Bavariya tarixi - History of Bavaria

The tarixi Bavariya eng qadimgi yashash joyidan va a shakllanishidan tortib cho'zilgan gersoglik tarkibiga kiritish orqali 6-asrda Muqaddas Rim imperiyasi mustaqil shohlik va nihoyat katta davlat maqomiga Bundeslend (shtat) Germaniya Federativ Respublikasi. Dastlab kelt xalqlari tomonidan joylashtirilgan Boii, miloddan avvalgi 1-asrga kelib u oxir-oqibat fath qilindi va tarkibiga qo'shildi Rim imperiyasi sifatida viloyatlar ning Raetiya va Norikum.

Dastlabki aholi punktlari va Rim Raetiyasi

Hududning Rim tarixi uchun qarang Vindelicia va Raetiya.

Juda ko'p edi paleolit kashfiyotlar Bavariya.

Yozma manbalarda tilga olingan eng qadimgi aholi Keltlar, keng tarqalgan ishtirok etish La Tène madaniyati, kim Rimliklarga boshlanishidan bir oz oldin bo'ysundirilgan Nasroniy davr, ular orasida mustamlakalarni asos solgan va viloyatidagi erlarini o'z ichiga olgan Raetiya va Norikum. Ushbu hudud uchun Rim ma'muriyati markazi bo'lgan Kastra Regina (zamonaviy Regensburg ).

Migratsiya va dastlabki o'rta asrlar davri

V asr davomida rimliklar Norikum va Raetiya, ning janubida Dunay, Dunay shimolidagi odamlarning tobora kuchayib borayotgan bosimiga duch keldi. Ushbu hudud aholisi bo'lib qoldi Suebian shimoldan kelgan guruhlar va rimliklar uning bir qismi deb hisoblashgan Germaniya. "Bavariya" (lotin.) Ismining etimologik kelib chiqishi Baiovarii) Dunayning shimolidan, imperiyadan tashqarida joylashgan Seltik Boii, u erda ilgari yashagan. Ularning nomi ushbu mintaqaning o'sha paytdagi qismiga ishora qilish uchun allaqachon ishlatilgan Maroboduus kim tashkil qilgan Germancha marcomannic bu o'rmonzor hududida poytaxti bo'lgan qirollik. Boi bo'ldi Bai o'sha paytda sodir bo'lgan odatiy nemis tilshunoslik o'zgarishlari va inglizcha "uy" yoki zamonaviy nemis tiliga o'xshash nemischa so'zga ko'raHeim"qo'shildi. Strabon shuning uchun "Boihaemum" (yunoncha "Choiakos") haqida xabar beradi.[1] Tatsitus xuddi shunday xabar beradi Boyxaemum bu boii yashagan hududga berilgan nom.[2] Ushbu shakllar zamonaviyga olib keladi Bohemiya zamonaviy Bavyera sharqida va butunlay Dunay shimolida joylashgan zamonaviy Chex Respublikasi. Ba'zi bir keyingi bosqichlarda "varii" tugashi bilan Dunayning ikkala tomonida yashagan ushbu geografik hududda yashovchi aniq odamlarga yangi nom berish uchun foydalanilgan. (Shu kabi nemis etnik nomlari boshqa mintaqalar asosida yaratilgan: Angrivarii va Ampsivarii shimoliy Germaniyada, Angliya-Saksoniya Dasturiy ta'minot, Ripuari franklari va hokazo.) Klavdiy Ptolomey ikkalasini ham "Baenochaemae ", Yuqori qismida yashovchi Elbe daryo va "" deb nomlanuvchi "katta odamlar"Baimoi ", Dunay yaqinida yashaydi.

Omon qolgan yozuvlarda Bavyera nomi tarixiy ravishda a Xalqlarning franklar ro'yxati, v da tayyorlangan. Milodiy 520 yil. Ularning joylashishini tavsiflovchi birinchi hujjat (shvabiyaliklarning sharqida) Gotlar tarixi tarixchi tomonidan Jordanes milodiy 551 yildan boshlab. Izoh Venantius Fortunatus dan bo'lgan sayohatlari haqidagi tavsifiga amal qiladi Ravenna ga Ekskursiyalar (565-571), unda u Bavariya erlarini kesib o'tgan va mintaqada sayohat qilish xavfini nazarda tutgan: "Agar yo'l aniq bo'lsa va Bavariya sizni to'xtata olmasa […], keyin Alp tog'lari bo'ylab sayohat qiling. '

V va VI asrlarga oid arxeologik dalillar, masalan, bir nechta mintaqalar va xalqlarning ijtimoiy va madaniy ta'siriga ishora qiladi Alamanni, Lombardlar, Tyuringiyaliklar, Gotlar, Bohem Slavyanlar va mahalliy Rimlangan aholi.[3]

Yaqinda Volfram va Polning tadqiqotlari (1990) Bavariyaliklarning o'ziga xos geografik kelib chiqishini izlashdan uzoqlashdi. Endi qabilaviy etnik jarayon tomonidan o'rnatildi deb o'ylashadi etnogenez, bu bilan etnik shaxsiyat shakllanadi, chunki siyosiy va ijtimoiy bosim izchil identifikatsiyani zarur qiladi.

Bavariyaning poytaxt gersogligi

Asosiy maqola: Bavariya gersogligi

Bavariya va Agilolfings franklar hukmronligi ostida

Tez orada "Bavariya" franklar hukmronligi ostiga tushdi, ehtimol jiddiy kurashsiz. Franklar ushbu chegara hududini, masalan, sharqda joylashgan xalqlarga qarshi bufer zonasi deb hisoblashgan Avarlar va Slavyanlar va armiya uchun ishchi kuchi manbai sifatida. Miloddan taxminan 550 yil o'tgach, ular buni gersogning ma'muriyatiga topshirishgan - ehtimol frank yoki ehtimol mahalliy etakchi oilalar orasidan tanlangan - bu viloyat hokimi vazifasini bajarishi kerak edi. Frank shoh. Birinchi gersog ma'lum bo'lgan Garibald I, kuchlilarning a'zosi Agilolfing oila.[4] Bu bizning 788 yilgacha davom etishi kerak bo'lgan Agilolfing gersoglari seriyasining boshlanishi edi.

Bir yarim asr davomida ketma-ket gertsoglar kirib kelganlarga qarshilik ko'rsatdilar Slavyanlar ularning sharqiy chegaralarida va vaqtga kelib Dyuk Teodo I 717 yilda vafot etgan, zaif frank shohlaridan to'liq mustaqillikka erishgan. Qachon Charlz Martel Franklar qirolligining virtual hukmdori bo'ldi, u Bavariyani qat'iy qaramlikka olib chiqdi va ketma-ket ikkita knyazni iste'foga chiqardi. ifloslik. Uning o'g'li va vorisi Qisqa Pepin xuddi shunday frank hokimiyatini saqlab qoldi. U tegishli bo'lgan oila va xuddi shu tarzda podshohlari bilan birlashgan Agilolfinglar o'rtasida bir nechta nikohlar bo'lgan. Lombardlar. Franklarning turli xil ko'tarilishlarni bostirishi osonligi, zulm qilingan xalqning qo'zg'oloni emas, balki oilaviy janjallar qo'zg'olonga turtki bergan degan taxminga rang beradi.

Bavariya qonuni milodiy 739 va eramizning 748 yillari orasida yozishga sodiq edi. Keyinchalik qo'shilgan qo'shimcha bandlar Franklar ta'siridan dalolat beradi. Shunday qilib, gersoglik Agilolfing oilasiga tegishli bo'lsa-da, gersogni xalq saylashi va uning saylanishini u qarzdor bo'lgan Frank qiroli tasdiqlashi kerak. sodiqlik. The gersog besh barobarga ega zargar edi, maslahatlashish uchun dvoryanlarni va ruhoniylarni chaqiradi, uy egasini chaqiradi, adolatni boshqaradi va moliyani tartibga soladi. Besh zodagonlar oilasi mavjud, ehtimol bu xalqning sobiq bo'linishlarini anglatadi. Zodagonlarga bo'ysungan holda biz erkin tug'ilgan va keyin ozod bo'lganlarni topamiz. Qonun mamlakatni ikkiga ajratdi yurishlar yoki okruglar, ularning hisobiga binoan, qonunni e'lon qilish uchun mas'ul sudyalar yordam berishadi.

Nasroniylik

Xristianlik Bavyerada Rim davridan beri saqlanib kelgan, ammo episkop Rupert yangi davrni boshlagan Qurtlar 696 yilda Dyuk Teodo I ning taklifiga binoan okrugga kelgan. U yepiskop singari bir qancha monastirlarga asos solgan. Emmeran ning Poitiers Natijada, ko'p o'tmay, aksariyat odamlar nasroniylikni qabul qilishgan va Bavariya bilan munosabatlar boshlangan Rim. VIII asr haqiqatan ham g'ayritabiiy reaktsiyaga guvoh bo'lgan, ammo kelishi Avliyo Bonifas Bavariyada v. 734 AD tekshirildi murtadlik.[iqtibos kerak ] Boniface Bavariya cherkovini tashkil qildi va asos solgan yoki tiklagan episkopiya da Zaltsburg, Freising, Regensburg va Passau.

