fleet, because she had sprung a leak..., the Chinese seized Vasco Calvo, a brother of Diogo Calvo, and other Portuguese who were in Canton trading ashore. On 27 June 1521 Duarte Coelho arrived with two junks at Tamão. Besides capturing some of the Portuguese vessels, the Chinese blockaded Diogo Calvo's ship and four other Portuguese vessels in Tamão with a large fleet of armed junks. A few weeks later Ambrósio do Rego arrived with two other ships. As many of the Portuguese crews had been killed in the fighting, slaughtered afterwards or taken prisoners, by this time there was not enough Portuguese for all the vessels, and thus Calvo, Coelho, and Rego resolved to abandon the junks in order the batteter to man the three ships. They set sail on 7 September and were attacked by the Chinese fleet, managing however to escape, thanks to a providential gale which scattered the enemy junks, and arrived at Malacca in October 1521. Vieira mentions other junks which arrived in China with Portuguese aboard; all were attacked, and the entire crews were killed fighting or were taken prisoners and slaughtered later.
  43. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xl. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. Finally Pires and his companions left Peking on 22 May and arrived in Canton on 22 Sept. 1521. Francisco de Budoia died during the journey. From Peking instructions were sent to Canton that the ambassador and his suite should be kept in custody, and that only after the Portuguese had evacuated Malacca and returned it to its king, a vassal of the Emperor of China, would the members of the embassy be liberated.
  44. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues: Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xli. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. But many others died in prison, some of hunger, many strangled, 'after carrying boards stating that they should die as sea-robbers', one struck on the head with a mallet, and others beaten to death. Pires and his companions arrived at Canton a fortnight after the three Portuguese ships had escaped from Tamão, and they found themselves in a most difficult position... "Tomé Pires replied that he had not come for that purpose, nor was it meet for him to discuss such a matter; that it would be evident from the letter he had brought that he had no knowledge of anything else.... With these questions he kept us on our knees for four hours; and when he had tired himself out, he sent each one back to the prison in which he was kept. On 14 August 1522 the Pochanci put fetters on the hands of Tomé Pires, and on those of the company he put fetters, and irons on their feet,
  45. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xlii. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. clerks who were present wrote down ten and stole three hundred.... The goods that they took from us were twenty quintals of rhubarb, one thousand five hundred or six hundred rich pieces of silk, a matter of four thousand silk handkerchiefs which the Chinese call sheu-pa (xopas) of Nanking, and many fans, and also three arrobas of musk in powerder, one thousand three hundred pods of musk, four thousand odd taels of silver and seventy or eighty taels of gold and other pieces of silver, and all the cloths,
  46. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xlii. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. Meanwhile from India, where the news of this state of affairs had not yet arrived, another fleet of four ships under the command of Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho sailed for China in April 1522. Countinho had left Lisbon just one year before, commissioned by Dom Manuel with a message of good-will to the Emperor of China, for which purpose he carried another ambassador with him.
  47. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xliii. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. Coutinho's fleet of six sail left Malacca on 10 July and arrived at Tamão in August 1522. They were soon attacked by the Chinese fleet. The Portuguese had many men killed and taken prisoners, two ships and the junk were lost, and after vain efforts to re-establish relations with the Cantonese authorities, Coutinho returned with the other ships to Malacca, where he arrived in the middle of October 1522. Though some chroniclers put the blame on the Chinese, Chang quotes Chinese sources which assert that the Portuguese should be held responsible for the outbreak of hostilities.
  48. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xlvi. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. On fol. 108v. it is stated that Martim Afonso de Melo Coutinho went from Malacca to China in 1521, but in fol. 121 it is correctly said that he arrived in 1522.
  49. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xliii. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. According to Vieira the mandarins again ordered that Pires should write a letter to the King of Portugal, which the ambassador of the ex-king of Malacca should take to Malacca, in order that his country and people might be returned to their former master; if a satisfactory reply did not come, the Portuguese ambassador would not return. A draft letter in Chinese was sent to the imprisoned Portuguese, from which they wrote three letters, for King Manuel, the Governor of India and the Captain of Malacca. These letters were delivered to the Cantonese authorities on 1 October 1522. The Malay ambassador was not anxious to be the courier, nor was it easy to find another. At last a junk with fifteen Malays and fifteen Chinese sailed from Canton on 31 May 1523 and reached Pattani.
  50. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xliv. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. A message came to the king of Bintang from his ambassador [in Canton], and the man who brought it soon returned. The report which the king of Bintang was spreading in the country is that the Chinese intended to come against Malacca. This is not very certain, though there are things that may happen The man who brought a message to the king of Bintang 'soon returned', says Jorge de Albuquerque. Vieira tells us that the junk 'returned with a message from the king of Malacca, and reached Canton on 5 September' (fol.110V.). . . 'On the day of St. Nicholas [6 Dec.] in the year 1522 they put boards on them [the Portuguese prisoners] with the sentence that they should die and be exposed in pillories as robbers. The sentences said: "Petty sea robbers sent by the great robber falsely; they come to spy out our country; let them die in pillories as robbers." a report was sent to the king according to the information of the mandarins, and the king confirmed the sentence. On 23 Sept. 1523 these twenty-three persons were each one cut in pieces, to wit, heads, legs, arms, and their private members placed in their mouths, the trunk of the body being divided into two pices around the belly. In the streets of Canton,
