Magnus Xirshfeld - Magnus Hirschfeld

Magnus Xirshfeld
Magnus Xirshfeld 1929.jpg
Xirshfeld 1932 yilda
Tug'ilgan(1868-05-14)14 may 1868 yil
Kolberg, Pomeraniya, Prussiya
O'ldi1935 yil 14-may(1935-05-14) (67 yosh)
Yaxshi, Frantsiya uchinchi respublikasi
Dam olish joyiTana kuydirilgan; kullar aralashdi Caucade qabristoni Qanchadan-qancha.
FuqarolikNemis tili (fashistlar tomonidan bekor qilingan)[1]
KasbShifokor
Ma'lumInstitut für Sexualwissenschaft, Ilmiy gumanitar qo'mita
Hamkor (lar)Karl Gies

Magnus Xirshfeld (1868 yil 14-may - 1935 yil 14-may) nemis shifokori va seksolog asosan Germaniyada ta'lim olgan; u o'zining amaliyotiga asoslangan Berlin-Sharlottenburg Veymar davrida. Uchun ochiqchasiga advokat jinsiy ozchiliklar, Xirshfeld asos solgan Ilmiy-gumanitar qo'mita. Tarixchi Dastin Golts ushbu guruhni "birinchi tashviqot ishlarini olib borgan" deb ta'rifladi gomoseksual va transgender huquqlari ".[2] "Xirshfeldning radikal g'oyalari nemislarning jinsiy munosabatlar haqidagi qarashlarini o'zgartirdi."[3] Xirshfeld yahudiy va gey bo'lganligi uchun natsistlar tomonidan nishonga olingan, uni kaltaklashgan völkisch 1920 yildagi faollar,[4] va 1933 yilda uning Institut für Sexualwissenschaft ishdan bo'shatilgan va kitoblarini fashistlar tomonidan yoqib yuborilgan va uni surgun qilishga majbur qilgan.

Hayotning boshlang'ich davri

Xirshfeld yilda tug'ilgan Kolberg Pomeraniyada (1945 yildan beri) Kolobrzeg, Polsha),[5] ichida Ashkenazi yahudiy oila, yuqori martabali shifokor va katta tibbiyot xodimi Hermann Xirshfeldning o'g'li. 1887-1888 yillarda u o'qigan falsafa va filologiya yilda Breslau (hozir Vrotslav, Polsha), keyin 1888 yildan 1892 yilgacha Dori yilda Strasburg, Myunxen, Geydelberg va Berlin. 1892 yilda u tibbiyot darajasini oldi.

O'qishdan so'ng u sakkiz oy davomida Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari bo'ylab sayohat qildi Dunyo Kolumbiya ko'rgazmasi yilda Chikago va nemis jurnallarida yozgan mablag'lari hisobidan yashaydi. Chikagoda bo'lgan vaqtida Xirshfeld o'sha shahardagi gomoseksual subkultura bilan aloqada bo'lgan.[6] Chikago va Berlinning gomoseksual submulturalari o'rtasidagi muhim o'xshashliklardan hayratga tushgan Xirshfeld birinchi bo'lib dunyodagi gomoseksualizmning universalligi haqidagi nazariyasini ishlab chiqdi, chunki u Rio-de-Janeyro, Tanjerda gey submulturalari borligi to'g'risida kitoblarda va gazetalarda maqolalarini tadqiq qildi. Tokio.[6] Keyin u a Naturopatik amaliyoti Magdeburg; 1896 yilda u o'zining amaliyotini ko'chirdi Berlin-Sharlottenburg.

Xirshfeld gey huquqlariga qiziqish bildira boshladi, chunki uning ko'plab gey kasallari o'z hayotlarini qurbon qilishdi.[7] Nemis tilida o'z joniga qasd qilish so'zi Selbstmord ("o'zini o'zi o'ldirish"), bu ingliz tilidagi ekvivalentiga qaraganda ko'proq hukm va mahkumlik ma'nolarini anglatib, o'z joniga qasd qilish mavzusini 19-asr Germaniyasida tabuga aylantirdi.[8]

Xususan, Xirshfeld o'zining gey huquqlari faolligi sababi, uning bemorlaridan biri haqida hikoya qilgan: depressiyadan aziyat chekkan yosh armiya zobiti, 1896 yilda o'zini o'ldirgan va o'z joniga qasd qilish to'g'risidagi yozuvni qoldirib, o'zining barcha harakatlariga qaramay, u boshqa erkaklarga bo'lgan istaklarini tugatmaslik va shu bilan o'z aybini va uyatidan hayotini tugatgan.[9] O'z joniga qasd qilish to'g'risidagi arizasida zobit ota-onasiga "haqiqatni" aytishga "kuch" etishmasligini yozgan va "yuragimni bo'g'ib qo'ygan narsadan" uyalishi haqida gapirgan. Zobit "gomoseksualizm" so'zini ishlatishga o'zini ham ko'tara olmadi, bu uning eslatmasida uning o'rniga "u" deb nomlandi.[8] Biroq, ofitser o'z joniga qasd qilish to'g'risidagi yozuvining oxirida quyidagilarni eslatib o'tdi: "Siz [Xirshfeld] kelajakda nemis vatani o'ylaydigan kelajakka hissa qo'shishingiz mumkin degan fikr Biz odilroq qilib aytganda, mening o'lim soatim shirin bo'ladi ".[10] Xirshfeld 1895-1896 yillarda zobitni depressiyadan davolagan va "biz" iborasini qo'llash ikkala o'rtasida munosabatlar mavjud degan fikrlarni keltirib chiqardi. Biroq, ofitserning foydalanishi Sie, norasmiy o'rniga siz uchun rasmiy nemis so'zi Du, Xirshfeldning bemor bilan munosabatlari qat'iy professional bo'lganligini ko'rsatadi.[10]

Shu bilan birga, Xirshfeldga sud jarayoni katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi Oskar Uayld, u o'z yozuvlarida tez-tez murojaat qilgan.[11] Xirshfeld kasal bo'lgan gey kasallarining sonidan hayratda qoldi Suizidalnarben ("o'z joniga qasd qilish tashabbusi bilan qolgan chandiqlar") va ko'pincha o'z bemorlariga yashash uchun sabab berishga harakat qilar edi.[12]

Jinsiy huquqlarning faolligi

Ilmiy-gumanitar qo'mita

Xirshfeld (markazda) Bernxard Shapiro va Tao Li bilan, v. 1930 yil

Magnus Xirshfeld tibbiyot bilan shug'ullanish va uning topilmalari haqida yozish o'rtasida muvozanatni topdi. 1896 yil 1 maydan 15 oktyabrgacha Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung ("Berlinning Buyuk sanoat ko'rgazmasi") bo'lib o'tdi, unda 9 ta "hayvonot bog'i" namoyish etildi, u erda Germaniyaning Yangi Gvineya va Afrikadagi koloniyalaridan kelgan odamlar tashrif buyurganlar uchun namoyish etildi.[13] Mustamlaka xalqlarining bunday ko'rgazmalari sanoat yarmarkalarida keng tarqalgan bo'lib, keyinchalik Tsindaodan keyin Mariana va Karolin orollari Germaniya imperiyasining tarkibiga kirdi, xitoylar, xamorroslar va mikronesiyaliklar afrikaliklar va "yangi hayvonot bog'larida" namoyish etilgan yangi gvineyaliklarga qo'shildilar. Boshqa madaniyatlarda jinsiy aloqaga qiziqqan Xirshfeld tashrif buyurdi Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung va keyinchalik "inson hayvonot bog'lari" dagi odamlarni tarjimonlar orqali o'z madaniyatlaridagi jinsiy hayotning holati to'g'risida so'rash uchun boshqa ko'rgazmalar.[14] Bu 1896 yilda, "hayvonot bog'larida" namoyish etilgan odamlar bilan suhbatlashgandan so'ng Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung, Hirshfeld o'zining 1914 yilgi kitobiga aylangan narsani yozishni boshladi Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes ("Erkaklar va Ayollarning gomoseksualizmi"), gomoseksualizm har bir madaniyatda bo'lganligini isbotlash uchun qilingan harakatlarning bir qismi sifatida butun dunyo bo'ylab gomoseksualizmni atroflicha o'rganishga urinish.[15]

Magdeburgda umumiy amaliyot shifokori sifatida bir necha yil ishlagandan so'ng, 1896 yilda u risola nashr etdi, Safo va Suqrot, gomoseksual muhabbat to'g'risida (Th. Ramien taxallusi ostida). 1897 yilda Xirshfeld asos solgan Ilmiy gumanitar qo'mita noshir bilan Maks Spur (1850-1905), advokat Eduard Oberg[16] (1858-1917) va yozuvchi Frants Jozef fon Budov[17] (1861-1915). Guruh o'z huquqlarini himoya qilish uchun izlanishlar olib borishni maqsad qilgan gomoseksuallar va bekor qilish Paragraf 175, Germaniya jinoyat kodeksining 1871 yildan beri gomoseksualizmni jinoiy javobgarlikka tortgan qismi. Ular qonun da'vat etilganligini ta'kidladilar shantaj. Qo'mitaning shiori "Ilm-fan orqali adolat" Xirshfeldning gomoseksualizmni yaxshiroq ilmiy anglash ijtimoiyni yo'q qilishiga ishonishini aks ettirdi. gomoseksuallarga nisbatan dushmanlik.

Guruh ichida ba'zi a'zolar Xirshfeldni rad etdilar (va Ulrichs erkaklar gomoseksuallari, tabiatan, g'azablangan deb qarashadi. Benedikt Fridlaender va boshqalar ilmiy-gumanitar qo'mitani tark etib, uzoq vaqt bo'lmagan "Bund für männliche Kultur" yoki "Erkaklar madaniyati ittifoqi" guruhini tuzdilar. Erkak-erkak sevgisi, bu alohida shart emas, balki erkak erkalikning bir tomoni, degan fikrni ilgari surdi.

