Jangovar burgut - Martial eagle

Jangovar burgut
Katta yoshli Matetsi G'arbiy Safari maydoni Zimbabve
Tabiatni muhofaza qilish holati
Zaif (IUCN 3.1 )[1]
Ilmiy tasnif
Qirollik:	Animalia
Filum:	Chordata
Sinf:	Aves
Buyurtma:	Accipitriformes
Oila:	Accipitridae
Tur:	Polemaetus Xeyne, 1890
Turlar:	P. bellicosus
Binomial ism
Polemaetus bellicosus (Daudin, 1800)
Yashil rangdagi taxminiy diapazon

The jangovar burgut (Polemaetus bellicosus) katta burgut tug'ma Saxaradan Afrikaga.^[2] Bu faqat a'zo ning tur Polemaetus. Oyoqli burgut subfamilasining (Aquillinae) bir turi, uning ustiga tuklar kiradi tarsus. Bootli burgutning eng katta va eng qudratli turlaridan biri bu juda fursatparast yirtqich bo'lib, uning o'lja tanlovi orasida o'zgarib turadi. sutemizuvchilar, qushlar va sudralib yuruvchilar. Uning ov qilish texnikasi noyobdir, chunki u karerida engashib, baland balandlikda ovlanishi ma'lum bo'lgan oz sonli burgut turlaridan biridir.^[3] Aks holda ochiq o'rmonli kamarlarning yashovchisi savanna, bu tur so'nggi bir necha asrlarda turli xil omillar tufayli tez pasayishini ko'rsatdi. Jangovar burgut dunyodagi eng ko'p ta'qib qilinadigan qush turlaridan biridir. Chorvachilik va mintaqaviy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan ovni iste'mol qilish odati tufayli mahalliy dehqonlar va ov qo'riqchilari tez-tez jang burgutlarini yo'q qilishga intilishadi, ammo burgutlarning bu o'ljaga ta'siri deyarli abartılıdır. Hozirgi vaqtda jangovar burgut "yo'q bo'lib ketishi mumkin bo'lgan zaif" maqomiga ega IUCN.^[1][4][5]

Oraliq

Jangovar burgutni ko'pchiligida uchratish mumkin Saxaradan Afrikaga, qaerda oziq-ovqat ko'p bo'lsa va atrof-muhit qulay bo'lsa. Umumiy taxminiy taqsimoti taxminan 26000 km² (10000 kvadrat milya), u qit'ada juda keng tarqalgan bo'lib, bu kabi turlarga qaraganda ancha kengroq diapazonga ega. tojli burgut (Stephanoaetus coronatus) va Verroning burguti (Aquila verreauxii).^[6] Hech qachon umumiy bo'lmagan bo'lsa ham, aholining katta zichligi mavjud janubiy Afrika va ba'zi qismlarida sharqiy Afrika. Jangovar burgutlar kamdan-kam uchraydi g'arbiy Afrika lekin yashashlari ma'lum Senegal, Gambiya va shimoliy Gvineya-Bisau, Janubiy Mali va shimoliy qismlari Fil suyagi qirg'og'i va Gana. Janubdan Niger va sharqiy Nigeriya turlar bexosdan tarqaladi Chad, Sudan va Markaziy Afrika Respublikasi ning shimoliy, sharqiy va janubiy qismlari Kongo Demokratik Respublikasi. Yilda sharqiy Afrika, ular shimoli-g'arbiy qismdan iborat Somali va Efiopiya ko'proq yoki kamroq doimiy ravishda janubiy orqali Keniya, Uganda, Tanzaniya va janubiy Afrika dan Angola, Zambiya, Malavi va janubiy Mozambik ga Janubiy Afrika.^[2] Qolgan populyatsiyalarning bir qismi davom etishi ma'lum Zimbabve va Janubiy Afrika. Odatda, bu qushlar kabi muhofaza etiladigan joylarda ko'proq uchraydi Kruger milliy bog'i va Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park Janubiy Afrikada yoki Etosha milliy bog'i yilda Namibiya.^[7]

Taksonomiya

Jangovar burgut o'zining pastki oilasining eng yuqori darajadagi havo a'zolaridan biridir.

The Accipitridae (bundan keyin accipitrids) oilasi - bu eng xilma-xil oila kunduzgi jarohatlar dunyoda hozirda qabul qilingan 230 dan ortiq turlari mavjud.^[8] Botinka (Aquilinae) subfamilyasining a'zosi sifatida, bu patlarni oyoqlarini yopib turadigan, oilaning taxminan 15% turlaridan biridir.^[2] Bu ushbu turlarni boshqa burgutlar va yirtqichlardan ajratib olish uchun foydali xususiyat bo'lishi mumkin, chunki ular hatto jang burguti kabi tropik turlarda ham mavjud.^[9] Amaldagi tasniflarga ko'ra, burgutlar aktsipitridlar yashaydigan har bir qit'ada tarqalgan taxminan 38 tirik turdan iborat bo'lib, ular faqat qit'ani o'z ichiga olmaydi. Antarktida. Bootlilarning jonli turlarining deyarli yarmida joylashgan Afrika.^[10][11] Ko'p oilali burgut turlarining, shu jumladan jangovar burgutning mitoxondriyal DNKsi bo'yicha tadqiqotlar olib borilib, subfamilyaning qanday buyurtma qilinganligi va qaysi turlarning bir-biri bilan aloqasi borligi haqida ma'lumot olish uchun. 1980-yillarda DNK sinovi jangovar burgut mayda tanachilarning ixtisoslashgan otishma ekanligini ko'rsatdi Hieraaetus burgutlar va bitta tadqiqot jangovar burgutni ushbu turga kiritilishini qo'llab-quvvatlagan.^[10] Ammo yanada zamonaviy va keng qamrovli genetik sinovlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, jang burguti boshqa tirik burgutlardan ajralib turadi va bir necha million yil oldin mavjud bo'lgan boshqa nasldan ajralib turadi.^[11][12] Genetik jihatdan, jangovar burgut monotipik naslga mansub boshqa ikki tur o'rtasida qulab tushdi Afrika uzun burgut (Lophaetus oksipitalis) va Osiyo qorni burgut (Lophotriorchis kienerii), xuddi shunday boshqa zamonaviy turlardan ancha oldin ajralib chiqqan. Ushbu turning noyob morfologiyasining nomutanosibligini va yuqorida aytib o'tilgan eng yaqin tirik turlarning kattaligi shunchaki kattaligini hisobga olgan holda shov-shuv, jangovar burgutning noyob merosi hatto yuzaki ko'rinib turibdi.^[11][12] Urush burgutining pastki turlari mavjud emas va turlarning tarqalishi bo'yicha tashqi ko'rinishi va genetik xilma-xilligi jihatidan juda oz farq qiladi.^[2][5]

Tavsif

Boshning yopilishi

Jangovar burgut juda katta burgutdir. Umumiy uzunligi 78 dan 96 sm gacha (31 dan 38 gacha), o'rtacha 85,5 sm (33,7 dyuym) gacha bo'lishi mumkin.^[2][13] Uning umumiy uzunligi - qanotlari bilan taqqoslaganda - nisbatan qisqa dumi bilan cheklangan. Shunga qaramay, u uzoq davom etgan burgut turlarining oltinchi yoki ettinchi turi bo'lib ko'rinadi.^[2] The qanotlari jang burgutlari 188 dan 227 sm gacha (6 fut 2 dan 7 fut 5 dyuymgacha) o'zgarishi mumkin.^[2][8][14] O'rtacha qanotlarning kengligi turlar uchun 205 sm (6 fut 9 dyuym) va 207,5 sm (6 fut 10 dyuym) deb da'vo qilingan, ammo yovvoyi tabiatdagi o'nta jang burgutlari o'rtacha qanotlarida 211,9 sm (6 fut 11 dyuym) ekanligi aniqlandi. Shunday qilib, jangovar burgut tirik burgutlar orasida qanotlarining ochilishida o'rtacha to'rtinchi bo'lib ko'rinadi, faqat ortida Stellerning dengiz burguti (Haliaeetus pelagicus), the oq dumli burgut (Haliaeetus albicilla) va xanjarli burgut (Aquila audax), taxminan shu tartibda.^{[2][13][15][16][17]} Genetik tarkibida bir hil tur uchun jang burgutlarining tana massasi ajablanarli darajada o'zgarib turadi. Turli xil tana massalarining o'zgarishi ma'lum darajada teskari jinsiy dimorfizmga va turli xil burgut populyatsiyalarining atrof-muhit sharoitlariga bog'liq.^[18] Turli xil tadqiqotlar natijasida olib borilgan jangsiz burgutlarning vazni 17 qushda o'rtacha 3,93 kg (8,7 lb), 20 qushda 3,97 kg (8,8 lb) va 20 qushda 4,23 kg (9,3 lb) bo'lganligi aniqlandi. 20-asr boshlarida o'yin qo'riqchilari tomonidan otilgan burgutlar Janubiy Afrika 4.71 kg (10.4 lb) sifatida ro'yxatga olingan.^{[15][18][19][20][21]} Og'irlik oralig'ida jangovar burgut kattaligi bilan keng ravishda bir-biriga to'g'ri keladi oltin burgut (Aquila chrysaetos) va Verroning burguti (va hatto ular ma'lum bo'lgan maksimal tana massasida ular tomonidan oshib ketgan). Ko'pgina tadqiqotlar asosida jangovar burgut Verreaux burgutiga qaraganda o'rtacha og'irroq ko'rinadi, ammo (uning turli irqlarning dunyo miqyosida birlashtirilgan tana massasidan kelib chiqqan holda), oltin va jang burgutlarining o'rtacha tana massalari taxminan 4,17 kg (9,2 lb) ga teng. ). Oltin va jangovar burgutlarni eng katta Afrika burgutlari singari bog'lab turadi (tana massasi bo'yicha, lekin umumiy uzunligi yoki qanotlari kengligida, unda jang oltindan ustun turadi), shuningdek dunyodagi eng og'ir ikki turdagi burgut va uchta eng katta turidan keyin dunyodagi eng og'ir oltinchi burgut sifatida bog'langan dengiz burguti (Steller eng og'ir bo'lgan, boshqalar 4 va 5-o'rinlarni egallagan), harpy burgut (Harpia harpyja) va Filippin burguti (Pithecophaga jefferyi).^{[2][15][18][20][22][23]} Eng uzun Afrika burguti (va uzun bo'yli burgut burgudan keyin) xanjarli burgut (Aquila audax)) bo'ladi tojli burgut uning tanasi og'irligi uch og'ir burgut turidan biroz kamroq bo'lgani uchun nisbatan uzunroq dumi tufayli.^[2][20]

Jinsiy dimorfizm

Yaqinda jangovar burgut Okaukuejo yilda Etosha milliy bog'i.