Tassilo III 749 yilda Bavariya gersogi bo'lgan, frank qirolining ustunligini tan olgan, Qisqa Pepin milodiy 757 yilda, ammo ko'p o'tmay urushga hissa qo'shishdan bosh tortdi Akvitaniya. Bundan tashqari, hukmronlikning dastlabki yillarida Buyuk Britaniya, Tassilo cherkov va fuqarolik sabablari bilan o'z nomidan qarorlar chiqardi, franklar yig'ilishlarida qatnashishdan bosh tortdi va umuman mustaqil hukmdor sifatida harakat qildi. Uning Alp tog'ini boshqarishi va uning ittifoqchisi sifatida mavqei o'tib ketadi Avarlar va Lombard qirolining kuyovi sifatida Desiderius, Franklar qirolligi uchun shunchalik mushkul ahvolga tushdiki, Karl uni tor-mor qilishga qaror qildi.

Ushbu tanlov tafsilotlari qorong'i bo'lib qolmoqda. Tassilo miloddan avvalgi 781 yilda va yana milodiy 787 yilda hurmat ko'rsatgan ko'rinadi, ehtimol franklar qo'shinlari borligi sababli. Ammo tez orada boshqa muammolar paydo bo'ldi va milodiy 788 yilda franklar knyazni chaqirishdi Ingelxaym va uni xiyonat aybida o'limga mahkum etdi. Biroq qirol monastirga kirgan va rasmiy ravishda knyazligidan voz kechgan Tassiloni afv etdi Frankfurt 794 yilda.

Buyuk Karlning birodari Gerold Bavariyani 799 yilda avarlar bilan bo'lgan jangda vafot etguncha boshqargan, o'shanda Franklar grafligi boshqaruvni o'z zimmasiga olgan va qolgan erlar bilan erni o'zlashtirgan. Karolingian imperiya. Buyuk Karl tomonidan o'z sohasining intellektual taraqqiyoti va moddiy farovonligi uchun ko'rilgan choralar yaxshilandi. Bavariyaliklar o'zlarining knyazligini bekor qilgan o'zgarishlarga qarshilik ko'rsatmadilar. Ularning franklar dominionlari tarkibiga kirishi, asosan cherkovning birlashtiruvchi ta'siri tufayli, shu qadar to'liq paydo bo'ldiki, Buyuk Karl, ayniqsa, Bavariya ishlari bilan shug'ullanadigan ikkitadan ortiq kapitaliyalarni chiqarishni lozim topmadi.

Karoling davridagi gersoglik

Gersoglik 10-asrda Bavariya

Keyingi asr uchun Bavariya tarixi va asrlar bilan chambarchas bog'liq Karolingian imperiya. Milodiy 817 yil podshohga bo'linish paytida berilgan Bavariya Sharqiy franklar, Lui nemis, milodiy 843 yilda unga tasdiqlangan katta hududlarning bir qismini tashkil etdi Verdun shartnomasi. Lui Regensburgni o'z hukumatining markaziga aylantirdi va Bavariyani faol rivojlantirdi, uning xavfsizligini slavyanlarga qarshi ko'plab kampaniyalar bilan ta'minladi. Milodiy 865 yilda u mol-mulkini taqsimlaganda, u katta o'g'liga, Karloman, u allaqachon ma'muriyatini boshqargan va milodiy 880 yilda vafotidan keyin u imperatorning keng hududlarining bir qismiga aylangan, Charlz Yog '. Ushbu qobiliyatsiz hukmdor o'z himoyasini qoldirdi Arnulf, Karlomanning noqonuniy o'g'li. Asosan Bavariyaliklarning qo'llab-quvvatlashi tufayli Arnulf 887 yilda Charlzga qarshi maydonga tushib, o'zini o'zi saylanishini ta'minlashi mumkin edi. Nemis keyingi yilda shoh. Milodiy 899 yilda Bavariya o'tgan Louis Bola, uning hukmronligi davrida doimiy Venger vayronalar sodir bo'ldi. Ushbu yo'llarga qarshilik asta-sekin zaiflashdi va an'anaga ko'ra 907 yil 5-iyulda Bavariya qabilasining deyarli barchasi halok bo'ldi. Pressburg jangi bu dahshatli dushmanlarga qarshi.

Lui Bola davrida, Luitpold, Soni Scheyern, katta Bavariya domenlariga ega bo'lgan, Markni boshqargan Karintiya, Bavariya mudofaasi uchun janubi-sharqiy chegarada yaratilgan. U 907 yilgi buyuk jangda vafot etdi, ammo uning o'g'li Arnulf Bad nomi bilan atalgan, Vengriyalar bilan ittifoq qilib, qabilaning qoldiqlarini birlashtirgan, milodiy 911 yilda Bavariya va Karintiyani uning boshqaruvi ostida birlashtirgan. Nemis qiroli, Konrad I, Arnulfga hujum qildi, ikkinchisi uning shohlik ustunligini tan olishdan bosh tortdi, ammo oxir-oqibat muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi.

Ottoniya va Salian davridagi gersoglik

Bavariya Muqaddas Rim imperiyasi milodiy 1000 yilda, janubi-sharqiy qismini tashkil etadi Germaniya qirolligi bilan chegaradosh Verona shahri janubda va Karintiya marti sharqda.

Milodiy 920 yilda Konradning vorisi Germaniya qiroli edi, Genri Fouler ning Ottonian sulola. Genri Arnulfni gersog deb tan oldi, uning episkoplarni tayinlash, tanga pullari va qonun chiqarish huquqini tasdiqladi.

Xuddi shunday ziddiyat Arnulfning o'g'li va vorisi o'rtasida sodir bo'lgan Eberxard va Genri o'g'li Buyuk Otto I. Eberxard otasidan kam muvaffaqiyatga erishdi va milodiy 938 yilda Otto marhum gersogning amakisiga (imtiyozlar bilan) bergan Bavariyadan qochib ketdi, Bertold. Otto shuningdek, a palatinni hisoblash Eberxardning akasi shaxsida, Arnulf qirollik manfaatlarini kuzatish.

947 yilda Bertold vafot etganida, Otto knyazlikni o'z akasiga topshirdi Genri Dyuk Arnulfning qizi Juditga uylangan. Qisqa hukmronligini asosan o'z xalqi bilan tortishuvlarda o'tkazgan Genrixni Bavariya yoqtirmasdi.

Vengriyaliklarning g'azablari mag'lubiyatga uchraganlaridan keyin to'xtadi Lechfeld (955 milodiy) va gersoglik hududi bir muncha vaqt Italiyaning ba'zi qo'shni tumanlari qo'shilishi bilan ko'paytirildi.

Imperator Genri II.

Milodiy 955 yilda Genrining yosh o'g'li Genri, "Dovul" deb nomlangan, uning o'rnini egallagan, ammo milodiy 974 yilda u Qirolga qarshi fitnada qatnashgan. Otto II. Ko'tarilish podshoh bergani sababli sodir bo'ldi Svabiya gersogligi Genri dushmaniga, Otto, Buyuk imperator Ottoning nabirasi va yangisini bergan edi Bavyera Sharqiy mart, keyinchalik sifatida tanilgan Avstriya, ga Babenbergning Leopold. Tez orada qo'zg'olon muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi, ammo qamoqdan qochib, fitnalarini yangilagan Genri, 976 yilda milodiy 976 yilda knyaz Otto uchun rasmiy ravishda Bavariya knyazligini yo'qotdi. Shvabiya. Xuddi shu paytni o'zida, Karintiya alohida knyazlik tuzildi, graf Palatinning idorasi qayta tiklandi va Bavariya cherkovi gersogga emas, balki qirolga qaram bo'lib qoldi.

Bavariya ushbu bosqichda tarkibiga kirdi Inn havzasi (shu jumladan Zaltsburg va Salzak havza) va Dunay dan Donovort (Lech qo'shilish) ga Linz; The Verona shahri (Janubiy Tirol ) Karintiyaga (976 milodiy) o'tishdan oldin qisqa vaqt ichida Bavariyaga (952 milodiy) tushdi. O'sha paytdagi eng muhim Bavariya shaharlari edi Freising, Passau, Zaltsburg va Regensburg.

Milodiy 985 yilda tiklangan Genri o'zini qobiliyatli hukmdor sifatida ko'rsatdi, ichki tartibni o'rnatdi, muhim qonunlar chiqardi va monastirlarni isloh qilish choralarini ko'rdi. Milodiy 1002 yilda uning o'g'li va vorisi Genri II Bavariyani qayiniga berdi Genri ning Lyuksemburg Miloddan avvalgi 1026 yilda vafotidan keyin u ketma-ket Genri imperatoriga o'tdi Genri III va keyin Dyuk sifatida hukmronlik qilgan Lyuksemburg oilasining boshqa a'zosiga Genri VII. Milodiy 1061 yilda, Empress Agnes, nemis qirolining onasi va regenti Genri IV, gersoglikni ishonib topshirdi Nordxaymlik Otto.