Xirshfeld rahbarligida Ilmiy-gumanitar qo'mita 175-bandni bekor qilish to'g'risidagi arizaga taniqli nemislarning 5000 dan ortiq imzolarini yig'di. Imzo chekuvchilar Albert Eynshteyn, Hermann Gessen, Kete Kollvits, Tomas Mann, Geynrix Mann, Rainer Mariya Rilke, Avgust Bebel, Maks Brod, Karl Kautskiy, Stefan Tsveyg, Gerxart Hauptmann, Martin Buber, Richard fon Krafft-Ebing va Eduard Bernshteyn.

Hisob-kitob oldin taqdim etildi Reyxstag 1898 yilda, lekin faqat ozchilik tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlandi Germaniya sotsial-demokratik partiyasi. Avgust Bebel, Xirshfeldning uning universitet davridagi do'sti, 175-xatboshini bekor qilishga urinishga homiylik qilishga rozi bo'ldi.[18] Xirshfeld keyingi davrda nimani ta'riflashini o'ylab ko'rdi "tashqariga chiqish ": majburlash shkaf qonun loyihasida sukut saqlagan ba'zi taniqli va yashirincha gomoseksual qonunchilar. U qonun loyihasini qayta kiritishni tashkil qildi va 1920-yillarda bu qonun qabul qilingunga qadar bir muncha yutuqlarga erishdi. Natsistlar partiyasi har qanday bunday islohotlarga bo'lgan umidlarni tugatdi.

Ommaviy xurofotga qarshi kurashning bir qismi sifatida Xirshfeld o'z joniga qasd qilishning tabu mavzusi haqida gapirdi va birinchi bo'lib gomoseksuallar heteroseksuallarga qaraganda o'z joniga qasd qilish yoki o'z joniga qasd qilish ehtimoli ko'proq bo'lganligi to'g'risida statistik dalillarni keltirdi.[19] Xirshfeld gomoseksualizm va o'z joniga qasd qilish to'g'risida gomoseksual erkaklar anonim ravishda javob berishi mumkin bo'lgan anketalarni tayyorladi. Uning natijalarini sarhisob qilgan Xirshfeld har 100 geydan 3 nafari har yili o'z joniga qasd qilganligini, geylarning to'rtdan biri hayotlarining bir qismida o'z joniga qasd qilishga uringanligini va qolgan to'rtdan uchtasi bir paytlar o'z joniga qasd qilish haqida o'ylaganini taxmin qildi. U o'zining dalillaridan foydalanib, Germaniyada mavjud bo'lgan ijtimoiy sharoitda, gomoseksuallar uchun hayot tom ma'noda chidab bo'lmas edi.[19]

"Gomoseksuallar boshidan kechirgan jahannam" ni tasvirlash uchun Xirshfeld tomonidan tez-tez tilga olinadigan raqam Oskar Uayld Germaniyada taniqli yozuvchi bo'lgan va 1895 yilda o'tkazilgan sud jarayonlari nemis matbuoti tomonidan keng yoritilgan.[20] Xirshfeld 1905 yilda Uayldning o'g'li bilan uchrashish uchun Kembrij universitetiga tashrif buyurgan, Vyvyan Gollandiya, otasi bilan bog'liq bo'lmaslik uchun familiyasini o'zgartirgan.[20] Xirshfeld ta'kidlaganidek, "Uayldning ismi" sud qilinganidan beri "gomoseksuallar uyatdan qizarib ketishiga, ayollar ko'zlarini chetlab o'tishiga va oddiy erkaklar g'azablanishiga olib keladigan odobsiz so'zga o'xshaydi".[20] Britaniyaga tashrifi davomida Xirshfeld ingliz qishloqlarida o'tkazilgan maxfiy marosimga taklif qilindi, u erda Kembrijdan kelgan "chiroyli, yosh, erkak talabalar guruhi" Uayldning qamoq raqamini C33 kiyib yig'ilishdi, bu uning taqdirini ularning taqdiri bilan ramziy ravishda bog'lash usuli sifatida. , Uayldning she'rini ovoz chiqarib o'qish Gaol o'qish haqida ballada.[11] Xirshfeld o'qishni topdi Gaol o'qish haqida ballada bolmoq "markerschütternd"(birovning borlig'iga qadar silkitilgan, ya'ni hissiy jihatdan vayron qiluvchi narsa), she'r o'qish" hech qachon ezilgan qalb tomonidan o'z qiynoqlari va qiynoqlari haqida aytilgan eng dahshatli hayqiriq edi "deb yozadi. insoniyat ".[11] O'qish oxirida Gaol o'qish haqida ballada, Uildning hayoti barbod bo'lganiga qaramay, oxir-oqibat undan yaxshilik paydo bo'lishiga amin bo'lgan Xirshfeld o'zini "tinch quvonch" his qildi.[11]

Feminizm

1905 yilda Xirshfeld qo'shildi Bund für Mutterschutz (Onalarni himoya qilish ligasi), feministik tomonidan tashkil etilgan tashkilot Xelen Steker.[21] U dekriminallashtirish kampaniyasini o'tkazdi abort va ayol o'qituvchilar va davlat xizmatchilariga turmush qurishni yoki farzand ko'rishni taqiqlovchi siyosatlarga qarshi.[qo'shimcha tushuntirish kerak ] Xirshfeld ham, Shtoker ham gey huquqlari sabablari bilan ayollar huquqlari o'rtasida chambarchas bog'liqlik bor deb hisoblar edilar va Shtoker 175-xatboshini bekor qilish kampaniyasida ko'p qatnashgan, Xirshfeld esa abort qilishni taqiqlagan 218-bandni bekor qilish uchun kurash olib borgan.[21]

1906 yilda Xirshfeld shifokor sifatida Neumünsterdagi mahbusni "bezgak, qora suv isitmasi va tug'ma jinsiy anomaliya kombinatsiyasi natijasida kelib chiqqan og'ir asabiy buzilishlar" bilan og'riganligini tekshirishni so'ragan.[22] Bu odam, sobiq askar va Xirshfeldning "faxriysi"Hereroaufstand"(" Herero qo'zg'oloni ") Germaniya janubi-g'arbiy Afrikasi (zamonaviy Namibiya ) Janubiy G'arbiy Afrikada dahshatli ishlar qilganini va endi o'zi bilan yashay olmasligini aytib, endi travmadan keyingi stress buzilishi deb hisoblanadigan narsadan azob chekayotganga o'xshaydi.[22] 1904 yilda nemis ko'chmanchilariga yo'l ochish uchun o'z erlaridan doimiy ravishda siqib chiqarilgan Herero va Namaqua xalqlari isyon ko'tarib, Kayzer Vilgelm II ga generalni jo'natishdi. Lotar fon Trota Gerero va Namaquani yo'q qilish uchun "qirg'in urushi" olib borish. Herero va Namaqua genotsidi.[22] SPD rahbari bo'lganida genotsid keng tarqalgan Avgust Bebel qavatida hukumatni tanqid qildi Reyxstag, hukumat Hereroni qora tanli bo'lgani uchun yo'q qilishga haqli emasligini aytdi. Xirshfeld o'zining mahbusga qo'ygan tashxisi haqida ham, janubi-g'arbiy Afrikadagi harakatlarida mahbusning aybdorligi manbasini ham eslatib o'tmadi; nemis olimi Xayk Bauer uni Xerero genotsidi va mahbusning aybdorligi o'rtasidagi bog'liqlikni ko'rishni istamaganligi sababli tanqid qildi, bu uning kichik jinoyatlar to'lqiniga sabab bo'ldi.[23]

Gomoseksualizm normal va tabiiy edi, degan Xirshfeldning pozitsiyasi, uni o'sha paytda juda ziddiyatli shaxsga aylantirdi, uni boshqa akademiklar bilan kuchli bahslarga jalb qildi, ular gomoseksualizmni g'ayritabiiy va noto'g'ri deb hisoblashdi.[24] Xirshfeldning taniqli tanqidchilaridan biri avstriyalik Baron edi Christian von Ehrenfels, taxmin qilingan "Sariq xavf" ga qarshi kurashish uchun jamiyat va jinsiy hayotni tubdan o'zgartirishni targ'ib qilgan va Xirshfeldning nazariyalarini uning jinsiy munosabatiga qarshi kurash sifatida ko'rgan.[24] Erenfels bir necha "biologik degeneratsiya qilingan" gomoseksuallar borligini ta'kidladilar, aks holda "sog'lom o'g'il bolalarni" o'zlarining turmush tarziga jalb qilib, gomoseksualizmni tanlashga va o'sha paytda noto'g'ri qilishgan.[24]

