Irq va giyohvandlikka qarshi kurash - Race and the war on drugs

The Giyohvand moddalarga qarshi urush tomonidan amalga oshirilgan harakatlar va qonun hujjatlarining muddati AQSh federal hukumati, ishlab chiqarishni, tarqatishni va ishlatishni kamaytirish yoki yo'q qilish uchun mo'ljallangan noqonuniy giyohvand moddalar. Giyohvandlarga qarshi urush davrida boshlangan Nikson ma'muriyati noqonuniy dori-darmonlarni etkazib berish va ularga bo'lgan talabni kamaytirish maqsadida, ammo g'ayrioddiy irqiy motivatsiya taklif qilingan.[1] Giyohvand moddalarga qarshi kurash, shu jumladan munozarali qonunchilik va siyosatga olib keldi majburiy minimal nomutanosib ravishda amalga oshirilishi tavsiya etilgan jarimalar va to'xtovsiz qidiruvlar ozchiliklar.[2][3] Giyohvand moddalarga qarshi urushning ta'siri munozarali bo'lib, ba'zilar hibsga olish, sudga tortish, qamoqqa olish va reabilitatsiya qilishda irqiy nomutanosibliklar yaratgan deb taxmin qilishmoqda.[4][5] Boshqalar bunday tadqiqotlar metodologiyasini va xulosalarini tanqid qildilar.[6] Amalga oshirishdagi nomutanosibliklardan tashqari, ba'zilar giyohvand moddalarga qarshi urushning garov ta'sirining shakllari shakllangan deb da'vo qilmoqdalar tizimli zo'ravonlik, ayniqsa ozchilik jamoalari uchun.[7][8]

Huquq-tartibot siyosati

Kelib chiqishi

Bir necha olimlar, shu jumladan tarixchi va huquqshunos Mishel Aleksandr, Giyohvandlarga qarshi urush "deb nomlanuvchi siyosiy strategiyaning mahsulidir"jinoyatchilikka qarshi kurashish. "Konservativ siyosatda tashabbusning paydo bo'lishi 1950 yillarning o'rtalarida Amerika kampaniyalarida kuzatilishi mumkin.[9] 1966 yil AQSh yangiliklari va dunyo hisoboti Niksonning prezidentlik kampaniyasini yoritgan maqolada uning so'zlariga ko'ra, "jinoyatchilikning tobora ko'payib borishi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri har bir fuqaro qaysi qonunlarga bo'ysunishi va qachon ularga bo'ysunmaslik to'g'risida qaror qabul qilishning ajralmas huquqiga ega bo'lgan korroziv doktrinaning tarqalishi bilan izohlanishi mumkin".[10] 1960-yillarda Nikson o'zining birinchi prezidentlik saylovlarini o'tkazayotgan paytda, Qo'shma Shtatlarda jinoyatchilik darajasi keskin ko'tarila boshladi. Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, ko'cha jinoyati to'rt baravar, qotillik darajasi esa ikki baravarga oshgan.[9]

Iskandarning yozishicha, hozirgi paytda olimlar jinoyatchilik koeffitsientining ko'tarilishini aholi sonining ko'payishi bilan izohlashadi bolalar boomeri avlod, konservatorlar keyinchalik o'sishni irq bilan bog'lashdi. Jinoyatchilik to'g'risidagi xabarlar axloqni yo'qotishi va undan keyin ijtimoiy barqarorlikni isbotlovchi dalil sifatida ishlatilgan Fuqarolik huquqlari harakati.[11] 1964 yil Respublikachilar partiyasidan prezidentlikka nomzod Barri Goldwater uning saylovoldi kampaniyasi davomida aloqani o'rnatdi va jinoyatchilik harakatining kuchayishiga zamin yaratishda yordam berdi. 1964 yilda "Kuch orqali tinchlik" nutqida Golduoter: "Yo'lni tanlang Jonson ma'muriyati Sizda esa ko'chalarda olomonning yo'li bor ".[12] Lindon Jonson o'tishi uchun ma'muriyat javobgar edi Fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi 1964 y.

Aleksandrning ta'kidlashicha, Goldwater prezidentlik saylovlarida mag'lub bo'lgan, ammo uning saylovoldi strategiyasi Niksonning 1968 yildagi nomzodiga ta'sir qilgan. Aleksandrning ta'kidlashicha, Niksonning prezidentlik saylovoldi kampaniyasi siyosati qora tanli so'zlar bilan kodlangan. Nikson qora tanli janub aholisining shimolga ko'chib o'tishiga to'xtalib, "bu shaharlarga jinoyatchilikka uchragan qarorgohlar va norozilik bilan javob qaytarildi", dedi. Nikson saylovoldi kampaniyasidan oldin faqat qonun va tartib to'g'risida 17 ta ma'ruza qildi 1968 yil prezident saylovi.[13] Respublikachi strateg Kevin Fillips 1969 yilda o'zining "Rivojlanayotgan respublikachilar ko'pligi" nufuzli argumentini e'lon qildi va "Niksonning muvaffaqiyatli prezidentlik saylovi kampaniyasi, agar respublikachilar asosan irqiy asosda saylovoldi tashviqotini davom ettirsalar, uzoq muddatli siyosiy yo'nalish va yangi respublika ko'pchiligini barpo etish yo'lini ko'rsatishi mumkin. kodlangan antibakterial ritorikadan foydalangan holda. "[14]