Jang burgutlari jinsiy jihatdan juda dimorfdir. Chiziqli o'lchov bo'yicha urg'ochilar o'rtacha 10% ga kattaroq bo'lsa, tana massasida, jang burgutlarining jinsiy dimorfizmi yanada aniqroq. Xabarlarga ko'ra, erkaklar og'irligi 2,2 dan 3,8 kg gacha (4,9 dan 8,4 funtgacha), ettita erkak o'rtacha 3,17 kg (7,0 lb) va beshta o'rtacha 3,3 kg (7,3 lb).^[22][24][25] Ayni paytda, urg'ochilar 4,45 dan 6,5 kg gacha (9,8 dan 14,3 funtgacha), ettita urg'ochi o'rtacha 4,95 kg (10,9 lb) gacha vaznga ega bo'lishi mumkin. Boshqa bir joyda, da'vo o'rtacha 5,2 kg (11 funt) ga teng bo'lib, ayol namunalarini aniq ta'riflaydi.^[22][26] 5,1 kg (11 lb) gacha bo'lgan erkaklar va 3,9 kg (8,6 lb) gacha bo'lgan erkaklar haqida hisobotlar ma'lum, ammo, ehtimol, jinsdagi noto'g'ri aniqlangan individual burgutlarni aks ettirishi mumkin, bu xabarlarga ko'ra, bu sohadagi xatolar tufayli kam emas.^[25][27][28] Shunday qilib, vazn bo'yicha dimorfizm taxminan 36% ni tashkil qiladi, bu jinslar orasidagi chiziqli farqlar bilan odatiy bo'lmagan. Masalan, kattaroq burgut (Klanga klanga), 20% jinslar orasidagi chiziqli farqga ega bo'lgan, umuman olganda jinsiy dimorfik botinkali burgut, tana massasi bo'yicha jinsiy dimorfizmning jangovar burgut bilan teng darajasiga ega, bu chiziqli dimorfizmning yarmini tashkil etadi.^[2][24] Oddiy o'lchovlarda erkaklar jang burgutlari 560 dan 610 mm gacha (22 dan 24 dyuymgacha) qanotli akkord hajmi, 273 dan 280 mm gacha (10,7 dan 11,0 dyuymgacha) quyruq uzunligi va tarsus uzunligida 97 dan 118 mm gacha (3,8 dan 4,6 dyuymgacha). Shu bilan birga, urg'ochilar qanotli akkordda 605 dan 675 mm gacha (23,8 dan 26,6 dyuymgacha), quyruq uzunligida 280 dan 320 mm gacha (11 dan 13 gacha) va tarsal uzunligini 114 dan 130 mm gacha (4,5 dan 5,1 dyuymgacha) o'lchaydilar.^[2] Umuman olganda, ko'proq kuchli oyoqlar va uzunroq tarsilarni o'z ichiga olgan urg'ochilarning asosiy qismi va juda katta qismi, ba'zida tajribali kuzatuvchilarga yovvoyi tabiatda yolg'iz qushlarni jinsiy aloqa qilishga imkon berishi mumkin.^[3][25]

Bo'yash va maydonni aniqlash

Odatda oqarib pishmagan jangovar burgut Kruger milliy bog'i.

Voyaga etganlarniki tuklar yuqori qismida, boshida va yuqori ko'krak qismida to'q jigarrang ranglardan iborat bo'lib, vaqti-vaqti bilan bu patlarga biroz engilroq qirralar kiradi. To'q tuklar yorug'lik sharoitiga qarab kulrang, qora yoki hatto olxo'ri ranglarida ko'rinishi mumkin. Tananing pastki qismlari siyrak, ammo ko'zga tashlanadigan qora-jigarrang dog'lar bilan oq rangga bo'yalgan. Yostiqsimon pardalar to'q jigarrang bo'lib, oqsoqollar qora rangga bo'yalgan bo'lib, kattalar qanotlarini qorong'i ko'rinishga olib keladi. Quyruqning pastki tomoni, temiratki singari to'siqlarga ega, yuqori qismi esa orqa va yuqori orqa qopqoqlar bilan bir xil jigarrang. Yetuk jang burgutlarining ko'zlari boy sariq rangga ega don katta oyoqlari xira yashil rangga, peshtoqlari esa qora rangga ega. Jangovar burgutlarning qisqa erektil kresti bor, u odatda taniqli ham, alangalanmagan ham (dan farqli o'laroq) tojli burgut ) va umuman ko'rinadigan tekis boshga burchakli orqa ko'rinishida ko'rinadi. Ushbu tur ko'pincha tik holatidadir o'tiradi, uning uzun qanotlari dumini to'liq qoplaydi va uni shoxga o'tirganda emas, balki "turgan" deb ta'riflaydi. Uchish paytida jang burgutlari burgut qanotlarini ushlab turishiga qarab ba'zida uchli bo'lib ko'rinishi mumkin bo'lgan nisbatan tor dumaloq uchlari bo'lgan uzun keng qanotlarga ega. U tekis qanotlarda siljiydigan yoki a-da ko'tarilgan egiluvchan zarbalarga qodir dihedral. Ushbu tur ko'pincha kunning katta qismini qanotda o'tkazadi, ehtimol boshqa har qanday afrikalik burgutlarga qaraganda va ko'pincha juda balandlikda.^[2][3][8] Voyaga etmagan jang burgutlari sezilarli darajada oq qirralar bilan yuqoridagi marvarid kulrang rangga ega tuklar bilan ajralib turadi, shuningdek toj va orqa bo'yniga dog'li kulrang ta'sir ko'rsatadi. Butun pastki qismi sezilarli darajada oq rangga ega. Voyaga etmaganlarning qanot pardalari kulrang-jigarrang va oq rangga bo'yalgan, boshlang'ich va dumidagi panjaralarning naqshlari kattalarnikiga o'xshash, ammo engilroq va kulroqroq. 4-5-yillarda jigarrang tuklar chayqalishining bosqichma-bosqich ko'payishi qayd etiladi, ammo orqa va toj ranglari ancha och kul rang bo'lib qoladi. Bu yoshda tomoq va ko'krak qafasida ko'payadigan dog'lar paydo bo'lishi mumkin, ular gorggetga birlashadi va qorin bo'shlig'idagi ba'zi joylar ham o'zgarishi mumkin. Voyaga etmaganlarning ko'zlari to'q jigarrang. Ushbu tur ettinchi yilga kelib kattalar tuklariga yetadi, chunki kattalar tuklariga o'tish ko'p yillar o'tgach, ozgina o'zgarib turadigan balog'at yoshidagi bolalar tuklari ichida juda tez sodir bo'ladi.^[2][3][29]

Katta o'tirgan jangovar burgut.

Turni identifikatsiyalashda jiddiy muammolar mavjud. The qora ko'krak ilon burguti (Circaetus pectoralis) umumiy bo'yash jihatidan (nomiga qaramay, ko'kragi va orqa tomoni jigarrang, kattalar jang burgutidan qorong'i emas) jang burgutlariga o'xshaydi, ammo sezilarli darajada kichikroq, boshi katta ko'zlari bilan dumaloq boshi bilan , beg'ubor qorin, yalang'och va oqish oyoqlari. Parvoz paytida ilon burgutining profili deyarli oq (to'q jigarrangdan ko'ra) uchadigan patlari va ancha kichik, tor qanotlari va nisbatan kattaroq dumi bilan farq qiladi. Voyaga etmaganlar uchun yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan chalkashliklarning asosiy manbai bu voyaga etmagan bola tojli burgut, shuningdek, doimiy ravishda tik holatidadir. Tojli burgutlarning nisbati jang burgutlaridan ancha farq qiladi, chunki ularning qanotlari ancha qisqaroq va quyruqlari ancha uzun. Voyaga etmagan tojli burgutning boshi oqargan, orqa tomoni kattalashgan va jang burgutida etishmayotgan son va oyoqlari bor. Tojli burgutlar parvozlar qanotlari va dumlari nisbatlaridan farqli o'laroq, oqargan va aniqroq bog'langan uchish patlari va dumiga ega. Afrikadagi boshqa katta voyaga etmagan burgutlar jangovar burgutlarga qaraganda ancha quyuqroq va yuqorida ham, pastda ham ko'proq belgilanadi.^[2][3]

Yirtqich fiziologiya

Voyaga etmagan jang burgutlari ham dahshatli oyoq va oyoqlariga ega.

Jangchi burgutlar juda zo'r ko'rishlari bilan (insonning keskinligidan 3,0-3,6 baravar) ajoyib ekanligi ta'kidlangan, bu ularning ko'zlari odamning ko'zlariday deyarli kattaligi bilan bog'liq. Ushbu kuch tufayli ular potentsial o'ljani juda uzoq masofadan aniqlay olishadi, chunki ular ma'lum bo'lgan joydan 5 dan 6 km gacha (3,1 - 3,7 milya) masofada aniqlanishi mumkin edi.^[2][30] Ularning ko'rish keskinligi jinsdagi ba'zi burgutlarga raqib bo'lishi mumkin Akila va ba'zi yirikroq lochinlar kunduzgi yirtqichlardan eng kattasi.^[31][32] Jangovar burgutlar ta'sirchan bo'lib, toj kiygan turlarga nisbatan ingichka metatars va oyoq barmoqlariga qaramay toj kiygan burgutnikilarning kattaligiga, ayniqsa etuk ayollarga yaqinlashishi mumkin.^[33] Accipitrids odatda o'ljasini gallyuts-tirnoq deb ataladigan va aktsipitridlar oilasidagi ishonchli ravishda eng katta talon bo'lgan cho'zilgan, o'tkir orqa oyoq panjasi bilan o'ldiradi.^[34] Jinssiz jang burgutlarida gallyuts-tirnoqning o'rtacha uzunligi Tsavo Sharqiy milliy bog'i, Keniya 51,1 mm (2,01 dyuym) ekanligi aniqlandi.^[28] Taqqoslash uchun, oltin burgutlarning katta namunasining o'rtacha gallyuts-tirnoqlari 51,7 mm (2,04 dyuym) ga teng edi. Shu bilan birga, uchta eng katta tirnoqli zamonaviy burgutlar quyidagicha o'lchandi: kichik namunalarda Filippin burguti va tojli burgutning o'rtacha pog'onali uzunligi 55,7 mm (2,19 dyuym) va 55,8 mm (2,20 dyuym) ga teng va harpy burgutlar o'rtacha gallyuts-tirnoq uzunligi taxminan 63,3 mm (2,49 dyuym) ga teng.^{[35][36][37][38]} Jangovar burgut oyog'ining old qismidagi ichki tirnoq, ayniqsa, boshqa ekstremitalarga mutanosibdir va g'ayritabiiy ravishda gallyuts-tirnoq bilan bir xil darajada yaqinlashishi mumkin. Ushbu ichki tirnoq 47,4 mm (1,87 dyuym) o'lchamdagi tojli burgutnikiga nisbatan o'rtacha 46,1 mm (1,81 dyuym) deb topildi.^[28][39] The tarsus jangovar burgutlarda ancha uzun, har qanday tirik burgutning to'rtinchisi va har qanday botinkali burgut turining eng uzuni, uzoq cho'lda, shu jumladan xavfli bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan o'ljani o'ldirishga moslashish kabi ko'rinadi.^[2][11] The qonun loyihasi o'rtacha, boshqa katta burgutlarga nisbatan o'rtacha kattalikda jinoyatchilar Tsavo Sharqdan uzunligi 43,7 mm (1,72 dyuym). Ularning hisobi turkumning yirik a'zolarining o'rtacha hisob hajmidan kattaroqdir Akila ammo yirik turlaridan kichikroq dengiz burguti va Filippin burguti.^{[28][24][37][35][40]} The gape jangovar burgutlarning kattaligi nisbatan katta, ammo orqada qolgan burgut turlariga nisbatan mutanosib ravishda katta (ancha orqada bo'lsa ham) Hind xalaqitli burgut (Klanga xastatasi) katta o'ljani butunlay yutish uchun nisbiy ixtisoslashuvini ko'rsatadigan nisbiy gape hajmida.^[41]