Welfs ostida

Milodiy 1070 yilda qirol Genrix IV gersoglikni grafga berib, knyaz Ottoni taxtdan tushiradi Welf, Shimoliy Italiyada ildiz otgan nufuzli Bavariya oilasining a'zosi.

Uning qo'llab-quvvatlashi natijasida Papa Gregori VII Genri bilan bo'lgan janjalda Uelf yutqazdi, ammo keyinchalik Bavariyani qaytarib oldi; ikki o'g'li ketma-ket unga ergashdi: Velf II milodiy 1101 yildan va Genri IX milodiy 1120 yildan. Ikkalasi ham nemis knyazlari orasida katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi.

Genrix IXning o'g'li Genri X, Proud deb nomlangan bo'lib, milodiy 1126 yilda muvaffaqiyat qozondi va shuningdek uni qo'lga kiritdi Saksoniya gersogligi milodiy 1137 yilda. Uning kuchidan qo'rqib ketdi shoh Konrad III ikki knyazlikning bir qo'lda qolishiga yo'l qo'ymaslikdan bosh tortdi va Genri ishdan bo'shatilganligini e'lon qildi. U Bavariyaga sovg'a qildi Leopold IV, Margrave of Avstriya. 1141 yilda Leopold vafot etganida, qirol knyazlikni o'zi saqlab qoldi; ammo u ancha tartibsizlikning sahnasi bo'lib qolaverdi va milodiy 1143 yilda u buni ishonib topshirdi Genri, familiyasi Jasomirgott, Avstriyaning Margrave.

Uni egallash uchun kurash milodiy 1156 yilgacha davom etdi, qachon Imperator Frederik I, Germaniyada tinchlikni tiklash istagida, Genri Bavyeradan voz kechishga ishontirdi Arslon Genri, gersog Saksoniya va mag'rur Genri o'g'li. Buning evaziga Avstriya margravyatdan mustaqil knyazlikka ko'tarildi Privilegium Minus. Bu asos solgan Genri Arslon edi Myunxen.

Geografik tebranishlar

Karoling imperiyasi tarqatib yuborilgandan keyingi yillar davomida Bavariya chegaralari doimiy ravishda o'zgarib turdi va milodiy 955 yildan keyin uzoq vaqt davomida u kengayishni boshladi. G'arbda Lech hali ham Bavariyani Shvabiyadan ajratib turdi, ammo boshqa uch tomondan Bavariya kengayish imkoniyatlaridan foydalangan va knyazlik shimoliy hududni egallab olgan. Dunay. Keyingi yillarda Welfs Biroq, aksincha tendentsiya paydo bo'ldi va Bavyera hajmi kamayib ketdi.

Milodiy 1027 yilda, Konrad II ajratish Trent episkopligi sobiq Lombarddan Italiya qirolligi. U uni keyinchalik o'g'li boshqargan Bavyera poytaxt knyazligiga biriktirdi Genri III. 12-asrdan boshlab graflar yashagan Tirol qal'asi yaqin Merano o'z hududlarini mintaqaning katta qismida kengaytirdilar va qudratidan ustun keldilar Brixen episkoplari, ular nomidan vassal bo'lganlar. Cho'kgandan keyin G'ururli Genri X Milodiy 1138 yilda Bavariya gersogi sifatida Graflar Tirol o'g'li boshchiligida Bavariyadan mustaqilligini mustahkamladi, Arslon Genri. Qachon Welf uyi tomonidan yana Bavariya knyazligiga berilgan Frederik Barbarossa milodiy 1154 yilda Reyxstag ning Goslar, Tirol tumani endi Bavariya tarkibiga kirmaydi.

Sher Dyuk Genri Arslon o'zining janubiy Bavyera knyazligiga emas, balki o'zining shimoliy Saksoniya knyazligiga e'tibor qaratdi va milodiy 1156 yilda Bavariya merosxo'rligi haqidagi tortishuv tugagach, milodiy o'rtasidagi tuman Enns va karvonsaroy Avstriyaning bir qismiga aylandi.

Markasi kabi sobiq Bavariya hududlarining ahamiyati tobora ortib bormoqda Shtiriya (milodiy 1180 yilda knyazlikka barpo etilgan) va Tirol tumani Bavariyaning haqiqiy kuchini ham, nisbiy kuchini ham pasaytirdi, endi deyarli barcha tomonlarda kengayish uchun imkoniyatlar yo'q edi. Qo'shni Karintiya gersogligi, ning katta hududlari Zalsburg arxiyepiskopiyasi, shuningdek, dvoryanlarning ko'proq mustaqilligini talab qilishning umumiy tendentsiyasi: bularning barchasi Bavariya ekspansiyasini chekladi.

Vittelsbax sulolasi ostida

Milodiy 1180 yilda Genri Arslon imperatorlik taqiqiga uchraganligi sababli, imperator Frederik I gersoglikni mukofotlaganidan keyin yangi davr boshlandi. Otto, eski Bavariya oilasining a'zosi Wittelsbax va Sheyern graflarining avlodi. Vittelsbaxlar sulolasi 1918 yilgacha Bavariyani to'xtovsiz boshqargan. The Palatina elektorati 1214 yilda Vittelsbaxlar tomonidan ham sotib olingan.

1180 yil sentyabr oyida Vittelsbax Otto Altenburgda Bavariyani qo'lga kiritgach, gersoglikning chegaralari Bohmervald, Inn, Alp tog'lari va Lech; va gersog faqat atrofida keng xususiy domenlar ustidan amaliy kuch ishlatar edi Wittelsbax, Kelxaym va Straubing.

Otto faqat Bavariya ustidan uch yillik boshqaruvdan bahramand bo'ldi. Uning o'g'li Louis I 1183 yilda uning o'rnini egalladi va imperator hukmronligining dastlabki yillarida Germaniya ishlarida etakchi rol o'ynadi Frederik II Lui 1231 yil sentyabrda Kelxaymda o'ldirilgunga qadar. Uning o'g'li Otto II, Illustrious deb nomlangan, sodiq bo'lib qoldi Hohenstaufen cherkov Bavyerani ostiga qo'yganiga qaramay imperatorlar taqiq va o'zi papa taqiqida. Otasi singari Otto II ham o'z erlarining maydonlarini sotib olish yo'li bilan ko'paytirdi va knyazlikni ushlab turishni ancha mustahkamladi. U 1253 yil noyabrda vafot etdi.

Bo'limlar

Bamberg sobori, 13-asrda yakunlangan.

Gersoglarning o'z kuchlarini oshirish va knyazlikka birlik berish uchun qilgan sa'y-harakatlari muvaffaqiyatning adolatli o'lchoviga duch keldi; Ammo tez orada ular oilaning turli a'zolari o'rtasida bo'linishlarni qo'zg'atdilar, bu 250 yil davomida Bavariya tarixini hududiy bo'linishlarning takrorlanuvchi xronikasidan tashqari, ularning orqasida urush va kuchsizlikni keltirib chiqardi.

Ushbu bo'linmalarning birinchisi 1255 yilda sodir bo'lgan. Lui II va Genri XIII, otasi vafot etganidan keyin ikki yil davomida Bavariyani birgalikda boshqargan Dyuk Otto II ning o'g'illari o'z meroslarini bo'lishib olishdi: Lui II knyazlikning g'arbiy qismini, so'ngra Yuqori Bavyera deb nomlandi, shuningdek Palatina elektorati, Genri esa sharqiy yoki Quyi Bavariyani himoya qildi.

Quyi Bavariya

Quyi Bavariya vakili Genri XIII ko'p vaqtini akasi bilan, bohemiyalik Ottakar II bilan va turli cherkovlar bilan janjallashishda o'tkazgan. U 1290 yil fevralda vafot etganida, er uch o'g'liga, Otto III, Lui III va Stiven I. Ushbu uchta knyazning oilalari 1333 yilgacha Quyi Bavariyani boshqargan Genri XV (Otto III ning o'g'li) vafot etdi, keyin 1334 yilda uning amakivachchasi Otto IV; Ikkala o'g'ilsiz vafot etganligi sababli butun Quyi Bavariya o'tib ketdi Genri XIV. 1339 yilda vafot etgan Genri yolg'iz o'g'il qoldirdi, Jon I, keyingi yili Vittselsbax imperatori Lui IV Quyi Bavyerani o'zi uchun ta'minlab, butun knyazlikni uning nazorati ostida birlashtirganda, farzandsiz vafot etdi.

Yuqori Bavariya

Uzoq hukmronlik davrida "Stern" deb nomlangan Lui II eng qudratli shahzodaga aylandi Germaniyaning janubi. U jiyanining qo'riqchisi bo'lib xizmat qilgan Konradin Hohenstaufen va Konradin 1268 yilda Italiyada qatl etilgandan so'ng, Lui va uning ukasi Genri Hohenstaufens domenlarini meros qilib oldilar. Shvabiya va boshqa joylarda. U Countni qo'llab-quvvatladi Xabsburglik Rudolph I, 1273 yilda Germaniya taxtini egallashga intilib, yangi qirolning qizi Mextildga uylandi va unga Bohemiyadagi yurishlarda yordam berdi.

Imperator Lui IV.

