Saravak - Sarawak

Saravak
Shtat
Bayroq Gerb
Taxallus (lar): Bumi Kenyalang[1] Hornbills mamlakati
Shior (lar): Bersatu, Berusaxa, Berbakti Birlashgan, intilish, xizmat ko'rsatish Unitum, Pertinacem, xizmat (Lotin)
Madhiya: Ibu Pertiviku Mening Vatanim[2]
Saravak yilda    Malayziya
Koordinatalari: 2 ° 48′N 113 ° 53′E / 2.800 ° N 113.883 ° E / 2.800; 113.883Koordinatalar: 2 ° 48′N 113 ° 53′E / 2.800 ° N 113.883 ° E / 2.800; 113.883
Mamlakat	Malayziya
Ostida tashkil etilgan Bruney imperiyasi	15-asr
Sultonlik davlatini tashkil etish Saravak sultonligi	1599-1641
Saravaklik Raj	1841
Yapon istilosi	1942
Britaniya toj koloniyasi	1946 yil 1-iyul
O'z-o'zini boshqarish huquqiga ega bo'ldi	1963 yil 22-iyul[3][4]
Malayziya tarkibiga kiritilgan[5]	16 sentyabr 1963 yil[6]
Poytaxt (va eng katta shahar)	Kuching
Bo'limlar	Ro'yxat Betong Bintulu Kapit Kuching Limbang Miri Mukah Samaraxon Sarikei Serian Sibu Shri Aman
Hukumat
• turi	Parlament
• tanasi	Saravak shtati qonunchilik assambleyasi
• Hokim	Abdul Taib Mahmud
• Bosh vazir	Abang Johari Openg (GPS -PBB )
Maydon [7]
• Jami	124,450 km2 (48,050 kvadrat milya)
Aholisi  (2019)[7]
• Jami	2,810,000 (4-chi )
• zichlik	22 / km2 (60 / kvadrat milya)
Demonim (lar)	Sarawakian
Demografiya (2014)[8]
• etnik tarkibi	Dayak: 43% Malaycha: 24% Xitoy: 24% Melanau: 6.7% Boshqalar Bumiputera: 0.3%
• Lahjalar	Bornean  • Saravak malay tili  • Xakka  • Xokkien  • Teochew  • Fuzhou Boshqalar etnik ozchilik tillari
Davlat indeksi
• HDI (2018)	0.739 (yuqori) (14-chi )[9]
• TFR (2017)	1.7[7]
• YaIM (2018)	RM 132,665 mln[7]
Vaqt zonasi	UTC + 8 (MST[10])
Pochta Indeksi	93xxx[11] 98xxx gacha[12]
Qo'ng'iroq kodi	082 dan 086 gacha[13]
ISO 3166 kodi	K (MY-13, 50-53)[14][15]
Avtotransport vositalarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazish	QA dan QT[16]
Rasmiy til (lar)	Malaycha Ingliz tili
Haydash tomoni	Chapda
Elektr quvvati	230 V, 50 Hz
Valyuta	Malayziya ringgiti (RM / MYR)
Veb-sayt	Rasmiy veb-sayt

Saravak (/səˈrɑːwɒk/; Malaycha:[saˈrawaʔ]) a davlat ning Malayziya. Maydonlari deyarli teng bo'lgan 13 shtatlar orasida eng kattasi Yarim orol Malayziya, Sarawak shimoli-g'arbiy qismida joylashgan Borneo oroli, va Malayziya shtati bilan chegaradosh Sabah shimoli-sharqda, Kalimantan (Bornoning Indoneziya qismi) janubda va Bruney shimolda. Poytaxt, Kuching, Saravakdagi eng katta shahar, shtatning iqtisodiy markazi va Saravak shtati hukumatining qarorgohi. Sarawakning boshqa shahar va shaharlari kiradi Miri, Sibu va Bintulu. 2015 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish bo'yicha Saravak aholisi 2 million 636 ming kishini tashkil etdi. Saravakda an bor ekvatorial iqlim tropik bilan yomg'ir o'rmonlari va ko'plab hayvonlar va o'simlik turlari. Bu bir nechta taniqli narsalarga ega g'or tizimlari Gunung Mulu milliy bog'i. Rajang daryosi - Malayziyadagi eng uzun daryo; Bakun to'g'oni, eng katta to'g'onlardan biri Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo, uning irmoqlaridan birida joylashgan Balui daryosi. Murud tog'i Saravakdagi eng baland joy.

Saravakda ma'lum bo'lgan eng qadimgi aholi punkti Niyah g'orlari tarixi 40 ming yilga to'g'ri keladi. Milodning 8-13 asrlariga oid bir qator xitoylik keramika Santubong arxeologik joyida topilgan. Saravakning qirg'oqbo'yi mintaqalari Bruney imperiyasi XVI asrda. 1839 yilda, Jeyms Bruk, britaniyalik kashfiyotchi Saravakka etib keldi. U va uning avlodlari, boshqariladi davlat 1841 yildan 1946 yilgacha. davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi, bo'lgandi yaponlar tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan uch yil davomida. Urushdan so'ng, oxirgi Oq Rajaj, Charlz Vayner Bruk, Saravakni Britaniyaga topshirdi va 1946 yilda u a Britaniya toj koloniyasi. 1963 yil 22-iyulda Saravak inglizlar tomonidan o'zini o'zi boshqarish huquqiga ega bo'ldi va keyinchalik 1963 yil 16-sentabrda tashkil etilgan Malayziyaning asoschilaridan biriga aylandi. Ammo federatsiya Indoneziya tomonidan uch yilga qarshilik ko'rsatdi. qarama-qarshilik. Malayziyaning yaratilishi ham kommunistik qo'zg'olon bu 1990 yilgacha davom etdi.

Davlat rahbari - Gubernator, shuningdek Yang di-Pertua Negeri, hukumat boshlig'i esa Bosh vazir. Saravak ma'muriy bo'linmalarga va tumanlarga bo'linib, yaqindan modellangan tizim tomonidan boshqariladi Vestminster parlament tizimi va Malayziyada eng qadimgi davlat qonun chiqaruvchi tizimi bo'lgan.

Tabiiy boyliklari tufayli Sarawak neft va gaz eksportiga ixtisoslashgan, yog'och va moyli palmalar, shuningdek kuchli ishlab chiqarish, energetika va turizm sohalariga ega. Bu etnik, madaniy va lingvistik jihatdan xilma-xildir; iban, malay, xitoy, Melanau, Bidayux va Orang Ulu kabi yirik etnik guruhlar. Ingliz va malay davlatlarning ikki rasmiy tili; rasmiy din yo'q.

Etimologiya

The karkidon shoxi bo'ladi davlat qushi Saravak.

Shtat nomining umumiy qabul qilingan izohi shundan iboratki Saravak malay tili so'z seravak, bu degani surma.^[17] Ommabop muqobil tushuntirish - bu Pangeran Muda Xashim (tog'asi vafot etgan) tomonidan aytilgan to'rt malaycha so'zning qisqarishi. Bruney sultoni ), "Saya serah pada uyg'ondi"(Men buni sizga topshiraman), u Saravakni berganida Jeyms Bruk, 1841 yilda ingliz sayyohi.^[17] Biroq, so'nggi tushuntirish noto'g'ri: bu hudud Jeyms Bruk kelguniga qadar Saravak deb nomlangan va bu so'z uyg'onish Malayziya tashkil topguncha Sarawak Malay tilining so'z boyligida bo'lmagan.^[18]

Saravak "Hornbills mamlakati" laqabini oldi (Bumi Kenyalang). Ushbu qushlar Dayak xalqi uchun muhim madaniy belgilar bo'lib, ular Xudoning ruhini ifodalaydi. Shuningdek, turar-joy binolari ustida uchib yuradigan shoxli qo'ng'iz ko'rilsa, bu mahalliy jamoaga omad keltiradi, deb ishoniladi. Saravakda dunyodagi ellik to'rtta turdan sakkiztasi bor, va Karkidon shoxi Saravakning davlat qushi.^[19]

Tarix

Tarixiy aloqalar

Bruney sultonligi 15-asr - 1599; 1641–1841 yillar

Saravak sultonligi 1599–1641
Saravaklik Raj 1841–1941; 1945–1946
Yaponiya imperiyasi 1942–1945
Britaniyaning Saravak toji 1946–1963

 Malayziya 1963 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar

Borneo, Saravak yaqinidagi langar daryosining ko'rinishi Edvard Inglfild, ehtimol u leytenant bo'lganida HMS Samarang v. 1843

A barka nomlangan Saravaklik Rajax, Jeyms Bruk sharafiga, o'rtasida ishlaydigan "Suonsi" Buyuk Britaniyada, Avstraliya, va Sharqiy Hindiston 1840 yillarning oxiridan boshlab.

Ma'lumki, yem-xashak ovchilari g'arbiy og'iz atrofida yashagan Niyah g'orlari (janubi-g'arbdan 110 kilometr (68 milya) joylashgan Miri ) 40.000 yil oldin.^[20][21] Niax g'orlari yonidan topilgan zamonaviy inson bosh suyagi Malayziyada topilgan eng qadimgi odam va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi eng qadimgi zamonaviy inson bosh suyagi hisoblanadi.^{[20][21][22][23]} Tarixiga oid Xitoy keramika buyumlari Tang va Qo'shiq Santubongda topilgan sulolalar (mos ravishda milodiy 8-13 asrlar) Kuching ) dengiz porti sifatida ahamiyatiga ishora qiladi.^[24]

The Bruney imperiyasi XV asr o'rtalarida Saravakning qirg'oq mintaqalarida tashkil etilgan,^[25] va Kuching hududi portugallarga ma'lum bo'lgan kartograflar sifatida 16-asrda Cerava, Bornoning beshta buyuk dengiz portlaridan biri.^[26][27] Aynan shu davrda tug'ilgan kunning guvohi bo'lgan Saravak sultonligi, 1641 yilda Bruney bilan birlashishdan oldin deyarli yarim asr davom etgan mahalliy qirollik.^[28][29] 19-asrning boshlariga kelib, Bruney imperiyasi tanazzulga yuz tutdi va Saravakning qirg'oqbo'yi mintaqalarida faqat mustaqillikni saqlab qoldi. Malaycha rahbarlar. Sohildan uzoqda hududlararo urushlar bo'lib o'tdi Iban va a Keniya -Kayan ittifoq.^[30]