Ovoz

Jangovar burgut zaif va kam uchraydigan vokalist. Hatto naslchilik davrida ham unchalik katta bo'lmagan vokal faolligi haqida xabar berilgan. Juft a'zolar o'rtasidagi qayd qilingan qo'ng'iroq qushlardan iborat bo'lib, ular odatda o'tirganda, past ovozda hushtak chiqarib, ko-wee-oh. Ko'proq yoki kamroq bir xil ovozni ayol erkaklar ovqat olib kelganida va katta tilanchi yoshlar tomonidan yumshoq takrorlanganda aytgan. Hududiy havodagi namoyish paytida va ba'zida o'tirganda kattalar baland ovozda trilillashni aytishlari mumkin klee-klee-klooeee-klooeee-kulee. Hududiy chaqiruv biroz masofadan eshitilishi mumkin. Ba'zan yaqinda paydo bo'lgan chaqalog'ini chaqirishadi. Yumshoq quolp eshitilishi mumkin, o'z uyasi atrofida juftliklar tomonidan qilingan, ehtimol o'zaro aloqa qo'ng'irog'i bo'lishi mumkin.^[2][3][9] Taqqoslash uchun tojli burgut ayniqsa naslchilik sharoitida juda baland ovozda.^[9]

Habitat

Jangovar burgutlar tikanli yoki baland daraxtlarga, aks holda juda ochiq savannada jalb qilinadi.

Jangovar burgut qaysidir darajada har xil turlarga moslasha oladi yashash joylari lekin uchun umumiy ustunlikni ko'rsatadi ochiq o'rmon va o'rmon qirralari, o'rmonli savanna va tikan yashash joylari. Jangovar burgut 3000 metr balandlikda qayd etilgan, ammo u tog'larda yashovchi haqiqiy tur emas va burgutlar odatda 1500 metrdan (4900 fut) balandlikdan oshmaydi.^[2][3] Ushbu burgutlar ham qochishadi yopiq soyabonli o'rmonlar va giper-quruq cho'l.^[7] Shunday qilib, u asosan yo'q Gvineya va Kongo o'rmonlari, turlarning uyalash maqsadida katta daraxtlarga bo'lgan talabiga qaramay. Jangovar burgutlar ochilish joylari bo'lgan joylarda o'rmonlarda yashashi mumkinligi ko'rsatilgan.^[9] Masalan, mamlakat uchun qush atlasida Keniya Ehtimol, ajablanarli tomoni shundaki, 88 foiz jang burgutlari yaxshi o'rmonli joylarda yashagan va ular yillik yog'ingarchilik miqdori 250 mm (9,8 dyuym) dan oshgan joylarda sodir bo'lgan.^[42] Afrikaning janubida ular o'zlarining boshqa joylariga qaraganda ko'proq ochiq ko'rinadigan yashash joylariga moslashdilar, masalan yarim cho'l va tarqoq daraxtlar bilan ochiq savanna, o'rmonli tepaliklar va, yaqinda moslashish sifatida, atrofida ustunlar. Namibiyaning cho'l hududlarida ular foydalanadilar efemer daryolar vaqti-vaqti bilan oqadigan va katta daraxtlarning o'sishiga imkon beradigan.^[2][7] Odatda ular xaroba yoki qo'riqlanadigan hududlarni afzal ko'rishadi. In Karoo ning Janubiy Afrika, ular doimiy ravishda o'rtacha va og'ir bo'lgan joylardan qochishadi etishtirish yoki og'irroq yoki izchilroq qishki yog'ingarchilik.^[43] Himoyalanmagan hududlarga qarshi qo'riqlanadigan hududlarda kunduzgi raptorlarning paydo bo'lishiga oid bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, urush burgutini aniqlash deyarli ikki baravar tez-tez uchraydi. qo'riqlanadigan hududlar davomida quruq mavsum va nam mavsumda himoyalanmagan joylarga qaraganda uch martadan ko'proq. Ba'zi turli xil kunduzgi yoriqlar, masalan, muhofaza qilinadigan hududlardan tashqarida nisbatan kam uchragan qalpoqli tulporlar (Nekrozitlar monakus).^[44]

Voyaga etmagan qush

Xulq-atvor

Jangovar burgut havoda favqulodda vaqtni o'tkazadi, ko'pincha tog 'yonbag'irlarida uchib yuradi, shuning uchun ularni sezish uchun durbin kerak bo'ladi. Urug'lantirilayotganda, naslchilik juftligidan har ikkala etuk burgut o'zlarining uylanish joyidan bir necha chaqirim uzoqlikdagi taniqli daraxtda o'zlarini o'tirgan holda topishlari mumkin, ehtimol bir joyda bir necha kun ov qilish uchun yaroqli o'lja resurslari tugaguniga qadar va keyin harakat qilishadi. boshqa hududga.^[9][45] Biroq, jangovar burgutlar, ayniqsa kattalar qushlari, unchalik bezovtalanmagan joylarga bag'ishlangan, chunki ular odatda ko'proq o'lja tanlashni taklif qiladi va ularning odamlarning borligini yoqtirmasligi.^[43] Urush burgutlari juda yolg'iz bo'lib, naslchilik davrida juftlikdan tashqarida o'z turlarining boshqalariga toqat qilishi ma'lum emas.^[46] Umuman olganda, bu tur Afrikaning boshqa yirik burgutlariga qaraganda odamlarga nisbatan ko'proq ta'sir qiladi, ammo ba'zida aholi yashaydigan mamlakat ustidan o'tib ketayotganini ko'rish mumkin.^[9] An'anaviy yashash joylaridan uzoqroq bo'lgan tez-tez ko'rinadigan jangovar burgut turi ko'chmanchi subadultlar hisoblanadi. Subadult sifatida qo'ng'iroq qilingan bir kishi 5,5 yil o'tgach, dastlabki bandaj joyidan 130 km (81 mil) uzoqlikda tiklandi. Yigitcha uyushtirgan yana bir jangovar burgut 11 oy ichida 180 km (110 mil) yurgani aniqlandi.^[2]

Ovqatlanish biologiyasi

Jangovar burgut dunyodagi qushlarning eng qudratli yirtqichlaridan biri, ammo karakallarning o'ljasiga aylanadi ^[47] va asal porsuqlari ^[48]. Ikkala pastki nuqtasi va yirtqich sifatida vahshiyona samaradorligi tufayli ba'zida u "havo leoparasi" deb nomlanadi.^[49] Jangovar burgut an tepalik yirtqichi, o'z muhitida parranda oziq-ovqat zanjirining yuqori qismida bo'lish.^[25] Umumiy, ilmiy va aksariyat mintaqaviy Afrika nomlarida ushbu tur nomi "urushga o'xshash" degan ma'noni anglatadi va ularning ov qilish odatlarining kuchi, jasurligi va charchamasligini anglatadi. Umumiy xulq-atvorga nisbatan raqobatlashishi mumkin bo'lgan ov jangovar burgutining tajovuzkorligi tojli burgut, ularning boshqa xatti-harakatlariga mos kelmaydigan ko'rinishi mumkin, chunki u aks holda uyatchan, ehtiyotkor va qochuvchi qush deb hisoblanadi.^[3][50][51] Jangovar burgutlar kattaroq tuyoqlilarga zaryad berib, ularning boshlari va yonboshlariga tirmashib, ba'zida sutemizuvchilarni yoshlaridan ajratib olishlari mumkin, shunda ular ikkinchisini osonroq olishlari mumkin.^[52][53] Boshqa paytlarda, bu burgutlar potentsial xavfli o'ljani qamrab oladi, shu jumladan, kunduzgi boshqa tajovuzkor yirtqichlar, masalan. kaltakesaklarni kuzatish, zaharli ilonlar, shoqollar va o'rta bo'yli yovvoyi mushuklar.^[3] Voyaga etgan burgutlar balog'atga etmaganlarga qaraganda tez-tez kattaroq, potentsial xavfli o'ljalarni ovlashga moyil, ehtimol ular ovchilik mahoratini etukligi bilan yaxshilaydi.^[3] Jangovar burgut asosan parvoz paytida ov qiladi, aylanib yurish har qanday joyda katta balandlikda. Yirtqichni ularning ajoyib tasavvurlari bilan anglashganda, ovchi burgut, tez-tez burgutni ko'pincha ochiq joyda bo'lishiga qaramay, burgutni idrok eta olmaydigan darajada tez-tez yirtqichni tutib olish uchun keskin ravishda to'xtaydi.^[2][9] Urush burguti sayoz uzun egiluvchanlikda ovlashga moyildir, ammo karer yanada yopiq joyda ko'rinsa, parashyut bilan nisbatan pastroq burchak ostida pastga tushadi. Tushish tezligi qanotlarni orqa tomondan ushlab turgan burchak bilan boshqariladi. Ta'sir nuqtasida, u uzun oyoqlarini oldinga siljiydi, ko'pincha zarbada qurbonlarni katta darajada o'ldiradi lochinlar ko'pincha o'ljalarini yuborishadi.^[3][9] Yirtqichni tez-tez 3 dan 5 km gacha (1,9 dan 3,1 milya) masofada ko'rish mumkin, bu taxminan 6 km (3,7 milya) ga teng.^[2] Ba'zan, ular hali ham baland perchdan ov qilishlari yoki sug'orish teshiklari yaqinida o'simliklarda yashiringan bo'lishi mumkin. Agar dastlabki urinish muvaffaqiyatsiz tugasa, ular yana urinish uchun aylanib yurishlari mumkin, ayniqsa mo'ljallangan qurbon xavfli bo'lmasa. Agar karer potentsial xavfli bo'lsa, masalan sutemizuvchi hayvonlar, zaharli ilonlar yoki katta tuyoqlilar, va burgutdan tezda xabardor bo'lib, ovni tark etishga moyildir.^[2][3] Uning kattaligidagi qush uchun odatiy bo'lmagan holda, u kamdan-kam hollarda ov paytida uchib yurishi mumkin. Ushbu ov usuli, ayniqsa, karer yuqorida aytib o'tilgan potentsial xavfli o'lja narsalari, masalan, zaharli ilonlar yoki yirtqichlar bo'lsa ishlatilishi mumkin. Boshqa katta burgutlar ham xuddi shunday ov qilishi mumkin (kamdan-kam hollarda), masalan, o'lja ustida suzib yurishi mumkin kanidlar va agar karer xavfli og'zini pastga qaratib xato qilsa, u holda qurbonini orqasidan ushlab, boshqa oyog'i bilan bo'ynini boshqarib, o'lim muddati tugashi uchun qon yo'qotilishi etarli bo'lguncha ushlab turing.^[54][23] Yirtqichlar, shu jumladan qushlar, odatda, erdan o'ldiriladi, kamdan-kam hollarda daraxtlardan olingan o'lja haqida xabar beriladi. Ba'zi katta (va ehtimol sekinroq uchadigan) parranda parvoz paytida olinishi mumkin, chunki ular muvaffaqiyatli ovlarning qurbonlaridan iborat. suv qushlari kabi bug'doylar, laylaklar va g'ozlar.^[3] Agar qotilliklar uchish uchun juda katta va og'ir bo'lsa, juftlikning ikkala a'zosi bir necha kun ichida qotillikka qaytishi mumkin, ehtimol yaqin atrofda roosting. Agar uya uyalayotgan bo'lsa, bu juftlik uyaga olib kelish uchun oyoq-qo'llar kabi katta o'ldirilgan qismlarni parchalashga intiladi. Ammo katta miqdordagi o'ljaning katta qismi, ehtimol, ko'pi erga tashlanganlar uchun yo'qoladi.^[2][3]