1294 yilda Lui vafotidan keyin bir necha yil davomida uning o'g'illari Rudolph I va Lui, keyinchalik imperator Lui IV ularning gersogligini umumiy boshqargan; Ammo ularning munosabatlari hech qachon uyg'un bo'lmaganligi sababli, 1310 yilda Yuqori Bavariyaning bo'linishi sodir bo'ldi, bu orqali Rudolf sharqiy erlarni oldi Isar shaharchasi bilan birgalikda Myunxen va Lui Isar va Lech o'rtasidagi tuman. Ammo ko'p o'tmay, bu kelishuv birodarlar o'rtasida urushga olib keldi, natijada 1317 yilda, Germaniya qiroli bo'lganidan uch yil o'tgach, Lui Rudolfni taxtdan voz kechishga majbur qildi va o'n ikki yil davomida butun Yuqori qismida yolg'iz hukmronlik qildi Bavariya. Ammo 1329 yilda bir qator voqealar uni xulosa qilishga undadi Pavia shartnomasi Rudolphning o'g'illari Rudolph va Rupert bilan, u ularga topshirgan Palatina elektorati (Wittelsbax oilasi 1214 yildan beri egalik qilgan) va Tuna shimolidagi Bavariyaning bir qismi, keyinroq Yuqori palatina (Oberpfalz).

Shu bilan birga, Vittelsbaxlar oilasining ikki qatori navbatma-navbat saylovchilar ovozini berishga qaror qilishdi va oilaning har qanday tarmog'i yo'q bo'lib ketgan taqdirda, tirik qolgan filial o'z mulkiga meros bo'lib o'tishi kerak.

IV Lui boshchiligida Bavariyaning birlashishi etti yil davom etdi, bu davrda imperator mamlakat ahvolini yaxshilay oldi. 1347 yilda vafot etganida, u olti o'g'ilni mol-mulkini baham ko'rish uchun qoldirdi, ular 1349 yilda Bavariyani taqsimlashga kelishib oldilar. Ammo uning tarixi bu bilan bog'liqligi bilan murakkablashdi. Brandenburg, Gollandiya, Hainaut va Tirol imperator ham o'g'illariga qoldirgan. Olti birodarlarning hammasi Bavariyada biron hokimiyatdan foydalangan; ammo uchtasi yolg'iz qoldi va ulardan eng kattasi, Louis V, Bavariya gersogi - margrave of Brandenburg va soni Tirol 1361 yilda vafot etgan va ikki yildan so'ng qabrga uning yolg'iz o'g'li, befarzand bo'lgan Meinxard. Keyin Tirol Xabsburglarga o'tdi. Brandenburg 1373 yilda yo'qolgan.

Ikki aka-uka, Stiven II va Albert I, navbati bilan Bavariya-Landshut va Bavariya-Straubing ustidan hukmronlik qilgan va Stiven 1375 yilda vafot etganida, uning uchta o'g'li Bavariyaning o'z qismini birgalikda boshqargan. 1392 yilda Stiven va Albertdan tashqari barcha satrlar yo'q bo'lib ketishi bilan muhim bo'lim bo'lib o'tdi, bu esa knyazlikning katta qismini Stivenning uch o'g'liga ajratdi, Stiven III, Frederik va Ioann II qatorlarini asos solgan Ingolshtadt, Landshut va Myunxen.

1392 yildagi uch qismli bo'linishning asosiy natijasi Germaniya siyosatining kuchi sifatida Bavariyaning vaqtincha tutilishiga olib kelgan fuqarolararo urushlarning ketma-ketligi bo'lib chiqdi. Qo'shni davlatlar uning chegaralarini zabt etishdi va dvoryanlar saylov ovozidan mahrum bo'lgan gersoglarning vakolatlarini e'tiborsiz qoldirdilar, asosan ellik yil davomida ichki nizolar bilan ishg'ol etildilar.

Vaziyatning bu holati ba'zi bir foydali tomonlarga ega edi. Mamlakat hukumati va moliya nazorati asosan "deb nomlangan yig'ilish qo'liga o'tdi Landtag yoki Landshaft1392 yilda tashkil etilgan. Shaharchalar ma'lum bir mustaqillikni o'z zimmalariga olib, savdo kuchaygan sayin kuchli va boyib ketishdi, Myunxen va Regensburg fuqarolari ko'pincha knyazlarga dahshatli antagonistlarni isbotladilar. Shunday qilib, tartibsizlik davri vakillik institutlarining o'sishiga va kuchli fuqarolik ruhining qaror topishiga olib keldi.

Bavyeraning to'rtta knyazligi 1392 yil.

Bavariya-Straubing

Albert I gersogligi Bavariya-Straubing 1404 yilda vafot etganida Golland va Xaynaut bilan o'g'liga o'tgan Uilyam II va 1417 yilda kichik o'g'liga Jon III, kim iste'foga chiqdi Lyej episkopligi yangi lavozimini egallash. 1425 yilda Jon vafot etganida, bu oila yo'q bo'lib ketdi va turli da'vogarlar o'rtasidagi bahsdan so'ng, Wittelsbach oilasining qolgan uchta filiali Ingolshtadt, Landshut va Myunxen o'zaro Bavyera-Straubingni ajratdilar. Biroq, Golland va Xaynaut Burgundiyaga o'tib ketishdi.

Bavariya-Ingolshtadt

Stiven III, gersog Bavariya-Ingolshtadt, davlat arbobi sifatida emas, balki askar sifatida tanilgan. Uning hukmronligi turli shaharlarda va uning ukasi Bavyera-Myunxenlik Jon bilan kurashlarni ko'rdi. 1413 yilda vafot etganida uning o'g'li Louis VII, Soqolli deb nomlangan, muvaffaqiyatga erishdi. Qabul qilinishidan oldin bu notinch va janjalli shahzoda singlisi bo'lgan Frantsiya ishlarida muhim rol o'ynagan. Izabella King bilan turmush qurgan Charlz VI. Taxminan 1417 yilda u amakivachchasi bilan qattiq janjalga kirishdi, "Bavariya-Landshut" vakili Genri XVI, ham papa, ham imperatorlik taqiqiga tushib qoldi va 1439 yilda uning o'g'li Lui VIII oqsoq hujumiga uchradi. Qiziga uylangan bu shahzoda Hohenzollerndan Frederik I, Brandenburg margrave, otasi tomonidan noqonuniy o'g'liga ko'rsatgan mehridan norozi. Yordam bergan Albert Axilles Keyinchalik, Brandenburg margravesi, u katta Lui mahbusini olib, 1443 yilda taxtdan voz kechishga majbur qildi. 1445 yilda Cho'loq Lui vafot etgach, otasi o'zining beg'ubor dushmani, Bavariya-Landshut Genri va 1447 yilda qamoqda vafot etdi. .

Bavariya-Landshut

Bavariya-Ingolshtadt gersogligi otasi Frederikdan keyin knyazlik vazifasini o'tagan Genriga o'tdi. Bavariya-Landshut 1393 yilda va uning hukmronligi deyarli butunlay oilaviy janjallardan iborat edi. U 1450 yil iyulda vafot etdi va uning o'g'li, Louis IX (Boy deb nomlangan) muvaffaqiyatga erishdi. Bu vaqtda Bavariya avvalgi ahamiyatini tiklay boshladi.

Lyudovik IX yahudiylarni knyazligidan chiqarib yubordi, savdogarlar xavfsizligini oshirdi va odil sudlovni amalga oshirishni ham, moliyaviy ahvolni ham yaxshiladi. 1472 yilda u asos solgan Ingolshtadt universiteti, monastirlarni isloh qilishga urindi va muvaffaqiyatli Brandenburglik Albert Axilleni mag'lub etdi. 1479 yil yanvarda Lyudovik IX vafot etganida uning o'g'li Jorj, shuningdek, Boy deb nomlangan, muvaffaqiyatga erishgan; va Germaniya qiroli Maksimilian I ning sodiq tarafdori Jorj 1503 yil dekabrda o'g'ilsiz vafot etganida, uning gersogligi uchun urush boshlandi.

Bavariya - Myunxen

Bavariya vakili Albert IV

Bavariya - Myunxen Ioann II vafotidan keyin 1397 yilda uning o'g'illariga o'tdi Ernest va Uilyam III, lekin ular faqat o'zlarining erlariga Bavyera-Ingolshtadt Stefani bilan kurashdan so'ng ega bo'lishdi. Keyin ikkala aka-uka oilaning boshqa tarmoqlari va Myunxen fuqarolari bilan urush olib borishdi. Imperator Sigismundning sodiq xizmatkori Uilyam III 1435 yilda vafot etdi, besh yil o'tib vafot etgan yagona o'g'li Adolf; va o'zining kuchi bilan ajralib turadigan Ernest 1438 yilda vafot etdi. 1440 yilda butun Bavariya-Myunxen Ernestning o'g'liga keldi Albert III Oddiy odam bilan birlashishi tufayli otasidan ajralib qolgan Agnes Bernauer. Monastirlarni isloh qilishga urinishlari unga Taqvodor familiyasini bergan Albert deyarli saylangan qirolga aylandi Bohemiya 1440 yilda. U 1460 yilda vafot etdi, beshta o'g'il qoldirdi, ulardan ikkitasi katta, Jon IV va Sigismund, 1463 yilda Jonning vafotigacha birga hukmronlik qilgan. Uchinchi birodar Albert cherkovda ta'lim olgan, 1465 yilda akasiga qo'shilgan va Sigismund ikki yildan keyin taxtdan voz kechganda, ikki ukasining da'volariga qaramay, yakka hokim bo'lgan. .