Kuching mintaqasida antimon rudasining topilishi Bruney Sultonining vakili Pangeran Indera Mahkotani 1824-1830 yillarda bu hududda rivojlanishni kuchayishiga olib keldi. Mintaqada surma ishlab chiqarishning ko'payishi Bruney Sultonligini yuqori soliqlarni talab qilishga majbur qildi va bu oxir-oqibat fuqarolar tartibsizligiga olib keldi.^[31] 1839 yilda Sulton Omar Ali Sayfuddin II (1827–1852) amakisi Pangeran Muda Xashimga tartibni tiklash vazifasini yuklagan, ammo buni uddalay olmagani uning ingliz dengizchisidan yordam so'rashiga sabab bo'ldi. Jeyms Bruk. Brukning qo'zg'olonni bostirishda muvaffaqiyati surma, mol-mulk va Saravak gubernatorligi bilan mukofotlandi, u o'sha paytda faqat Kuching markazida joylashgan kichik maydondan iborat edi.^[32][33]

Jeyms Bruk, birinchi Oq Rajaj

Bruk oilasi, keyinchalik uni chaqirdi Oq Rajaxlar, o'zlari bergan hududni kengaytirishga kirishdilar.^[34] Kengayish bilan samarali boshqaruvga ehtiyoj paydo bo'ldi va shu tariqa 1841 yildan boshlab Saravak o'zining ma'muriy bo'linmalaridan birinchisiga ajraldi.^[35] valyuta bilan Saravak dollari, muomalasi 1858 yilda boshlangan.^[36] 1912 yilga kelib Saravakda jami beshta bo'lim tashkil etildi, ularning har biri a Rezident.^[35] Bruk oilasi odatda byurokratiyaning minimal darajasiga ega bo'lgan paternalistik boshqaruv shaklini amalda qo'llagan, ammo qandaydir huquqiy bazani yaratish uchun bosim o'tkazgan. Bruk hukumati mahalliy urf-odatlarni yaxshi bilmaganliklari sababli, rahbarlik qilish uchun asosan Malay boshliqlaridan iborat maslahatchi Oliy Kengashni tuzdilar. Ushbu kengash Malayziyadagi eng qadimiy shtat qonunchilik yig'ilishi bo'lib, birinchi Bosh kengash yig'ilishi bo'lib o'tdi Bintulu 1867 yilda.^[37] 1928 yilda sud komissari Tomas Stirling Boyd qonuniy ravishda o'qitilgan birinchi sudya etib tayinlandi. Turli xil xitoylik jamoalarga taalluqli shunga o'xshash tizim ham shakllangan.^[38] Mahalliy hamjamiyat a'zolari Bruk rejimi tomonidan hududdagi muayyan funktsiyalarga e'tibor qaratishlari kerak edi: ibanlar va boshqa dayaklar militsiya Malayziya esa asosan ma'mur bo'lgan. Xitoyliklar, ham mahalliy, ham muhojirlar, asosan plantatsiyalarda ishlaganlar,^[39] minalar va mutasaddi sifatida.^[38] Savdo kengayishi shakllanishiga olib keldi Borneo Company Limited 1856 yilda. Kompaniya Saravakdagi savdo, bank, qishloq xo'jaligi, foydali qazilmalarni qidirish va ishlab chiqarishni o'z ichiga olgan ko'plab bizneslarda qatnashgan.^[40]

Hududiy kengayishi Saravaklik Raj 1841 yildan 1905 yilgacha zamonaviy Saravak davlatining hozirgi chegaralarida muhim rol o'ynagan.

1853-1862 yillarda Bruk hukumatiga qarshi bir qator qo'zg'olonlar bo'lgan, ammo barchasi mahalliy qabilalar yordamida muvaffaqiyatli bostirilgan.^[38] Kelajakdagi g'alayonlardan saqlanish uchun Kuchingni himoya qilish uchun bir qator qal'alar qurilgan, shu jumladan Margherita Fort, 1871 yilda qurib bitkazilgan. O'sha vaqtga kelib Bruk Saravakni shunday nazorat qilganki, mudofaalar deyarli keraksiz edi.^[41]

Charlz Antoni Bruk 1868 yilda amakisidan keyingi Oq Rajaga o'tirdi. Uning hukmronligi ostida Saravak Limbang va Baram va Trusan vodiylarini Bruney sultonidan oldi, keyinchalik protektorat 1888 yilda Angliya tashqi ishlar bilan shug'ullangan, ammo Bruk hukumati ma'muriy vakolatlarni saqlab qolgan.^[42] Bruk mamlakat ichida Saravak muzeyi - Borneo shahridagi eng qadimiy muzey - 1891 yilda,^[41][43] va tinchlik uchun vositachilik qildi Marudi u erda qabilalararo urushlarni tugatish bilan. Iqtisodiy rivojlanish davom etdi, 1910 yildan neft quduqlari burg'ulandi va ikki yildan so'ng Bruk tersanesi ochildi. Entoni Bruk, kim 1939 yilda Rajah Muda (merosxo'r) bo'ladi, 1912 yilda tug'ilgan.^[44]

Xaritasi Bornoning bosib olinishi davomida 1943 yilda yaponlar tomonidan tayyorlangan Ikkinchi jahon urushi, yozuvi bilan Yaponcha belgilar.

Saravak mahalliy aholisining katta olomon ko'chani bosib o'tmoqda Kuching kelganiga guvoh bo'lish Avstraliya imperatorlik kuchlari (AIF) 1945 yil 12 sentyabrda.

1941 yilda Saravakda Bruk hukmronligining yuz yillik bayrami bo'lib o'tdi. Bayram davomida a yangi konstitutsiya Rajaning hokimiyatini cheklaydigan va Saravak xalqiga hukumat faoliyatida ko'proq rol o'ynaydigan qonun kiritildi. Biroq, ushbu konstitutsiya Yaponiya istilosi tufayli hech qachon to'liq amalga oshirilmagan.^{[45][38][1-eslatma]} Xuddi shu yili inglizlar Saravakni Singapurga himoya qilgan havo va dengiz kuchlarini olib chiqib ketishdi. Saravak endi himoyasiz bo'lib, Bruk rejimi a kuygan er Miri shahridagi neft inshootlarini yo'q qilish va Kuching aerodromini yo'q qilishdan oldin iloji boricha uzoqroq ushlab turish siyosati. Shunga qaramay, boshchiligidagi yapon bosqinchi kuchlari Kiyotake Kavaguchi 1941 yil 16 dekabrda Miriga tushdi va 1941 yil 24 dekabrda Kuchingni bosib oldi, ingliz quruqlik kuchlari orqaga chekinishdi Singkawang qo'shni Gollandiyalik Borneo. O'sha erda o'n hafta davom etgan janglardan so'ng Ittifoq kuchlari 1942 yil 1 aprelda taslim bo'ldi.^[46] Charlz Vayner Bruk, Saravakning so'nggi Rajaxi allaqachon ketgan edi Sidney, Avstraliya; uning zobitlari yaponlar tomonidan asirga olingan va Batu Lintang lageri.^[47]

Sarawak qismi bo'lib qoldi Yaponiya imperiyasi uch yil sakkiz oy davomida. Shu vaqt ichida u uchta viloyatga bo'lindi - Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu va Miri-shu - har biri o'zlariga tegishli viloyat hokimi huzurida. Yaponlar aks holda Bruk ma'muriy tuzilishini saqlab qolishdi va yaponlarni muhim davlat lavozimlariga tayinlashdi.^[48] Keyinchalik Ittifoq kuchlari amalga oshirdilar Semut operatsiyasi Sarawakdagi yapon operatsiyalarini buzish uchun.^[49] Davomida Shimoliy Borneo jangi, Avstraliya kuchlari 1945 yil 20-iyunda Lutong-Miri hududiga kelib tushishdi va shu qadar kirib kelishdi Marudi va Limbang Saravakdagi faoliyatini to'xtatishdan oldin.^[50] Keyin Yaponiyaning taslim bo'lishi, Yaponiya Avstraliya kuchlariga taslim bo'ldi Labuan 1945 yil 10 sentyabrda.^[51][52] Ertasi kuni Kuchingdagi yapon qo'shinlari taslim bo'ldi va Batu Lintang lageri ozod qilindi.^[53] Saravak darhol ostiga qo'yildi Britaniya harbiy ma'muriyati va 1946 yil aprelgacha Avstraliya Imperial kuchlari (AIF) tomonidan boshqarilgan.^[54][55]

Tasvirlangan katta dunyo xaritasi Osiyoda Yaponiya tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan hudud, Saravak poytaxtining asosiy ko'chasida o'rnatildi.

Urushdan keyin Saravakni qayta tiklash uchun mablag 'etishmayotganligi sababli, Charlz Vayner Bruk Saravakni Britaniyaning toj koloniyasi sifatida topshirishga qaror qildi va Negri kengashida "Sessiya to'g'risida" gi qonun ilgari surildi. Saravak shtati qonunchilik assambleyasi ), bu uch kun davomida muhokama qilindi. Qonun loyihasi 1946 yil 17-mayda ozgina ko'pchilik ovoz bilan qabul qilindi (19 ta qarshi 16 ovoz). Bu Malayadagi yuzlab davlat xizmatchilarining norozilik sifatida iste'foga chiqishiga sabab bo'ldi tsessiyaga qarshi harakat va Saravak Sirning ikkinchi mustamlakachi gubernatorining o'ldirilishi Dunkan Styuart.^[56] Qarshilikka qaramay, Saravak a Britaniya toj koloniyasi 1946 yil 1-iyulda.^[3] Entoni Bruk Saravakning Britaniya tojiga berilishiga qarshi chiqdi,^[57] buning uchun u mustamlaka hukumati tomonidan Saravakdan surgun qilingan.^{[38][2-eslatma]} Saravak Malayziya tarkibiga kirgandan so'ng, unga 17 yil o'tibgina qaytishga ruxsat berildi.^[58] 1950 yilda Saravakdagi barcha antikessessiya harakatlari mustamlaka hukumati tomonidan siqib chiqarilgandan so'ng to'xtadi.^[30]

Tan Shri Datuk Amar Stiven Kalong Ningkan 1963 yil 16 sentyabrda Malayziya Federatsiyasi tashkil etilganligini e'lon qildi