Afrika antropologiyasi

Sara Baartmanning plakati

Shu bilan birga, Xirshfeld bir qator antropologlar bilan munozaraga kirishdi. Hottentottenschürze ("Hottentot apron"), ya'ni Xoyxoy (G'arbliklar Hottentots nomi bilan tanilgan) Afrikaning janubiy ayollari labiyani g'ayritabiiy ravishda kengaytirgan va bu ularni lezbiyanizmga moyil qilgan.[25] Xirshfeld, Xoyxoy ayollari g'ayritabiiy ravishda katta labiyani borligi haqida hech qanday dalil yo'qligini, ularning taxmin qilinishicha, o'sha paytda G'arbiy antropologlarning ko'pini hayratga solganligini va qora tanli bo'lishdan tashqari, Xoyxoy ayollarining jasadlari nemis ayollaridan farq qilmasligini ta'kidladi.[25] Bitta Xoykoy ayol, Sara Bartman, "Hottentot Venera", Shimoliy Evropa ayollari bilan taqqoslaganda, nisbatan katta dumba va labiyaga ega bo'lib, XIX asrning boshlarida Evropada bo'lib o'tgan xayoliy ko'rgazmada namoyish etilgan, bu Xoyxoy ayollari haqidagi e'tiqodning kelib chiqishi edi. Xirshfeld shunday yozgan edi: Xoyxoy va nemis ayollari o'rtasida "farqlar umumiy bo'lgan narsalarga nisbatan minimal ko'rinadi".[25] Antropologlarning dalillarini ularning boshlariga qaratib, Xirshfeld, agar Xoyxoy ayollari orasida bir jinsli munosabatlar keng tarqalgan bo'lsa va Xoyxoy ayollari tanasi asosan G'arb ayollari bilan bir xil bo'lsa, unda G'arb ayollari ham bir xil tendentsiyaga ega bo'lishi kerak, deb ta'kidladilar. Xirshfeldning dunyodagi barcha madaniyatlarda mavjud bo'lgan jinsiylik spektri haqidagi nazariyalari, oq ustunlik da'vosiga asos bo'lgan har xil irqlar o'rtasidagi farqlar haqidagi ikkilik nazariyalarni bilvosita o'chirib tashlaydi.[25] Biroq, Bauer Xirshfeldning gomoseksualizmning universalligi haqidagi nazariyalarida madaniy kontekstga unchalik ahamiyat berilmaganligi haqida yozgan va uni Nigeriyadagi Xausa ayollari lezbiyenlik tendentsiyalari bilan tanilganligi va Buyuk Britaniya hukmronligidan oldin sapfik harakatlari uchun qatl etilishi kerakligi haqidagi so'zlari uchun uni tanqid qilgan. mustamlaka uchun imperializm har doim yaxshi bo'lgan deb taxmin qilsak.[26]

Eulenburg ishi

Hirshfeld muhim rol o'ynagan Xarden-Eulenburg ishi 1906-09 yillar, bu Imperial Germaniyada eng keng tarqalgan jinsiy janjalga aylandi. 1907 yilda tuhmat bo'yicha sud jarayonida, qachon general Kuno fon Moltke jurnalistni sudga bergan Maksimilian Xarden, ikkinchisi Moltkeni siyosiy jihatdan qudratli shahzoda bilan gomoseksual aloqada bo'lganlikda ayblagan maqola chop etgandan so'ng Filipp fon Eulenburg, Kayzerning eng yaxshi do'sti bo'lgan Xirshfeld Xarden uchun guvohlik berdi. Ekspert guvohi sifatida Xirshfeld Moltkening gey bo'lganligini va shuning uchun Xarden yozganlari haqiqat ekanligini ko'rsatdi.[27] Germaniyada gomoseksualizmni qonuniylashtirmoqchi bo'lgan Xirshfeld - Moltke singari armiya zobitlarining gomoseksual ekanligini isbotlash uning ishini legallashtirishga yordam beradi deb hisoblar edi. U shuningdek, Moltkening hech qanday yomon joyi yo'qligiga ishonganligini ko'rsatdi.[27]

Eng muhimi, Xirshfeld "gomoseksualizm odatdagi muhabbat singari tabiat va yaratilish rejasining bir qismi bo'lgan" deb guvohlik bergan.[28] Xirshfeldning guvohligi butun Germaniya g'azabiga sabab bo'ldi. The Vossische Zeitung gazeta Hirschfeldni tahririyat maqolasida "psevdologiya ilmi nomidan g'alati narsalar uchun harakat qilgan g'alati" deb qoraladi.[27] The Myunxener Noyesten Nachrichten gazetasi tahririyatida: "Doktor Xirshfeld ilm-fan pardasi ostida ommaviy tashviqot olib boradi, bu bizning xalqimizni zaharlashdan boshqa narsa qilmaydi. Haqiqiy ilm-fan bunga qarshi kurashishi kerak!".[27] Sud jarayonidagi taniqli guvoh, Moltkening sobiq rafiqasi Lilly von Elbe bo'lib, u eri butun nikohida unga faqat ikki marotaba muhabbat ko'rsatganligini ko'rsatdi.[29] Elbe o'zining jinsiy istaklari va Eulenburg bilan jinsiy aloqada bo'lishni istagan eridan ko'ngli qolgani uchun ajoyib ochiqlik bilan gapirdi.[30] Elbaning guvohlik berishicha, u Moltkeni o'zi bilan jinsiy aloqada bo'lish uchun behuda urinishlar bilan skovorodka bilan hujumga o'tishi aniq bo'lganida, u past darajadagi komediya daqiqalari bilan ajralib turardi.[31] General fon Moltkening rafiqasining hujumlaridan o'zini himoya qila olmagani, uning erkaklik nuqsoni borligining isboti sifatida qabul qilindi, bu ko'pchilik uning gomoseksualizmni tasdiqlashi deb hisobladi. O'sha paytda, ayollarning jinsiy aloqasi mavzusi taqiqlangan edi va Elbaning guvohligi juda ziddiyatli edi, chunki ko'pchilik Elbe o'zining jinsiyligini tan olishga tayyorligi sababli qandaydir tarzda ruhiy kasal bo'lishi kerak edi.[32] O'sha paytda, odatda, ayollar "pokiza" va "toza" bo'lishi kerak va umuman jinsiy aloqada bo'lmasliklari kerak edi. Erkaklar ham, ayollar ham o'sha paytdagi gazetalarga yuborilgan xatlar, Elbani uning jinsiy aloqasiga oid "jirkanch" guvohligi uchun juda qoralagan.[32] Ekspert guvohi sifatida Xirshfeld shuningdek, ayollarning jinsiy aloqasi tabiiy bo'lganligi va Elba oddiy ayol bo'lib, u hech qanday tarzda ruhiy kasal bo'lganligini aytdi.[27] Hakamlar hay'ati Xarden foydasiga qaror chiqargandan so'ng, sudya Ugo Isenbiyel hakamlar hay'ati qaroridan g'azablandi va u Hirschfeldga ma'qul kelganligini bildirdi. U gomoseksuallar "itlarning axloqiga ega" degan asosda hukmni bekor qildi va bu hukmning turishiga yo'l qo'yilmasligini ta'kidladi.[27]

Hukm bekor qilingandan so'ng, ikkinchi sud jarayoni Hardenni tuhmatda aybdor deb topdi.[27] Ikkinchi sud jarayonida Xirshfeld yana ekspert guvohi sifatida ko'rsatma berdi, ammo bu safar u Moltkening gomoseksualligi to'g'risida birinchi sud jarayoniga qaraganda ancha aniqroq edi.[33] Xirshfeld guvohlik berishicha, Moltke va Eulenburg birinchi mahkamada ko'rsatganidek, tabiatan gomerotik bo'lgan, ammo jinsiy bo'lmagan "yaqin" do'stlik bor.[33] Xirshfeld, shuningdek, u hali ham ayollarning jinsiy aloqasi odatiy deb hisoblasa-da, Elbe jinsiy aloqaning etishmasligi sababli isteriyadan aziyat chekayotganini va shuning uchun sud uning Moltke va Eulenburg o'rtasidagi jinsiy munosabatlar haqidagi hikoyalarini chegirishi kerakligini aytdi.[33] Prussiya hukumati Xirshfeld, agar u birinchi sud majlisidagi ko'rsatmalar bo'yicha yana ekspert guvohi sifatida ko'rsatma bergan bo'lsa va ehtimol 175-bandni buzgani uchun javobgarlikka tortilsa, tibbiy litsenziyasini bekor qilish bilan tahdid qilgan.[33] Sud jarayoni Moltke tomonidan Xardenga qarshi tuhmat da'vosi edi, ammo guvohliklarning aksariyati Eulenburgga tegishli edi, uning maqomi Vilgelm II ning eng yaxshi do'sti bo'lganligi sababli, janjal Kayzerni jalb qilish bilan tahdid qilgan.[33] Bundan tashqari, Xirshfeld kutganidek tobora kuchayib borayotgan bag'rikenglikdan uzoqroq, janjal katta gomofobik va antisemitizm reaktsiyasini keltirib chiqardi va Xirshfeldning biografiyasi Elena Manchini Xirshfeld geylar uchun sabablarga yordam berishga xalaqit beradigan ishni tugatmoqchi deb taxmin qildi. huquqlar.[33]

Eulenburg taniqli antisemit va Xirshfeld yahudiy bo'lganligi sababli, ish paytida, völkisch Hirshfeld va Xarden tomonidan gomoseksualizm to'g'risidagi yolg'on da'volar asosida ular oriyent heteroseksual sifatida tasvirlangan Eulenburgni qo'llab-quvvatlash harakati paydo bo'ldi.[34] Turli xil völkisch rahbarlari, ayniqsa radikal antisemit jurnalist Teodor Fritsh, Eulenburg ishini yahudiylar bilan "hisob-kitob qilish" imkoniyati sifatida ishlatgan. Gey yahudiy sifatida Xirshfeld tomonidan shafqatsizlarcha haqorat qilingan völkisch gazetalar.[35] Berlindagi Xirshfeldning uyi tashqarisida plakatlar yopishtirilgan völkisch faollari, "Doktor Xirshfeld jamoat uchun xavfli: yahudiylar bizning ishimiz!".[33] Fashistlar Germaniyasida Eulenburg ishining rasmiy talqini shundan iborat edi: Eulenburg to'g'ri oriy edi, uning karerasi Xirshfeld singari yahudiylar tomonidan gey bo'lish haqidagi soxta da'volar bilan vayron qilingan.[34] Janjal tugagandan so'ng, Xirshfeld, gey huquqlari harakatiga u umid qilganidek yordam berishdan uzoq, degan xulosaga kelib, harakatni orqaga qaytardi.[36] Germaniya hukumati tomonidan chiqarilgan xulosa Xirshfeld istagan xulosaga teskari edi; general fon Moltke va Eulenburg singari taniqli odamlarning gomoseksual bo'lganligi, hukumatni Hirschfeld umid qilganidek 175-bandni bekor qilishga undagan va aksincha, hukumat 175-band etarli kuch bilan bajarilmayapti, deb qaror qildi va bu gomoseksuallarga qarshi kurashga olib keldi. misli ko'rilmagan edi va fashistlar davriga qadar oshib bo'lmaydi.[30]