Albert IV, Dono deb nomlangan, ning tumani qo'shilgan Abensberg uning mulkiga, va 1504 yilda jalb qilingan Landshut vorislik urushi Jorj Richning vafoti munosabati bilan Bavariya-Landshutga egalik qilish uchun boshlangan. Albertning raqibi Jorjning kuyovi Rupert, ilgari episkop edi Freising shuningdek, Filippning vorisi sifatida palatin hisoblanardi Reyn. Imperator Maksimilian I, bosh arxeuk sifatida qiziqadi Avstriya va Tirol grafligi, bahsga aralashdi. Rupert 1504 yilda vafot etdi va keyingi yil Diet da kelishuv tuzildi Kyoln bu orqali imperator va Filippning nabirasi Otto Genri ma'lum chekka tumanlarni qo'lga kiritgan, Albert esa Jorj mulkining asosiy qismini ta'minlash orqali Bavariyani uning boshqaruvida birlashtirgan. 1506 yilda Albert knyazlik bundan buyon primogenitet qoidalariga binoan o'tishi kerakligi to'g'risida qaror chiqardi va boshqa yo'llar bilan Bavariyani birlashtirishga intildi. U mamlakat ahvolini yaxshilashda qisman muvaffaqiyatga erishdi va 1500 yilda Bavariya Germaniyani tinchlikni saqlash uchun bo'lingan oltita doiradan birini tuzdi. Albert 1508 yil mart oyida vafot etdi va uning o'rnini o'g'li egalladi, Uilyam IV, uning onasi Kunigunde imperator Frederik III ning qizi edi.

Birlashgan knyazlik

Uyg'onish va aksil islohot

1506 yildagi farmonga qaramay, Vilyam IV 1516 yilda akasiga hukumatdan ulush berishga majbur bo'ldi Lui X, 1545 yilda Lui vafotigacha davom etgan kelishuv.

Uilyam 1534 yilgacha shartnoma tuzguniga qadar Gabsburglarga qarshi bo'lgan an'anaviy Vittelsbax siyosatiga amal qildi Linz bilan Ferdinand, qiroli Vengriya va Bohemiya. Ushbu aloqa imperator bo'lgan 1546 yilda kuchaygan Charlz V urushida gertsogning yordamiga ega bo'ldi Schmalkalden ligasi unga ba'zi bir vaziyatlarda Bogemiya taxtiga o'tishni va shu bilan saylovchilarning qadr-qimmatini va'da qilgan holda Reynning palatinini hisoblash. Uilyam, shuningdek, "Bavariya" ni ta'minlash uchun juda muhim davrda ko'p ish qildi Katoliklik. Gersog papa tomonidan episkopiya va monastirlarga nisbatan keng huquqlarni qo'lga kiritgach, islohot qilingan doktrinalar knyazlikda katta yutuqlarga erishdi. Keyin u islohotchilarni repressiya qilish choralarini ko'rdi, ularning ko'plari quvib chiqarildi; esa Iezuitlar u 1541 yilda knyazlikka taklif qilgan Ingolshtadtning jizvit kolleji, ularning Germaniyadagi bosh qarorgohi. Uilyam, uning o'limi 1550 yil mart oyida sodir bo'lgan va uning o'rnini o'g'li egallagan Albert V Xabsburglik Ferdinandning qiziga uylangan, keyinchalik imperator Ferdinand I. Albert o'z hukmronligining boshlarida Bavyerada hali ham kuchli bo'lgan islohotchilarga bir oz yon bergandi; Ammo taxminan 1563 yilda u o'z munosabatini o'zgartirdi, farmonlarni ma'qulladi Trent kengashi va ishini oldinga surdi Qarama-islohot. Ta'lim jezuitlar qo'liga daraja bo'yicha o'tishi bilan, taraqqiyot Protestantizm aslida Bavariyada hibsga olingan.

Albert V san'atni keng qamrovli qildi. Uning barcha turdagi rassomlari Myunxendagi saroyga tashrif buyurishdi va shaharda ajoyib binolar paydo bo'ldi, Italiya va boshqa joylarda badiiy asarlar to'plamiga hissa qo'shdi. Ajoyib sudning xarajatlari gersogni sud bilan janjallashishiga olib keldi Landshaft (dvoryanlar), o'z fuqarolariga zulm qilish va 1579 yil oktyabrda vafot etganida katta qarz yukini qoldirish.

Maksimilian I

Keyingi gersog, Albertning o'g'li, Uilyam V (taqvodor deb nomlangan), Iezvit ta'limini olgan va Iezvit qoidalariga qattiq bog'langanligini ko'rsatgan. U xavfsizlikni ta'minladi Köln arxiyepiskopiyasi uning akasi uchun Ernest 1583 yilda va bu qadr-qimmat oilada 200 yil davomida saqlanib qoldi. 1597 yilda u o'g'lining foydasiga taxtdan voz kechdi Maksimilian I va 1626 yilda vafot etgan monastirga nafaqaga chiqqan.

O'ttiz yillik urush

Maksimilian, men knyazlikni qarzga botgan va tartibsizlik bilan to'lgan deb topdim, ammo uning o'n yillik kuchli boshqaruvi ajoyib o'zgarishga ta'sir qildi. Moliya va sud tizimi qayta tashkil qilindi, davlat xizmatchilari sinfi va milliy militsiya tashkil etildi va gersogning hokimiyatiga bir nechta kichik okruglar kiritildi. Natijada knyazlikda birlik va tartib paydo bo'ldi, bu Maksimilianga muhim rol o'ynashga imkon berdi O'ttiz yillik urush; oldingi yillarda u juda muvaffaqiyatli bo'lgan edi Yuqori palatina va saylovchilarning qadr-qimmati 1356 yildan beri Wittelsbax oilasining oqsoqollar tarmog'i tomonidan zavqlanib kelingan. Keyingi teskari yo'nalishlarga qaramay, Maksimilian ushbu yutuqlarni saqlab qoldi Vestfaliya tinchligi 1648 yilda. Ushbu urushning keyingi yillarida Bavariya, ayniqsa, shimoliy qismi jiddiy azob chekdi. 1632 yilda Shvedlar bosqinchi va Maksimilian shartnomasini buzganida Ulm 1647 yilda frantsuzlar va shvedlar erni vayron qilishdi. Ushbu zararni ma'lum darajada tiklagandan so'ng, saylovchi vafot etdi Ingolshtadt 1651 yil sentyabrda knyazlikni o'zi topganidan ancha kuchliroq qoldirdi. Yuqori Pfalzning tiklanishi Bavariyani ixchamlashtirdi; saylovchilar ovozini olish uni ta'sirchan qildi va knyazlik so'nggi to'rt yuz yil ichida ichki nizolar imkonsiz qilib qo'ygan Evropa siyosatida rol o'ynay oldi.

Bavariya saylovchilari

Asosiy maqola: Bavariya saylovchilari

Absolutizm

G'olib chiqqan xalqaro pozitsiya Maksimilian I dukallar uyiga qo'shiladi, Bavariyaning o'zida uning keyingi ikki asrdagi ta'siri eng shubhali edi. Maksimilianning o'g'li, Ferdinand Mariya Muvaffaqiyatga erishganda voyaga etmagan (1651–1679), o'ttiz yillik urush oqibatida yaralarni tiklashga, qishloq xo'jaligi va sanoatni rag'batlantirishga, ko'plab cherkovlar va monastirlarni qurish yoki tiklashga harakat qildi. 1669 yilda, bundan tashqari, u yana 1612 yildan buyon to'xtatilgan parhez yig'ilishini chaqirdi.

Maksimilian II Emanuel

Ammo uning yaxshi ishlarini o'g'li asosan bekor qildi Maksimilian II Emanuel (1679–1726), kimning uzoqni ko'zlagan ambitsiyasi unga qarshi kurash olib bordi Usmonli imperiyasi va Frantsiya tomonida katta kurashda Ispaniya merosxo'rligi. U mag'lubiyatga sherik bo'ldi Blenxaym jangi, yaqin Xochstädt, 1704 yil 13-avgustda; uning hukmronliklari vaqtincha Avstriya va elektorat palatinasi tomonidan Ilbersheim shartnomasi va faqat unga qayta tiklangan, charchagan va charchagan holda 1714 yilda Baden shartnomasi; birinchi Bavyera dehqonlari qo'zg'oloni deb nomlanuvchi Sendlingning qonli Rojdestvosi, 1706 yilda avstriyalik istilochilar tomonidan tor-mor qilingan.