Voyaga etgan jangovar burgut jonli o'ljasini ushlayapti, kichkina bustard

Urush burgutining parhezi yirtqich hayvonlarning mavjudligiga qarab juda xilma-xil bo'lib, asosan imkoniyat bilan belgilanishi mumkin. Ajablanarlisi, sutemizuvchilar, qushlar va sudralib yuruvchilar o'z navbatida ma'lum bir hududda jangovar burgutlarning yirtqich tanlovida hukmronlik qilishi mumkin, hech kim ularning o'lja spektrida global miqyosda hukmronlik qilmaydi.^[3][9] Ba'zi sohalarda, ikkalasi ham sutemizuvchilar va qushlar ularning har biri o'lja tanlovining 80% dan ortig'ini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin.^[9][55] Jangovar burgut uchun 160 dan ortiq yirtqich turlar qayd etilgan, bu boshqa yirik afrikalik botinkalar burgutlarining to'liq spektridan ancha yuqori, va hattoki bu ozgina o'rganilgan populyatsiyalarda olib ketadigan ba'zi o'ljalarni ham e'tiborsiz qoldirishi mumkin. g'arb va markaziy Afrika va shimoliy qismi sharqiy Afrika.^[3][56] Yirtqich o'lchov jihatidan sezilarli darajada farq qilishi mumkin, ammo aksariyat hollarda og'irligi 0,5 kg (1,1 funt) dan kam bo'lgan jangovar burgutlarni ov qilish e'tiborga olinmaydi, ma'lum bo'lgan o'lja turlarining atigi 15 foizidan ortig'i bu ko'rsatkichdan kam. Tadqiqotlarning aksariyat qismida jang burgutlari uchun o'ljaning o'rtacha hajmi 1 va 5 kg (2,2 va 11,0 funt) orasida ekanligi qayd etilgan.^[3][57] Olingan o'ljaning o'rtacha vazni 1,2 kg (2,6 funt) gacha bo'lganligi haqida xabar berilgan.^[58] Shu bilan birga, ma'lum bo'lgan parhez tadqiqotlarida o'lja tana massasi ancha yuqori. Hozirgacha jangovar burgut turlari bo'yicha o'tkazilgan eng katta parhez tadqiqotlari ( Keyp provinsiyasi, Janubiy Afrika ) o'lja tanasining taxminiy o'rtacha massasi taxminan 2,26 kg (5,0 lb) ni tashkil etdi.^[57] Yilda Tsavo Sharqiy milliy bog'i ning Keniya, o'rtacha o'lja tana massasi taxminan 2,31 kg (5,1 funt) ga teng edi.^[28] Balki og'irligi 5 kg (11 lb) dan kam bo'lgan ushbu turdagi yirtqich hayvonlarning ko'pchiligiga qaramay, jangovar burgutlarning muntazam o'ljasi 12 dan 15 kg gacha (26 dan 33 funtgacha) talab qilinadi.^[5][59][60] Yirtqichlarning bo'linishining ba'zi dalillari mavjud (ular potentsial ravishda ham o'lja turlari, ham olingan o'lja tanasining kattaligi bilan ajralib turishi mumkin). Bu jangovar burgutlarda bo'lgani kabi, aniq jinsiy dimorfizmga ega bo'lgan raptorlarga xosdir. Masalan, katta voyaga etgan populyatsiyalarda kaltakesaklarni kuzatish yirtqich sifatida ahamiyatlidir, ular faqat uloqlarda paydo bo'la boshlaydi, faqat urg'ochilar nasl berish davrining oxirgi qismida ovni davom ettirgandan keyingina.^[3] Ushbu turdagi turlarning Afrika qit'asi bo'ylab parhezini o'rganish uchun veb-manbali fotosuratlardan foydalangan holda tadqiqotlar olib borishga e'tibor qaratildi, ushbu tadqiqot mintaqalar orasidagi o'lja tarkibidagi farq haqida yangi tushunchalarni ochib berdi, shuningdek kattalar va kichik yoshdagi qushlar o'rtasidagi o'lja tarkibidagi farqlarni aniqladi. , kattalar qushlarning o'ljasida kichik yoshlilarga qaraganda tez-tez uchraydi.^[61]

Sutemizuvchilar

Ratsiondagi ma'lum bo'lgan eng xil o'lja sinfi sutemizuvchilardir, bu erda 90 dan ortiq sutemizuvchi o'lja turlari qayd etilgan.^[3] In Keyp provinsiyasi, 2,1 kg (4,6 lb) burun quyoni (Lepus capensis) tanlangan ovqatlarning taxminan 53% ni tashkil etuvchi o'lja tanlovida ustunlik qiladi.^[57] Boshqalar lagomorflar, ya'ni biroz kichikroq Smitning qizil tosh quyoni (Pronolagus rupestris), biroz kattaroq Afrikalik savanna quyoni (Lepus mikrotis) va undan katta 3,6 kg (7,9 lb) skrab quyoni (Lepus saxatilis), Keyp mintaqasida ham, tashqarisida ham kamdan-kam hollarda olinadi, ammo lagomorflar odatda boshqa joylarda asosiy o'lja emas.^[3][57][62] Aksariyat hollarda kemiruvchilar o'lja sifatida e'tibordan chetda qolishadi, chunki jang burgutlari ba'zan juda yaxshi sonlarni olishlariga qaramay ular juda kichikdir Keyp (Xerus inauris) va chiziqsiz tuproqli sincaplar (Xerus rutilus).^[57][63][64] Biroq, o'lja sifatida tanlangan kemiruvchilar hajmi 0,14 kg (4,9 oz) gacha bo'lgan Janubiy Afrikalik vlei kalamush (Otomys irroratus) 3,04 kg (6,7 lb) gacha Janubiy Afrikadagi yaylov (Pedetes capensis) va 4 kg (8,8 lb) katta qamish kalamush (Thryonomys swinderianus).^[3][65][66] 0,28 kg (9,9 oz) yirtqich hayvonlarning yozuvlari mavjud (Afrika kattaligi bo'yicha ikkinchi o'rin). somon rangidagi mevali ko'rshapalaklar (Eidolon helvum) va galagoslar har xil o'lchamdagi (odatda og'irligi bir kilogramm va undan kam), ammo aks holda ular ta'qib qilayotgan sutemizuvchilarning o'ljasi nisbatan katta bo'lishga intiladi.^[67][68][69]

Cape quyon jangovar burgutlarning asosiy o'ljasi Keyp provinsiyasi ning Janubiy Afrika.