Birinchi jahon urushi

1914 yilda Xirshfeldga bo'lgan milliy ishtiyoq ko'tarilib ketdi Burgfrieden ("Qamal ostidagi qasr ichidagi tinchlik") deyarli barcha nemislar Vatanga yig'ilgan joyda milliy birdamlik tuyg'usi ma'lum bo'lgan.[37] Dastlab urushni qo'llab-quvvatlagan Xirshfeld 1915 yilda pasifistik pozitsiyaga qarab, urushga qarshi boshladi.[38] Uning 1915 yil risolasida, Warum Hassen uns die Völker? ("Nega boshqa xalqlar bizni yomon ko'radi?"), Xirshfeld o'z savoliga javoban Germaniyaning buyukligi, boshqa millatlarning, xususan Buyuk Britaniyaning hasadini qo'zg'atgan va shuning uchun ularning birlashishiga sabab bo'lgan deb taxmin qildi. Reyx.[39] Xirshfeld Buyuk Britaniyani 1914 yilda "Germaniya imperiyasining rivojlanishi va kattaligiga hasad qilib" urush boshlaganlikda aybladi.[40] Warum Hassen uns die Völker? shovinistik va o'ta millatchi ohang bilan ajralib turardi va bugungi kunda Xirshfeldning muxlislarini ko'pincha xijolat qilgan juda xunuk anglofobiya. Sharlotta Vulf bu risolani "Xirshfeld azaldan qo'llab-quvvatlagan qadriyatlarni buzish" deb atagan.[40]

Yahudiy gomoseksuali sifatida Xirshfeld ko'pgina nemislar uni "to'g'ri" nemis, hatto umuman nemis deb hisoblamasligini juda yaxshi bilar edi; Shunday qilib, u o'ta vatanparvarlik pozitsiyasini qabul qilib, nemis yahudiylari va / yoki gomoseksuallar ham Vatanning nido-nidolariga qo'shilib yaxshi, vatanparvar nemislar bo'lishi mumkinligini ko'rsatib, xurofotlarni buzishi mumkin deb o'ylardi.[41] 1916 yilga kelib Xirshfeld urushni zudlik bilan tugatishga chaqirib, pasifist risolalarini yozar edi.[38] Uning 1916 yil risolasida Kriegspsychologisches ("Urush psixologiyasi"), Xirshfeld urushni 1915 yildagiga qaraganda ancha tanqidiy ko'rib, uning azoblari va shikastlanishlarini ta'kidlagan. Shuningdek, u hech kim urush uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga olishni istamaydi, chunki uning dahshatlari "kattaligi jihatidan g'ayritabiiy" bo'lganligi haqida fikr bildirdi.[42] U "urush tinchlik bilan tugashi etarli emas, yarashish bilan tugashi kerak" deb e'lon qildi.[42] 1918 yil oxirida Xirshfeld singlisi Franziska Mann bilan birgalikda risola yozgan Jede Frau vom Wahlrecht wissen muß edi!"(" Har bir ayol ovoz berish huquqi to'g'risida bilishi kerak bo'lgan narsa! ") Noyabr inqilobini nemis ayollariga ovoz berish huquqini berganligi uchun qutlagan va" dunyo ko'zlari endi nemis ayollariga tikilgan "deb e'lon qildi.[43]

Urushlararo davr

1920 yilda Xirshfeld bir guruh tomonidan juda qattiq kaltaklandi völkisch ko'chada unga hujum qilgan faollar; u dastlab politsiya kelganida o'lgan deb e'lon qilingan.[44] 1921 yilda Xirshfeld Jinsiy islohotlar bo'yicha birinchi kongressni tashkil etdi, bu esa shakllanishiga olib keldi Jahon jinsiy islohotlar ligasi. Kongresslar bo'lib o'tdi Kopengagen (1928), London (1929), Vena (1930) va Brno (1932).

Konrad Veidt Pol Kyorner va doktor sifatida Xirshfeld Boshqalardan farq qiladi

Xirshfeldning so'zlari va matbuotda karikatura qilingan, jinsiy masalalar bo'yicha shov-shuvli mutaxassis sifatida; 1931 yil Qo'shma Shtatlarga safari davomida Xerst gazetalari tarmog'i uni "Jinsiy aloqaning Eynshteyn" deb nomlagan. U nafaqat gomoseksualizmni, balki jinsiy aloqaning ko'plab turlarini o'rgangan va kataloglagan, tashviqotchi va olim sifatida aniqlandi. U erkaklar, heteroseksual erkaklardan ayollarga, gomoseksual erkaklarga qadar, shu jumladan ushbu atama ostida ta'riflagan jinsiy vositachilarning 64 mumkin bo'lgan turlarini tasniflagan tizim ishlab chiqdi. transvestit (Ger. Transvestit), u 1910 yilda, 21-asrda, deb nomlanishi mumkin bo'lgan odamlarni tasvirlash uchun o'ylab topgan transgender.[iqtibos kerak ] Ayni paytda Xirshfeld va Jinsiy fanlar instituti bir qator chiqargan transvestit sertifikatlari trans odamlarni politsiya tomonidan ta'qib qilinishini oldini olish maqsadida.[45][46]

Anders vafot etganlar Andernda

Xirshfeld 1919 yil filmda hammualliflik qilgan va rol ijro etgan Anders vafot etganlar Andernda ("Boshqalardan farq qiladi"), unda Konrad Veidt kino uchun yozilgan birinchi gomoseksual personajlardan birini ijro etdi. Filmning o'ziga xos xususiyati bor edi gey huquqlari qonunni isloh qilish kun tartibi; Veidtning xarakteridan keyin shantaj qilingan erkak fohisha tomonidan, u oxir-oqibat chiqadi shantaj to'lovlarini amalga oshirishda davom etish o'rniga. Uning martaba vayron va uni haydab etiladi o'z joniga qasd qilish.

Xirshfeld o'zini o'ynagan Anders vafot etganlar AnderndaBu erda unvon kartalarida shunday deyilgan: "Gomoseksuallarni ta'qib qilish tarixning o'sha ayanchli bobiga tegishli bo'lib, unda jodugarlar va bid'atchilarni ta'qib qilish yozilgan ... Faqat Frantsiya inqilobi to'liq o'zgarish yuz berdi. Hamma joyda qaerda Napoleon kodi joriy etildi, gomoseksuallarga qarshi qonunlar bekor qilindi, chunki ular shaxs huquqlarini buzilishi deb hisoblandi ... Ammo Germaniyada ellik yildan ortiq ilmiy izlanishlarga qaramay, gomoseksuallarga nisbatan qonuniy kamsitishlar tinimsiz davom etmoqda ... Mayli adolat tez orada bu sohadagi adolatsizlik ustidan g'alaba qozonadi, ilm-fan xurofotni engadi, sevgi nafrat ustidan g'alabaga erishadi! "[47]

1919 yil may oyida, filmning premyerasi Berlinda bo'lganida, Birinchi Jahon urushi hanuzgacha juda yangi xotira edi va Xirshfeldni yomon ko'rgan nemis konservatorlari o'zining frankofil nutqida Frantsiyani 1792 yilda gomoseksualizmni qonuniylashtirgani uchun maqtovga sazovor bo'lishdi gey huquqlari. "nemis bo'lmagan" edi.[47]

Film oxirida, qahramon Pol Körner o'z joniga qasd qilganda, sevgilisi Kurt o'zini o'ldirishni rejalashtirmoqda, Xirshfeld unga: "Agar siz vafot etgan do'stingiz xotirasini hurmat qilishni istasangiz, o'zingiznikini olmang hayot, lekin uning o'rniga qurbon bo'lgan - son-sanoqsiz ko'plardan biri bo'lgan bu o'lik odam bo'lgan xurofotlarni o'zgartirish uchun uni saqlab qoling, bu men sizga tiriklarning vazifasi. Zola qamoqxonada aybsiz uxlagan odam uchun kurashgani kabi, Biz uchun va bizdan keyingi minglab odamlarga hurmat va adolatni tiklash endi muhim. Bilim orqali adolatga! "[48] Emile Zolaning rolidagi ishora Dreyfus ishi gomofobiya va antisemitizm o'rtasida parallellik o'rnatish uchun mo'ljallangan bo'lsa, Xirshfeldning "biz" so'zini qayta-qayta ishlatishi o'zining gomoseksualizmiga shama qilingan tan olish edi.[48]

O'z joniga qasd qilishga qarshi xabar Anders vafot etganlar Andernda Hirshfeldning gomoseksuallar orasida o'z joniga qasd qilish darajasi yuqori bo'lgan mavzuga qiziqishini aks ettirgan va gey tomoshabinlarga umid bag'ishlash uchun mo'ljallangan.[48] Film Xirshfeldning jinoyat kodeksining nusxasini ochishi bilan tugaydi Reyx ulkan X paragraf bilan urish uchun 175.[48]

Institut für Sexualwissenschaft

Yodgorlik lavhasi Berlin-Tiergarten

Ko'proq liberal yangi tashkil etilgan atmosfera Veymar Respublikasi, Xirshfeld villani sotib olgan joydan unchalik uzoq emas Reyxstag uning yangi uchun Berlinda bino Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Jinsiy tadqiqotlar instituti), 1919 yil 6-iyulda ochilgan. Germaniyada Reyx hukumat qonunlar chiqardi, ammo Lander hukumatlar qonunlarni amalga oshirdilar, ya'ni bu qadar bo'lgan Lander hukumatlar 175-xatboshini bajarishi kerak. 1918 yil noyabr inqilobigacha Prussiyada uch sinfli ovoz berish tizimi mavjud bo'lib, u aksariyat oddiy odamlarning huquqlaridan mahrum bo'lgan va Yunkerlar Prussiyada hukmronlik qilish. Noyabr inqilobidan keyin Prussiyaga umumiy saylov huquqi keldi, ular sotsial-demokratlarning tayanch punktiga aylandi. SPD 175-bandni bekor qilishga ishongan va u boshchiligidagi sotsial-demokratik Prussiya hukumati Otto Braun Prussiya politsiyasiga 175-bandni bajarmaslik to'g'risida buyruq berib, Prussiyani butun Germaniya bo'ylab gomoseksuallar uyasiga aylantirdi.