1961 yil 27 mayda, Tunku Abdul Rahmon, bosh vazir Malaya Federatsiyasi bilan birgalikda katta federatsiya tuzish rejasini e'lon qildi Singapur, Saravak, Shimoliy Borneo va Bruney, Malayziya deb atash kerak. 1962 yil 17 yanvarda Cobbold komissiyasi rejani Sarawak va Sabah tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanishini aniqlash uchun tuzilgan; Komissiya federatsiyani 80 foiz qo'llab-quvvatlashini xabar qildi.^[59][60] 1962 yil 23-oktabrda Saravakdagi beshta siyosiy partiya Malayziyaning shakllanishini qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan birlashgan front tashkil etdi.^[61] Saravak edi rasman berilgan o'zini o'zi boshqarish 1963 yil 22-iyulda,^[3][4] va Shimoliy Borneo (hozir Malaya) bilan federatsiya bo'ldi Sabah ) va Singapur 1963 yil 16 sentyabrda Malayziya nomli federatsiya tuzishdi.^[62][63] Filippinlar va Indoneziya hukumatlari yangi federatsiyaga qarshi chiqdilar Bruney Xalq partiyasi va Saravakda joylashgan kommunistik guruhlar va 1962 yilda Bruney qo'zg'oloni chiqib ketdi.^[64] Indoneziya Prezidenti Sukarno bunga javoban qurolli ko'ngillilarni va keyinchalik harbiy kuchlarni Saravakka joylashtirdi.^[65][66] Minglab Sarawak kommunistik a'zolari kirdilar Kalimantan, Indoneziya Borneo va bilan mashg'ulotlardan o'tdi Indoneziya Kommunistik partiyasi. Qarama-qarshilikning eng muhim ishtirokiga qarshi kurash olib borildi Plaman Mapu 1965 yil aprelda. Plaman Mapu mag'lubiyati oxir-oqibat Sukarnoning qulashiga olib keldi va uning o'rnini egalladi Suxarto Indoneziya prezidenti sifatida.^[67] Malayziya va Indoneziya o'rtasida muzokaralar qayta boshlandi va 1966 yil 11 avgustda qarama-qarshilik tugashiga olib keldi.^{[68][3-eslatma]}

Saravakda bir qator kommunistik guruhlar mavjud edi, ulardan birinchisi - 1951 yilda tashkil etilgan Sarawak Chet eldagi Xitoy demokratik yoshlar ligasi.^{[30][4-eslatma]} Boshqa bir guruh - Shimoliy Kalimantan Kommunistik partiyasi (NKCP) (shuningdek, hukumat manbalari tomonidan Klandestin Kommunistik Tashkiloti (CCO) deb nomlanadi) 1970 yilda rasmiy ravishda tashkil etilgan.^[69] Veng Min Chyuan va Bong Kee Chok qo'zg'olonda qatnashgan eng taniqli kommunistik rahbarlardan ikkitasi edi. Siyosiy sahna o'zgarishi bilan kommunistlarning faoliyati tobora qiyinlashib bordi. Bu Bongning bosh vazir bilan muzokaralarni ochishiga olib keldi Abdul Rahmon Yoqub 1973 yilda va oxir-oqibat hukumat bilan shartnoma imzoladi. 1960-yillarning o'rtalarida Xitoyga ko'chib o'tgan, ammo baribir CCO ustidan nazoratni saqlab qolgan Veng, ushbu kelishuvga qaramay, hukumatga qarshi qurolli qo'zg'olonni davom ettirishga undadi. Mojaro asosan Rajang deltasi mintaqa, ammo oxir-oqibat, 1990 yil 17 oktyabrda NKCP Saravak hukumati bilan tinchlik shartnomasini imzolaganida tugadi.^[70][71]

Siyosat

Hukumat

.Ning tarkibi Saravak shtatining 18-qonunchilik assambleyasi

Tegishli		Assambleyadagi rahbar	Holat	O'rindiqlar
				2016 saylov	Joriy
	Gabungan parti Saravak	Abang Abdul Rahmon Zohari Abang Openg	Hukumat	72	68
	Malayziyaning birlashgan mahalliy partiyasi	Rahbar yo'q	Ishonch va ta'minot	0	1
	Parti Sarawak Bersatu	Vong Yaqinda Koh	Qarama-qarshilik	0	6
	Pakatan Harapan	Chong Chieng Jen		10	5
	Mustaqil	Yo'q		0	1
Jami				82	81
Hukumat ko'pligi				62	57

Saravakdagi siyosiy partiyalar xronologiyasi

Saravak shtatining boshlig'i Yang di-Pertua Negeri (shuningdek, TYT yoki Hokim sifatida tanilgan), asosan ramziy lavozim tomonidan tayinlangan Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Malayziya qiroli) Malayziya federal hukumati maslahati bilan.^[72] 2014 yildan buyon ushbu lavozimni egallab kelgan Abdul Taib Mahmud.^[73] TYT tayinlaydi bosh vazir, hozirda Abang Johari Openg (BN ),^[74] sifatida hukumat rahbari. Odatda, shtat Qonunchilik Assambleyasining ko'pchiligini boshqaradigan partiyaning etakchisi bosh vazir etib tayinlanadi; demokratik tarzda saylangan vakillar shtat majlischilari sifatida tanilgan. Davlat assambleyasi vakolatiga kirmaydigan mavzular bo'yicha qonunlar qabul qiladi Malayziya parlamenti yer ma'muriyati, ish bilan ta'minlash, o'rmonlar, immigratsiya, savdogarlik va baliqchilik kabi. Shtat hukumati bosh vazir, vazirlar mahkamasi va ularning yordamchi vazirlari tomonidan tuziladi.^[75]

Malayziya federatsiyasida saravakiyaliklarning manfaatlarini himoya qilish uchun maxsus xavfsizlik choralari kiritilgan Malayziya konstitutsiyasi. Bunga quyidagilar kiradi: shtat ichkarisida va undan tashqarida immigratsiya ustidan nazorat, shuningdek, Sarawaki va Sabaxa bo'lmagan fuqarolarning yashash holati, advokatlarning advokatlar uchun qonun amaliyoti cheklovlari, Saravak Oliy sudining Malayziya Oliy sudi yarimorolidan mustaqilligi, Saravak Oliy sudi bosh sudyasi tayinlangunga qadar Saravak bosh vaziriga murojaat qilish, Saravakda mahalliy sudlarning mavjudligi va savdo solig'ini undirish huquqi. Saravakda yashovchilar kvotalar va davlat xizmatida ishlash, stipendiyalar, universitetga joylashish va biznesga ruxsat olish kabi maxsus imtiyozlardan foydalanadilar.^[76] Saravakdagi mahalliy hukumatlar Malayziya parlamenti tomonidan qabul qilingan mahalliy kengash qonunlaridan ozod qilingan.^[77]

The Davlat majlisi binosi Kuching qirg'og'i yaqinida joylashgan.

Saravakdagi asosiy siyosiy partiyalarni uchta toifaga bo'lish mumkin: mahalliy musulmon bo'lmagan, mahalliy musulmon va mahalliy bo'lmagan; partiyalar, shu bilan birga bir nechta guruh a'zolarini ham o'z ichiga olishi mumkin.^[78] Birinchi siyosiy partiya - Sarawak Birlashgan Xalqlar Partiyasi (SUPP) 1959 yilda tashkil etilgan, undan keyin 1960 yilda Parti Negara Saravak (PANAS) va 1961 yilda Saravak Milliy Partiyasi (SNAP) tashkil qilingan. Partiya Pesaka kabi boshqa yirik siyosiy partiyalar. Saravak (PESAKA) 1962 yilgacha paydo bo'lgan.^{[30][5-eslatma]} Keyinchalik bu partiyalar Ittifoq partiyasining milliy koalitsiyasiga qo'shilishdi. Ittifoq partiyasi (keyinchalik qayta to'plangan) Barisan Nasional ) Saravakni Malayziya tashkil topgandan beri boshqarib keladi. Saravakdagi muxolifat doimiy ravishda hukmron koalitsiya saylovlarda g'alaba qozonish uchun har xil turdagi ovozlarni sotib olish taktikasini qo'llamoqda deb da'vo qilmoqda.^{[79][6-eslatma][80]} Stiven Kalong Ningkan birinchi bo'ldi Saravakning bosh vaziri 1963 yildan 1966 yilgacha mahalliy kengashlar saylovlarida g'alaba qozonganidan keyin. Biroq, u 1966 yilda tomonidan quvib chiqarilgan Tavi Sli yordamida Malayziya federal hukumati, sabab bo'ladi 1966 yil Saravak konstitutsiyaviy inqirozi.^[30]

Yang di-Pertua Negeri, Abdul Taib Mahmud

Bosh vazir, Abang Johari Openg

1969 yilda birinchi Saravak shtatiga saylov bo'lib o'tdi, Kengash a'zolari Negri to'g'ridan-to'g'ri saylovchilar tomonidan saylandi. Ushbu saylov etnik jihatdan boshlandi Melanau tomonidan Sarawak siyosatida hukmronlik Abdul Rahmon Yoqub va Abdul Taib Mahmud. Xuddi shu yili, keyinchalik yangi saylangan Saravak davlat hukumatiga qarshi partizan urushi olib borgan Shimoliy Kalimantan Kommunistik partiyasi (NKCP) tuzildi. Partiya 1990 yilda tinchlik shartnomasi imzolangandan so'ng tarqatib yuborilgan.^[71] 1973 yilda tug'ilgan Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) bir nechta partiyalar birlashishidan so'ng.^[81] Keyinchalik bu partiya Saravak BN koalitsiyasining asosiga aylanadi. 1978 yilda Demokratik harakatlar partiyasi (DAP) Saravakda o'z filiallarini ochgan G'arbiy Malayziyada joylashgan birinchi partiya edi.^[81] Saravak dastlab shtat saylovlarini milliy parlament saylovlari bilan birga o'tkazgan. Biroq, o'sha paytdagi bosh vazir Abdul Rahmon Yoqub muxolifat partiyalari tomonidan yuzaga keladigan muammolarga tayyorgarlik ko'rish uchun davlat majlisining tarqatilishini bir yilga kechiktirdi.^[79] Bu Saravakni 1979 yildan buyon milliy parlament saylovlaridan alohida shtat saylovlarini o'tkazadigan Malayziyadagi yagona shtatga aylantirdi.^[82] 1983 yilda SNAP takroriy etakchilik inqirozlari tufayli bir necha bo'lak partiyalarga bo'lina boshladi.^[83][84] Ga qadar shtatdagi siyosiy iqlim barqaror edi 1987 yil Ming sudi ishi, tomonidan boshlangan siyosiy to'ntarish Abdul Taib Mahmud Taib boshchiligidagi BN koalitsiyasini ag'darish uchun amakisi. Biroq, to'ntarish muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi va Taib bosh vazir lavozimini saqlab qoldi.^[85]

Beri 2006 yilgi shtat saylovi, Demokratik Harakatlar Partiyasi (DAP) aksariyat qo'llab-quvvatlashni shahar markazlaridan oldi va Saravakdagi eng yirik muxolifat partiyasiga aylandi.^[86] 2010 yilda u Pakatan Rakyat bilan koalitsiya Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) va Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS); oxirgi ikki partiya 1996 yildan 2001 yilgacha Saravakda faollashdi.^[87] Saravak Malayziyadagi yagona davlat bo'lib, u erda G'arbiy Malayziyada joylashgan BN koalitsiyasidagi partiyalar, ayniqsa Birlashgan Malayziya milliy tashkiloti (UMNO), davlat siyosatida faol bo'lmagan.^[88]