Mahalliy ravishda har qanday turdagi turlar katta miqdorda olinadi zirak. Hyraxes o'lja manbai sifatida jozibadorligi jangovar burgutlarni ovlash usullarini turlicha ovlashga imkon berishi mumkin, shunda ular qo'lga olishlari mumkin tog 'jinslari tosh shakllanishidan va daraxt gigallari daraxtlardan, balandlikka ko'tarilgandan keyin ochiq joylarda erga o'lja qo'lga kiritishni odatdagi afzalliklaridan farqli o'laroq. O'rtacha massasi 2,2 dan 3,14 kg gacha (4,9 dan 6,9 funtgacha), gigantlar jangovar burgut oilasi uchun foydali ovqatni tashkil qilishi mumkin va, ehtimol, erkaklar burgutlari uyalariga muntazam ravishda etkazib beradigan yirik buyumlar qatoriga kiradi.^{[57][70][71][72]} Urush burgutlari qurboniga aylanishi ma'lum bo'lgan boshqa bir xil sutemizuvchi bu pangolin (Smutsia temminckii), ammo kattalar vazni 11,6 kg (26 lb) va qattiq keratin po'stlog'iga ega ekanligini hisobga olib, o'ldiriladigan yoshdagi pangolinlar va ularning qanday yuborilishi aniq emas. sher (Panthera leo) himoyalangan holatida bo'lgan jag'lar.^[3][4][73] Garchi yirtqich sifatida juda kam bajarilgan va samarali bo'lsa-da maymunlar ga qaraganda tojli burgut, jangovar burgut maymunning kamida 14 turini o'ldirishi ma'lum bo'lgan. Maymunlar tez-tez jang burguti o'ljasi sifatida aylanadilar qayg'ular (Chlorocebus etiops), maymunlar (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) va malbroucks (Chlorocebus cynosuros), ularning o'rtacha tanaviy massalari 2,8 kg (6,2 lb), 4,12 kg (9,1 lb) va 4,53 kg (10,0 lb) bo'lganligi sababli, ularning savanna-o'rmonlarida yashash odatlari, erga yem-xashak moyilligi va asosan kunduzgi faoliyati .^{[3][28][71][74]} Xuddi shunday, kattaroq Patas maymuni (Eritrocebus patalari), 8,13 kg (17,9 lb) da, shu kabi yashash joylarida yashaydi va shuning uchun vaqti-vaqti bilan hujumlarga duch kelishi mumkin.^[75][76][77] Ushbu maymun turlari a mavjudligiga javoban aytilganlardan farqli o'laroq, maxsus signal qo'ng'iroqlariga ega ekanligi haqida dalillar mavjud qoplon (Panthera pardus), masalan, jangovar burgutlar uchun.^[78][79] Jangchi burgutlar ham o'lja sifatida tanilgan mangabeylar, Serkopitek sp., kolobus maymunlari va gerezalar, ehtimol o'rmonlarni tozalash atrofida, ammo bu ularning o'rmonda yashash odatlarini hisobga olgan holda o'lja sifatida kamdan-kam uchraydi.^{[71][80][81][82]} Harbiy burgutlarning yirtqich hujumlari, shuningdek, har bir tur uchun qayd etilgan babun, garchi asosan yoki umuman yoshlarga va hatto yoshlarga shimpanze (Pan trogloditlari).^{[4][57][71][83][84]} Voyaga etmagan maymunlar ko'pincha jangovar burgutlar tomonidan o'lja sifatida tanlanadi, hatto mayda maymunlar kabi mayda turlar uchun ham tanlangan, deb da'vo qilingan, ammo bu borada har tomonlama tahlil kam ma'lum bo'lgan (eng muvaffaqiyatli zamonaviy qush primat yirtqichi, tojli burgut, yilda Uganda, kattalar maymunlarini tanlaydi 52%, balog'atga etmagan bolalar - 48%).^[58][85] Ba'zida jang burgutlari ba'zida og'irligi 9 kg (20 lb) va undan ortiq bo'lgan kattalar erkak maymunlarni yuborishi mumkin, masalan, patas maymunlari va Tana daryosi mangabeylari (Cercocebus galeritus), kamdan-kam hollarda.^[71][75] Hech bo'lmaganda bir marta, ushbu tur odamlarga yirtqich qasd bilan hujum qilishi ma'lum bo'lgan va bu uni yirtqich qushlardan biriga aylantiradi. 2019 yilda Efiopiyaning Gaashaamo shahrida balog'atga etmagan jangovar burgut yosh bolani o'ldirdi va yana ikki bola jarohat oldi.^[86]Yirtqich hayvonlar jangovar burgutlar uchun juda muhim o'lja. Bular orasida mongoz ularning dietasida yaxshi ifodalanishga moyil. Savannadan tug'ilgan mongouzlarning aksariyati ijtimoiy burrowersga moyil. Ushbu turdagi mongouzlarning aksariyati nisbatan kichikroq (ehtimol, jangovar burgutdan keyin eng kichik ikkinchi muhim jangovar burgut manbai) korxanlar ) va er osti uylari xavfsizligiga tezda qochib qutulishlari mumkin, shuning uchun engilroq, epchil erkak jangovar burgut odatdagidek ularni ta'qib qilish ehtimoli ko'proq. Afrikaning janubida 0,72 kg (1,6 funt) meerkat (Suricata suricatta) kamida 9,6% yirtqich qoldiqlarni o'z ichiga oladi (kabi Keyp provinsiyasi ) va 0,75 kg (1,7 lb) Cape kulrang mongoza (Galerella pulverulenta) Keyp mintaqasida o'rtacha 7,2% o'ljani tashkil etadi.^[57][87][88] Ijtimoiy savannada yashovchi mongozning eng kattasi bantli mongoz 2,12 kg (4,7 lb) da. Ko'pincha tasmali mongozni qo'lga kiritishda muvaffaqiyat qozonganiga qaramay, (ehtimol tajribasiz) etuk bo'lmagan jangovar burgut birini daraxtga olib borganida, guruhning dominant erkak tasmali mongasi daraxtni kattalashtirib, burgutdan hanuzgacha tirik yashovchi monguz o'ljasini tortib oldi. xavfsizlikka.^[89][90] Urush burguti eng kichik turlaridan 0,27 kg (9,5 oz) gacha bo'lgan mongoz turlarining to'liq o'lchovli yirtqichidir. oddiy mitti mongoose (Helogale parvula), eng kattasiga 3,38 kg (7,5 funt) oq dumli mongoz (Ichneumia albicauda).^[71][91] Urush burgutlari qurboniga aylanishi ma'lum bo'lgan o'rtacha kattalikdagi boshqa yirtqich hayvonlarga 0,83 kg (1,8 funt) kiradi. chiziqli polecat (Ictonyx striatus) va bir nechta turlari genet, bu polekatdan o'rtacha ikki baravar og'irroq.^[4][57][71] Biroq, jang burguti o'z hajmiga yaqin yoki kattaroq darajada bo'lgan yirtqich hayvonlarning hayratlanarli darajada samarali yirtqichi bo'lishi mumkin. In Keyp provinsiyasi, 72 kalta quloqli tulkilar (Otocyon megalotis), bu o'rtacha 4.1 kg (9.0 lb) bo'lgan o'lja qoldiqlarida topilgan, ularning 85% kattalar bo'lgan.^[57][71] Boshqa tulkilar ham, ikkalasi ham ovlangan Qora suyanchiqli shoqollar (Canis mesomelas) va Afrikalik oltin bo'ri (Canis anthus).^[57][92] Jangovar burgutlar tutib uchib ketgan qora tanli shoqollarning ba'zilari orasida "yarim o'sgan" shaxslar va o'rtacha 8,9 kg (20 lb) og'irlikdagi kamyob bir kattalar ham o'ldirilishi mumkin, ammo odatda erga solingan o'lja hisoblanadi. 3 chaqqalning eng kichigi bo'lishiga qaramay, qora tanli eng tajovuzkor va yirtqich hayvondir, shuning uchun ular faqat ajablantiradigan blitslarda olinadi.^[57][71][93] Voyaga etgan uy itlari (Canis lupus tanish) o'rtacha darajada jangovar burgutlar tomonidan o'ldirilishi mumkin.^[94] Jangovar burgutlar, shuningdek, kuchukcha kuchini tortib olish uchun ham ma'lum Afrikalik yovvoyi itlar (Lycaon pictus) ular o'zlarining uyalaridan chiqqanlarida.^[95] Xuddi shunday ta'sirchan qator felidlar ularning o'lja spektriga kiritilgan. Ikkalasining kattalari uy mushuklari va ularning ajdodlari 4,65 kg (10,3 lb) Afrikalik yovvoyi mushuk (Felis silvestris lybica), ushbu turga o'lja bo'lishlari ma'lum.^[57][94] Arguably their most impressive mammalian carnivore prey though are adults of much larger cat species such as the 10.1 kg (22 lb) serval (Leptailurus serval) and even the 12.7 kg (28 lb) qorako'l (Caracal caracal).^[3][57][71] Apparent predatory attacks are even attempted on katta mushuk cubs as they are considered potential predators of sher va qoplon (Panthera pardus) cubs and confirmed predators of gepard (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs. Evidence shows, however, they rapidly abandon hunting attempts if the formidable mother lion or leopard are present.^{[96][97][98][99]} Successful predatory attacks on other relatively large carnivores have included adults of the 12.4 kg (27 lb) Afrika civet (Civettictis civetta) and the 8.16 kg (18.0 lb) bo'ri (Proteles cristata).^[57][100]

Kirkning dik-dik are one of the two main prey species for martial eagles in Tsavo Sharqiy milliy bog'i, Keniya.

While large accipitrids from around the world are credited with attacks on (almost always young) tuyoqlilar, perhaps no other species is as accomplished in this regard as this martial eagle. Over 30 species of ungulate have been identified as prey for this species, more species than are attributed to the perhaps more powerful crowned eagles and all the world's oltin burgutlar, although in all 3 seldom more than 30% of the diet are comprised by ungulates in a given region.^{[3][28][23][57]} Yilda Kruger milliy bog'i, the martial eagle is mentioned as the only bird considered as a major predator of ungulate species.^[101] A majority of the ungulate diet of martial eagles are comprised by small antilop species or the young of larger antelopes. Locally favored prey are the dik-diks, one of the smallest kind of antelope, and every known species may be vulnerable to this eagle.^[102] Yilda Tsavo Sharqiy milliy bog'i, Kirkning dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) were the second most numerous prey species and it was estimated that at least 86 dik-diks are taken in the park over the course of the year by two pairs of martial eagles. At an average of 5 kg (11 lb), these can provide a very fulfilling meal for an eagle family.^[28] Adults of other smaller antelope such as 4.95 kg (10.9 lb) suni (Neotragus moschatus) and 4.93 kg (10.9 lb) blue duikers (Philantomba monticola) are probably also taken with relative ease.^[3][57][71] In general, the young of other antelope are usually attacked, including newborns. Occasional ambush attacks or successful predations are reported on adults of much larger species despite young ones being rather more vulnerable, including 12.1 kg (27 lb) klipspringers (Oreotragus oreotragus), 11.1 kg (24 lb) steenboks (Raphicerus campestris), both species of grysbok (7.6 to 10.6 kg (17 to 23 lb) on average), 14.6 kg (32 lb) oribis (Ourebia ourebi) and perhaps up to half a dozen larger duikerlar, potentially weighing from 7.7 to 25 kg (17 to 55 lb).^{[3][57][101][102][103][104][105]} One duiker dispatched via strangulation weighed an estimated 37 kg (82 lb), the largest known raptorial kill for any species on the Afrika continent.^[2][3][106] Among extant birds of prey, only xanjarli burgutlar, reportedly capable of killing qo'ylar va ayol red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) weighing up to 50 kg (110 lb), and oltin burgutlar, credited with taking adult female kiyik of several species with weights estimated at 50 to 70 kg (110 to 150 lb) and capable of apparently dispatching domestic calves weighing up to 114 kg (251 lb), have larger kills attributed to them.^{[107][108][109][110]} Calves, including neonatal young, of the following antelope may also be included in their prey spectrum: impala (Aepyceros melampus), xartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), bontebok (Damaliskus pygargus), umumiy tsessebe (Damaliskus lunatus), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), Evdorka g'azallar, gerenuk (Litokranius vallari), bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus), grey rhebok (Pelea kapreoli), kob (Kobus kob) va mountain reedbuck (Redunca arundinum). These species can vary in weight from 2.6 kg (5.7 lb) (i.e. gazelles) to 11 kg (24 lb) (i.e. tsessebe) in newborns.^{[3][28][57][111][112][113][114][115]} For the newborn impala, weighing already 5.55 kg (12.2 lb), the martial eagle is the only bird considered to be a significant predator.^[59][116] Additionally, piglets of bo'rilar (Phacochoerus africanus) (of which only the martial eagle among accipitrids is similarly mentioned as a significant predator) and bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus) are taken.^[4][57][117]

Qushlar

Dubulg'ali guineafowl are among the most favored prey species for martial eagles, known to be taken in considerable numbers everywhere from west Africa ga Janubiy Afrika.