Institutda Xirshfeldning shahvoniylik bo'yicha ulkan arxivlari va kutubxonalari saqlanib, ta'lim xizmatlari va tibbiy maslahatlar berildi; klinik xodimlar orasida psixiatrlar Feliks Ibrohim va Artur Kronfeld, ginekolog Lyudvig Levi-Lenz, dermatolog va endokrinolog Bernxard Shapiro va dermatolog Fridrix Vertxaym.[49] Shuningdek, institutda "Jinsiy aloqa muzeyi" mavjud bo'lib, u jamoatchilik uchun ma'rifiy manba bo'lib, unga maktab darslari tashrif buyurgan. Xirshfeldning o'zi ikkinchi qavatda Institutda sevgilisi bilan yashagan, Karl Gies, singlisi Recha Tobias bilan birga (1857-1942).[50][51] Giz va Xirshfeld Berlinda geylar sahnasida taniqli juftlik edilar, u erda Xirshfeld "Tante Magnesiya" nomi bilan mashhur bo'lgan. Tante ('xola') - bu gomoseksualist uchun nemis tilidagi jargon ibora, lekin ba'zi birlar ta'kidlaganidek, Xirshfeldning o'zi kiyingan degani emas.[52]

Atrofdagi odamlar Evropa va undan keyin ular haqida aniqroq ma'lumot olish uchun Institutga kelishdi jinsiylik. Kristofer Ishervud haqida yozadi va W. H. Auden uning kitobida tashrif Kristofer va uning mehribonligi; ular chaqirayotgan edilar Frensis Turvil-Petre, Ilmiy Gumanitar Qo'mitaning faol a'zosi bo'lgan Ishervudning do'sti. Boshqa taniqli mehmonlar orasida nemis yozuvchisi va dramaturglari ham bor edi Gerxart Hauptmann, Nemis rassomi Kristian Shad, Frantsuz yozuvchilari Rene Krevel va Andre Gide, Rus rejissyori Sergey Eyzenshteyn va amerikalik shoir Elza Gidlov.[49]

Bundan tashqari, bir qator taniqli shaxslar ijaraga olinadigan turli xil xonalarda yoki institut majmuasida bepul turar joy sifatida uzoqroq yoki qisqa muddat yashaganlar. Aholisi orasida Isherwood va Turville-Petre; adabiyotshunos va faylasuf Valter Benjamin; aktrisa va raqqosa Anita Berber; Marksist faylasuf Ernst Bloch; Villi Myunzenberg, Germaniya parlamenti a'zosi va uchun matbuot xodimi Germaniya Kommunistik partiyasi; Dörxen Rixter, transgenderni qabul qilgan birinchi bemorlardan biri jinsiy aloqani almashtirish operatsiyasi institutda va Lili Elbe.[49] Rixter Rudolf Rixter tug'ilgan va kiyinish uchun hibsga olingan institutga yordam uchun kelgan.[53] Xirshfeld 1910 yilda transvestitlar atamasini bugungi kunda transgenderlar deb atashni ta'riflash uchun kiritgan va muassasa transgenderlar uchun jannatga aylangan, bu erda Xirshfeld ularga suiiste'mol qilishdan boshpana taklif qilgan, jarrohlik operatsiyalari qilgan va boshqa ishsiz transgenderlarga ish bergan. menial turi, asosan "kanizaklar" sifatida.[54]

Institut va Xirshfeldning ishlari tasvirlangan Roza fon Praunxaym badiiy film Der Eynshteyn jinsiy aloqa (Jinsiy aloqaning Eynshteyn, Germaniya, 1999 yil; Ingliz tili subtitrli versiyasi mavjud). Garchi Xirshfeld hayotidan ilhomlangan bo'lsa-da, film xayoliydir. Unda ixtiro qilingan personajlar va hodisalar mavjud bo'lib, Hirschfeldga va boshqalarga juda kam yoki hech qanday tarixiy dalillar asosida motivlar va hissiyotlarni keltiradi. Xirshfeld biografi Ralf Doz, masalan, "Roza fon Praunxaym filmidagi" Dorxen "obrazi" ni ta'kidlaydi. Jinsiy aloqaning Eynshteyn to'liq fantastika. "[49]

Jahon sayohati

1930 yil mart oyida sotsial-demokratik kantsler Hermann Myuller generalning fitnalari bilan ag'darildi Kurt von Shleyxer. "Prezident" hukumatlari, faqat Prezident oldida javobgardir Pol fon Xindenburg, Germaniya siyosatini yanada o'ng qanot, avtoritar yo'nalishda itardi. 1929 yilda Myuller hukumati 175-bandni bekor qilishga juda yaqin edi, qachonki Reyxstag Adliya qo'mitasi 175-xatboshini bekor qilish uchun ovoz berdi. Ammo Myuller hukumati bekor qilish to'g'risidagi iltimosnomani polga yuborishdan oldin qulab tushdi. Reyxstag.[55] Kantsler hukmronligi ostida Geynrix Bryuning va uning vorisi, Franz fon Papen, davlat chet elda ko'proq vaqt o'tkazishni boshlagan Xirshfeld singari gey huquqlarini himoya qiluvchilarga nisbatan tobora dushman bo'lib qoldi.[56] Gomofobiya kuchayganidan tashqari, Xirshfeld ham Ilmiy-gumanitar qo'mitada keskin munozaralarga kirishdi, chunki Myuller tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan bekor qilish to'g'risidagi qonun gomoseksual fohishabozlikni noqonuniy deb topdi, bu esa qo'mitani yomon ajratib yubordi.[57] Xirshfeld doimo "tabiiy bo'lgan narsa axloqsiz bo'lishi mumkin emas" deb ta'kidlagan va gomoseksualizm, uning fikriga ko'ra, qonuniy bo'lishi kerak edi. Gomoseksualizmning qonuniyligi va fohishabozlikning qonuniyligi bilan bog'liq masalani xiralashtirish edi, chunki bu har xil masalalar edi.[57] Brüning, o'ng qanotda konservativ katolik Zentrum 1930 yil mart oyida Myuller o'rnini bosgan partiya gey huquqlariga qarshi ochiqchasiga dushmanlik qildi va Myullerning qulashi bilan 175-bandni bekor qilish imkoniyati tugadi.

Amerika va "to'g'ri burilish"

1930 yilda Xirshfeld Germaniyada o'zi kabi odamlarning kelajagi bo'lmaydi va u chet elga ko'chib ketishi kerakligini bashorat qilgan.[58] 1930 yil noyabrda Xirshfeld keldi Nyu York, go'yo jinsiy aloqa haqida nutq safari paytida, lekin aslida uning Qo'shma Shtatlarda joylashishi mumkinmi yoki yo'qligini bilish uchun.[56] Ahamiyatli tomoni shundaki, Xirshfeld ushbu Amerika turidagi nutqlarida nemis tilida gaplashayotganda, gomoseksualizmni qonuniylashtirishga chaqirgan, ammo ingliz tilida so'zlashganda, gomoseksualizm mavzusini eslamagan, aksincha amerikaliklarni heteroseksual jinsiy aloqada ochiq fikrli bo'lishga chaqirgan.[59] The Nyu-York Tayms Xirshfeldni Amerikaga "nikoh masalasini o'rganish" uchun kelgan, deb ta'riflagan, nemis tili esa Nyu-Yorker Volkszeitung Gazeta Xirshfeldni "muhabbatning tabiiy burilishlarini muhokama qilmoqchi" deb ta'riflagan - "muhabbatning tabiiy burilishlari" iborasi Xirshfeldning inson jinsiy hayotining keng doirasi borligi haqidagi nazariyasini taqdim etish usuli bo'lib, ularning barchasi "tabiiy".[59] Xirshfeld amerikaliklarning aksariyati uning gomoseksualizm nazariyasi haqida tabiiy ravishda eshitishni xohlamasligini anglab etdi. Xirshfeld Qo'shma Shtatlarda chet elliklar muammo tug'diruvchi sifatida ko'rilgan kuchli ksenofobik tendentsiyadan xabardor bo'lib, o'z xabarlarini Amerika didiga moslashtirdi.[60]

Germanofil amerikalik jurnalist bilan suhbatda Jorj Silvestr Vierek uchun Miluoki Sentinel done in late November 1930 that epitomised his "straight turn" in America, Hirschfeld was presented as a sex expert whose knowledge could improve the sex lives of married American couples.[60] The Miluoki Sentinel was part of the newspaper chain owned by Uilyam Randolf Xerst, which initially promoted Hirschfeld in America, reflecting the old adage that "sex sells". In the interview with Viereck, Hirschfeld was presented as the wise "European expert on romantic love" who had come to teach heterosexual American men how to enjoy sex, claiming there was a close connection between sexual and emotional intimacy.[61] Clearly intending to flatter the egos of a heterosexual American male audience, Hirschfeld praised the drive and ambition of American men, who were so successful at business, but stated that American men needed to divert some of their energy to their sex lives.[61] Hirschfeld added, he had seen signs that American men were now starting to develop their "romantic sides" as European men had long since done, and he had come to the United States to teach American men how to love their women properly.[61] When Viereck objected that the U.S was in the middle of the Great Depression, Hirschfeld replied he was certain that United States would soon recover, thanks to the relentless drive of American men.[61]

Ad for a speech "Postponed" to Sunday, January 18, 1931 at the "Dil-Pickle Club" on State Street, Chicago.