Nikson ma'muriyati

Giyohvandlarga qarshi urush Prezident tomonidan e'lon qilindi Richard Nikson Kongressga 1971 yil 17 iyunda giyohvand moddalardan o'lim darajasi oshishiga javoban yuborilgan maxsus xabar paytida.[15] O'zining e'lon paytida Nikson urushni ikki jabhada kurashni eslatib o'tdi: ta'minot fronti va talab fronti. Ta'minot masalasini hal qilish uchun Nikson giyohvand moddalarni zobitlarini xalqaro miqyosda o'qitish uchun mablag 'so'radi va noqonuniy giyohvand moddalar ishlab chiqaruvchilariga xalaqit beradigan turli qonunlarni taklif qildi. Talab jabhasi majburiy ijro va reabilitatsiya to'g'risida; Nikson noqonuniy giyohvand moddalarga bo'lgan talabni qondirishda turli idoralarni muvofiqlashtirish uchun Narkotik moddalarni suiiste'mol qilishning oldini olish bo'yicha Maxsus harakat idorasini yaratishni taklif qildi. Shuningdek, u davolash va reabilitatsiya dasturlari uchun 155 million dollar qo'shimcha mablag 'va Narkotiklar va xavfli giyohvand moddalar byurosining hajmi va texnologik imkoniyatlarini oshirish uchun qo'shimcha mablag' so'radi.[15]

Boshqariladigan moddalar to'g'risidagi qonun

Nikson 1970 yilda giyohvand moddalarni suiiste'mol qilish bilan bog'liq birinchi yirik federal siyosatini e'lon qildi. "Nazorat qilinadigan moddalar to'g'risidagi qonun" (CSA) nomi bilan tanilgan bu qonun 1970 yil 7 sentyabrda ratifikatsiya qilindi va uning ma'muriyatining birinchi yirik siyosiy yutuqlaridan biri bo'ldi. CSA. federal darajada ba'zi moddalarni ishlab chiqarish, tarqatish, ishlatish va tarqatishni tartibga soladi. U nazorat ostida bo'lgan barcha moddalarni suiiste'mol qilish ehtimoli va tibbiy davolanishda foydalanish qobiliyatiga qarab rejalashtirilgan beshta sinfdan biriga joylashtirdi.[16] Qonunning bir xususiyati marixuana va giyohvand moddalarni suiiste'mol qilish bo'yicha Milliy komissiyani tashkil etish edi Shafer komissiyasi sobiq Pensilvaniya gubernatori tomonidan boshqarilgan Richard Shafer. Uning maqsadi foydalanish hajmini tushunish edi marixuana Qo'shma Shtatlarda.[17] Komissiya marixuana geroin va kokainni o'z ichiga olgan eng xavfli tasnif 1-jadval sifatida tasniflanishga loyiq emasligini aniqladi. Bundan tashqari, qo'mita ma'muriyatni marixuana bilan bog'liq qonunlarni qonuniylashtirish imkoniyatlarini ko'rib chiqishga chaqirdi.[17]

Giyohvandlar tarixchisi, yozuvchi va tadqiqotchi Emili Dufton Niksonning marixuana uchun nafratlanishini va uning giyohvandlik bilan ijtimoiy chiriyotgan o'rtasidagi bog'liqlikka bo'lgan shaxsiy ishonchini tasdiqlaydi. Bundan tashqari, u Nikson marixuanani "qora dori" deb bilishini va giyohvandlikka nisbatan jazolash munosabati katta siyosiy foyda keltirishi mumkinligini ta'kidlaydi.[18] Duftonning ta'kidlashicha, ma'muriyat Shafer komissiyasining hisobotini Niksonning giyohvandlikka bo'lgan shaxsiy hissiyotlari tufayli bevosita e'tiborsiz qoldirgan. Nikson Shaferga shaxsiy uchrashuvda: "Menda marixuana borasida juda kuchli tuyg'ular bor", dedi. U so'zlarini davom ettirdi: "Men giyohvand moddalarga qarshi xudolarning qattiq bayonotini xohlayman. Faqat qonuniylashtirish tarafdorlaridan eshakni yirtib tashlaydigan narsa."[18] Marixuananing psixoaktiv kimyoviy moddasi, tetrahidrokannabinol (THC), bir nechta shtatlarda qonuniylashtirilganiga qaramay, hali ham 1-jadval dori-darmonlari ro'yxatiga kiritilgan. Jinoiy adliya va giyohvandlik siyosatining olimlari Antoniy Lovenshteyn va Kichik Jeyms Forman CSA tabiatan jazolash vositasi emas, balki marixuanani jinlarni va jinoyat yo'li bilan nishonga olganligini ta'kidladi. Ularning dalillari marixuana nishonga olish qora tanlilarga qarshi siyosiy strategiyaning bir qismi ekanligiga ishonishga asoslangan edi. Ikkala ziyolining ta'kidlashicha, marixuana shaharning qora tanli aholisi, fuqarolar huquqlari noroziligi va 1960-yillarning oxiri va 70-yillarning boshlarida ko'tarilgan jinoyatchilik bilan konservativ siyosatchilar tomonidan muvofiqlashtirilgan. Ushbu dalil xulosasiga ko'ra, siyosiy strategiya qora tanli jamoalarning marixuana ishlatishiga nisbatan nomutanosib jazo muolajalariga olib keldi.[19][20]