Compared to the range and sizes of mammals included in their prey spectrum, birds taken by martial eagles may seem less impressive as a whole but the morphology of the martial eagle, including large wing surface areas, pronounced sexual dimorphism and relatively long toes, shows that the species is at least partially specialized to hunt avian prey. Birds are universally considered by biologists more difficult to capture than mammals of the same size. In all, more than 50 bird species have been identified as the prey of martial eagles.^[2][3][118] The most significant portion of the avian diet is comprised by medium-sized terrestrial upland birds such as guineafowl, spurfowl va bustards. In total more than a dozen species of the galliform order and the bustard family each have been identified as their prey.^[3][4][57] When attacking these ground-loving birds, which are understandably quite easily spooked and usually react to potential danger by flying off, martial eagles almost always try to take them on the ground much like they do mammalian prey. If the birds take flight, the hunting attempt will fail, although a hunting eagle may try to surprise the same birds again.^[3] Yilda Niger, the most numerous prey species is apparently the 1.29 kg (2.8 lb) helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris).^[119] Other guineafowl such as the vulturine (Akrilliy vulturinum) va crested guineafowl (Guttera edouardi) are also readily taken elsewhere.^[120][121] Guineafowl and spurfowl were stated as the most numerous prey for martial eagles in Kruger milliy bog'i.^[122] Yilda Tsavo Sharqiy milliy bog'i, the 0.67 kg (1.5 lb) red-crested korhaan (Lophotis ruficrista), perhaps the smallest bustard the eagle hunts, is the most numerous prey taken, comprising about 39% of the prey remains.^[28] Medium-sized bustards such as the 1.2 kg (2.6 lb) Xartlaubning soqoli (Lissotis hartlaubii) and the 1.7 kg (3.7 lb) karoo korhaan (Eupodotis vigorsii) were oft-taken supplemental prey in Tsavo East and the Cape Province, respectively.^[28][22][57] Although these are not usually taken in large numbers, martial eagles are one of the main predators of larger bustards. These may include (averaged between the extremely size dimorphic sexes) the 3.44 kg (7.6 lb) Lyudvigning soqoli (Neotis ludwigii), the 5.07 kg (11.2 lb) Denxemning ko'ylagi (Neotis denhami) va hatto kori bustard (Ardeotis kori), seemingly the heaviest bustard in the world on average at 8.43 kg (18.6 lb).^[4][22][57] Attacks on adult male kori bustards, which are certain to be the largest avian prey attacked by martial eagles and are twice as heavy as females, averaging some 11.1 kg (24 lb), can be extremely prolonged. One protracted battle resulted in an injured leg for the eagle and massive, fatal blood loss for the male bustard, which was ultimately scavenged by a jackal by the following morning.^[22][123]

Despite its preference for ground-dwelling avian prey, a surprisingly considerable number of water birds may also be attacked. Waterfowl known to be attacked include the 1.18 kg (2.6 lb) Janubiy Afrika shelduck (Tadorna kanasi), 1 kg (2.2 lb) yellow-billed duck (Anas undulata), the 4.43 kg (9.8 lb) spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis) (Africa's largest waterfowl species) and especially the peculiar, overly bold and aggressive 1.76 kg (3.9 lb) Misr g'ozi (Alopochen aegyptiaca), which is one of the main prey species for martial eagles in Kruger milliy bog'i.^{[3][4][22][57][122][124]} Larger wading birds are also fairly frequently attacked including bug'doylar va egretlar, flamingo storks, ibises, qoshiq va kranlar.^{[3][4][57][125][126]} The diversity and number of storks taken is particularly impressive. They are known to take 8 species of stork, ranging from the smallest known species, the 1.08 kg (2.4 lb) Afrikalik ochiq qog'oz (Anastomus lamelligerus), to the tallest species in the world, the 6.16 kg (13.6 lb), 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in)-tall egarli laylak (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis). One naturalists observed up to a half dozen attacks in different parts of Africa on 3.45 kg (7.6 lb) white storks (Tsikoniya tsikoniyasi).^{[3][127][128]} Short of three attacks on spotted thick-knees (Burhinus capensis), which weigh about 0.42 kg (15 oz), so far as is known small waders or shorebirds are ignored as prey.^[3][57] Other assorted avian prey may consists of ostrich (Struthio tuya) chicks (frequently resulting in the immediate ire of protective ostrich parents), qumtosh, pigeons va kaptarlar, hornbills va crows.^[3][4][57] Beyond occasional captures of other yirtqich qushlar (covered later), one other impressive avian prey species is the southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri), which at 3.77 kg (8.3 lb) is probably the world's largest hornbill.^[22][129] At the other end of the scale, some martial eagles may capture a few small social species of passerine, which are exceptionally small prey (the smallest recorded prey species for the eagle overall), potentially consisting of the 18.6 g (0.66 oz) red-billed queleas (Quelea quelea) and the 27.4 g (0.97 oz) sociable weavers (Philetairus socius), as practically every meat-eating bird in Africa may be attracted to these species’ colonial abundance.^[3][22][130]

Sudralib yuruvchilar

Large monitors, such as this prey, a rock monitor, can be important prey for adult female martial eagles.

Reptiles can be locally important in the diet, and they are known to take larger numbers of reptiles than other large African booted eagles. Only relatively large reptiles, it seems, are attacked and many of this prey is also potentially dangerous, so a great majority of the time such prey is taken in ambushes.^[3][11] In particular, in the former Transvaal viloyati of northeastern South Africa, reptiles were the main prey, with monitor lizards alone comprising just under half of the prey remains. The monitors attacked may include the 6.1 kg (13 lb) rock monitor (Varanus albigularis), the 5.25 kg (11.6 lb) nile monitor (Varanus niloticus) and the 1.02 kg (2.2 lb) savannah monitor (Varanus exanthematicus). These monitors, the largest lizards in Africa, are formidable prey and almost all attacks are ambushes on adult monitors by mature female eagles. Sometimes a lengthy struggle will ensue as the eagles try to get a good grip into the tough back skin of the monitors while simultaneously trying to control their necks to avoid the prey's powerful jaws, however the eagles are usually successful in dispatching the large lizards.^{[3][4][28][57][131][132][133][134]} Reptiles as a whole made up 38% of the prey remains from Kruger milliy bog'i. These consisted of monitor lizards as well as wide range of venomous snakes, shu jumladan Cape cobras (Naja nivea), boomslangs (Dispholidus typus), pufak qo'shimchalar (Biet arietans), the sharqiy (Dendroaspis angustitseplari) va western green mambas (Dendroaspis viridis) va hatto qora mambalar (Dendroaspis polylepis), these species ranging in size from the 0.3 kg (11 oz) boomslang to the 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) black mamba. Also taken here were the non-venomous but already sizeable youngsters of the Afrika rok pitoni (Python sebae), the largest African snake.^[122][135] Boshqa joyda, snouted cobras (Naja annulifera) may added to the list of their prey spectrum.^[4] A surprising number of tortoises va toshbaqalar are also taken by martial eagles, ranging from one of the smallest tortoises, the 0.23 kg (0.51 lb) greater padloper (Homopus femoralis) to the one of the largest, the 10.8 kg (24 lb) leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) (though probably only small specimens of the latter species are taken of this, the second largest tortoise on mainland Africa).^{[57][136][137][138][139][140]} In one case, an estimated 90 cm (2 ft 11 in) nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) was captured and flown with by a martial eagle.^[141]

Interspecies predatory relationships

Adult in Masai Mara, Kenya.

For terrestrial predators, including birds of prey, sub-Saharan Africa may be the most competitive environment in the modern world. Due to great diversity of raptors present, each species have shown adaptive specializations, which may consist of various morphological differences that allow them to capitalize on distinct prey selection, hunting methods, habitat and/or nesting habits.^{[2][3][142][143]} The larger booted eagles that dominate the avian food chain in Africa consists of martial eagles, 4 kg (8.8 lb) Verreaux's eagles and 3.64 kg (8.0 lb) crowned eagles, which due to their size and conspicuousness may lend themselves to comparisons. While prey species may overlap in these in janubiy Afrika va ba'zi qismlari sharqiy Afrika, where the prey size range of all three eagles averages 1 to 5 kg (2.2 to 11.0 lb), these three powerful eagles differ considerably in habitat preferences, nesting habits and hunting methods. The Verreaux's eagle nests in and hunts around rocky, mountainous kopje to be in close proximity to the much favored prey, rock hyraxes, which they mainly use contour-hunting (hugging the uneven ground to surprise the prey) to capture. The crowned eagle dwells mainly in mature forests, building nests in large interior trees, and is primarily a perch-hunter, watching and listening for monkeys and other prey over a long period. While all three are known to locally favor rock hyraxes, the nesting habitat differences where they overlap are sufficient to allow these birds not to effect one another.^{[2][3][15][20][22][144]} The average prey mass of Verreaux's eagle was similar to that martial eagles, with a pair of studies showing it ranges from 1.82 to 2.6 kg (4.0 to 5.7 lb).^[23][145] The mean prey mass of crowned eagles in janubiy Afrika also appears to be similar to that of martial eagles but in west Africa (ya'ni Fil suyagi qirg'og'i ) it was considerably heavier at 5.67 kg (12.5 lb) (which may well be the highest mean prey mass for any of the world's raptors).^[131][146] Elsewhere, mean prey masses for the larger booted eagles appears to be considerably smaller than in the larger African species, i.e. single studies for the Ispaniya imperator burguti (Aquila adalberti) va xanjarli burgutlar showed means of 0.45 kg (0.99 lb) and 1.3 kg (2.9 lb), respectively, while a large number of extensive dietary studies for the golden eagle show its global mean prey mass is around 1.61 kg (3.5 lb).^{[23][147][148]}

More similar in habitat and, locally, prey selection to martial eagles are three medium-sized eagles, the 1.47 kg (3.2 lb) Afrikalik qirg'iy burgut (Aquila spilogaster), the 2.25 kg (5.0 lb) Tovuq burgut (Aquila rapax) and the 2.2 kg (4.9 lb) bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus).^[3][28][22] The biology of martial eagles was compared extensively with that of these species in Tsavo Sharqiy milliy bog'i, Keniya, where all four were known to prey on large numbers of Kirk's dik-diks (albeit none of these took as many as did the martial eagles and some eaten by bateleurs and tawny eagles are probably scavenged). It was found that the bateleur and tawny eagle are even broader in their prey composition and take live prey more often of a smaller size, also often coming to and feeding on carrion (which is seldom seen in martial eagles) and pirating from other raptors, especially the tawny eagles. The African hawk-eagle takes fairly similar prey to the martial eagle but does not conflict with martial eagles considering its much smaller size and preference for slightly denser wooded areas. In Tsavo East, 29% of prey of tawny eagle and 21% of bateleur foods were the same as that of martial eagles. In east Africa, the breeding season differs mildly between these eagles with bateleurs nesting much earlier than the others and African hawk-eagles breeding peaking slightly later. Thus pressure on shared prey types such as dik-diks are exerted at different times of the year. While the bateleur and tawny eagle can kill prey weighing up to 4 kg (8.8 lb) and the African hawk-eagle (being relatively large footed and clawed despite its smaller size) can kill prey of up to 5 kg (11 lb), these raptors are too small to regularly go after live prey as large in the prey spectrum of martial eagles, with the bateleur and tawny having talons relatively smaller even adjusted for their body size (the hawk-eagle's talons were relatively similar in proportion to their body size).^[2][3][28] Due to its large size and broad wings, martial eagles are not highly maneuverable in flight and are not infrequently robbed of their catches by these more agile and swift smaller eagles, particularly bold tawny eagles. Other raptors known to steal food from martial eagles include bateleurs and even other big species such as Verreaux's eagles and lappet yuzli tulporlar (Torgos tracheliotos). Considering their potential for aggressiveness in regards to prey pursuits, martial eagles often appear to be surprisingly passive in response to kleptoparasitism, especially if they are able to first fill their crop. This may be because they try to avoid unnecessary expenditures of energy in contention over food.^[3][149] Qoplonlar also rarely steal kills from martial eagles but may also be robbed of small kills by martial eagles as have gepardlar.^[150][151] In another case, a martial eagle stole a toshbo'ron dan soqolli tulpor (Gipaetus barbatus).^[3] Prey species are shared by a wide range of birds of prey, both other eagles and other, usually, larger raptors, and mammalian carnivores of many sizes that are too numerous to mention. Some mammalian carnivores such as caracals have superficially similar diets to martial eagles.^[152][153] One other species worth noting is the Verreaux's eagle owl (Bubo laktusi), as it is similarly the largest African owl, weighing about 2.1 kg (4.6 lb), with almost identical habitat preferences and distributional range as the martial eagle.^[3][22][24] Therefore, some consider the eagle owl to be the martial eagle's nocturnal ecological equivalent.^[154] While there is considerable overlap in their diets, there are discrepancies as the eagle owl tends to hunt large numbers of kirpi (not known in the eagle's diet) and occasionally high quantities of mole-rats. When considered this in combination with their different times of activity and the fact that the eagle owl weighs about half as much as the martial eagle, direct competition probably does not affect either predator in any considerable way.^[3][155]