At least part of the reason for his "straight turn" was financial; a Dutch firm had been marketing Titus's Pearls pills, which were presented in Europe as a cure for "scattered nerves" and in the United States as an aphrodisiac, and had been using Hirschfeld's endorsement to help with advertising campaign there.[62] Most Americans knew of Hirschfeld only as a "world-known authority on sex" who had endorsed the Titus's Pearls pills, which were alleged to improve orgasms for both men and women.[62] Since Hirschfeld's books never sold well, the money he was paid for endorsing the Titus's Pearls pills were a major source of income for him, which he was to lose in 1933 when the manufacturer of the pills ceased using his endorsement in order to stay in the German market.[62] In a second interview with Viereck in February 1931, Hirschfeld was presented by him as the "Einstein of Sex", which was again part of the marketing effort of Hirschfeld's "straight turn" in America.[62] At times, Hirschfeld returned to his European message, when he planned to deliver a talk at the bohemian Dereotu bodring klubi yilda Chikago on "homosexuality with beautiful revealing pictures", which was banned by the city as indecent.[63] In San Francisco, Hirschfeld visited San Quentin prison to meet Tomas Muni, whose belief in his innocence he proclaimed to the press afterwards, and asked for his release.[64] Unfortunately for Hirschfeld, the Hearst newspapers, which specialized in taking a sensationalist, right-wing, populist line on the news, dug up his statements in Germany calling for gay rights, causing a sudden shift in tone from more or less friendly to hostile, and which effectively ended any chance of Hirschfeld being allowed to stay in the United States.[62]

Osiyo

After his American tour, Hirschfeld went to Asia in February 1931. Hirschfeld had been invited to Yaponiya by Keizō Dohi, a German-educated, Japanese doctor who spoke fluent German and who worked at Hirschfeld's institute for a time in the 1920s.[65] In Japan, Hirchfeld again tailored his speeches to local tastes, saying nothing about gay rights, and merely argued that a greater frankness about sexual matters would prevent venereal diseases.[65] Hirschfeld sought out an old friend, a S.Iwaya, a Japanese doctor who lived in Berlin in 1900–02 and who joined the Scientific-Humanitarian committee during his time there.[66] Iwaya took Hirschfeld to the Meiji-za bilan tanishtirish Kabuki teatr.[66] Hirschfeld become very interested in the Kabuki theater, where the female characters are played by men.[66] One of the Kabuki actors, speaking to Hirschfeld via Iwaya, who served as the translator, was most insistent about asking him if he really looked like a woman on stage and was he effeminate enough as an actor.[66] Hirschfeld noted that no-one in Japan looked down on the Kabuki actors who played female characters; on the contrary, they were popular figures with the public.[66] Hirschfeld also met a number of Japanese feminists, such as Shidzue Kato va Fusae Ichikava, whom he praised for their efforts to give Japanese women the right to vote. This greatly annoyed the Japanese government, which did not appreciate a foreigner criticizing the denial of female suffrage.[67] Shortly before leaving Tokio uchun Xitoy, Hirschfeld expressed the hope that his host and translator, Wilhelm Grundert, the director of the German-Japanese Cultural Institute, be made a professor at a German university.[66] Grundert joined the Nazi Party in 1933 and, in 1936, was made a professor of Japanese studies at the University of Hamburg and, in 1938, become the chancellor of Hamburg university, all the while denouncing his former friend, Hirschfeld, as a "pervert".[66] Yilda Shanxay, Hirschfeld began a relationship with a 23-year-old Chinese man studying sexology, Tao Li, who remained his partner for the rest of his life.[68] Hirschfeld promised Tao that he would introduce him to German culture, saying he wanted to take him to a "Bavarian beer hall" to show him how German men drank.[69] Tao's parents, who knew about their son's sexual orientation and accepted his relationship with Hirschfeld, threw a farewell party when the two left China, with Tao's father expressing the hope that his son would become the "Hirschfeld of China".[70]

After staying in the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia), where Hirschfeld caused an uproar by speech comparing Dutch imperialism to slavery, Hirschfeld arrived in India in September 1931.[67] Yilda Ollohobod, Hirschfeld met Javaharlal Neru and gave speeches supporting the Indian independence movement, stating "it is one of the biggest injustices in the world that one of the oldest civilized nations...cannot rule independently".[71] However, Hirschfeld's Indian speeches were mainly concerned with attacking the 1927 book Ona Hindiston by the white supremacist American author Ketrin Mayo, where she painted an unflattering picture of sexuality in India as brutal and perverted, as "England-friendly propaganda".[72] As Mayo's book had caused much controversy in India, Hirschfeld's speeches defending Indians against her accusations were well received.[72] Hirschfeld, who was fluent in English, made a point of quoting from the articles written by W. T. Stead yilda Pall Mall gazetasi in 1885, exposing rampant child prostitution in London as proving that sexuality in Britain could also be brutal and perverted: a matter which, he noted, did not interest Mayo in the slightest.[72] Hirschfeld was very interested in the subject of Indian sexuality or, as he called it, "the Indian art of love".[67] Hirschfeld's main guide to India was Girindrasekhar Bose and, in general, Hirschfeld's contacts were limited to the English-speaking Indian elite, as he did not speak Hindi or any of the other Indian languages.[73] Ichkarida qolish paytida Patna, Hirschfeld drew up a will naming Tao as his main beneficiary and asking Tao, if he should die, to take his ashes to be buried at the Institute for Sexual Research in Berlin.[69]

Afrika va Yaqin Sharq

Yilda Misr, where Hirschfeld and Tao traveled to next, arriving in November 1931, Hirschfeld wrote "to the Arabs...homoerotic love practice is something natural and that Mohammad could not change this attitude".[74] Yilda Qohira, Hirschfeld and Tao met the Egyptian feminist leader Huda Shaaraviy -who stopped wearing the Muslim veil in 1923 and popularized going unveiled which, for Hirschfeld, illustrated how gender roles could change.[67] In a rebuke to Western notions of superiority, Hirschfeld wrote "the average ethical and intellectual levels of the Egyptians was equal to that of the European nations".[74] Hirschfeld's visit to the Falastin mandati (modern Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza strip) marked one of the few times when he publicly referred to his Jewishness saying, as a Jew, it was greatly moving to visit Quddus.[75] Hirschfeld was not a religious Jew, stating that Gottesfurcht ("fear of God"-i.e. religious belief) was irrational, but that he did feel a certain sentimental attachment to Palestine.[75] In general, Hirschfeld was supportive of Zionism, but expressed concern about what he regarded as certain chauvinist tendencies in the Zionist movement and he deplored the adoption of Hebrew as the lingua franca saying, if only the Jews of Palestine spoke German rather than Hebrew, he would have stayed.[75] In March 1932, Hirschfeld arrived in Athens, where he told journalists that, regardless of whether Hindenburg or Hitler won the presidential election that month, he probably would not return to Germany, as both men were equally homophobic.[76]

Later life and exile

On 10 May 1933, Nazis in Berlin burned works by chapchilar and other authors which they considered "un-German", including thousands of books that were looted from the library of Hirschfeld's Institut für Sexualwissenschaft.

On 20 July 1932, the Chancellor Franz fon Papen carried out a coup that deposed the Braun government in Prussia, and appointed himself the Reyx commissioner for the state. A conservative Catholic who had long been a vocal critic of homosexuality, Papen ordered the Prussian police to start enforcing Paragraph 175 and to crack down in general on "sexual immorality" in Prussia.[77] The Institut für Sexualwissenschaft remained open, but under Papen's rule, the police began to harass people who were associated with it.

On 30 January 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor. Less than four months after the Natsistlar took power, Hirschfeld's Institute was sacked. On the morning of 6 May, a group of university students who belonged to the National Socialist Student League stormed the institution, shouting "Brenne Hirschfeld!" ("Burn Hirschfeld!") and began to beat up its staff and smash up the premises.[78] In the afternoon, the SA came to the institute, carrying out a more systematic attack, removing all volumes from the library and storing them for a book-burning event which was to be held four days later.[78] In the evening, the Berlin police arrived at the institution and announced that it was closed forever.[78]

By the time of the book burning, Hirschfeld had long since left Germany for a speaking tour that took him around the world; he never returned to Germany. In March 1932, he stopped briefly in Afina, spent several weeks in Vena va keyin joylashdilar Tsyurix, Switzerland, in August 1932.[79] While he was there, he worked on a book which recounted his experiences and observations while he was on his world tour and it was published in 1933 as Die Weltreise eines Sexualforschers (Brugg, Switzerland: Bözberg-Verlag, 1933). It was published in an English translation in the United States under the title Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935) and in England it was published under the title Women East and West: Impressions of a Sex Expert (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, 1935).