2018 yil 12-iyun kuni Sarawak partiyalari alyansi shtatdagi BN partiyalari tomonidan partiyaning etakchilarining Kuchingdagi tarixiy uchrashuvidan so'ng tuzilgan bo'lib, u erda BN mag'lubiyatidan kelib chiqib 2018 yil Malayziyada umumiy saylov va o'zgaruvchan milliy vaziyat va yangi hukumat, tomonlar BNni butunlay tark etishadi.^[89] Bayrami bilan birgalikda Malayziya kuni 2018 yilda yangi hukumat davrida Bosh vazir Maxathir Mohamad Saravak (Sabah bilan birgalikda) Malayaning teng huquqli sherigi maqomini tiklashga va'da berdi, u erda uchta tomon (va keyin Singapur) Malayziyani tashkil qilgan. Malayziya shartnomasi.^[90][91] Biroq, taklif qilingan jarayon orqali Malayziya konstitutsiyasiga o'zgartirish kiritish 2019 yilda ushbu o'zgartirishlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi parlamentda uchdan ikki qismning (148 ovoz) qo'llab-quvvatlanmagani sababli qabul qilinmadi, faqatgina 138 kishi bu harakatga rozi bo'ldi, 59 kishi ovoz berishda betaraf qoldi.^[92][93]

Ma'muriy bo'linmalar

Shtatlardan farqli o'laroq Yarim orol Malayziya, Saravak bo'linmalarga bo'linadi, jami 12 ta, har biri tayinlangan rezident tomonidan boshqariladi.^[72][94][95]

Saravakning ma'muriy bo'linmalari
Limbang Serian Betong Kuching Kapit Miri Simanggang Sibu Sarikei Kota Samaraxon Mukah Bintulu   Birinchi divizion   Ikkinchi bo'lim   Uchinchi divizion   To'rtinchi divizion   Beshinchi divizion
UPI kodi[96]	Bo'limlar	Aholisi (2010 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olish)	Maydon (km2)	O'rindiq	Tumanlar (tumanlar)	Mahalliy hokimiyat organlari
1301	Kuching	123,600	1,794.18	Kuching	3 (5)	5
1302	Shri Aman	94,774	5,466.25	Simanggang	2 (5)	2
1303	Sibu	749,474	8,278.3	Sibu	3	3
1304	Miri	364,562	26,777	Miri	5 (11)	3
1305	Limbang	86,571	7,790	Limbang	2 (5)	2
1306	Sarikei	145,200	4,332.4	Sarikei	4	2
1307	Kapit	112,762	38,934	Kapit	4 (6)	3
1308	Samaraxon	155,183	2,927.5	Kota Samaraxon	3 (5)	2
1309	Bintulu	219,529	12,166.2	Bintulu	3	1
1310	Betong	108,225	4,180.8	Betong	4 (9)	2
1311	Mukah	106,931	6,997.61	Mukah	5 (8)	2
1312	Serian	91,599	2,039.9	Serian	2 (3)	1
Izoh: Serian bo'limi aholisi to'g'risidagi ma'lumotlar, ilgari Kuching bo'limining tarkibiga kirgan Siburan tumanidan tashqari.

2015 yil 26-noyabr kuni, deb e'lon qilindi Kuching divizioni Serian tumani Saravakning 12-bo'linmasiga aylanadi va u boshqargan Adenan Satem 2015 yil 11 aprelda rasmiy ravishda yaratilishida.^[97]

Bo'linma tumanlarga bo'linadi, ularning har birini tuman hokimi boshqaradi, ular o'z navbatida Sarawak ma'muriy xodimi (SAO) boshchiligidagi kichik tumanlarga bo'linadi. Rivojlanish loyihalarini amalga oshirish uchun har bir bo'lim va tuman uchun bitta ishlab chiquvchi xodim mavjud. Shtat hukumati boshliq tayinlaydi (nomi ma'lum ketua kampung yoki penghulu) har bir qishloq uchun.^[72][94] Saravakda Sarawak Mahalliy Boshqaruv va Jamiyatni Rivojlantirish Vazirligi tasarrufida jami 26 ta kichik tuman mavjud.^[98] Bo'limlar, tumanlar va tumanlar ro'yxati quyidagi jadvalda keltirilgan:^[99]

Xavfsizlik

Harbiy

Sarawakdagi birinchi harbiylashtirilgan qurolli kuchlar, 1862 yilda Bruk rejimi tomonidan tashkil etilgan polk, Saravak Reynjers.^[100] O'rmonlarni kuzatib borish qobiliyatlari bilan mashhur bo'lgan polk Saravakdagi qabilalararo urushlarni tugatish kampaniyasida xizmat qilgan. Shuningdek, u yaponlarga qarshi partizan urushi olib borgan Malayan favqulodda holati (G'arbiy Malayziyada) va Saravak kommunistik qo'zg'oloni kommunistlarga qarshi. Malayziya tashkil etilgandan so'ng, polk Malayziya harbiy kuchlariga singib ketdi va endi u sifatida tanilgan Qirollik qo'riqchilari polki.^[101]

1888 yilda Saravak qo'shni bilan birgalikda Shimoliy Borneo va Bruney bo'ldi Britaniya protektoratlari va tashqi siyosat uchun javobgarlik harbiy himoya evaziga inglizlarga topshirildi.^[42] Malayziya tashkil topgandan beri Malayziya federal hukumati mamlakatdagi tashqi siyosat va harbiy kuchlar uchun faqat javobgar bo'lgan.^[102][103]

Hududiy nizolar

Malayziya hukumati qo'shni davlatlar bilan bir qator chegara mojarolariga ega, ulardan bir nechtasi Saravakka tegishli. Bunga qo'shni Bruney bilan er va dengiz nizolari kiradi.^[104] 2009 yilda Malayziya bosh vaziri Abdulloh Ahmad Badaviy Bruney Sultoni bilan uchrashuvda Bruney o'z da'vosini bekor qilishga rozi bo'lganligini da'vo qildi Limbang.^[105] Biroq buni Bruneyning ikkinchi tashqi ishlar vaziri rad etdi Lim Jok Seng, ushbu masalani bayon qilgan holda uchrashuv paytida hech qachon muhokama qilinmagan.^[106] Jeyms Shoal (Tikish Serupai) va Luconia Shoals (Raja Jarum / Patinggi Ali), orollar The Janubiy Xitoy dengizi, Saravaknikiga to'g'ri keladi eksklyuziv iqtisodiy zona, ammo xitoyliklarning bostirib kirishi haqida xavotirlar ko'tarildi.^{[107][108][109]} Shuningdek, Indoneziya bilan Saravak-Kalimantan chegaralari bo'yicha bir nechta muammolar mavjud.^[110]

Atrof muhit

Geografiya

Saravak Bornoning shimoli-g'arbiy qismida joylashgan NASA sun'iy yo'ldosh tasviri.

Saravakning umumiy er maydoni qariyb 124450 kvadrat kilometrni tashkil etadi (48.050 kvadrat milya),^[7] Malayziyaning umumiy maydonining 37,5 foizini tashkil etadi va shimoliy kengliklarda 0 ° 50 ′ va 5 ° va sharqiy uzunliklarda 109 ° 36 ′ va 115 ° 40 ′ oralig'ida joylashgan.^[111] Uning 750 kilometr (470 milya) qirg'oq chizig'i shimolda Bruney qirg'og'ining 150 kilometr (93 milya) qismida uzilib qolgan.^[112] Uning 45,5 kilometr (28,3 milya) qirg'oq chizig'i bor edi yemirilish.^[113] 1961 yilda Sarawak qo'shni, shu jumladan Sabah ga kiritilgan edi Xalqaro dengiz tashkiloti (IMO) Birlashgan Qirollikning ishtiroki bilan IMOning qo'shma assotsiatsiyalangan a'zolariga aylandi.^[114] Saravak Kalimantan Borneodan Borneo markaziy tog 'tizmasining bir qismi bo'lgan baland tepaliklar va tog'lar bilan ajralib turadi. Ular shimoldan balandroq bo'lib, Baram daryosining tik tomonidagi manba yaqinida eng balanddir Batu-Lavi tog'i va Mulu tog'i. Murud tog'i Saravakdagi eng baland joy.^[112]

Saravakda a tropik geografiya bilan ekvatorial iqlim va ikkitasini boshdan kechiradi musson fasllar: shimoli-sharqiy musson va janubi-g'arbiy musson. Shimoliy-sharqiy musson noyabr va fevral oylari orasida bo'lib, kuchli yog'ingarchilikni keltirib chiqaradi, mart-oktyabr oylarida sodir bo'lgan janubi-g'arbiy musson esa ozroq yog'ingarchilik keltiradi. Ikkita mussondan tashqari yil davomida iqlim barqaror, o'rtacha kunlik harorat ertalab 23 ° C (73 ° F) dan kunduzi qirg'oq bo'yidagi hududlarda 32 ° C (90 ° F) gacha o'zgarib turadi. Miri Saravakdagi boshqa yirik shaharlarga nisbatan o'rtacha o'rtacha harorat eng past va eng uzoq kunduzi (kuniga olti soatdan ortiq), boshqa joylar esa kuniga besh-olti soat davomida quyosh nurlarini olishadi. Namlik odatda yuqori bo'lib, 68 foizdan oshadi, yillik yog'ingarchilik yiliga 220 kungacha 330 santimetr (130 dyuym) va 460 santimetr (180 dyuym) orasida o'zgarib turadi.^[111] Baland tog'li hududlarda harorat kun davomida 16 ° C (61 ° F) dan 25 ° C (77 ° F) gacha, kechasi esa 11 ° C (52 ° F) gacha o'zgarishi mumkin.^[115]

Julan sharsharasi (joylashgan Usun Apau Plieran ) Saravakdagi eng baland sharshara hisoblanadi^[116]

Saravak uchga bo'lingan ekologik hududlar. Sohil bo'yi ancha botqoq va tekis va botqoq va boshqa nam muhitning katta maydonlariga ega. Saravakdagi plyajlarga Pasir Panjang kiradi^[117] va Kuchingdagi Damai plyajlari,^[118] Bintulidagi Tanjung Batu plyaji,^[119] va Tanjung Lobang^[120] va Miridagi Gavayi plyajlari.^[121] Tog'li erlar aholi yashaydigan erlarning katta qismini tashkil etadi va bu erda shahar va qishloqlarning aksariyati joylashgan. The portlar Kuching va Sibu daryolar bo'yida qirg'oqdan bir oz uzoqlikda qurilgan, Bintulu va Miri esa tepaliklar Janubiy Xitoy dengiziga cho'zilgan qirg'oqqa yaqin. Uchinchi mintaqa - Saravak-Kalimantan chegarasi bo'ylab tog'li mintaqa, bu erda bir qator qishloqlar Bario, Ba'kelalan va Usun Apau Plieran joylashgan.^[112] Saravak orqali bir qator daryolar oqib o'tadi Saravak daryosi Kuching orqali oqadigan asosiy daryo bo'lish. The Rajang daryosi bu Malayziyadagi eng uzun daryo bo'lib, uning irmog'i bilan birga 563 kilometr (350 milya), Balleh daryosi. Shimoldan Baram, Limbang va Trusan daryolari quyiladi Bruney ko'rfazi.^[112]