Federal mablag'larning ko'payishi

1971 yil 17-iyun kuni Nikson matbuot anjumani o'tkazib, "Amerikaning AQShdagi birinchi raqamli dushmani giyohvandlik" deb e'lon qildi. U davom etdi: "Ushbu dushmanga qarshi kurashish va uni yengish uchun yangi, har tomonlama hujum qilish kerak".[21] Nutqda Nikson Kongressni "giyohvandlikni davolash va oldini olish" ga 150 million dollar miqdorida yangi mablag 'ajratilishini tasdiqlashga chaqirdi.[15] Ga ko'ra Mehnat statistikasi byurosi, bu endi atigi 966 million dollarga teng.[22]

Geroin epidemiyasi

Nikson ma'muriyati davrida mamlakat a geroin epidemiyasi. Geroinga qaram bo'lganlar 15 baravar ko'p edi Vashington, DC, butun Angliyada bo'lgani kabi.[23] AQSh hukumati bunga ikki xil javob berdi. Birinchi javob Nikson tomonidan yaqinda tayinlangan Giyohvandlikning oldini olish bo'yicha maxsus harakatlar boshqarmasi tomonidan boshlandi Jerom Jaffe geroinga bepul sintetik alternativalarni hukumat tomonidan tartibga solinadigan shaklda taqdim etish metadon.[24] Maqsad giyohvandlarni davolash emas, balki ularning giyohvandliklarini boqish uchun ko'cha jinoyatlariga yo'l qo'ymaslik edi. Ikkinchi javob politsiyaning ko'payishi ko'rinishida bo'ldi. Ba'zi jamoat faollari Niksonni davolash dasturini tanqid qildilar, ularning aksariyati geroin giyohvandligi va metadon bilan davolashni qora zulmning yangi shakli deb hisoblashdi.[23] Qora tanli hamjamiyat rahbarlaridan dilerlar va foydalanuvchilarga nisbatan ko'proq jazo choralarini ko'rishga chaqiriq bo'lgan. Qora faollar Chikago, DC va Harlem hukumatni politsiya tartibini va talonchilik, mugging, ko'cha savdosi va qotillik bilan shug'ullangan shaxslarga nisbatan jazoni kuchaytirishga chaqirdi.[25] Aksariyat fuqaro huquqlari himoyachilari Oq Uyda Niksonni qo'lga kiritgan qonun va tartib ritorikasiga qarshi turdilar, ammo giyohvand moddalarni eng ko'p iste'mol qilgan shaharlarning boshqa faollari ko'proq jazolangan giyohvandlik siyosatining dastlabki tarafdorlari edilar. Olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, konservativ siyosatchilar shahar shahar rahbarlarining chaqiriqlarini qonun va tartib siyosatining irq bilan hech qanday aloqasi yo'qligining isboti sifatida ishlatishgan.[26] Ko'pgina tarixchilar, shu jumladan kichik Foreman va Aleksandr yozishicha, qora tanli siyosatchilar bila turib yoki bilmagan holda dunyo tarixida misli ko'rilmagan darajada ish olib boradigan Amerikaning jazo tizimini shakllantirishga yordam berishdi.[26]

Giyohvandlikka qarshi kurash agentligini yaratish

1973 yilda Nikson Giyohvandlikka qarshi kurash agentligi (DEA) Xavfli giyohvand moddalar byurosi va AQSh Bojxona agentligini birlashtirish. DEA-ning o'z tarixiy ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, birlashishdan maqsad AQShda giyohvand moddalarning ko'payib borishi va ulardan foydalanish bilan kurashish maqsadida idoralar o'rtasidagi raqobat va noto'g'ri aloqani to'xtatish edi.[27]

Yaratilgandan so'ng, DEA birlashtirilishidan oldin ikkala agentlik olgan mablag'ga nisbatan federal mablag'ni 1 milliard dollarga oshirdi. 1973 yildan, birlashishdan oldin, 1974 yilgacha, giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilish uchun federal byudjet 41 milliard dollarga o'sdi va 1975 yilda yana 116,20 milliard dollardan 140,90 milliard dollarga ko'payadi.[21]

Rokfellerning majburiy minimal giyohvandlik to'g'risidagi qonunlari

1973 yilda Nyu-York gubernatori Nelson Rokfeller millatning birinchi majburiy minimal qonunchiligini qabul qildi.[28] Nyu-Yorkning giyohvandlikka duchor bo'lgan shaharlaridagi muvaffaqiyatsiz davolanish dasturlarining bosimini oshirib, Rokfeller majburiy ravishda minimal giyohvandlik to'g'risidagi qonunlarni joriy etdi. Rokfeller, Nyu-York okrugi prokuroriga ko'ra Artur Rozenblatt, gubernator sifatida reabilitatsiya davolash usullari bo'yicha kurash olib borgan, ammo endi bu siyosat muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchraganini sezdi, Niksonning "jinoyatchilikka qarshi qattiq" g'oyalariga murojaat qildi va o'z davlatiga yangi qonunlarni kiritdi.[28] Qonunlarda giyohvand moddalar savdogarlari uchun umrbod 15 yillik qamoq jazosi tayinlandi. Rozenblattning ta'kidlashicha, giyohvand yoki tasodifiy foydalanuvchilar yoki hatto juda oz miqdordagi marixuana topilgan har qanday odam, kokain yoki geroin qamoq jazosiga loyiq edi va deyarli darhol shahar va ozchiliklar yashaydigan mahallalarda hibsga olish va qamoqqa olishning nomutanosib darajasi mavjud edi. Oq tanlilar giyohvand moddalarni qora tanlilarga o'xshash narxlarda ishlatishgan va sotishgan, ammo ozchiliklar nomutanosib ravishda qamoqxonaga tushishgan.[28] Rokfeller prezident davrida vitse-prezident bo'ladi Jerald Ford Nikson iste'foga chiqqandan keyin.