Hirschfeld stayed near Germany, hoping that he would be able to return to Berlin if the country's political situation improved. With the Nazi regime's unequivocal rise to power which coincided with the completion of his work on his tour book, he decided to go into exile in France. On his 65th birthday, 14 May 1933, Hirschfeld arrived in Parij, where he lived in a luxurious apartment building on 24 Avenue Charles Floquet, facing the Shamp de Mars.[79] Hirschfeld lived with Li and Giese.[80] In 1934, Giese was involved in a dispute by a swimming pool that Hirschfeld called "trifling" but it led French authorities to expel him.[80] Giese's fate left Hirschfeld very depressed.[80]

A year-and-a-half after arriving in France, in November 1934, Hirschfeld moved south to Yaxshi, a seaside resort on the Mediterranean coast. He lived in a luxurious apartment building with a view of the sea across an enormous garden on the Promenade des Anglais.[81] Throughout his stay in France, he continued researching, writing, campaigning and working to establish a French successor to his lost institute in Berlin.[79] Hirschfeld's sister, Recha Tobias, did not leave Germany and died in the Terezín Ghetto on 28 September 1942 (the cause of death entered in her death certificate - "heart weakness").[50][51][82]

While in France, Hirschfeld finished a book which he had been writing during his world tour, Rassismus (Irqchilik). It was published posthumously in English in 1938.[83] Hirschfeld wrote that the purpose of the book was to explore "the racial theory which underlines the doctrine of racial war," saying that he himself was "numbered among the many thousands who have fallen victim to the practical realization of this theory."[83]

Unlike many who saw the völkisch ideology of the Nazi regime as an aberration and a retrogression from modernity, Hirschfeld insisted that it had deep roots, going back to the Nemis ma'rifati in the 18th century, and it was very much a part of modernity rather than an aberration from it.[84] He added that, in the 19th century, an ideology which divided all of humanity into biologically different irqlar — white, black, yellow, brown and red — as devised by Yoxann Fridrix Blumenbax served as a way of turning xurofot into a "universal truth", apparently validated by fan.[84] In turn, Hirschfeld held the view that this soxta ilmiy way of dividing humanity was the basis of Western thinking about modernity, with whites being praised as the "civilized" race in contrast to the other races, which were dismissed for their "barbarism"; such thinking was used to justify oq ustunlik.[84]

In this way, he argued that the völkisch irqchilik of the National Socialist regime was only an extreme variant of prejudices that were held throughout the G'arbiy dunyo, and the differences between Nazi ideology and the racism that was practiced in other nations were differences in degree rather than differences in kind.[84] Hirschfeld argued against this way of seeing the world, writing "if it were practical, we should certainly do well to eradicate the use of the word 'race' as far as subdivisions of the human species are concerned; or if we do use it in this way, to put it into quote marks to show it is questionable".[84]

The last of Hirschfeld's books to be published during his lifetime, L'Ame et l'amour, psychologie sexologique [The Human Spirit and Love: Sexological Psychology] (Paris: Gallimard, 1935), was published in French in late April 1935;[85] it was his only book that was never published in a German-language edition. In the book's preface, he described his hopes for his new life in France:

In search of sanctuary, I have found my way to that country, the nobility of whose traditions, and whose ever-present charm, have already been as balm to my soul. I shall be glad and grateful if I can spend some few years of peace and repose in France and Paris, and still more grateful to be enabled to repay the hospitality accorded to me, by making available those abundant stores of knowledge acquired throughout my career.[86]

O'lim

Gloria Mansions I, 63 Promenade des Anglais, Nice, The apartment complex where Magnus Hirschfeld died on 14 May 1935.
Hirschfeld's tomb in the Caucade Cemetery in Nice, France, photographed the day before the 75th anniversary of his death.

On his 67th birthday, 14 May 1935, Hirschfeld died of a yurak xuruji in his apartment at the Gloria Mansions I building at 63 Promenade des Anglais Qanchadan-qancha.[81] His body was cremated, and the ashes interred in a simple tomb in the Caucade qabristoni Qanchadan-qancha.[79] The upright headstone in gray granite is inset with a bronze bas-relief portrait of Hirschfeld in profile by German sculptor and decorative artist Arnold Zadikow (1884–1943), who like Hirschfeld was a native of the town of Kolberg. The slab covering the tomb is engraved with Hirschfeld's Latin motto, "Per Scientiam ad Justitiam" ("through science to justice").[49][87] (The Caucade Cemetery is likewise the location of the grave of surgeon and sexual-rejuvenation proponent Serj Voronoff, whose work Hirschfeld had discussed in his own publications.)

On 14 May 2010, to mark the 75th anniversary of Hirschfeld's death, a French national organization, the Mémorial de la Déportation Homosexuelle (MDH), in partnership with the new LGBT Community Center of Nice (Centre LGBT Côte d'Azur), organized a formal delegation to the cemetery. Speakers recalled Hirschfeld's life and work and laid a large bouquet of pink flowers on his tomb; the ribbon on the bouquet was inscribed "Au pionnier de nos causes. Le MDH et le Centre LGBT" ("To the pioneer of our causes. The MDH and the LGBT Center").[88]

Meros

Amerika Genri Gerber, ga biriktirilgan Allied Army of Occupation following World War I, became impressed by Hirschfeld and absorbed many of the doctor's ideas. Upon his return to the United States, Gerber was inspired to form the short-lived Chicago-based Inson huquqlari uchun jamiyat in 1924, the first known gay rights organization in the nation.[89] In turn, a partner of one of the former members of the Society communicated the existence of the society to Los Angeles resident Garri Xey 1929 yilda; Hay would go on to help establish the Mattachine Jamiyati in 1950, the first national homosexual rights organization to operate for many years in the United States.

Bust of Magnus Hirschfeld in the Shvules muzeyi, Berlin

1979 yilda Milliy LGBT federatsiyasi established the Hirschfeld Centre, Irlandiya 's second gay and lesbian community centre. Although badly damaged by a 1987 fire, the centre continued to house the Gey hamjamiyati yangiliklari magazine until 1997.[90]

In 1982, a group of German researchers and activists founded the Magnus Hirschfeld Society (Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft e.V.) in West Berlin, in anticipation of the approaching 50th anniversary of the destruction of Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science. Ten years later, the society established a Berlin-based center for research on the history of sexology.[91] The society's stated goals are the following:[91]

  • To study the history of research on sexuality and gender, of the sexual reform movement and of related scholarly disciplines and life reform movements.
  • To help establish research on sexuality and gender within academic institutions.

Since the late 20th century, researchers associated with the Magnus Hirschfeld Society have succeeded in tracking down previously dispersed and lost records and artifacts of Hirschfeld's life and work. They have brought together many of these materials at the society's archives in Berlin.[92][93] At an exhibition at the Shvules muzeyi in Berlin from 7 December 2011 to 31 March 2012, the society publicly displayed a selection of these collections for the first time.[94]

The Nemis ijtimoiy-ilmiy jinsiy aloqani o'rganish jamiyati tashkil etdi Magnus Xirshfeld medali in 1990. The Society awards the Medal in two categories, contributions to sexual research and contributions to sexual reform.

The Xirshfeld Eddi jamg'armasi, established in Germany in 2007, is named for Hirschfeld and lesbian activist FannyAnn Eddy.

In August 2011, after 30 years of advocacy by the Magnus Hirschfeld Society and other associations and individuals, the Federal Germaniya kabineti granted 10 million euros to establish the Magnus Hirschfeld National Foundation (Bundesstiftung Magnus Hirschfeld), a foundation to support research and education about the life and work of Magnus Hirschfeld, the Nazi persecution of homosexuals, German LGBT culture and community, and ways to counteract prejudice against LGBT people; The Federal Adliya vazirligi (Germaniya) was expected to contribute an additional 5 million euros, bringing the initial endowment of the foundation to a total of 15 million euros.[95][96][97]

Season 4 episode 2 of the podkast "Geylar tarixini yaratish " is about Hirschfeld.[98]

Ommaviy madaniyatdagi tasvirlar

U.S. first edition of Robert Hichens, That Which Is Hidden (Doubleday, Doran, 1940).

Magnus Hirschfeld has been portrayed in a number of works of popular culture both during his lifetime and subsequently. Following is a sampling of genres and titles:

Karikatura

Hirschfeld was a frequent target of caricatures in the popular press during his lifetime. Historian James Steakley reproduces several examples in his German-language book Die Freunde des Kaisers. Die Eulenburg-Affäre im Spiegel zeitgenössischer Karikaturen (Hamburg: MännerschwarmSkript, 2004). Additional examples appear in the French-language book Derrière "lui" (L'Homosexualité en Allemagne) (Paris: E. Bernard, [1908]) by John Grand-Carteret.

Film va televidenie

  • Boshqalardan farq qiladi (Germany, 1919); rejissor Richard Osvald; cowritten by Oswald and Magnus Hirschfeld. Hirschfeld appears in a cameo playing himself. Karl Giese, the young man who subsequently became Hirschfeld's lover, also had a part in the film.
  • Race d'Ep: Un Siècle d'Images de l'Homosexualité (France, 1979); directed by Lionel Soukaz; cowritten by Soukaz and Gay Xokvenhem; released in the United States under the title The Homosexual Century. An experimental film portraying 100 years of homosexual history in four episodes, one of which focuses on Hirschfeld and his work. French gay writer Pierre Hahn played the role of Hirschfeld.[99][100][101]
  • Desire: Sexuality in Germany, 1910–1945 (United Kingdom, 1989); directed by Stuart Marshall. A feature-length documentary tracing the emergence of the homosexual subculture and the homosexual emancipation movement in pre-World War II Germany – and their destruction by the Nazi regime.[102] According to film historian Robin Wood, Marshall "treats the burning of Hirschfeld's library and the closing of his Institute of Sexual Science as the film's...central moment...."[103]
  • A segment on Hirschfeld appears in episode 19 of Haqiqiy jinsiy aloqa, birinchi bo'lib ko'rsatilgan HBO 1998 yil 7 fevralda.
  • The Einstein of Sex (Germany, 1999); rejissor Roza fon Praunxaym. A fictional biopic inspired by Hirschfeld's life and work.
  • Xatboshi 175 (film) (US, 2000); rejissor Rob Epstein va Jeffri Fridman (kinorejissyor). A feature-length documentary on the persecution of homosexuals during the Nazi regime. The first part of the film provides a brief overview of the history of the homosexual emancipation movement in Germany from the late-19th century through the early 1930s, with Hirschfeld and his work prominently featured.[103]
  • Several episodes of the second season of the Amazon television series Shaffof (US, 2014–) include a portrayal of Hirschfeld and his institute, with its residents played by extras and recurring actors from the series proper. Hirschfeld himself is played by Bredli Uitford.