Maksimilian II Emmanuelning tajribasi bilan o'rganilmagan, uning o'g'li, Charlz Albert (1726–1745), butun kuchini uyining Evropadagi obro'si va qudratini oshirishga bag'ishlagan. Imperatorning o'limi Charlz VI uning imkoniyatini isbotladi: u Pragmatik sanksiya bu Habsburg merosxo'rligini ta'minladi Mariya Tereza, Frantsiya bilan ittifoqdosh bo'lib, Yuqori Avstriyani zabt etdi va toj kiydi Bohemiya qiroli da Praga va 1742 yilda Frankfurtdagi imperator. U to'lashi kerak bo'lgan narx, ammo Bavariyaning o'zini Avstriya qo'shinlari tomonidan bosib olish edi. va 1744 yilda Bohemiya bosqini bo'lsa ham Prussiyalik Frederik II unga Myunxenga qaytishga imkon berdi, 1745 yil 20-yanvarda vafot etgach, o'z vorisiga o'z hukmronligini tiklash uchun qanday shartlar qo'yishi topshirildi.

Maksimilian III Jozef (1745–1777), tinchlik ila "Ko'p suyukli Maks" deb nomlangan Füssen, 1745 yil 22-aprelda imzolangan bo'lib, Pragmatik Sanktsiyani rasmiy ravishda tan olish evaziga o'z hukmronliklarining o'rnini qopladi. U odam edi ma'rifat, qishloq xo'jaligi, sanoat va ekspluatatsiyani rag'batlantirish uchun juda ko'p ish qildi mineral mamlakatning boyligi, asos solgan Fanlar akademiyasi Myunxenda bo'lib, Iezuitlar matbuotining tsenzurasini bekor qildi. Shu bilan birga, saylovchi avvalgilaridan ko'ra ko'proq o'lim jazosiga imzo chekdi. 1777 yil 30-dekabrda, u vafot etganida, Wittelsbaxsning Bavariya safi yo'q bo'lib ketdi va merosxo'rlik o'tdi Charlz Teodor, elektorat palatinasi. To'rt yarim asrlik ajralishdan so'ng, Palatina elektorati, unga knyazliklari Julich va Berg qo'shilgan edi, shu tariqa Bavariya bilan birlashdi.

Pfalts-Bavariya

O'zining ambitsiyasidan qo'rqish uchun asos bo'lgan qo'shni davlatga kuch qo'shilishi shunchalik katta edi, u avtoritetga toqat qilib bo'lmaydigan bo'lib chiqdi, bu esa butun Bavyera merosining uchdan bir qismini tashkil etuvchi Bohemiya merosining uchdan bir qismini tashkil etadigan bir qator lordliklarga da'vogarlik qildi. , Avstriya va imperatorlik tojlari. Bular birdaniga avstriyalik qo'shinlar tomonidan, qonuniy merosxo'rlarsiz va imperatordan o'zining tabiiy farzandlarini imperiya knyazlari darajasiga ko'tarishni istagan Charlz Teodorning o'zi yashirin roziligi bilan ishg'ol qilingan. Keyingi merosxo'r Dyukning noroziliklari Charlz II ning Tsveybruken (Deux-Ponts), qirol tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan Prussiya, ga olib keldi Bavyera merosxo'rligi urushi. Tomonidan Teschenning tinchligi (1779 yil 13-may) Innviertel Avstriyaga topshirildi va vorislik Tsvaybruken Charlziga berildi.

"Bavariya" ning o'zi uchun Charlz Teodor hech narsa qilmadi. U o'zini chet elliklar orasida chet ellik kabi his qildi va o'zining sevimli sxemasi, Avstriya kabineti bilan cheksiz fitnalar mavzusi va bevosita sabab Frederik II "s Shahzodalar ligasi (Fyurstenbund) 1785 yil, Bavariyani Avstriya Niderlandiyasi va qirol unvoni Burgundiya. Qolganlari uchun avvalgisining ma'rifiy ichki siyosatidan voz kechildi. Bostirilganlarning mablag'lari Isoning jamiyati Maksimilian Jozef mamlakatning ta'lim tizimini isloh qilish uchun mo'ljallagan edi, biz viloyat provinsiyasini yaratishga odatlanganmiz. Quddusdagi Aziz Yuhanno ritsarlari, imon dushmanlariga qarshi kurashish maqsadida. Hukumat eng tor ruhoniylikdan ilhomlanib, Bavariya episkoplarini buyuk nemis metropolitenlari yurisdiktsiyasidan olib chiqib, ularni to'g'ridan-to'g'ri papa nazorati ostiga olishga urinish bilan yakunlandi. Inqilob arafasida Bavariyaning intellektual va ijtimoiy holati O'rta asrlar holatida qoldi.

Inqilobiy va Napoleon davrlari

Bavariya, Reynbund tarkibida 1807 yilda
Bavariya va uning bo'linmalari, 1808 yilga kelib

1792 yilda frantsuz inqilobiy qo'shinlari Pfalziyani bosib oldi; 1795 yilda frantsuzlar, ostida Moro, Bavariyaning o'ziga bostirib kirdi va Myunxenga yo'l oldi, u erda ularni uzoq vaqt bostirilgan liberallar quvonch bilan qabul qilishdi va qamalga olishdi. Ingolshtadt. Charlz Teodor, who had done nothing to prevent wars or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony and abandoned a regency whose members signed a convention with Moreau, by which he granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribution (7 September 1796).

Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in a bad situation. Even before the death of Charles Theodore on 16 February 1799, the Austrians had again occupied the country, in preparation for renewing the war with France. Maksimilian IV Joseph (of Zweibrücken) the new elector succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though both he and his all-powerful minister, Maksimilian fon Montgelas sympathized more with France than Austria, the state of the Bavarian finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered and disorganized placed him helpless in the hands of Austria. On 2 December 1800, the Bavarian armies were involved in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. Tomonidan Lunevil shartnomasi (9 February 1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Tsveybruken va Julich.

Count Montgelas

In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay in a frank alliance with the French Republic; he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of Maximilian Joseph and on 24 August a separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed in Parij. By the third article of this the Birinchi konsul undertook to see that the compensation promised under the 7th article of the treaty of Lunéville for the territory ceded on the left bank of the Reyn, should be carried out at the expense of the Empire in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria (see de Martens, Recueil, vol. vii. p. 365).

Thus in 1803, in accordance to this agreement, in the territorial rearrangements consequent on Napoleon's suppression of the ecclesiastical states and of many free cities of the Empire, Bavaria received the bishoprics of Vürtsburg, Bamberg, Augsburg va Freisingen, bu qism Passau, the territories of twelve abbeys, and seventeen cities and villages. The whole form a compact territory which more than compensated for the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine. Montgelas now aspired to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate power and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch with consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of France — so long as it lasted — but never permitting Bavaria to sink, like so many of the states of the Reyn konfederatsiyasi, into mere French dependency. In 1805 yilgi urush, in accordance with a treaty of alliance signed at Vürtsburg on 23 September, Bavarian troops, for the first time since the days of Charlz VII, fought side by side with the French, and by the Pressburg shartnomasi, signed on 26 December, the Principality of Eichstädt, Burgau margravitatsiyasi, ning Lordligi Vorarlberg, okruglari Hohenems va Königsegg-Rothenfels, the lordships of Argen va Tettnang va shahar Lindau with its territory was to be added to Bavaria. On the other hand, Würzburg, obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria to the elector of Zaltsburg evaziga Tirol. By the 1st article of the treaty, the emperor acknowledged the assumption by the elector of the title of king, as Maximilian I. The price which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for this accession of dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with Eugène de Beauharnais. On 15 March 1806 he ceded the Duchy of Berg Napoleonga.

For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French alliance had noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself was an "ma'rifatli " prince of the 18th-century type, whose tolerant principles had already grievously offended his clerical subjects. Montgelas was a firm believer in drastic reform "from above", and, in 1803, had discussed with the rump of the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on 1 May 1808 were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean sweep was made of the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent local diets and corporations. In place of the old system of privileges and exemptions were set equality before the law, universal liability to taxation, the abolition of krepostnoylik, the security of person and property, liberty of conscience and of the press. A representative assembly was created on paper, based on a narrow franchise and with very limited powers, but was never summoned.

Galliya protects Bavaria, 1809 painting by Marianne Kürtsinger

In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on the side of France. The Tyroleans rose up against the Bavarian authority and succeeded three times in defeating Bavarian and French troops trying to retake the country. Austria lost the war of the Beshinchi koalitsiya against France, and got even harsher terms in the Shönbrunn shartnomasi in 1809. Often glorified as Tirol's national hero, Andreas Xofer, the leader of the uprising, was executed in 1810 in Mantua, having lost a third and final battle against the French and Bavarian forces. By the treaty signed at Paris on 28 February 1810, Bavaria ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some small districts to Vyurtemberg, receiving as compensation parts of Salzburg, the Innviertel va Hausruck va knyazliklari Bayreut va Regensburg. So far the policy of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful, but the star of Napoleon had now reached its zenith and already the astute opportunist had noted the signs of the coming change.

The events of 1812 followed; in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to join the alliance against Napoleon, the demand being passionately backed by the crown prince Lui and by Marshal Wrede; on 8 October the treaty of Ried was signed, by which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Montgelas announced to the French ambassador that he had been compelled temporarily to bow before the storm, adding "Bavaria has need of France". (For Bavaria's share in the war see Napoleon kampaniyalari.)