Erlichman bilan suhbat

Niksonning sobiq yordamchisi Narkotiklarga qarshi urush irqiy va siyosiy sabablarga ega deb taxmin qildi.[1]

1968 yilda Nikson kampaniyasi va undan keyin Nikson Oq uyda ikkita dushman bor edi: urushga qarshi chap va qora tanli odamlar. Siz nima deyayotganimni tushunyapsizmi? Biz urushga yoki qora tanli bo'lishni qonunga xilof qilolmasligimizni bilar edik, ammo jamoatchilikni hippilarni marixuana bilan, qora tanlilarni geroin bilan birlashtirishi va keyin ikkalasini ham jinoiy javobgarlikka tortib, biz ushbu jamoalarni buzishimiz mumkin. Biz ularning etakchilarini hibsga olishimiz, uylariga bostirib kirishimiz, yig'ilishlarini tarqatib yuborishimiz va kechqurun kechqurun yangiliklarda tunda tuhmat qilishimiz mumkin. Giyohvand moddalar to'g'risida yolg'on gapirayotganimizni bilarmidik? Albatta qildik.

— Jon Erlichman, Niksonning sobiq yordamchisi, Dan Baum bilan intervyu

Ammo, chunki u Nikson ma'muriyatidan ko'ngli qolgan bo'lishi mumkin Votergeyt bilan bog'liq janjal, Erlichmanning da'vosining asosliligi haqida bahslashdi.[29]

Karter ma'muriyati

Marixuanani qonuniylashtirish

Prezident Jimmi Karter marixuanani milliy darajada legallashtirish bo'yicha advokat edi.[30] Karter 28 g dan kam marixuana saqlash dekriminallashtirilishi kerakligini ta'kidladi. Karter giyohvandlik muammosini davolashga asoslangan yondashuvga, kokain uchun yumshoq jazo choralariga ega ekanligiga ishongan, ammo avvalgilariga o'xshab geroinga qarshi bo'lgan.[31] 1977 yilda Kongressda qilgan nutqida Karter "giyohvand moddalarni saqlashga qarshi jazolar shaxsga giyohvand moddalarni ishlatishdan ko'ra ko'proq zarar etkazmasligi kerak" deb ta'kidlagan edi.

Kongress qonun chiqaruvchilari legallashtirishdan ko'ra, "marixuanani" jamoatchilik fikri uchun "jinoiy javobgarlikka tortadigan qonun loyihasini qabul qildilar. Keyinchalik olimlar bahslashganda ushbu qonun loyihasining suiste'mol qilinishini tanqid qilishadi to'xtovsiz va tezkor qonunlar.[32]

1967 yilda AQSh Oliy sudi ichida hukmronlik qildi Terri va Ogayo shtati "to'xtab-to'xtovsiz" qidirish qoidalarini buzmasligi To'rtinchi o'zgartirish agar tintuvni amalga oshiruvchi xodim tintuv o'tkazilayotgan shaxsning jinoyat sodir etganligi yoki sodir etishi to'g'risida "asosli shubha" tug'dirsa. Natijada, "to'xtash-to'xtatish" tintuvlari Narkotiklarga qarshi urush davrida ancha keng tarqalgan va odatda ozchiliklar jamoalarida o'tkazilgan.[33] "Stop-and-frisk" tintuvlari irqiy tarafkashlik natijasida ozchiliklarga nisbatan nomutanosib ravishda olib borilgani uchun tanqid qilindi, ammo bu hisob bo'yicha empirik adabiyotlar xulosaga kelmaydi. Muayyan mualliflarning aniqlashicha, jinoyatchilarning joylashuvi va jinoyatchilik darajasi tekshirilgandan so'ng ham, qora tanlilar va ispaniyaliklar oq tanlilarga qaraganda tez-tez to'xtab qolishadi.[3] Boshqalar, zobitning fuqaroni to'xtatish to'g'risidagi qarorida o'rtacha xolislik mavjud emasligini aniqladilar, ammo xokimiyat xodimining fuqaroni g'azablantirish to'g'risidagi qarorida xolislik bo'lishi mumkin.[34][35]

Karter AQSh tarixidagi eng katta qamoq jazosini nazorat qildi. U 1977 yildan 1980 yilgacha hukm qilingan mahbuslarning 34 foizga pasayishiga rahbarlik qildi, ya'ni 9625 mahbus kamaytirildi. Bu foizlar bo'yicha ham, mutlaq sonlar bo'yicha ham rekord ko'rsatkichdagi eng katta prezident bo'ldi.[36]

Reygan ma'muriyati

Prezident Ronald Reygan 1982 yil oktyabrida Narkotiklarga qarshi urushni rasman e'lon qildi. Reygan giyohvand moddalarni nazorat qilish ishini shtatdan federal darajaga o'tkazishni boshladi. Reygan Federal Qidiruv Byurosi, DEA va Mudofaa vazirligida giyohvandlikka qarshi dasturlarning byudjetini sezilarli darajada oshirdi.[37]