  51. ^ Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. p. xlv. ISBN  81-206-0535-7. both those of Canton and those of the environs, in order to give them to understand that they thought nothing of the Portuguese, so that the people might not talk about Portuguese. Thus our ships were captured through two captains not agreeing, and so all in the ships were taken, they were all killed, and their heads and private members were carried on the backs of the Portuguese in front of the Mandarin of Canton with the playing of musical instruments and rejoicing, were exhibited suspended in the streets, and were then thrown into the dunghills.
  52. ^ Qingxin Li (2006). Maritime silk road.五洲 传播 出版社. p. 117. ISBN  7-5085-0932-3. From there they retreated to other islands off the coast of China including Nan'ao Island to the east of Guangdong, Shuangyu Island of Wenzhou in Zhejiang, Wuyu Island and Yue Harbor in Zhangzhou of Fujian, where they colluded with powerful and wealthy families, scoundrels of the sea and Japanese pirates, dealing in contraband and plundering. In 1547, the Ming court appointed Right Deputy Commander and imperial agent Zhu Wang as provincial commander in charge of Zhejiang and Fujian's naval defenses, strictly enforcing the ban on maritime trade and intercourse with foreign countries. Zhu Wan also destroyed the Portuguese fortress on Shuangyu Island and eradicated all Chinese and Foreign buccaneers.
  53. ^ C. Guillot; Denys Lombard; Roderich Ptak, eds. (1998). From the Mediterranean to the China Sea: miscellaneous notes. Otto Xarrassovits Verlag. p. 179. ISBN  3-447-04098-X. Chinese authors have argued, the Malacca-Chinese were not treated too favorably by the Portuguese... it is generally true that Chinese ships tended to avoid Malacca after 1511, sailing to other ports instead. Presumably these ports were mainly on the east coast of the Malayan peninsula and on Sumatra. Johore, in the deep south of the peninsula, was another place where many Chinese went.... After 1511, many Chinese who were Muslims sided with other Islamic traders against the Portuguese; according to The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon, Chinese settlers living on northern Java even became involved in counter-attacks on Malacca. Javanese vessels were indeed sent out but suffered a disastrous defeat. Demak and Japara alone lost more than seventy sail.
  54. ^ Peter Borschberg, National University of Singapore. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Fundação Oriente (2004). Peter Borschberg (ed.). Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka area and adjacent regions (16th to 18th century). Volume 14 of South China and maritime Asia (illustrated ed.). Otto Xarrassovits Verlag. p. 12. ISBN  3-447-05107-8. still others withdrew to continue business with the Javanese, Malays and Gujaratis...When the Islamic world considered counter-attacks against Portuguese Melaka, some Chinese residents may have provided ships and capital. These Chinese had their roots either in Fujian, or else may have been of Muslim descent. This group may have consisted of small factions that fled Champa after the crisis of 1471.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
  55. ^ Maria Suzette Fernandes Dias (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Kembrij olimlari nashriyoti. p. 71. ISBN  978-1-84718-111-4.
  56. ^ Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg nashriyotlari. p. 114. ISBN  0-8264-5749-5.
  57. ^ Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg nashriyotlari. p. 115. ISBN  0-8264-5749-5.
  58. ^ "NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC _Macau, porta de acesso ao império dos chins".
  59. ^ "rom piracy to global cooperation – A Portuguese Tale".
  60. ^ Shram, Styuart R. (1969). "China and the Underdeveloped Countries". The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung. Praeger Publishers. 257-258 betlar.
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  62. ^ "Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi Tashqi ishlar vazirligi".
  63. ^ a b "Portugal Information, Income Tax Portugal, Agriculture Portugal, Portugal Import, Portugal Export & Portugal Employment Information". www.fita.org.
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  65. ^ Portuguese Wine Makers Eye Growing Chinese Market
  66. ^ Sino-Portuguese ties to improve via Expo 2010, officials say Arxivlandi 2011 yil 7 oktyabrda Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  67. ^ "A Bite of Chinese Culture in Portugal", Aomin Daily Times, 2017 yil 7-dekabr

Manbalar

  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi The rise of Portuguese power in India, 1497–1550, by Richard Stephen Whiteway, a publication from 1899 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi Historic Macao, by Carlos Augusto Montalto Jesus, a publication from 1902 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi Chauserdan Kovpergacha bo'lgan ingliz shoirlarining asarlari: muqaddimalar bilan tahrirlangan seriyalar, shu jumladan biografik va tanqidiy, by Samuel Johnson, a publication from 1810 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi The Percy anecdotes: Original and select, by Sholto Percy, Reuben Percy, a publication from 1826 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi A history of Japan during the century of early foreign intercourse, 1542–1651, a publication from 1903 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi A history of Japan, Volume 2, by Joseph Henry Longford, L. M. C. Hall, a publication from 1903 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  •  Ushbu maqola matnni o'z ichiga oladi The Mirror of literature, amusement, and instruction, Volume 7, a publication from 1845 now in the jamoat mulki Qo'shma Shtatlarda.
  • Ptak, Roderich (1992), "Early Sino-Portuguese relations up to the Foundation of Macao", Mare Liberum, Revista de História dos Mares, Lisbon (4)

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