The Rajang daryosi - Malayziyadagi eng uzun daryo

Saravakni ikkita geologik zonaga bo'lish mumkin: Sunda qalqoni Batang Lupar daryosidan janubi-g'arbga cho'zilgan (yaqinida) Shri Aman ) va Saravakning janubiy uchini tashkil qiladi va geosinklinal Sarawakning markaziy va shimoliy hududlarini tashkil etib, Batang Lupar daryosigacha shimoliy-sharqqa cho'zilgan mintaqa. Sarawak janubidagi eng qadimgi tosh turi shist davomida hosil bo'lgan Karbonli va Quyi Permiya marta, eng yoshi esa magmatik tosh ushbu mintaqada, andezit, topishingiz mumkin Sematan. Markaziy va shimoliy hududlarning geologik shakllanishi kechdan boshlangan Bo'r davr. Markaziy va shimoliy Saravakda topish mumkin bo'lgan boshqa tosh turlari slanets, qumtosh va chert.^[111] Sarawakning sharqiy qismidagi Miri bo'limi mintaqadir Neogen serhosil bo'lgan organik boy jinslar hosil bo'lgan qatlamlar neft va gaz zaxiralari. Organik tarkibiy qismlar bilan boyitilgan jinslar loy toshlari Lambir, Miri va Tukau formasiyalarida O'rta miosen -Quyi pliosen yoshi.^[122] Saravak tuprog'ining muhim miqdori litozollar, 60 foizgacha va podsollar, 12 foiz atrofida, mo'l-ko'l allyuvial tuproq qirg'oq va daryo sohillarida joylashgan. Saravakning 12 foizi bilan qoplangan torf botqoqli o'rmoni.^[111]

O'ttizta milliy bog'lar mavjud,^[123] ular orasida Niyax uning nomidagi g'orlari bilan,^[124] atrofdagi juda rivojlangan ekotizim Lambir tepaliklari,^[125] va Butunjahon merosi ro'yxati ning Gunung Mulu.^[126][127] Oxirgi o'z ichiga oladi Saravak palatasi, dunyodagi eng katta er osti kameralaridan biri,^[128] Kiyik g'or, dunyodagi eng katta g'or o'tish joyi,^[129] va Clearwater g'or, eng uzun g'or tizimi Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo.^[130][131]

• Saravak manzaralari
• 

  Pinnacles at Gunung Mulu milliy bog'i

• 

  Cho'qqisidagi o'simliklar Murud tog'i

• 

  Janubiy Xitoy dengizi Sarawakdan ko'rinish

• 

  Ning qismlari Bako milliy bog'i

Biologik xilma-xillik

Saravakda katta traktatlar mavjud tropik tropik o'rmon turli xil o'simlik turlari bilan,^[132] bu ularning bir qatorining dorivor xususiyatlari uchun o'rganilishiga olib keldi.^[133] Mangrov va nipah uning atrofida joylashgan o'rmonlar daryolar uning o'rmon maydonining 2% tashkil etadi, qirg'oqning boshqa qismidagi torf botqoqli o'rmonlari 16%, Kerangas o'rmoni 5% va Dipterokarpaceae o'rmonlarning ko'p qismi tog'li hududlarni qamrab oladi. Daryo bo'yidagi o'rmonlardan topilgan asosiy daraxtlarga quyidagilar kiradi bako va nibong, torf botqoqli o'rmonlarida bo'lganlar kiradi ramin (Gonystylus bancanus ), meranti (Shorea ) va medang jongkong (Dactylocladus stenostachys).^[111]

Semenggoh yovvoyi tabiat qo'riqxonasida bananni tozalayotgan orangutan.

Hayvonlarning turlari ham juda xilma-xil bo'lib, sutemizuvchilarning 185 turi, qushlarning 530 turi, ilonlarning 166 turi, kaltakesaklarning 104 turi va amfibiyalarning 113 turi mavjud bo'lib, ulardan sutemizuvchilarning 19 foizi, qushlarning 6 foizi, Ilonlarning 20 foizi va kaltakesaklarning 32 foizi endemik. Ushbu turlar asosan to'liq muhofaza qilinadigan hududlarda uchraydi. Saravakda 2000 dan ortiq daraxt turlari mavjud. Boshqa o'simliklarga 1000 turdagi orkide, 757 turdagi fern va 260 xurmo kiradi.^[134] Shtat - yo'qolib ketish xavfi ostida bo'lgan hayvonlar, shu jumladan borneo pigmentli fil, maymun, orangutanlar va Sumatran karkidon.^[135] Matang yovvoyi tabiat markazi, Semenggoh qo'riqxonasi va Lanjak Entimau yovvoyi tabiat qo'riqxonasi^[136] orangutanni himoya qilish dasturlari bilan ajralib turadi.^[137][138] Talang – Satang milliy bog'i toshbaqalarni saqlash tashabbuslari bilan ajralib turadi.^[139] Qushlarni kuzatish Gunung Mulu National Park, Lambir Hills National Park, kabi turli xil milliy bog'larda keng tarqalgan faoliyat.^[140] va Similajau milliy bog'i.^[141] Miri-Sibuti milliy bog'i marjon riflari bilan mashhur^[142] va Gunung Gading milliy bog'i Rafflesia gullar.^[143] Bako milliy bog'i, Saravakdagi eng qadimgi milliy bog ', 275 probosik maymunlari bilan tanilgan,^[144] va Padawan Pitcher Garden turli xil go'shtli go'shtlari uchun krujka o'simliklari.^[145] 1854 yilda, Alfred Rassel Uolles Saravakka tashrif buyurdi. Bir yil o'tgach, u "Saravak qonuni" ni ishlab chiqdi, bu uning (va Darvinniki tomonidan evolyutsiya nazariyasi tabiiy selektsiya uch yildan keyin.^[146]

Saravak shtati hukumati o'z o'rmonlari va yo'qolib ketish xavfi ostida bo'lgan yovvoyi tabiat turlarini himoya qilish uchun bir nechta qonunlarni qabul qildi. Himoyalangan turlarning ba'zilari orangutan, yashil dengiz toshbaqasi, uchayotgan lemur va quvur trubasi. Yovvoyi hayotni muhofaza qilish to'g'risidagi 1998 yil qaroriga binoan Saravak aholisi o'rmonlarda yovvoyi hayvonlarning cheklangan doirasini ovlashga ruxsat berishadi, lekin 5 kilogramm (11 lb) dan ortiq go'shtga ega bo'lmasliklari kerak.^[147] Saravak o'rmon bo'limi shtatdagi o'rmon resurslarini saqlash uchun 1919 yilda tashkil etilgan.^[148] Xalqaro tanqidlardan so'ng kirish Saravakdagi sanoat, shtat hukumati Saravak o'rmon bo'limini qisqartirishga qaror qildi va 1995 yilda Saravak o'rmon xo'jaligi korporatsiyasini yaratdi.^[149][150] Saravak bioxilma-xillik markazi 1997 yilda shtatda bioxilma-xillikni saqlash, muhofaza qilish va barqaror rivojlantirish uchun tashkil etilgan.^[151]

Tabiatni muhofaza qilish muammolari

Bo'ylab daraxtzorlar lageri Rajang daryosi

Saravakning yomg'ir o'rmonlariga, birinchi navbatda, daraxt kesish sanoati va palma yog'i plantatsiyalari tahdid solmoqda.^[152] Inson huquqlari masalasi Penan Saravakdagi o'rmonlarni yo'q qilish shveytsariyalik faol bo'lganida xalqaro ekologik muammoga aylandi Bruno Manser 1984 yildan 2000 yilgacha Saravakka muntazam tashrif buyurgan.^[153] O'rmonlarni yo'q qilish mahalliy qabilalar hayotiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi, ayniqsa Penan, ularning hayoti juda ko'p o'rmon hosiliga bog'liq. Bu 1980-1990 yillarda mahalliy qabilalar tomonidan o'z erlarini zabt etadigan yog'och kesuvchi kompaniyalarga qarshi bir necha to'siqlarga olib keldi.^[154] Darhaqiqat, noqonuniy daraxt kesilishi, o'rmon mintaqalarini tuban populyatsiyalari hayotiy imkoniyatlariga, baliqlarni, yovvoyi tabiatni, balki Palm kabi an'anaviy dorivor o'simliklarni va qurilish mahsulotlarini iste'mol qilishni kamaytiradi.^[155] Qaerda bo'lgan holatlar ham bo'lgan Mahalliy odatiy huquqlar (NCR) erlari yog'och va plantatsiyalar ishlab chiqaradigan kompaniyalarga mahalliy aholining ruxsatisiz berilgan.^[156] Mahalliy aholi NCRni qayta tiklash uchun qonuniy vositalarga murojaat qilishdi. 2001 yilda Saravak Oliy sudi Rumax Nor aholisi da'vo qilgan NCR erlarini to'liq tikladi, ammo bu 2005 yilda qisman bekor qilindi. Ammo, bu ish pretsedent bo'lib xizmat qildi va natijada NCR yuqori sud tomonidan quyidagi tartibda qo'llab-quvvatlandi. yil.^[157][158] Saravakning mega-to'g'on siyosati, masalan Bakun to'g'oni va Murum to'g'oni loyihalari minglab gektar o'rmonlarni suv ostida qoldirdi va minglab tub aholini ko'chirishga majbur qildi.^[159][160] 2013 yildan beri taklif qilingan Baram to'g'oni mahalliy mahalliy qabilalarning davom etayotgan noroziligi sababli loyiha kechiktirildi.^[161] 2014 yildan beri Saravak hukumati bosh vazir huzurida Adenan Satem qarshi choralar ko'rishni boshladi noqonuniy daraxt kesish davlatda va davlat iqtisodiyotini diversifikatsiya qilish uchun.^[162] 2016 yil davomida 2 million gektardan ziyod o'rmon, uning ko'p qismi orangutan yashash joylarida, muhofaza etiladigan hudud deb e'lon qilindi.^[163]

Saravakning qolgan o'rmon qoplami haqida manbalar turlicha: sobiq bosh vazir Abdul Taib Mahmud 2011 yildan 2012 yilgacha 70 foizdan 48 foizgacha pasayganligini e'lon qildi, Saravak o'rmon departamenti va Resurslarni rejalashtirish va atrof-muhit vazirligi ikkalasi ham 2012 yilda bu ko'rsatkich 80 foizni tashkil etdi,^[164][165] va Suv-botqoqli hududlar xalqaro 2005 yildan 2010 yilgacha 10 foizga pasayganligi, bu butun Osiyoni birlashtirgandan 3,5 baravar tezroq bo'lganligi haqida xabar berdi.^[166]