Afro-amerikaliklarning ommaviy axborot vositalarida vakili

Kokainni sindiring 1985 yilda Qo'shma Shtatlar ko'chalarida ishlagan. Shahar ichidagi qonuniy bandlik imkoniyatlarining pasayishi, ba'zilari giyohvand moddalarni sotishga olib keldi, eng muhimi, yorilish. Notinch va rivojlanib borayotgan krak bozorlari Qo'shma Shtatlarning ko'plab mahallalarida zo'ravonlik to'lqini yaratdi.[38] DEA, Reyganning "Giyohvandlarga qarshi urush" tashabbusi bilan ommaviy axborot vositalariga murojaat qilib, giyohvand moddalarga qarshi urushni jamoatchilik tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlash maqsadida kongressni qabul qilishni boshladi. Nyu-York shahridagi DEA vakolatxonasi rahbari Robert Strutman, "Vashingtonni ishontirish uchun men giyohvand moddalarni milliy muammoga aylantirishim kerak edi. Men harakatlarni lobbichilik qilishni boshladim va ommaviy axborot vositalaridan foydalandim. OAV hamkorlik qilishga juda tayyor edi. "[39]

1986 yil iyun oyida, Newsweek deb nomlangan crack buyuk voqea Vetnam urushi va Votergeyt va avgust oyida, Vaqt cracked "yil masalasi" deb nomlangan.[40] "Bunday yoriqlar haqida yozilgan hikoyalar" kabi xususiyatli atamalarfarovonlik malikasi," "crack go'daklar "va" to'dalar ", irqiy maqsadga qaratilgan atamalar".Ijtimoiy malika "va" yirtqich jinoyatchilar "eng tez-tez ishlatiladigan atamalar qatoriga kirgan. Reygan prezidentlik kampaniyasi paytida uni ilgari surgan.[40] Sotsiologlar Kreyg Reynerman va Garri Levin "Crack o'ng tomonga xudo edi ... Bu siyosiy jihatdan qulayroq vaqtda paydo bo'lishi mumkin emas edi".[41]

Huquqni muhofaza qilish to'g'risidagi qonun bilan harbiy hamkorlik

1981 yilda qabul qilingan "Huquqni muhofaza qilish organlari bilan harbiy hamkorlik to'g'risida" gi qonun harbiylarga mahalliy, shtat va federal politsiyaga giyohvand moddalar aralashuvi nomi bilan harbiy bazalar, qurol-yarog ', razvedka ma'lumotlari va tadqiqotlarga kirish huquqini berishga imkon berdi. Qonun kuchlarning katta qismini bekor qildi Komitatus qonuni, keyin o'tdi Qayta qurish davri Kongressning roziligisiz mahalliy politsiya harakatlarida harbiylardan foydalanishni oldini olgan.[42] Politsiya bo'limlari giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilish bo'yicha olib borilgan hibsga olishlar soniga qarab to'lovlarni oladilar. Giyohvandlikdan tashqari hibsga olish, hatto zo'ravonlik bilan qilingan jinoyatlar uchun ham moliyaviy foyda keltirmadi.[42]

Giyohvand moddalarni suiiste'mol qilish va nazorat qilish bo'yicha keng qamrovli qonun

1970 yilda qabul qilingan dastlabki hujjat hukumatlarga reydlar paytida musodara qilingan mablag'lar, giyohvand moddalar va jihozlarga fuqarolik sudlari tinglovlari va giyohvand moddalarga oid hukmlar orqali erishishga imkon berdi. Yillar davomida olib qo'yishga ruxsat berilgan narsalar ro'yxati kattalashib bordi. 1984 yilda ushbu qonunga federal huquqni muhofaza qilish idoralariga "aktivlarni musodara qilishdan tushgan har qanday va barcha mablag'larni saqlab qolish va ulardan foydalanishga imkon berish, shuningdek shtat va mahalliy politsiya idoralariga aktivlar qiymatining 80 foizigacha ushlab turishga ruxsat berish" uchun o'zgartirish kiritildi. Qonun endi politsiya bo'linmalariga, hatto sudlanmagan holda ham, giyohvand moddalar reydidan mashinalar, pul mablag'lari va mol-mulkni olib qo'yishga ruxsat berdi.[43] "Maqsadga uchraganlar odatda kambag'al yoki o'rtacha moddiy ahvolda bo'lganliklari sababli, ular ko'pincha advokat yollash yoki sudning katta xarajatlarini to'lash uchun mablag 'etishmas edi. Natijada, mol-mulkini olib qo'yilgan odamlarning aksariyati hukumatning ishiga qarshi chiqishmadi, ayniqsa hukumat jinoiy javobgarlikka tortish orqali qasos olishi mumkin. "[43]

1989-1992 yillarda federal byudjet tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan shtat va mahalliy politsiya idoralari 1 milliard dollardan ziyod mol-mulkni musodara qildi. Bunga DEA yoki federal tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan boshqa ijro etuvchi idoralar kirmagan.[44]

Giyohvandlikka qarshi qonun

Narkotiklarga qarshi urush haqida ommaviy axborot vositalarining g'azabidan kelib chiqqan holda Vakillar Palatasi 1986 yilda narkotiklarga qarshi federal kurashga 2 milliard dollar miqdorida yangi mablag 'ajratdi.[45] Uy shuningdek, giyohvand moddalarni nazorat qilishda harbiy xizmatdan foydalanishga ruxsat berdi o'lim jazosi giyohvand moddalar bilan bog'liq ba'zi jinoyatlar uchun va giyohvandlik sudlarida noqonuniy ravishda olingan dalillarni qabul qilish.