Bavariya qirolligi

Asosiy maqola: Bavariya qirolligi

Constitution and Revolution

Dan keyin darhol first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria ceded to Austria the northern Tirol va Vorarlberg; davomida Vena kongressi it was decided that she was to add to these the greater part of Zaltsburg va Innviertel va Hausruck [de ]. She received as compensation, besides Vürtsburg va Asxafenburg, Palatina (mintaqa) on the left bank of the Rhine and certain districts of Gessen-Darmshtadt va birinchisi Abbacy of Fulda. But with the collapse of France, the old fears and jealousies against Austria were revived in full force, and Bavaria only agreed to these cessions (treaty of Munich, 16 April 1816) under the promise that, in the event of the powers ignoring her claim to the Baden succession in favor of that of the line of the counts of Xoxberg, she should receive also the Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was thus left open, the tension between the two powers remained high, and the war was only averted by the authority of the Grand Alliance . Da Congress of Aix (1818) the question of the Baden succession was settled in favor of the Hochberg line, without the compensation stipulated in the treaty of Munich; and by the treaty of Frankfurt, signed on behalf of the four great powers on 20 July 1819, the territorial issues between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the protests of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement made at Vienna. A small strip of territory was added, to connect Bavaria with the Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison the federal Maynts qal'asi.

Meanwhile, on 1 February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed; and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform. This implied no breach with the European policy of the fallen minister. In the new German confederation, Bavaria had assumed the role of defender of the smaller states against the ambitions of Austria and Prussia. Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian hegemony in South Germany similar to that of Prussia in the north. It was to obtain popular support for this policy and for the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince pressed for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to concede it is the cause of his dismissal.

On 26 May 1818, the constitution was proclaimed. The parlament was to consist of two houses; the first comprising the great hereditary landowners, government officials, and nominees of the crown; the second, elected on a very narrow franchise, comprising representatives of the small land-owners, the towns, and the peasants. By additional articles the equality of religions was guaranteed and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which were denounced at Rim as a breach of the Konkordat, which had been signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional experiment hardly justified the royal expectations; the parliament was hardly opened (5 February 1819) before the doctrinaire radicalism of some of its members, culminating in the demand that the army should swear allegiance to the constitution, so alarmed the king that he appealed to Austria and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve of any coup d'état; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness that its life depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated its tone; and Maximilian ruled till his death as a model constitutional monarch. On 13 October 1825, his son Lyudvig I uning o'rnini egalladi.

Qirol Lyudvig I

Ludwig proved an enlightened patron of the arts and sciences, who transferred the Landshut universiteti to Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he transformed into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent. The earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and the reform, especially, of the financial administration; lekin revolutions of 1830 frightened him into reaction, which was accentuated by the opposition of the parliament to his expenditure on building and works of art. 1837 yilda Ultramontanlar came into power with Karl fon Abel (1788–1859) as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand; one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified or annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed, and rigorous censorship forbade any free discussion of internal politics. The collapse of this régime was due, not to popular agitation, but to the resentment of Ludwig at the clerical opposition to the influence of his mistress, Lola Montez. On 17 February 1847, Abel was dismissed for publishing his memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola, who was an Irishwoman; va protestant Jorj Lyudvig fon Maurer uning o'rnini egalladi. The new ministry granted the certificate of naturalization; but riots, in which Ultramontane professors of the university took part, resulted. The professors were deprived, the parliament dissolved, and, on 27 November, the ministry dismissed. Lola Montez created Countess Landsfeld, became supreme in the state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig of Öttingen-Wallerstein (1791–1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal sympathy by appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless to form a stable government. His cabinet was known as the Lolaministerium; in February 1848, stimulated by the news from Paris (Frantsiyada 1848 yildagi inqilob ), riots broke out against the countess; on 11 March the king dismissed Öttingen, and on 20 March, realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in favor of his son, Maksimilian II.

Before his abdication Ludwig had issued, on 6 March 1848, a proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian government in the work of German freedom and unity (see Germaniya davlatlarida 1848 yildagi inqiloblar ). To the spirit of this Maximilian was faithful, accepting the authority of the central government at Frankfurt and on 19 December the sanctioning of the official promulgation of the laws were passed by the German parliament. But Prussia was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In refusing to agree to the offer of the imperial crown to Frederik Uilyam IV, Maximilian had the support of his parliament. In withholding his assent to the new German constitution, by which Austria was excluded from the Konfederatsiya, he ran indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time the back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which led to the humiliation of Prussia at Olmutz in 1851, and the restoration of the old diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was safe in casting in her lot with Austria (see Germaniya tarixi ).

The guiding spirit in this anti-Prussian policy, which characterized Bavarian statesmanship up to the 1866 yilgi urush, edi Baron Karl Lyudvig fon der Pfordten (1811–1880), who became minister for foreign affairs on 19 April 1849. His idea for the ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power in Germany was the so-called Uchliklar, i.e. a league of the Rhenish states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and Prussia. In internal affairs, his ministry was characterized by a reactionary policy less severe than elsewhere in Germany, which led none-the-less from 1854 onward to a struggle with the parliament, which ended in the dismissal of Pfordten's ministry on 27 March 1859. He was succeeded by Karl Freiherr von Schrenk von Notzing (1806–1884), an official of Liberal tendencies who had been a Bavarian representative in the diet of the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced, including the separation of the judicial and executive powers and the drawing up of a new criminal code. In foreign affairs Schrenk, like his predecessor, aimed at safeguarding the independence of Bavaria, and supported the idea of superseding the actual constitution of the Confederation by a supreme directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German states, would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization of the Confederation, and one of the last acts of King Maximilian was to take a conspicuous part in the assembly of princes summoned to Frankfurt in 1863 by the emperor Frensis Jozef.

Maximilian was succeeded on 10 March 1864 by his son Lyudvig II, a youth of eighteen. The government was at first carried on by Schrenk and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon retired, when the Bavarian government found it necessary, in order to maintain its position in the Prussian Zollverein, to become a party to the Prussian commercial treaty with France, signed in 1862. In the complicated Shlezvig-Golshteyn savoli Bavaria, under Pfordten's guidance, consistently opposed Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Augustenburglik Frederik against the policy of the two great German powers. Nihoyat, 1866 yilgi urush, ga qaramasdan Bismark 's efforts to secure her neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with Austria.

Germaniya imperiyasi

The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation of Bismarck paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria's relation to Prussia and the German question. The South German Confederation, contemplated by the 6th article of the Praga shartnomasi, never came into being; and, though Prussia, in order not to excite the alarm of France, opposed the suggestion that the southern states should join the Shimoliy Germaniya Konfederatsiyasi, the bonds of Bavaria (as of the other southern states) with the north were strengthened by an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon's demand for "compensation" in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on 22 August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal treaty of peace between the two countries. The separatist ambitions of Bavaria were thus formally given up; she had no longer "need of France"; va davomida Frantsiya-Prussiya urushi, the Bavarian army marched, under the command of the Prussian crown prince, against Germany's common enemy. It was on the proposal of King Lyudvig II that the imperial crown was offered to King Vilgelm I Prussiya.

Bavaria and the German Empire

This was preceded, on 23 November 1870, by the signature of a treaty between Bavaria and the North German Confederation. By this instrument, though Bavaria became an integral part of the new German empire, she reserved a larger measure of sovereign independence than any of the other constituent states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic service, military administration, and postal, telegraph, and railway systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers on 21 January 1871, though not without considerable opposition on the part of the so-called Patriot Party. Their hostility was increased by the Kulturkampf, due to the promulgation in 1870 of the dogma of papa xatosi. Myunxen universiteti, qayerda Ignaz von Döllinger was professor, became the center of the opposition to the new dogma, and the Qadimgi katoliklar were protected by the king and the government. The federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on 6 September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptoristlar in 1873. On 31 March 1871, moreover, the bonds with the rest of the empire had been drawn closer by the acceptance of a number of laws of the North German Confederation, of which the most important was the new criminal code, which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The opposition of the Patriot Party, however, reinforced by the strong Catholic sentiment of the country, continued and it was only the steady support given by the king to successive Liberal ministries that prevented its finding disastrous expression in the parliament, where it remained in a majority till 1887, and subsequently, as the Markaz partiyasi, continued to form the most compact party.

Ludwig II, whose passion for building palaces and near-total neglect of his governmental duties were becoming a serious crisis, was declared insane and on 10 June 1886, his uncle, Prince Luitpold, became the regent. Three days later on 13 June, Ludwig II was found dead in Starnberg ko'li. The question of whether his death was self-imposed, accidental or the result of malicious conspirators remains unanswered. However, it was reported at the time and today is widely accepted that it was a suicide. Due to the insanity of Ludwig's brother, King Otto I, Prince Luitpold continued as regent.

After 1871, Bavaria shared to the full in the rapid development of Germany; but her particularism, founded on traditional racial and religious antagonism to the Prussians, was by no means dead, though it exhibited itself in no more dangerous form than the prohibition, reissued in 1900, to display any but the Bavarian flag on public buildings on the emperor's birthday; a provision which was subsequently modified so as to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side by side.