Iqtisodiyot

Sarintning Bintulu shahridagi LNG porti

Tarixiy jihatdan Saravak iqtisodiyoti avvalgi uchta oq Rajaning hukmronligi davrida to'xtab qolgan edi. Malayziya tashkil etilgandan so'ng, Saravak YaIM o'sish sur'ati neft qazib olish hajmining oshishi va global neft narxining ko'tarilishi hisobiga ko'tarildi. Biroq, davlat iqtisodiyoti kamroq diversifikatsiyalangan va umuman Malayziya bilan taqqoslaganda birlamchi tovarlarning eksportiga bog'liq. Saravakda aholi jon boshiga to'g'ri keladigan YaIM 1970 yildan 1990 yilgacha o'rtacha o'rtacha ko'rsatkichdan past edi.^[168] 2016 yilga kelib, Saravak uchun aholi jon boshiga YaIM 44,333 RM ni tashkil etadi - bu Malayziyada beshinchi ko'rsatkich.^[167] Biroq, shahar va qishloqlar o'rtasidagi daromad farqi Saravakda asosiy muammo bo'lib qoldi.^[169]

Saravak tabiiy resurslarga boy bo'lib, tog'-kon sanoati, qishloq xo'jaligi va o'rmon xo'jaligi kabi birlamchi tarmoqlar 2013 yilda iqtisodiyotining 32,8 foizini tashkil etdi.^[170] It also specialises in the manufacture of food and beverages, wood-based and kalamush products, basic metal products, and neft-kimyo,^[99] as well as cargo and air services and tourism.^[170] Shtatniki yalpi ichki mahsulot (GDP) grew by 5.0% per year on average from 2000 to 2009,^[171] but became more volatile later on, ranging from −2.0% in 2009 to 7.0% in 2010. Sarawak contributed 10.1% of Malaysia's GDP in the nine years leading up to 2013, making it the third largest contributor after Selangor va Kuala Lumpur.^[170] From 2006 to 2013, the oil and gas industry accounted for 34.8% of the Sarawak government's revenue. It attracted RM 9.6 billion (US$2.88 billion) in foreign investments, with 90% going to the Qayta tiklanadigan energetikaning Sarawak yo'lagi (SCORE), the second largest economic corridor Malayziyada.^[170]

As of 2017, Sarawak is producing 850,000 barrel neft ekvivalenti every day in 60 oil and gas producing fields.^[172] However, the export-oriented economy is dominated by suyultirilgan tabiiy gaz (LNG), which accounts for more than half of total exports. Crude petroleum accounts for 20.8%, while palm oil, arra va kesilgan yog'och account for 9.0% collectively.^[170] The state receives a 5% royalti dan Petronas over oil explorations in its territorial waters.^[173] Most of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri at Balingyan basin, Baram basin, and around Luconia Shoals.^[174]

Sarawak is one of the world's largest exporters of tropical hardwood timber, constituting 65% of the total Malaysian log exports in 2000. The last Birlashgan Millatlar statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak's sawlog exports at an average of 14,109,000 cubic metres (498,300,000 cu ft) per year between 1996 and 2000.^[175]

1955 yilda, OCBC became the first foreign bank to operate in Sarawak, with other overseas banks following suit.^[176] Other notable Sarawak-based companies include Cahya Mata Saravak Berhod, Naim Holdings, and Rimbunan Xijau.^[177]

Energiya

Turbinalar inside the Bakun Dam power house. The dam is the main source for elektr energiyasi Saravakda.

Electricity in Sarawak, supplied by the state-owned Sarawak Energy Berhad (SEB),^[178] is primarily sourced from traditional coal fired power plants and issiqlik elektr stantsiyalari using LNG,^[178][179] but diesel based sources and hydroelectricity are also utilised. There are 3 hydroelectric dams as of 2015^[yangilash] da Batang Ai,^[180] Bakun,^[181] and Murum,^[182] with several others under consideration.^[180] In early 2016, SEB signed Malaysia's first energy export deal to supply electricity to neighbouring G'arbiy Kalimantan Indoneziyada.^[183]

In 2008, SCORE was established as a framework to develop the energy sector in the state, specifically the Murum, Baram, and Baleh Dams as well as potential coal-based power plants,^[184] va 10 high priority industries out to 2030.^[185][186] The Regional Corridor Development Authority is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE.^[187] The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE, including areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah.^[188] Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park,^[189] with Tanjung Manis as a halol food hub,^[190] and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.^[191]

Turizm

Frantsuzcha Romani Manouche band performing during Rainforest World Music Festival 2006

Tourism plays a major role in the economy of the state, contributing 7.89% of the state's GDP in 2016.^[192]Foreign visitors to Sarawak are predominantly from Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, China and the United Kingdom.^[193] A number of different organisations, both state and private, are involved in the promotion of tourism in Sarawak: the Sarawak Tourism Board is the state body responsible for tourism promotion in the state, various private tourism groups are united under the Sarawak Tourism Federation, and the Sarawak Convention Bureau is responsible for attracting conventions, conferences, and corporate events which are held in the Borneo Convention Centre in Kuching.^[194] The public and private bodies in Sarawak hold a biannual event to award the Sarawak Hornbill Tourism Award, an award for achievements within various categories, to recognise businesses and individuals for their efforts in the development of tourism within the state.^[195]

The Rainforest World Music Festival is the region's primary musical event, attracting more than 20,000 people annually.^[196] Other events that are held regularly in Sarawak are the ASEAN International Film Festival, Asia Music Festival, Borneo Jazz festivali, Borneo Cultural Festival, and Borneo International Kite Festival.^[194] Major shopping complexes in Sarawak include The Spring, Boulevard, Hock Lee Centre, City One shopping malls in Kuching,^[197] and Bintang Megamall, Boulevard, Imperial Mall, and Miri Plaza shopping malls in Miri.^[198]

Infratuzilma

Infrastructure development in Sarawak is overseen by the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Transportation, successor to the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Communications (MIDCom) after it was renamed in 2016.^[203] Despite this ministerial oversight, infrastructure in Sarawak remains relatively underdeveloped compared to Yarim orol Malayziya.^[204]

In 2009, 94% of urban Sarawak was supplied with electricity, but only 67% of rural areas had electricity.^[205] However, this had increased to 91% by 2014.^[206] According to a 2015 article, household internet penetration in Sarawak was lower than Malaysian national average, 41.2% versus 58.6%, with 58.5% of internet use being in urban areas and 29.9% in rural areas. In comparison, mobile telecommunication uptake in Sarawak was comparable to the national average, 93.3% against a national average of 94.2%, and on par with neighbouring Sabah.^[207] Mobile telecommunication infrastructure, specifically broadcast towers, are built and managed by Sacofa Sdn Bhd (Sacofa Private Limited), which enjoys a monopoly in Sarawak after the company was granted a 20-year exclusivity deal on the provision, maintenance and leasing of towers in the state.^[208]

A number of different bodies manage the supply of water depending on their region of responsibility, including the Kuching Water Board (KWB), Sibu Water Board (SWB), and LAKU Management Sdn Bhd, which handle water supply in Miri, Bintulu, and Limbang respectively,^[209] and the Rural Water Supply Department managing the water supply for the remaining areas.^[210] 2014 yildan boshlab^[yangilash], 82% of the rural areas have a fresh water supply.^[206]

Transport

Kuching xalqaro aeroporti Terminal

Much like many former British territories, Sarawak uses a er-xotin qatnov qismi bilan the left-hand traffic rule.^[211] As of 2013, Sarawak had a total of 32,091 kilometres (19,940 mi) of connected roadways, with 18,003 kilometres (11,187 mi) being paved state routes, 8,313 kilometres (5,165 mi) of dirt tracks, 4,352 kilometres (2,704 mi) of gravel roads, and 1,424 kilometres (885 mi) of paved federal highway. The primary route in Sarawak is the Pan Borneo avtomagistrali, which runs from Sematan, Sarawak, through Brunei to Tavau, Sabah.^[212] Despite being a major highway, the condition of the road is poor leading to numerous accidents and fatalities.^[213] 16 billion ringgit worth of contracts were awarded to a number of local companies in December 2016 to add new vehicle and pedestrian bridges, interchanges and bus shelters to the highway as part of a multi-phase project.^[214]

A temir yo'l liniyasi existed before the war, but the last remnants of the line were dismantled in 1959.^[215] A rail project was announced in 2008 to be in line with the transport needs of SCORE, but as yet no construction work has begun despite an anticipated completion date in 2015.^[216] In 2017, the Sarawak government proposed a engil temir yo'l tizim (Kuching Line ) connecting Kuching, Samarahan and Serian divisions with anticipated completion in 2020.^[217] Currently, buses are the primary mode of public transportation in Sarawak with interstate services connecting the state to Sabah, Brunei, and Pontianak (Indoneziya).^[209]

Sarawak is served by a number of airports with Kuching xalqaro aeroporti, located south west of Kuching, being the largest. Flights from Kuching are mainly to Kuala Lumpur lekin shuningdek Johor Bahru, Penang, Sabah, Kelantan, Singapore and Pontianak, Indonesia. A second airport at Miri serves flights primarily to other Malaysian states as well as services to Singapore. Other smaller airports such as Sibu aeroporti, Bintulu aeroporti, Mukah aeroporti, Marudi aeroporti, Mulu aeroporti va Limbang aeroporti provide domestic services within Malaysia. There are also a number of remote airstrips serving rural communities in the state.^[212] Three airlines serve flights in Sarawak, Malaysia Airlines, Air Asia va Maslar all of which use Kuching Airport as their main hub.^[218] The state owned Hornbill Skyways is an aviation company that largely provides private chartered flights and flight services for public servants.^[219]

Bintulu International Container Terminal (BICT) at Bintulu seaport

Sarawak has four primary ports located at Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu, and Miri.^[209] The busiest seaport at Bintulu is under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian federal government and mainly handles LNG products and regular cargo. The remaining ports are under the respective state port authorities. The combined throughput of the four primary ports was 61.04 million freight weight tonnes (FWT) in 2013.^[212] Sarawak has 55 navigable river networks with a combined length of 3,300 kilometres (2,100 mi). For centuries, the rivers of Sarawak have been a primary means of transport as well as a route for timber and other agricultural goods moving downriver for export at the country's major ports. Sibu port, located 113 kilometres (70 mi) from the river's mouth, is the main hub along the Rajang River mainly handling timber products. However, the throughput of Sibu port has declined over the years after Tanjung Manis Industrial Port (TIMP) began operating further downriver.^[212]