1986 yil oktyabrda Reygan imzoladi Giyohvandlikka qarshi qonun.[46] Qo'shma Shtatlardagi giyohvand moddalar to'g'risidagi boshqa qonunlarga qaraganda ancha qattiq federal jazolarni qo'llab-quvvatladi, giyohvand moddalarni tarqatish uchun majburiy minimal jazo va krakni tarqatish uchun juda og'ir jazolar. Unda kokain kokainiga nisbatan qamoq muddatlaridagi 100-1 farqi ko'rsatilgan. 5 g crack kokain bilan ushlangan shaxs besh yilga ozodlikdan mahrum qilinishi mumkin. Xuddi shu hukmni bajarish uchun biron bir kishini 500 g chang kokain bilan ushlash kerak. Ko'pgina olimlar ushbu qonunlar irqchilik xususiyatiga ega deb ta'kidlaydilar, chunki bu crack ommaviy axborot vositalari va jamoatchilik tomonidan qora Amerika va kokain kokainini oq Amerika bilan bog'laydigan dori edi. Bundan tashqari, olimlar ta'kidlashlaricha, Nyu-York singari shtatlarning ma'lumotlari shuni ko'rsatdiki, bu erda sud hukmi majburiy ravishda eng kam o'n yil oldin paydo bo'lgan, majburiy minimumlar qora tanli amerikaliklarning nomutanosib hibsga olinishiga olib keladi.[47] Ushbu qonun 1988 yilda ma'muriyat tomonidan qayta ko'rib chiqilgan bo'lib, davlat uy-joy idoralari tomonidan giyohvand moddalar bilan bog'liq faoliyatni jamoat uylari binolarida yoki uning yonida sodir bo'lishiga yo'l qo'ygan ijarachini chiqarib tashlashga ruxsat berish. Shuningdek, giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qiluvchilar uchun tarqatish niyatisiz ham besh yillik eng kam majburiy jazo qo'shildi. Fuqarolarga nisbatan jazo oldindan sudlanmagan holda ham qo'llanilgan.[47]

Ovoz berish 346–11 bo'lib o'tdi. Oltita salbiy ovozlar Kongressning qora guruhi.[48]

"To'q ittifoq"

1996 yilda jurnalist Gari Uebb uchun bir qator maqolalar chop etdi San-Xose Merkuriy yangiliklari Reygan ma'muriyatini AQShga noqonuniy giyohvand moddalar savdosi bilan bog'lash. Uebbning uch qismdan iborat bo'lgan "Qorong'u Ittifoqi" fosh qildi, buni qo'llab-quvvatlash maqsadida Sandinista milliy ozodlik fronti (FDN) moliyaviy jihatdan Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi Nikaragua isyonchilar guruhining yuqori a'zolari tomonidan AQShga narkotiklar savdosini qo'llab-quvvatladi. Qarama-qarshiliklar.[49] Uebbning ta'kidlashicha, operatsiyadan kelib chiqadigan zarba Qo'shma Shtatlarda yorilish epidemiyasining keng tarqalishi edi. Kaliforniyada joylashgan "Freeway" giyohvand moddalar savdosi bilan shug'ullangan Rik Ross, FDNning ikki a'zosi Norvin Meneses va Danillo Blandon Reyes unga 1980-yillarning ko'p qismida kokain etkazib berganligini ko'rsatdi. Uning guvohlik berishicha, giyohvand moddalar rishtasi eng yuqori chog'ida Kaliforniyadan Michigangacha va Luiziana qadar janubda ishlagan.[50] Davlat departamenti ushbu operatsiyani bilar edi va FDN bilan bog'liq odam savdosining ta'qib qilinishini oldini olish uchun mahalliy politsiya tergoviga aralashdi.[51] 1990 yilda Reyes uning "kokain savdosi bir muncha vaqt C.I.A. tomonidan ma'qullanganiga" guvohlik berdi.[50] Blandonning tasdiqlashicha, Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi uni 1986 yilda uyiga qilingan bosqinchilik to'g'risida ogohlantirgan. Meneses ham, Blandon ham janjaldagi rollari uchun qamoq jazosini olishmagan.[50]

Uebbning yozganlariga munosabat har xil edi. Ikkala jurnalist ham Washington Post va Los-Anjeles Tayms jurnalistikaning muhim qismi bo'lgan Uebbga kredit berdi. Devid makkajo'xori ning Washington Post Uebb "yaqin tarixning muhim bir qismini ta'qib qilgani va C.I.A. va Adliya vazirligini giyohvand moddalarga zid bo'lgan aloqani tekshirishga majbur qilgani uchun" loyiq deb yozgan.[52] Boshqa jurnalistlar, shu jumladan Jeyms Adams of The New York Times, Uebbning manbalari bilan ishlashiga tanqidiy munosabatda bo'lishdi. Adams Uebbni Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi bilan aloqada bo'lmaganligi va "manbalarni va da'volarni o'zaro tekshirib ko'rgani" uchun qoraladi va "Haqiqatni ochishga qaror qilgan tergov muxbirlari uchun bunday tartiblar qabul qilinishi mumkin emas" degan xulosaga keldi.[53]