Following Prince Luitpold's death in 1912, his son, Prince Ludwig, became the regent. A year later, Ludwig deposed his cousin, Otto, and proclaimed himself King Bavariya Lyudvig III. Davomida Birinchi jahon urushi, Ludwig's eldest son, Crown Prince Rupprecht, commanded the Bavarian army and became one of the leading German commanders on the Western Front.

Zamonaviy vaqt

Bavaria during the Veymar Respublikasi

Asosiy maqolalar: Bavariya Sovet Respublikasi va Pivo zali Putsch
Bavaria during Veymar Respublikasi. The western territory of Bavaria is the Renish palatinasi tarkibiga kirgan Reynland-Pfalz tugaganidan keyin Ikkinchi jahon urushi.

Republican institutions replaced royal ones in Bavaria during the upheavals of November 1918. Provisional National Council Minister-President Kurt Eisner declared Bavaria to be a erkin davlat on 7 November 1918. Eisner was assassinated on 21 February 1919 ultimately leading to a Communist revolt and the short lived Bavariya Sotsialistik Respublikasi (Bayerische Räterepublik yoki Münxner Räterepublik) being proclaimed from 6 April 1919. After violent suppression by elements of the German Army and notably the Freikorps, the Bavarian Socialist Republic fell on 3 May 1919. The Bamberg Constitution (Bamberger Verfassung) was enacted on 14 August 1919 creating the Free State of Bavaria within the Weimar Republic.

Myunxen became a hotbed of extremism: the 1919 Bavariya Sovet Respublikasi va 1923 yil Pivo zali Putsch jalb qilish Erix Lyudendorff va Adolf Gitler took place in the same city. Ko'pchilik uchun Veymar Respublikasi, though, Bavaria was dominated by the relatively mainstream conservative Bavariya Xalq partiyasi. The BPP was a Catholic party that represented the Bavarian tradition of particularist conservatism, through which monarchists and even separatist sentiments were conveyed. An attempt supported by a wide coalition of parties, to establish Rupprecht, Bavariyaning valiahd shahzodasi, kabi Staatskommisar with dictatorial powers in 1932 to counter the Nazis failed due to the hesitant Bavarian government under Geynrix Xeld.[5][6]

Bavaria during Natsistlar Germaniyasi

Ning ko'tarilishi bilan Natsistlar to power in 1933, the Bavarian parliament was dissolved without new elections. Instead, the seats were allocated according to the results in the national election of March 1933, giving the Nazis and its coalition partner, the DNVP, a narrow two-seat majority due to the fact that the seats won by the KPD bekor deb e'lon qilindi. With this controlling power, the NSDAP was declared the only legal party and all other parties in Germany and Bavaria were dissolved. In 1934, the Bavarian parliament was, like all other state parliaments, dissolved too.[7] Shortly after, Bavaria itself was broken up during the reorganization of the Reyx.[8] Instead of the states, Reyxsgaue were established as administrative sub-divisions. Bavaria was split into six regions, the Reyxsgaue Shvaben, München-Oberbayern, Bayerische Ostmark, Franken, Main-Franken va G'arbiy belgi.

Fashistlar Germaniyasining xaritasi, uning ma'muriy bo'linmalari ko'rsatilgan Reyxsgaue

During the 12 years of Nazi rule, Bavaria was one of Hitler's favorite locations, and he spent much time in his residence at the Obersalzberg. The KZ yilda Dachau, near Munich, was the first to be established. But Bavaria was also the scene of passive resistance to the regime, the most well known of this being the Oq gul.[9] Nürnberg, Bavaria's second-largest city, became the scene of massive rallies, the Reyxsparteytaj.[10] Ironically, the last of those in 1939, titled Reichsparteitag des Friedens (Reichsparteitag of peace), was canceled due to the outbreak of the second world war. After the war, carefully chosen, for this reason, the city became the location of the war crimes trials, the Nyurnberg harbiy tribunallari.

While Bavaria had approximately 54,000 Yahudiy people living in its borders at the turn of the 20th century, by 1933 still 41,000 lived in the state. By 1939, this number had shrunk to 16,000, and few of those survived the Nazi rule.[11]

Bavaria during the Federal Republic of Germany

Oxiridan keyin Ikkinchi jahon urushi, Bavaria was occupied for a while by US forces, who reestablished the state on 19 September 1945,[12] va davomida Sovuq urush bu qismi edi G'arbiy Germaniya. In 1946 Bavaria lost its district on the Rhine, the Palatinate. Tomonidan vayron qilingan havo bombardimonlari during the war, in addition to the fact that Bavaria had to take in over two million refugees from the parts of Germany now under Sovet occupation, caused major problems for the authorities.[13]

The Bavarian Party was founded shortly after the war. Its goal was to establish an independent Bavarian state. For a time, the idea that Bavaria might become independent again was seriously entertained by the Allied occupation authorities as a way to ensure that Germany would be unable to wage offensive war again, and also by Bavarians themselves in part because they preferred to blame the war and its result on Prussian militarism instead of their own support for the Nazis. A union between Bavaria and Austria was also considered. With the onset of the Cold War, support for Bavarian independence quickly lost support both within Bavaria and from the Western allies, and the state became a part of West Germany.

The first post-World War II state elections were held on 30 June 1946, when 180 delegates were chosen. The main task of those delegates was to draft a new Bavarian constitution since the day-to-day running of the state still lay with the US authorities at this stage. The new constitution was accepted by a public vote on 1 December 1946, the same day the first post-war state parliament (German: Landtag) saylandi.[14]

From 1945, Bavaria has been politically dominated by the Xristian ijtimoiy ittifoqi, the main successor of the Bavariya Xalq partiyasi and sister party of the Xristian-demokratik ittifoqi, the main center-right party in Germany. The only time the CSU was in opposition was between 1954 and 1957. At this time Bavaria was governed by a four-party-government under the leadership of the Germaniya sotsial-demokratik partiyasi. Bavaria is home to the only separatist party in Germany - the Bavarian Party. This party would like to have an independent Bavariya shtati. Since the 1960s Bavaria has seen a dynamic development to one of Europe's leading economic zones, the country is no longer mainly an agricultural region but hosts a variety of high tech industries.

After the CSU lost more than 17% of the votes in the 2008 yildagi Bavariya shtatiga saylovlar, amaldagi vazir-prezident Gyunter Bekshteyn va CSU raisi, Erwin Huber, iste'foga chiqishini e'lon qildi. Horst Seehofer was quickly proposed as their successor. At a party convention on 25 October, he was affirmed as the new Chairman of the CSU, and on 27 October he was elected Minister-President by the Landtag ovozlari bilan Erkin Demokratik partiya, birinchisini tashkil qiladi koalitsiya 1962 yildan beri Bavariyada hukumat.

The citizen initiative process for the total smoking ban was held on 4 July 2010 and passed by sixty-one percent of eligible voters in Bavaria. The new smoking ban took effect on 1 August 2010 and could be the precedence for other German states to adopt the more total smoking ban.

Shuningdek qarang

History of cities in Bavaria

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ Strabon
  2. ^ Tac. Ger. 28
  3. ^ Gerbert Shuts, The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750; 2000, Peter Lang Publishing, New York; pp. 284, 287
  4. ^ Shuts, p. 292.
  5. ^ Qirollik va reyx: fashistlar Germaniyasidagi knyazlar Von Gessen google book review, Page 72, author: Jonathan Petropoulos, access date: 29 April 2008
  6. ^ Manfred Berger (2003). "Rupprecht, Mariya Luitpold Ferdinand, Kronprinz fon Bavariya, Pfalzgraf bei Reyn, Hertsog fon Bavariya, Franken und Shvaben usv.". Bautzda, Traugott (tahrir). Biografiya-Bibliografiya Kirxenlexikon (BBKL) (nemis tilida). 22. Nordxauzen: Bautz. cols. 1173–1186. ISBN  3-88309-133-2.
  7. ^ 1933: "Gleichschaltung" des Bayerischen Landtags (in German)
  8. ^ 1933-39 Gleichschaltung der Länder (in German)
  9. ^ Weiße Rose (in German)
  10. ^ Die Reichsparteitage (in German)
  11. ^ Population of Bavaria (nemis tilida)
  12. ^ Das Land : Der Freistaat Bayern heute (in German) Arxivlandi 2009 yil 14 fevral Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  13. ^ Bayern Nach dem II. Weltkrieg (in German)
  14. ^ 1946: Verfassunggebende Landesversammlung (in German)

Bibliografiya

  • Bischel, Matthias (2019). "An English-Language Bibliography on Bavarian History: Academic Publications of the Last Fifty Years". Bavarian Studies in History and Culture. O'qish uchun bepul
  • Reindel, K. (1981). Die Bajuwaren. Quellen, Hypothesen, Tatsachen. Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 37:451-473.
  • Schutz, H. (2000). The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750 Nyu-York: Piter Lang.
  • Strayer, J.(Ed.) (1983) O'rta asrlar lug'ati; Nyu-York: Charlz Skribnerning o'g'illari.
  • Wolfram, H., and W. Pohl (Eds) (1990). Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern. Vol. 1. Wien: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Tashqi havolalar