Sog'liqni saqlash

The Saravak umumiy kasalxonasi

Health care in Sarawak is provided by three major government hospitals, Saravak umumiy kasalxonasi, Sibu kasalxonasi va Miri kasalxonasi,^[220] as well as numerous district hospitals,^[221] public health clinics, 1Malayziya klinikalari, and rural clinics.^[222] Besides government-owned hospitals and clinics, there are several private hospitals in Sarawak^[223] such as the Normah Medical Specialists Centre, Timberland Medical Specialists Centre,^[224] and Sibu Specialist Medical Centre. Hospitals in Sarawak typically provide the full gamut of health care options, from triage to palliative care for the terminally ill. In 1994, Sarawak General Hospital Department of Radiotherapy, Oncology & Palliative Care instituted an at-home care, or xospis care, program for cancer patients. The non profit Sarawak Hospice Society was established in 1998 to promote this program.^[225] In comparison to the number of other medical facilities, mental health is only serviced by a single facility, Hospital Sentosa.^[226] This abundance of medical services has made Sarawak a medical tourism destination for visitors from neighbouring Brunei and Indonesia.^[227]

In comparison to the prevalence of health services in urban regions, much of rural Sarawak is only accessible by river transport, which limits access.^[228] Remote rural areas that are beyond the operating areas of health clinics, about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi),^[229] and inaccessible by land or river are serviced by a monthly flying doctor service, which was established in 1973.^[230]A village health promoter program, where volunteers are provided with basic medical training, was established in 1981 but difficulty in providing medical supplies to remote villages, as well as a lack of incentive, resulted in a decline of the program.^[231] A variety of traditional medicine practices are still being used by the various communities in Sarawak to supplement modern medical practices but this practice is also declining.^[232] However, since 2004, there has been a resurgence in traditional medicine in Malaysia resulting in the establishment of a traditional medicine division within the Ministry of Health. A 2006 government program to have integrated hospitals led to numerous universities starting programs to teach traditional medicine and major hospitals, including Sarawak General Hospital, providing traditional therapies.^[233]

Ta'lim

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) chancellory building

Education in Malaysia falls under the remit of two federal ministries; The Malayziya Ta'lim vazirligi is responsible for primary and secondary education,^[234] esa Oliy ta'lim vazirligi has oversight over public universities, polytechnic and community colleges.^[235] Early childhood education is not directly controlled by the Ministry of Education as it does with primary and secondary education. However, the ministry does oversee the licensing of private kindergartens, the main form of early childhood education, in accordance with the National Pre-School Quality Standard, which was launched in 2013.^[236]

Around the time of Federation, overall literacy in Sarawak was quite low. In 1960, the overall literacy rate was 25%, with a heavy slant in the literacy rate towards the Chinese population, 53%, compared with that of indigenous peoples which was substantially lower, only 17%.^[237] By 2007, overall literacy in adults aged 15 and over had significantly increased to 92.3% and in 2012, this had climbed to 96%.^[238]

There were 1480 schools in Sarawak in 2014, of which 1271 were primary, 202 were secondary and 7 were vocational/technical secondary schools.^[239] Among these are a number of schools that date from the Brooke era, including St. Thomas's School Kuching (1848), St Mary's School Kuching (1848), and St Joseph's School Kuching (1882).^[240] As well as government schools, there are four international schools: Tunku Putra School, a primary and secondary school offering national and Cambridge curricula, Lodge International School, which is also open to local students and uses both the British National and Cambridge systems, Kidurong International School, which is owned by Qobiq and offers primary education mainly to children of employees but local children may enter depending on space availability, and Tenby International School, which opened in 2014 and is open to both local and expatriate children.^[241] There are also 14 Chinese independent secondary schools in Sarawak that teach in Chinese rather than English or Malay.^[242] Previously, only Chinese students were enrolled in these schools, but mobility of the workforce has led to increasing turnover of students as parents move to other areas for employment.^[243] This has led to an increasing number of bumiputera students being enrolled in Chinese schools.^[244]

Sarawak is home to three public universities – Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Universiti Teknologi Mara da Kota Samaraxon va Universiti Putra Malayziya – as well as the private Kurtin universiteti, Malayziya va Swinburne Technology University Sarawak Campus. The latter two are satellite campuses of Kurtin universiteti yilda Pert va Svinburn texnologiya universiteti yilda Melburn, Avstraliya.^[234]

With the establishment of SCORE and the associated potential of 1.6 million more jobs by 2030,^[241] the state government allocated RM1 billion from 2016 to 2020 to a Skills Development Fund for vocational education.^[245] 2015 yilda, Petronas provided vocational scholarships to 150 underprivileged Sarawak students as part of its Vocational Institution Sponsorship and Training Assistance program,^[246] although it had been criticised for under-representing local students in its previous allocations;^[247] the company also provided support to other Sarawak vocational education centres.^[248]

Demografiya

The 2015 census of Malaysia reported a population of 2,636,000 in Sarawak, making it the fourth most populous state.^[249] However, this population is distributed over a large area resulting in Sarawak having the lowest population density in the country with only 20 km ga odamlar². Although it has a low population density, the average population growth rate of 1.8%, from 2000 to 2010, is very close to the national average of 2.0%.^[99] In 2014, 58% of the population resided in urban areas with the remainder in rural areas, but over the next 10 years it is predicted that the urban population would rise to 65%.^[250] 2011 yildan boshlab^[yangilash], xom tug'ilish darajasi in Sarawak was 16.3 per 1000 individuals, the qo'pol o'lim darajasi was 4.3 per 1000 population, and the bolalar o'limi darajasi was 6.5 per 1000 live births.^[251]

Urban populations consist predominantly of Malaylar, Melanaus, Xitoy, and a small population of urban Ibans and Bidayuhlar who migrated from their home villages seeking employment.^[252] The latter two are among the more than 40 sub-ethnic groups of Sarawak, many of whom still inhabit remote areas and are referred to as Orang Asal.^[253] The Orang Asal, and Malays, of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah are referred to collectively as Bumiputera (son of the soil). This classification grants them special privileges in education, jobs, finance, and political positions.^[254]

The registration for, and issuing of, National identity cards, a legally required document for accessing various services, to these remote tribes has been problematic for many years,^[255] and in the past had even resulted in a large number of people from the Penan ethnic group being rendered effectively stateless.^[256] In recent years, this issue has seen progressive improvement with the implementation of systems such as mobile registration units.^[257]

Sarawak has a large immigrant work force with as many as 150,000 registered foreign migrant workers working as domestic workers or in plantation, manufacturing, construction, services and agriculture.^[258] However, this population of legally registered workers is overshadowed by a large population of between 320,000 and 350,000 illegal workers.^[259]

Etnik guruhlar

Major ethnic groups in Sarawak. Clockwise from top right: Melanau girls with the traditional Baju Kurung, Sarawakian Chinese woman in her traditional dress of Cheongsam, a Bidayuh girl, and an Iban warrior in his traditional dress.

Sarawak has six major ethnic groups, Iban, Xitoy, Malaycha, Bidayuh, Melanau va Orang Ulu,^[252] as well as a number of ethnic groups with smaller but still substantial populations, such as the Kedayan, Yava, Bugis, Murut va Hind.^[260] In 2015, the Bidayuh and Iban, both indigenous ethnic groups of Sarawak, were officially recognised by the government of Malaysia as comprising the Dayak odamlar.^[261] There are more than 50 tribes still existing or extinct in Sarawak but only the major tribes are listed in the Malaysian Federal Constitution.^[262]

The population of 745,400 of the Iban xalqi in Sarawak, based on 2014 statistics, makes it the largest ethnic group in the state.^[8] The Iban were, in the past, a society that paid particular attention to social status, especially to those who displayed martial prowess as well as to those who demonstrated expertise in various fields such as farming and oratory. Specific terms were used to refer to those who belonged to particular social strata, such as the raja berani (rich and the brave), orang mayuh (ordinary people), and ulun (qullar).^[263] Despite modern influences, Iban still observe many of their traditional rituals such as Gawai Antu (o'liklar bayrami ) va Gavay Dayak (Hosil bayrami ).^[264]

Although the presence of Chinese in Sarawak dates back to the 6th century AD when traders first came to the state, the Xitoy aholisi today largely consists of communities originating from immigrants during the Brooke era.^[112] This migration was driven by the employment opportunities at gold mines in Bau. Sarawak Chinese are primarily Buddhist and Christian,^[265] and speak a multitude of dialects: Kanton, Foxov, Xakka, Xokkien, Teochew, and Henghua (Putian xalqi ). They celebrate major cultural festivals such as Hungry Ghost Festival va Xitoy Yangi Yili much as their ancestors did.^[266] Chinese settlers in Sarawak were not limited to any one area. Those who settled in Kuching did so near the Sarawak River in an area that is now referred to as Chinatown.^[267] Foochow immigrants from Fuzhou, Fujian, boshchiligida Vong Nay Siong in 1901, settled along the Rajang River in what is now Sibu , as due to Bokschining isyoni,^[268] while those who arrived in Miri sought work in the coal mines and oilfields.^[267]

During the Brooke era, Sarawak Malays were predominantly fishermen,^[266] leading to their villages being concentrated along river banks. However, with the advent of urban development, many Malays have migrated to seek employment in public and private sectors. Traditionally, they are known for their silver and brass crafts, wood carvings, and textiles.^[112][269]

The Melanau are a native people of Sarawak that lived in areas primarily around the modern city of Mukah, where they worked as fishermen and craftsmen as well renowned boat-builders. Historically the Melanau practised Animizm, a belief that spirits inhabited objects in their environment, and while this is still practised today, most Melanau have since been converted to Christianity and Islam.^{[112][68][7-eslatma][270]}

The Bidayuh are a southern Sarawak people,^[271] that were referred to by early European settlers as Land Dayaks because they traditionally live on steep limestone mountains. They account for 8.4 per cent of the population of Sarawak and are the second most numerous of the indigenous Dayak people, after the Iban. The Bidayuh are indigenous to the areas that comprise the modern day divisions of Kuching and Samarahan. Although considered one people, their language is regionally distinct resulting in dialects that are unintelligible to Bidayuh from outside the immediate locale,^[272] ni natijasida Ingliz tili va Malaycha bo'lish lingua franca. Like many other indigenous peoples, the majority of the Bidayuh have been converted to Christianity,^[112]but still live in villages consisting of longhouses, with the addition of the distinctive round baruk where communal gatherings were held.^[112]

The numerous tribes who reside in Sarawak's interior such as the Kenyah, Kayan, Lun Bavang, Kelabit, Penan, Bisaya, and Berawan are collectively referred to as Orang Ulu. In Iban tili this name means "Upriver People," reflecting the location these tribes settled in;^[112] most of them reside near the drainage basin of the Baram River.^[273] Both woodworking and artistry are highly visible aspects of Orang Ulu culture exemplified by mural covered longhouses, carved wooden boats, and tattooing.^[112] Well-known musical instruments from the Orang Ulu are the Kayans' sapeh and Kenyah's sampe' and Lun Bawang's bamboo band.^[273] The Kelabit and Lun Bawang people are known for their production of fragrant rice.^[274][273] As with the many other indigenous peoples of Sarawak, the majority of Orang Ulu are Christians.^[112]