Ushbu ketma-ketlik natijasida "Dark Alliance" da'volari bo'yicha uchta federal tergov (Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi, Adliya vazirligi va Vakillar Palatasi razvedka qo'mitasi tomonidan) olib borildi. Hisobotlarda uning asosiy da'volari rad etildi, ammo Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi va huquqni muhofaza qilish organlarining ba'zi harakatlari tanqid qilindi. Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi hisobotida "Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasining o'tmishdagi yoki hozirgi biron bir xodimi yoki Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi nomidan ish yuritadigan shaxs Ross, Blandon yoki Meneses bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki bilvosita muomalada bo'lganligi" yoki "Dark Alliance" da qayd etilgan boshqa shaxslarning birortasi haqida hech qanday dalil topilmadi. "hech qachon agentlikda ishlagan yoki ular bilan bog'langan yoki ular bilan bog'langan.[54] Adliya vazirligi hisobotida "Biz uning [Blandon] ning Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi bilan aloqasi borligini, Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi uning ishiga biron bir tarzda aralashganini yoki Kontras bilan bog'liq bo'lgan har qanday aloqalar uning davolanishiga ta'sir qilganini topmadik" deb aytilgan.[55] Uy qo'mitasi hisobotida Meneses va Blandonning San-Frantsiskodagi mahalliy Kontra tashkilotiga va umuman Kontrasga ko'rsatgan ko'magi ko'rib chiqildi va "tashkilotni moliyalashtirish uchun etarli emas" va "millionlar" dan iborat emas degan xulosaga keldi. "Dark Alliance" seriyasining da'volari. Qo'llab-quvvatlash "Kontra harakatining Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi bilan aloqasi bo'lgan hech kim tomonidan boshqarilmadi" va qo'mita "Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi yoki razvedka jamoatchiligi ushbu shaxslarning qo'llab-quvvatlashidan xabardor ekanligiga hech qanday dalil" topmadi.[56]

Jorj X.V. Bush ma'muriyati

1989 yil avgustda, prezident lavozimida ishlagan birinchi yil davomida Jorj X.V. Bush giyohvand moddalar "millatimiz oldida turgan eng dolzarb masala" ekanligini e'lon qildi.[37] Nutq paytida, Bush "Amerika uchun eng katta tahdid" sifatida "giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilayotganlarning hammasi" ni ayblagani uchun kameraga yoriq solingan sumkani ushladi.[57] A Nyu-York Tayms/ O'sha yilgi CBS News so'rovnomasida so'ralganlarning 64 foizi, bu qayd etilgan eng yuqori ko'rsatkich, giyohvand moddalarni millat oldida turgan eng xavfli muammo deb bilgan.[58] Yaqinda 1982 yilda xuddi shunday masala bo'yicha o'tkazilgan so'rovnomada millatning atigi 2 foizigina giyohvand moddalarni eng dolzarb muammo sifatida ko'rganligi qayd etilgan.[59] Ba'zi olimlar jamoatchilik kayfiyatining ko'tarilishini giyohvandlik faolligining oshishi bilan izohlashadi. Biroq, ushbu fikr tanqid qilindi, ammo jamoatchilik tashvishining kuchayishi siyosiy kampaniyalar, jamoat tashabbuslari va partiyalarning murojaatlari keskin o'zgarishi bilan chambarchas bog'liqdir.[60]

Keyt Jekson

1989 yil Washington Post-ning tergov hikoyasi ma'muriyatni 18 yoshli qora tanli odamni tashkil qilishda aybladi Baltimor uyga yaqin bo'lgan giyohvand moddalar muammosini namoyish qilish uchun hiyla-nayrang operatsiyasida. DEA, yashirin agentdan foydalanib, qora tanli 18 yoshli o'rta maktab o'quvchisi Keyt Jeksonni Oq uyning tashqarisida yoriq sotish uchun itarib yubordi. (Jekson yana to'rt marotaba agentlarga kokain sotgan edi.) Agentlar bilan yozib olingan suhbatda Jekson "[Expletive] Oq uy qayerda?" Agentlar Jeksonni sotib olishdi Lafayet bog'i, Oq uyning qarshisida. Jekson hibsga olingan va tarqatish maqsadida kokain kokainini og'ir saqlashda aybdor deb topilgan. U ilgari sudlanmagan, ammo 1988 yildagi majburiy minimal qonunlar asosida 10 yilga ozodlikdan mahrum qilingan. Sudlanganidan keyin Jekson ko'z yoshlari bilan ko'z yoshlari bilan ko'z yoshlari bilan to'kilgan. AQSh okrug sudyasi Stenli Sporkin Jeksonga o'z hukmida: "Bush sizni katta giyohvand nutq so'zlash ma'nosida ishlatgan. Ammo u munosib odam, katta rahmdil odam. Balki u bu jumlaning kamida bir qismini qisqartirish yo'lini topishi mumkin." Bush, ushbu voqea haqida so'raganda, Washington Post gazetasiga: "U kishi u erga borib, Oq uy oldida giyohvand moddalar sotgan, shunday emasmi? ... Men bu odamga rahmim kelmaydi".[61][62]

Ommaviy qamoqqa olinganligi haqidagi dalillar

Ma'muriyatning Milliy Giyohvandlik strategiyasida (NDS) giyohvand moddalar savdosi bilan shug'ullanadiganlarni qattiq kafolatlangan jazolash va foydalanuvchilarga nisbatan jazo choralarini kamaytirish talab qilingan. Rejada, shuningdek, davolanish va ta'limga mablag 'ajratilgan edi, ammo oxir-oqibat "Amerika o'z shaharlarida qonun ustuvorligini tiklamasa va giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qiluvchilarni jamiyatga etkazgan zararlari uchun javobgarlikka tortmasa, ularning hech biri samarali bo'lmaydi" deb ishongan.[63]