Soaring with an African harrier-hawk (Polyboroides typus)

The martial eagle infrequently hunts other birds of prey, perhaps doing so only slightly more often than do crowned eagles va Verreaux's eagles.^[3][57] In comparison, the temperate-zone-dwelling golden eagle is a frequent predator of other birds of prey. This may be due to more scarce prey resources in colder regions forcing eagles to pursue difficult prey such as this more frequently, whereas booted eagles in rich Africa biospheres may not need to do so as much.^{[23][156][157]} Nonetheless, a somewhat diverse range of raptorial birds have been identified as prey for martial eagles: the 0.61 kg (1.3 lb) lanner lochin (Falco biarmicus), the 0.72 kg (1.6 lb) peregrine lochin (Falco peregrinus), the 0.65 kg (1.4 lb) spotted eagle owl (Bubo africanus) (with a surprisingly large number of 6 found at one nest in Tsavo East), the 0.67 kg (1.5 lb) pale chanting goshawk (Melierax canorus), the 2.04 kg (4.5 lb) hooded vulture (Nekrozitlar monakus) (in one case after a protracted aerial battle), the 4.17 kg (9.2 lb) oq boshli tulpor (Trigonoceps oksipitalis) and even Africa's largest bird of prey, the 9.28 kg (20.5 lb) Cape vulture (Gyps coprotheres).^{[28][15][57][158][159][160]} Sifatida apex predators, martial eagles are themselves largely invulnerable to predation. A video exists that purportedly depicts a qoplon killing a martial eagle but this eagle was misidentified as it actually features a leopard preying on an immature Afrika baliq burguti (Haliaeetus vociferus) (and, at that, one that was possibly grounded for unknown reasons).^[161] There are, however, verified (if rare) cases of caracals preying on sleeping martial eagles at night, by climbing trees and pouncing in an ambush.^[162][163] It is possible that leopards may too ambush sleeping eagles but post-fledgling martial eagles are known to be highly wary and healthy individuals a great majority of the time will successfully evade potential dangers by day.^[3] Predation on nests of martial eagles, beyond those by humans, are little-known, with no verified depredations known in the literature, but are likely to occur.^[164]

Young bird in Masai Mara, Kenya

Territoriality

Despite their rather aerial existence, the territorial display of adult martial eagles is considered relatively unspectacular. Their display often consists of nothing more than the adult male or both members of a pair circling and calling over their home range area or perching and calling near nestlings. Compared to other large African booted eagles, this species infrequently “sky-dances” (i.e. undulation and dramatic movements high in the sky), but some are known with presumably the male martial eagle only engaging in shallow undulations.^[2][9][165] During mutual circling, the adult female may turn and present talons. Martial eagles are not known to “cartwheel” which is when two eagles lock feet and circle down, falling almost to the ground, an action that was once thought to be part of breeding displays but is known generally considered territorial in nature.^[2][166] The territory of martial eagles can vary greatly in size. The average home range is estimated to be 125 to 150 km² (48 to 58 sq mi) in sharqiy Afrika va janubiy Afrika, with mean distances between nests of approximately 11 to 12 km (6.8 to 7.5 mi).^[2] Yilda Kruger milliy bog'i, the average home range of pairs is 144 km² (56 sq mi) with an average nest-spacing of 11.2 km (7.0 mi). Yilda Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibiya, the home range size was 250 km² (97 sq mi) per pair.^[3] Ichida Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, Janubiy Afrika, nest spacing ranged from 15.1 km (9.4 mi) in the Auob river basin to 31.3 km (19.4 mi) in the interior dunes area.^[164] In Nyika Plateau shimoliy Malavi, the average nest spacing was 32 km (20 mi), with only one martial eagle nest recorded in an area that contained four crowned eagle nests.^[167] In protected areas of west Africa, the average home range size of martial eagles is about 150 to 300 km² (58 to 116 sq mi).^[168] Somewhat surprisingly, considering their relative scarcity in west Africa overall in comparison in east and southern Africa, home ranges may be just as large in some parts of Keniya, at up to 300 km² (120 sq mi), and the largest known home ranges sizes known come from southern Africa. These are from Zimbabve Ning Xvang milliy bog'i where the home ranges may be anywhere from 225 to 990 km² (87 to 382 sq mi), with average spacing between nests of 37 km (23 mi). By the 1990s, approximately 100 pairs were estimated to breed in Hwange.^[2][169] This disparity in territory sizes are likely due to regional differences in food supply, persecution rates and habitat disturbance.^[2][8]

Naslchilik

A Martial eagle on its nest in Tanzaniya.

Martial eagles may breed in various months in the different parts of their range. They are considered a fairly early breeder compared to the average for sub-Saharan Africa birds of prey but breed much less early than bateleurs.^{[28][170][171]} The mating season is in November through April in Senegal, January to June in Sudan, August to July in northeast Africa and almost any month in sharqiy Afrika va janubiy Afrika, though mostly in April–November. The breeding season may thus begin in various parts of the range in a wet season or the earlier or later part of the local dry season so that no part of the brooding stage will occur during heavy rains.^[2][9] They build their nests in large trees, often larger than other trees in the woodlot. The nest is usually placed them in the main fork of tree at 6–20 m (20–66 ft) off the ground, though nests have been recorded at anywhere from 5 to 70 m (16 to 230 ft) high, in the highest cases on top of the tree canopy. Tree species is unimportant with the eagles seeming to prefer any type that is difficult to climb, such as those that have thorny branches, few lower branches or smoother bark.^[2][9][104] Yilda Kalahari Gemsbok National Park ning Janubiy Afrika, almost all nests were in the highly thorny, Akatsiya -like tree, Vachellia erioloba, in savanna areas.^[164] Most nests in janubiy Afrika often are at a height of less than 15 m (49 ft).^[3] Often trees used are on the sides of cliffs, ridges, valley or hilltop, with one nest having been found within a cave.^[2][172] In karoo ning Janubiy Afrika, they have also nested on electric-power pylons. Locally, with the sometimes epidemic levels of clear-cutting of old-growth trees, such pylons may provide a fairly suitable alternative that the eagles can utilize in absence of woodlands.^{[173][174][175]} The nest of the martial eagle is a large and conspicuous construction of sticks. In the first year of construction, the nest will average 1.2 to 1.5 m (3.9 to 4.9 ft) in diametri and measure about 0.6 m (2.0 ft) deep. After regular use over several years, the nests can regularly measure in excess of 2 m (6.6 ft) in both diameter and depth. The nest may be lightly lined with green leaves.^[2] The central depression of the nest averages about 0.4 to 0.5 m (1.3 to 1.6 ft) across.^[3] The nest of martial eagles average slightly smaller than those of crowned eagles and, compared to other large eagle tree nests, are much broader than they are deep, relatively, especially when newly constructed.^[9] The construction of new nests can take several months and, in some cases, pairs can take up to two months where they appear to return to the nests daily but contribute only green leaves to line the nest. The repair of an existing nest takes on average two to three weeks. Most pairs will usually just use one nest (as opposed to temperate-zone eagles which may have several alternate nests), with up to 21 years of continuous use for one nest recorded, but pairs constructing a second nest are not infrequent either. One exceptionally prolific pair built or repaired 7 nests during 17 years in Zimbabve, although they only nested 5 of the 17 years.^[3][176]

Martial eagles have a slow breeding rate, laying usually one tuxum (rarely two) every two years. Clutches of two have only been reported only in Janubiy Afrika and once in Zambiya and the younger sibling probably never survives or possibly ever even hatches unless the first egg or hatchling dies.^[9][177] Martial eagle eggs are rounded oval and are white to pale greenish-blue, variously. Sometimes they may be handsomely marked with brown and grey blotches. The eggs of martial eagles measure 79.9 mm × 63.4 mm (3.15 in × 2.50 in) on average among 57 eggs, with ranges of 72 to 87.5 mm (2.83 to 3.44 in) in egg length by 60 to 69 mm (2.4 to 2.7 in) in width. Their eggs are the largest of any booted eagle, slightly larger on average than those of golden yoki Verroning burguti and considerably larger than those of crowned eagles.^{[3][9][178][179]} The egg is incubated for 45 to 53 days. The female does a great majority of the incubation, as is typical, but the male may relieve her and incubate for a maximum of three hours in a day.^[2][3] If the nest is approached by humans, the female tends to sit tight, often only flying off once the nest is reached. Unlike the crowned eagle, the martial eagle is not known to protectively attack animals such as humans who come too close to the nest, usually just unobtrusively abandoning the nest until the person leaves the area, in a similar fashion to Akila eagles. However, if maimed or grounded themselves, martial eagles are known to viciously turn on their human tormentors until they are finished off, in some anecdotal claims of early hunting journals, an occasion hunting accident have resulted in martial eagles tearing the flesh down to the bone on the legs of game wardens and even broken arms with their powerful grip. Although these accounts are quite possibly exaggerated, the ferocity of cornered martial eagles may have some influence on its name.^{[3][21][180][181]} Once the eggs hatch, the male of a pair may rarely brood the young but has never been seen to the feed the chick and, for the most part, the male just brings prey for the female to distribute between herself and the nestling. The female attendance at the nest drops considerably at seven weeks after hatching, at which point she resumes hunting. Then, the female may become main food provider but males will also make deliveries. Despite her lower attendance, she still roosts on or near the nest until the nestling stage is done. Despite the occasional capture of food, the male usually is rarely seen near the nest after the female resumes hunting.^[3][9] In one unusual case, a first or second year plumaged male martial eagle was seen assisting an adult female in the way that an adult male would but it was not known if he had merely replaced a deceased male that had sired the young or had actually bred with the female, the following year the young male was verified to mate with the female. Cases of immature plumaged eagles breeding are often considered indicative of stress on a species’ regional population.^[3]

Juveniles such as this one from Kruger milliy bog'i do not attain maturity until they are least six years of age.