Tillar

The distribution of language families of Sarawak shown by colours:
(kattalashtirish uchun rasmni bosing)

  Malaycha

  Shimoliy Borneo va Melanau Kajang tillar

  Land Dayak

  Ko'p tillarga ega bo'lgan joylar

English was the official language of Sarawak from 1963 to 1974 due to opposition from First Chief Minister of Sarawak Stephen Kalong Ningkan to the use of the Malayziya tili Saravakda.^[275] In 1974, the new Chief Minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub recognised Malaycha alongside English as an official language of Sarawak.^{[79][8-eslatma]} This new status given to the Malay language was further reinforced by new education standards transitioning curriculum to Malay.^[276] In 1985 English lost the status of an official language, leaving only Malay.^{[275][9-eslatma]} Despite official policy, Sarawak opposition members argue that English remained the amalda official language of Sarawak.^[277] English is still spoken in the legal courts, and state legislative assembly.^[278][279] In 2015, Chief Minister Adenan Satem reinstated English as an official language.^{[280][281][282]}

Although the official form of Malay, Bahasa Malayziya, is spoken by the government administration, it is used infrequently in colloquial conversation. Ning mahalliy lahjasi Bahasa Sarawak (Sarawak Malay) dominates the vernacular. Bahasa Sarawak is the most common language of Sarawak Malays and other indigenous tribes. The Iban language, which has minor regional variations, is the most widely spoken native language, with 34 per cent of the Sarawak population speaking it as a first language. The Bidayuh language, with six major dialects, is spoken by 10 per cent of the population. The Orang Ulu have about 30 different language dialects. While the ethnic Chinese originate from a variety of backgrounds and speak many different dialects such as Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka, Fuzhou, and Teochew, they also converse in Malayziya Mandarin.^[283]

Din

Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where Nasroniylar ko'p Musulmonlar. The earliest Christian missionaries in Sarawak were Angliya cherkovi (Anglikanlar ) in 1848, followed by Rim katoliklari a few years later, and Metodistlar in 1903. Evangelizing first took place among the Chinese immigrants before spreading to indigenous animists.^[285] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak are Borneo Evangelist missiyasi (yoki Sidang Injil Borneo ),^[286] va Baptistlar.^[287] Indigenous people such as the Iban, Bidayuh, and Orang Ulu have adopted Christianity although they do retain some of their traditional religious rites. Many Muslims come from the Malay and Melanau. Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religion are predominantly practised by Xitoylik malayziyaliklar.^[288] Other minor religions in Sarawak are the Bahosi Iymon,^[289] Hinduizm,^[290] Sihizm,^[291] va animizm.^[292]

Although Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, Sarawak has no official state religion.^[293] However, during the chieftainship of Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, the Constitution of Sarawak was amended to make the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the head of Islam in Sarawak and empower the state assembly to pass laws regarding Islamic affairs. With such provisions, Islamic policies can be formulated in Sarawak and the establishment of Islamic state agencies is possible. The 1978 Majlis Islam Bill enabled the setting up of Syariya sudlari in Sarawak with jurisdictions over matrimonial, child custody, nikoh, inheritance, and criminal cases in the state. An appeals court and Courts of Kadi were also formed.^{[79][10-eslatma]}

• Religious sites in Sarawak
• 

  Avliyo Jozef sobori

• 

  Old Sarawak State Mosque

• 

  Hong San Si ibodatxonasi

Madaniyat

A Kayan tribesman, playing the Sapeh

Ngajat, the Iban warrior dance gazetted as part of Sarawak culture.

A bowl of Sarawak laksa

The location and history of Sarawak has resulted in a broad diversity of ethnicity, culture and languages. Among the indigenous peoples of Sarawak, outside influences have led to many changes over time. The Iban tribal culture in Sarawak centred on the concept of the warrior and the ability to take heads from other tribes in battle. This practice, central as it was to the Iban people, was made illegal under James Brooke's rule and ultimately faded away although reminders of the practice are still seen in some long houses.^[294] Two other tribal peoples of the Sarawak Highlands, the Kelabit and Lun Bawang, have seen fundamental changes to their ethnic identities as a direct result of their conversion to Christianity. One major change was the shift in the focal point of their social interactions from the traditional long house to the local church. Their religious devotion has also helped shape their worldview outside of their village, particularly in response to change.^[295] Uchun Penan xalqi, one of the last tribes to still be practising a nomadic lifestyle within the jungle, outside influence, particularly education, has resulted in a significant decline in the population that practice the nomadic lifestyle.^[296] Others settle down after intermixing with members of different tribes, such as the Orang Ulu.^[297] One direct result of this diversity in cultures, engendered by a policy of tolerance to all races, is the increasing numbers of tribal peoples marrying not only other Sarawakian tribes, but also to Chinese, Malays as well as citizens of European or American descent.^[298]

The indigenous tribes of Sarawak traditionally used oratory to pass on their culture from one generation to the next;^{[299][11-eslatma]} examples of these traditional practices include the Iban's Ngajat dances,^[300] Renong (Iban vocal repertory),^[301] Ensera (Iban oral narratives),^{[275][12-eslatma]} and epic storytelling by the Kayan and Kenyah.^[302][303]

In the years before federation, the colonial government recognised that British education and indigenous culture was influencing a new generation of Iban teachers. Thus, on 15 September 1958, the Borneo Literature Bureau was inaugurated with a charter to nurture and encourage local literature while also supporting the government in its release of documentation, particularly in technical and instructional manuscripts that were to be distributed to the indigenous peoples of Sarawak and Sabah. As well as indigenous languages, documents would also be published in English, Chinese and Malay. In 1977, the bureau came under the authority of the federal government language planning and development agency, the Devan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP), which advocated publication only in Malay ultimately causing the demise of fledgling indigenous literature.^{[275][13-eslatma]}

It was a number of decades before print media began to appear in Sarawak. The Sarawak gazetasi, published by the Brooke government, recorded a variety of news relating to economics, agriculture, anthropology, archaeology, began circulation in 1870 and continues in modern times.^[304]However, in the decades following federation, restrictive laws and connections to businesses have meant that the media is a largely state-owned enterprise.^{[275][14-eslatma]} One of the earliest known text publications in Borneo, Hikayat Panglima Nikosa (Story of Nikosa the Warrior), was first printed in Kuching, 1876.^[305]

There are a number of museums in Sarawak that preserve and maintain artefacts of Sarawak's culture. At the foot of Mount Santubong, Kuching, is Sarawak Cultural Village, a "living museum" that showcases the various ethnic groups carrying out traditional activities in their respective traditional houses.^[306][307] The Saravak davlat muzeyi houses a collection of artefacts such as pottery, textiles, and woodcarving tools from various ethnic tribes in Sarawak, as well as ethnographic materials of local cultures.^[308] Orang Ulu's Sapeh (a dug-out guitar) is the best known traditional musical instrument in Sarawak and was played for Queen Yelizaveta II during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972.^[309]

Sarawakians observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year.^[310] Apart from national Xari Merdeka va Malayziya kuni celebrations, the state also celebrates Sarawak self-government Day on 22 July^[311][312] va shtat gubernatorining tug'ilgan kuni.^[313] Etnik guruhlar ham o'zlarining bayramlarini nishonlaydilar. Ochiq eshiklar kuni an'anasi boshqa etnik guruhlarning bayramlarga qo'shilishlariga imkon beradi.^[314] Saravak - Malayziyadagi Gavay Dayak bayramini davlat bayrami deb e'lon qilgan yagona davlat.^[315]

Saravak turli xil jamoalarning uyi, Saravakiya taomlari Malayziyaning boshqa joylarida kamdan-kam uchraydigan turli xil etnik ta'sirga ega oshxonalar va pishirish uslublariga ega. Shtatdagi taniqli taomlarga Sarawak kiradi laksa,^[316] kolo mee,^[317] va ayam pansuh.^[318][319] Shtat ham o'ziga xosligi bilan mashhur Sarawak qatlami keki shirin.^[320]

Sarawak ishtirok etish uchun o'z jamoalarini yubordi 1958 va 1962 yil Britaniya imperiyasi va Hamdo'stlik o'yinlari,^[321] va 1962 yilgi Osiyo o'yinlari; 1963 yildan keyin Saravakiyaliklar Malayziya jamoasi tarkibida ishtirok etishdi.^[322][323] Saravak o'z uyida malayziyalikni qabul qildi SUKMA o'yinlari 1990 va 2016 yillarda,^[324] va 1990, 1992 va 1994 yillarda SUKMA o'yinlarida umumiy chempion bo'lgan.^[325] Saravak 11 yil ketma-ket umumiy chempion bo'lib kelgan Malayziya Para o'yinlari 1994 yildan beri.^[326] 2019 yilda Sabah va Saravak sport vazirliklari ikkala hududda, shu qatorda Borneo orollaridagi boshqa joylarda ham ko'proq sport dasturlarini tashkil etishga ko'maklashish uchun Sharqiy Malayziya sport komissiyasini tashkil etish bo'yicha hamkorlik qilmoqdalar.^[327] Saravak hukumati ham Saravakni an qilishmoqchi e-sport mintaqadagi markaz.^[328]

Saravak 1998 yil aprelda boshlangan televizion eshittirish tarixiga ega, qachon NTV7 Saravakiyalik tadbirkor tomonidan boshlangan Mohd Effendi Norvavi sotib olishdan oldin Natseven TV Sdn Bhd egaligida Media Prima Berhad 2005 yilda. Biroq, Sarawak o'zining haqiqiy telekanaliga ega emas edi, u ishga tushirilgandan so'ng 2020 yil 10 oktyabrgacha Sarawak telekanali Shunday qilib, Malayziyada o'zining televizion stantsiyasiga egalik qilgan birinchi mintaqaga aylandi va 15 yil o'tib, translyatsiya dunyosiga qaytishini belgiladi. Hozirda u Astro va NJOI-da mavjud va 3 tilda: malay, ingliz va iban tillarida mavjud. Uning maqsadi Peninsular-ga asoslangan ommaviy axborot vositalarining past ustuvorligi va yoritilishidan xalos bo'lish va Sarawak va umuman Sharqiy Malayziya vakolatxonasini mustahkamlashdir.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Xalqaro munosabatlar

Saravak birodar davlat / viloyat Fujian viloyati Xitoyda.^[329]

Shuningdek qarang

• Saravakdan kelgan odamlar ro'yxati

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Tashqi havolalar

• Rasmiy veb-sayt
• Saravak at Sarawak Tourism Board
• Laws of Sarawak
• Saravak da Yolg'iz sayyora