Badiiy adabiyot

  • Robert Xichens (1939). That Which Is Hidden (London: Cassell & Company). U.S. Edition: New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1940. The novel opens with the protagonist visiting the tomb of a famed Austrian sex expert, Dr. R. Ellendorf, in a cemetery in Nice. At the tomb, he meets the late doctor's protégé, a Chinese student named Kho Ling. The character of Ling refers to the memory of his mentor at numerous points in the novel. From the description of the settings and the characters, Ellendorf clearly was inspired by Hirschfeld, and Ling by Hirschfeld's last partner and heir, Li Shiu Tong (Tao Li).[104]
  • Arno Schmidt (1970). Zettels Traum (Frankfurt-am-Main: S. Fischer Verlag). Hirschfeld is quoted often in this novel about sexuality.
  • Nicolas Verdan (2011). Le Patient du docteur Hirschfeld (Orbe, Switzerland: Bernard Campiche). A French-language spy thriller inspired by the sacking of Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science by the Nazis.

Ishlaydi

Was muss das Volk vom Dritten Geschlecht wissen!, 1901
Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen, 1914
Filmposter for Hirschfeld's Gesetze der Liebe, 1927

Hirschfeld's works are listed in the following bibliography, which is extensive but not comprehensive:

  • Steakley, James D. The Writings of Magnus Hirschfeld: A Bibliography. Toronto: Canadian Gay Archives, 1985.

The following have been translated into English:

  • Sappho and Socrates: How Does One Explain the Love of Men and Women to Persons of Their Own Sex? (1896), translated by Michael Lombardi-Nash. Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2019.
  • The Transvestites: The Erotic Drive to Cross-Dress (1910), Prometheus Books; translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1991).
  • Homosexuality of Men and Women (1914);[105] translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash, 2000 [106]
  • The Sexual History of the World War (1930), New York City, Panurge Press, 1934; significantly abridged translation and adaptation of the original German edition: Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges, 2 vols., Verlag für Sexualwissenschaft, Schneider & Co., Leipzig & Vienna, 1930. The plates from the German edition are not included in the Panurge Press translation, but a small sampling appear in a separately issued portfolio, Illustrated Supplement to The Sexual History of the World War, New York City, Panurge Press, n.d.
  • Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist (1933); translated by O. P. Green (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935).
  • Sex in Human Relationships, London, John Lane The Bodley Head, 1935; translated from the French volume L'Ame et l'amour, psychologie sexologique (Paris: Gallimard, 1935) by John Rodker.
  • Irqchilik (1938), translated by Adan va Sidar Pol. This denunciation of racial discrimination was not influential at the time, although it seems prophetic in retrospect.[107]

Avtobiografik

  • Xirshfeld, Magnus. Von einst bis jetzt: Geschichte einer homosexuellen Bewegung 1897–1922. Schriftenreihe der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft Nr. 1. Berlin: rosa Winkel, 1986. (Reprint of a series of articles by Hirschfeld originally published in Die Freundschaft, 1920–21.)
  • M.H. [Magnus Hirschfeld], "Hirschfeld, Magnus (Autobiographical Sketch)," in Victor Robinson (ed.), Encyclopaedia Sexualis, New York City: Dingwall-Rock, 1936, pp. 317–321.
  • Xirshfeld, Magnus. Ahd. Heft II; introduced and annotated by Ralf Dose. Berlin: Hentrich und Hentrich Verlag, 2013. (Critical edition of the only surviving volume of Hirschfeld's personal journal.)

Shuningdek qarang

  • Der Eigene: world's first gay journal, Berlin, 1896–1932
  • Willi Pape: a famous cabaret performer who appeared in Hirschfeld's 1912 book on transvestites

Izohlar

  1. ^ Devid A. Gerstner, Routledge International Queer Culture ensiklopediyasi (2006, ISBN  1136761810), page 374
  2. ^ Golts, Dastin (2008). "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Movements", In Lind, Amy; Brzuzy, Stephanie (eds.). Battleground: Women, Gender, and Sexuality: Volume 2, pp. 291 ff. Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN  978-0-313-34039-0
  3. ^ Blum, Steven (31 January 2014). "Berlin's Einstein Of Sex". Shtetl. Your Alternative Jewish Magazine (Montreal).
  4. ^ "Magnus Hirschfeld | German physician". Britannica entsiklopediyasi. Olingan 7 iyun 2019.
  5. ^ Russell, Paul (2002). Gey 100. U.S.A.: Kensington Books. p. 15. ISBN  0-7582-0100-1.
  6. ^ a b Bauer 2007, p. 21.
  7. ^ Bauer 2017, p. 37.
  8. ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 40.
  9. ^ Bauer 2017, p. 39.
  10. ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 41.
  11. ^ a b v d Bauer 2017, p. 55.
  12. ^ Bauer 2017, p. 48.
  13. ^ Bauer 2007, p. 22.
  14. ^ Bauer 2007, 22-23 betlar.
  15. ^ Bauer 2007, p. 23.
  16. ^ Heinrich Gerhard Eduard Oberg (1858–1917)
  17. ^ Franz Vollrath Carl Wilhelm Joseph von Bülow (1861–1915)
  18. ^ Bauer 2007, p. 25.
  19. ^ a b Bauer 2017, p. 49.
  20. ^ a b v Bauer 2017, p. 54.
  21. ^ a b Bauer 2007, p. 80.
  22. ^ a b v Bauer 2017, p. 28.
  23. ^ Bauer 2017, 28-29 betlar.
  24. ^ a b v Dickinson 2002, p. 272.
  25. ^ a b v d Bauer 2007, p. 30.
  26. ^ Bauer 2007, 30-31 betlar.
  27. ^ a b v d e f g Mancini, Elena Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement, London: Macmillan, 2010 p. 100
  28. ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 128.
  29. ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 103.
  30. ^ a b Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 pp. 103–104
  31. ^ Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 p. 104
  32. ^ a b Domeier, Norman The Eulenburg Affair: A Cultural History of Politics in the German Empire, Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2015 pp. 103–105.
  33. ^ a b v d e f g Mancini, Elena Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement, London: Macmillan, 2010 p. 101.
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Qo'shimcha o'qish

Biografiyalar

  • Bauer, Heike (2017). "Xirshfeld arxivi: zo'ravonlik, o'lim va zamonaviy Queer madaniyati". Filadelfiya: Temple universiteti matbuoti. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
  • Domeier, Norman: "Magnus Hirschfeld", yilda: 1914–1918 onlayn. Birinchi jahon urushi xalqaro ensiklopediyasi, ed. Frey Universität Berlin, Berlin tomonidan chiqarilgan Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer va Bill Nasson tomonidan 2016-04-07. doi:10.15463 / ya'ni1418.10887.
  • Doz, Ralf. Magnus Xirshfeld: Deytsher, Yahudo, Veltburger. Tets: Xentrix und Xentrix, 2005 yil. (nemis tilida)
  • Doz, Ralf. Magnus Xirshfeld: Geylarni ozod qilish harakatining kelib chiqishi. Nyu-York shahri: Oylik Review Press, 2014; Dose 2005 yil nemis tilidagi biografiyasining qayta ko'rib chiqilgan va kengaytirilgan nashri.
  • Gertser, Manfred. Magnus Xirshfeld: Leben und Werk eines jüdischen, schwulen und sozialistischen Sexologen. 2-nashr. Gamburg: Männerschwarm, 2001. (nemis tilida)
  • Koskovich, Jerar (tahrir). Magnus Xirshfeld (1868–1935). Un pionnier du mouvement gomoseksual qarama-qarshilik au nazisme. Parij: Mémorial de la Déportation Gomoseksuel, 2010 yil. (frantsuz tilida)
  • Kotovski, Elke-Vera va Julius H. SHoeps (tahrir). Der Sexualreformer Magnus Xirshfeld. Ein Leben im Spannungsfeld von Wissenschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft. Berlin: Bebra, 2004 yil. (nemis tilida)
  • Manchini, Elena. Magnus Xirshfeld va jinsiy erkinlik uchun izlanish: Birinchi xalqaro jinsiy erkinlik harakati tarixi. Nyu-York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010 yil.
  • Stikli, Jeyms. "Har bir ilmiy asos: Magnus Xirshfeld va tug'ma gomoseksualizmning jinsiy siyosati", Ilm-fan va gomoseksualizm, tahrir. Vernon A. Rosario. Nyu-York: Routledge, 1997, 133-54 betlar.
  • Volf, Sharlotta. Magnus Xirshfeld: Seksologiyada kashshof portreti. London: Kvartet, 1986 yil.

Boshqalar

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  • Bullough, Vern L. (2002). Stonewalldan oldin: tarixiy kontekstda gey va lesbiyan huquqlari uchun faollar. Nyu-York, Harrington Park Press, Haworth Press-ning izi. ISBN  1-56023-193-9.
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  • Haeberle E.J. "" Die Sexualitaet des Mannes und des Weibes "ning qayta nashr etilishi, E.J. Haeberle tomonidan sharhlangan. De Gruyter, 1984, ISBN  3110101300
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  • Lauritsen, Jon va Thorstad, Devid. Erta gomoseksual huquqlar harakati, 1864–1935. 2-rev. nashr. Novato, CA: Times Change Press, 1995 yil.
  • Marxofer, Lori (2011 yil oktyabr). "Degeneratsiya, jinsiy erkinlik va Veymar respublikasi siyosati, 1918–1933". Germaniya tadqiqoti. 34 (3): 529–549. ISSN  0149-7952.
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  • Steakley, Jeyms (1999). "Veymar Respublikasida kino va tsenzura: Anders va boshqalar Die Andern ishi". Film tarixi. 11 (2): 181–203. ISSN  0149-7952.
  • Stikli, Jeyms, "Anders als Andern:" Ein Film und seine Geschichte. Gamburg: Männerschwarm Verlag 2007. (Dirk Naguschewski tomonidan HSozKult-da ko'rib chiqilgan, 2008)

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