The newly hatched chick tends to have a two-tone down pattern which is dark grey above and white below, which lightens at about four weeks of age, with the down becoming pale-grey. At 7 weeks, the feathers mostly cover the down and do so completely by 10 weeks except that at that stage the flight feathers are underdeveloped.^[3] The new chick is usually quite weak and feeble, becoming more active only after they are 20 days old.^[9] The nestlings usually first feeds itself at 9 to 11 weeks old, while it tends to engage in vigorous wing exercises performed from 10 weeks on. Yoqdi crowned eagles, males seem to be more active than female youngsters and probably fly sooner too. In one case, a male fledged prematurely at 75 days, however it is possible that male fledging can occur at less than 90 days.^[3] Most estimations place fledging as occurring at 96 to 109 days, on average at about 99 days of age. However, after making their first flight, the fledgling usually return to roost in the nest for several days, before gradually moving away from it.^[2][3][9] Despite increasing signs of independence (such as flight and beginning to practice hunting), in extreme cases, juvenile birds may remain in the care of their parents for a further 6 to 12 months. A typical post-fledgling care stage will continue for about 3 months after fledging. Despite its ability to fly, it will continue to beg for food from both parents as they are seen. Sometimes, the young eagle from the prior mating season may still be present at the onset of the next breeding season. Evidence exist of juvenile eagles returning to their nest site at as old as 3 years of age but are likely to be no longer fed.^[3][9] On the other hand, juvenile martial eagle soar much more readily than crowned eagles and, unlike that species, have been recorded traveling up to several miles from the nest 3 to 4 months after making their first flight.^[9] Due to this long dependence period, these eagles can usually only mate in alternate years.

Breeding success is variable and is probably driven by a combination of factors, including prey supply, rainfall levels and distance from human activity.^[165][182] Yilda Keniya in the 1960s, breeding success at producing a fledgling was 72% for all eggs and 48% for all possible attempts. Here, various pairs reared between 0.25 and 1 young per pair, averaging 0.55.^[3][9][183] In the Namibian Nest Record Scheme, where young were monitored for more than two months, success has also been estimated at 83%, i.e. five out of six attempts.^[184] Da Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, Janubiy Afrika, 38 of 53 martial eagle breeding attempts were in consecutive years and fledged an average 0.43 young per year.^[164] In 63 pair years, an average of 0.51 fledglings per pair was found for the former Transvaal viloyati ning Janubiy Afrika.^[3] Breeding is characterized as exceptionally erratic but the inconsistencies of their breeding habits in the last few centuries may have unnatural influences, due to this species sensitivity to human disturbance and high rates of persecution they suffer under humans.^[3][5][9] Breeding may occur as frequent as in 4 consecutive years or only once every three years with no consistent biannual breeding pattern as in the crowned eagle. Yilda Zimbabve, a pair studied for 18 years had a replacement rate of 0.44 but bred very erratically: 3 eggs from 4 clutches, then only twice in next 9 years, then reared no young until they bred again and produced 5 young in 5 successive years.^{[3][5][9][164]} The immature eagle, with an average of about four years before it can expect its first breeding season, spends much of its time subsequent to its final separation from its parents looking for feeding opportunities and refining its hunting techniques. There is evidence of a young eagle engaging in a form of play where it throws and tries to catch sticks, a probable form of hunting practice.^[3][185] Almost without predators and other natural threats, the martial eagles is quite a long-lived bird with an average lifespan estimated to be 12 to 14 years.^[9] The longevity record for a wild eagle of the species is now 31.4 years of age.^[186] However, due to fact that they do not reproduce under normal circumstances until they are 6 to 7 years old and their sporadic, widely placed breeding attempts, makes the martial eagle an exceptionally unproductive bird with very low population replacement levels.^[165]

Large specimen, probably female, showing slight crest and protruding crop, southern Kruger milliy bog'i, Janubiy Afrika

Tabiatni muhofaza qilish muammolari

1838 illustration of a martial eagle by Sir Andrew Smith

Voyaga etganlar perchdan uchib ketishadi

Jangovar burgut, tabiiyki, kamdan-kam uchraydi, chunki uning katta hududlarga bo'lgan ehtiyoji va reproduktiv darajasi past. Shunga qaramay, bu turlar so'nggi yillarda asosan odamlar tomonidan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri o'ldirilishi sababli katta miqdordagi pasayishni boshdan kechirmoqda. Uning muhofaza qilish holati yuqoriga ko'tarildi Qo'rqinchli yaqin 2009 yilda va Zaif 2013 yilda, kutilgan yana bir reyting bilan.^[1] Ularning pasayishiga mintaqaviy misol sifatida: avvalgisida Transvaal viloyati ning Janubiy Afrika Hozirgi umumiy hisoblangan jangovar burgutlar 20-asr o'rtalarida 1500 dan 1990-yillarga kelib 500 taga kamaydi.^[2] Tushish darajasi bo'yicha u raqobatdosh bateleur barcha Afrika burgutlari orasida eng ko'p kamaytirilgani kabi, bu haqiqat, hatto yarim asr oldin ham, 2010-yillardan ma'lum bo'lgan.^[3][56] Odamlar bilan aloqa qiladigan ko'plab sohalarda burgut populyatsiyasi otish va zaharlanish orqali ta'qib qilish orqali juda kamaydi. Bunday ta'qiblarning sababi shundaki, jangovar burgutlar chorva mollari uchun yirtqich tahdid sifatida qabul qilinadi. Ushbu tasavvurga qaramay, aslida uy hayvonlari turlarning ozgina qismini tashkil qiladi, burgutlar esa sog'lom muhitning ishonchli belgisidir. In Keyp provinsiyasi ning Janubiy Afrika Masalan, parhezning 8 foizdan ko'prog'i ichki zaxiradan iborat bo'lib chiqdi. Bu hisobga olinmaydi, ilgari o'ylanganidan farqli o'laroq, jangovar burgutlar jasadni pisand qilmaydilar va ba'zi qushlar, ayniqsa voyaga etmaganlar, ba'zida chorva mollarining tana go'shtiga borishlari aniq, bu esa ularni qotil sifatida adashishiga olib keladi.^[3][55] Urush burgutlarining 76%, ularning deyarli barchasi aniq otilgan, olib kelingan Zimbabve tabiiy tarix muzeyi voyaga etmaganlar edi, shuning uchun etuk bo'lmagan jang burgutlari oziq-ovqat manbai sifatida chorvachilikka ko'proq moyil.^[3] Biroq, jang burgutlari ba'zida juda ko'p sonli chorva mollarini, shu jumladan o'ldiradi echkilar va qo'ylar (asosan yosh bolalar va qo'zilar), tovuqlar, eng xilma-xilligi uy hayvonlari, cho'chqalar va ehtimol yangi tug'ilgan buzoqlar.^{[43][187][188][189]} Janubiy Afrikadagi jang burgutlarining mahalliy nomi lammervanger (yoki "qo'zichoq tutuvchisi").^[189] Harbiy burgutlar har yili o'ldiradigan chorva mollarining umumiy soni ziddiyatli, chunki fermerlarning da'volari ularnikiga raqib Verroning burgutlari va qarshi qilinganlardan oshib ketishi kerak xanjarli burgutlar va hatto ancha kengroq oltin burgutlar (ikkalasi ham chorvachilik uchun xavfli hisoblanadi). Har yili bir necha yuzga qadar chorva mollarini o'ldirishda ular aybdor Janubiy Afrika yolg'iz. Jangovar burgut Verreaux bilan bir qatorda, chorvachilik uchun dunyodagi eng xavfli ikki qush deb nomlangan baxtsiz unvonni oladi. Ammo biologlar bir muncha vaqt urush burgutlari tomonidan o'ldirilgan deb da'vo qilingan raqamlar haddan tashqari oshirib yuborilgan deb kelishib oldilar.^{[3][187][188][190]} 21-asrga kelib, jangovar burgut fermerlar tomonidan qattiq yoqtirilmay kelmoqda va hatto boshqa burgut turlari uchun qulay bo'lganlar tomonidan ham o'qqa tutilmoqda.^{[1][189][191]}

Yilda janubiy Afrika Ko'plab jangovar burgutlar hozirda ko'pincha katta daraxtlar bo'lmagan joylarda yuqori kuchlanish ustunlariga uyalashga kirishdilar, bu ularning mavjudligidan (simlar bilan to'qnashuv natijasida o'limdan) ko'proq foyda olish uchun juda ozgina xayrixohlardan biridir. va ustunlar endi yirtqich qushlarning eng qotillaridan biri, ayniqsa Evropa va janubiy Afrika ). Biroq, to'qnashuv elektr uzatish liniyalari o'limning jiddiy manbai bo'lishi mumkin, bu o'ziga ishonmaydigan uchuvchi bo'lgan, ayniqsa, etuk bo'lmagan jang burgutlari uchun keng tarqalgan zamonaviy muammo.^{[173][192][193][194]} Yana bir xavf, fermer xo'jaliklarining suv omborlari tomonidan tiklanishidan kelib chiqadi Janubiy Afrika, unda ko'plab qushlar cho'kib ketgan. U erda 68 burgut cho'kib ketganidan 38% jangovar burgutlar bo'lib, bu o'ldirilganlarning eng yuqori foizini tashkil etadi (yana o'lim sababi shu sababli yana etuk bo'lmaganlarni da'vo qilmoqda).^[3][195] Janubiy Afrikada ushbu to'qnashuvlar tufayli so'nggi uch avlodda bu burgut o'z aholisining 20 foizini yo'qotgan bo'lishi mumkin.^[196] Harbiy burgut duch keladigan muammolarni yanada kuchaytirish, yashash joylarini yo'q qilish va o'ljani kamaytirish muhofaza qilinadigan hududlardan tashqarida yuqori darajada davom etmoqda. Shu sababli ularning avvalgi naslchilik tarmog'ining ko'p turlari yaroqsiz.^[2][5] Ushbu turni saqlab qolish dehqonlar va boshqa mahalliy odamlarning ma'lumotlariga va turlar ortiqcha bezovtalanmasdan uya va ov qilishlari mumkin bo'lgan qo'riqlanadigan hududlarning ko'payishiga bog'liq.^[5][187]

Adabiyotlar

Tashqi havolalar

• Jangovar burgut - Janubiy Afrika qushlari atlasidagi turlar matni
• Jangovar burgut Namibiya Raptors-da
• Harbiy burgutga oid videolar Internetdagi qushlar to'plamida
• Voyaga etmagan jangovar burgutning predmetli o'yini