Ma'muriyat tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan siyosat xalqlar tarixidagi huquqni muhofaza qilish uchun resurslarning eng katta o'sishini ko'rsatdi. Tanqidchilar siyosatning yaratilishiga sabab bo'lganligini ta'kidladilar qamoqxona - sanoat kompleksi. NDS 1990 yilda 24000 yangi federal qamoqxona yotoqlarini qurish uchun qariyb 1,5 milliard dollar ajratdi, bu 1989 yilga nisbatan 1 milliard dollarga ko'paygan.[63]

Siyosat, shuningdek, davlat uy-joylari loyihalarida xavfsizlik uchun mablag'larni 8 million dollardan 50 million dollargacha oshirdi.[63]

1993 yilda Bush prezidentligining oxiriga kelib, u bizning xalqimiz tarixidagi qamoqdagi eng katta zammni boshqargan. To'rt yil davomida qamoqlarda 56 foizga o'sish kuzatilgan, bu Reygan ma'muriyatining sakkiz yillik mahbuslaridan 38 869 nafar mahbusga ko'paygan.[64]

Bush prezidentligining oxiriga kelib Qo'shma Shtatlardagi barcha qora tanlilarning 9,18% qamoqxonada, sinovda yoki shartli ravishda ozodlikdan mahrum etildi, ammo Qo'shma Shtatlardagi oq tanli aholining atigi 1,76% i shunday vaziyatlardan birida bo'lgan. 1993 yilda mahalliy qamoqxonalarda qora tanli amerikaliklar 100000 mahbusga nisbatan oq tanli amerikaliklarga nisbatan 6 baravar ko'p edi. Bush ish boshlagan 1989 yildan 1993 yilgacha u ketgach, Amerika qamoqxonalarida qora tanli erkaklar soni 300 ming kishiga ko'paygan. Oq tanli erkaklar soni 50 ming mahbusga ko'paygan. Giyohvand moddalar uchun jazo soni 1989 yildagi 25309 dan 1993 yilda 48554 taga ko'paygan.[65]

Klinton ma'muriyati

Prezidentlik kampaniyasi paytida, Bill Klinton boshqa biron bir prezident jinoyatchilikka nisbatan qattiqroq bo'lmasligini e'lon qildi. Ba'zi olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, Klinton Narkotiklarga qarshi urushni avvalgi har qanday prezident tasavvur qilganidan ham ko'proq rivojlantirgan.[66]

Zo'ravonlik bilan jinoyatchilik va huquqni muhofaza qilish to'g'risidagi qonun

Klinton imzoladi 1994 yilgi jinoyatlar to'g'risidagi qonun Senator tomonidan yozilgan Jo Bayden ning Delaver. Bunga 30 milliard dollarlik jinoyatchilikka qarshi federal mablag 'kiritilgan. Giyohvand moddalarga qarshi urushga xos bo'lgan Klinton bularni ham o'z ichiga olgan uchta ish tashlash qonuni, ushbu jinoyatga zo'ravonlik bilan sudlanganlik uchun majburiy ravishda umrbod ozodlikdan mahrum qilish jazosini talab qilish, bundan oldin ikki marta sudlanganlikdan keyin. Ijtimoiy adolatni tanqid qiluvchilarning bir qismi bu qonun shaharlik mahallalardagi jinoyatchilarga nomutanosib ta'sir ko'rsatdi, deb ta'kidlaydilar, oq tanli jinoyatchilarga emas, balki Giyohvandlarga qarshi urushda politsiya tomonidan zarar ko'rgan.[67] Shuningdek, qonun loyihasida federal qamoqxonalar va shtat va mahalliy politsiya kuchlarini rivojlantirish uchun 16 million dollar miqdorida yangi mablag 'ajratish huquqi berilgan. Adliya siyosati instituti 2008 yilda ma'muriyatning "jinoyatchilikka qarshi qattiq" siyosati Amerika tarixidagi boshqa har qanday prezidentga qaraganda federal va shtatdagi mahbuslar sonining ko'payishiga olib kelganini ta'kidlagan.[68]

Ushbu harakat federal o'lim jazosining kengayishini ham ko'rdi. Oltmish yangi o'lim jazosi ayblovlar, shu jumladan qotil bo'lmagan giyohvand moddalar bilan bog'liq jinoyatlar, haydab otish natijada o'limga olib keladi va avtoulovlarni o'g'irlash o'lim bilan bog'liq.[69] 1994-1999 yillarda federal o'lim jazosiga hukm qilingan odamlarning qariyb uchdan ikki qismi Klinton prezidentligi davrida qora tanli bo'lib, ularning AQSh aholisidagi vakilliklaridan deyarli etti baravar ko'p edi. Uning ikki davri mobaynida federal qamoqxona aholisi 1,3 milliondan 2 million mahbusga ko'paygan.[70]

Qonunda tasdiqlashni olib tashlaydigan qoidalar mavjud edi Pell grantlari federal qamoqxonadagi kam ta'minlangan mahbuslar uchun. Bu federal yoki shtat qamoqxonasidagi aksariyat mahbuslarning qamoqda o'tirgan paytda o'qishni davom ettirishiga to'sqinlik qildi.[71]

"Bitta ish tashlash va siz siyosatdan tashqarida"

Olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, Klintonning siyosati yigirma yil oldin partiyani Reyganni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun tark etgan oq tanli saylovchilar oqimini qaytarishga qaratilgan. Klinton ma'muriyati bu siyosat fiskal jihatdan konservativ bo'lishga va federal byudjet kamomadini kamaytirishga urinish ekanligini aytdi.[72]

Ma'muriyat davrida federal byudjet davlat uy-joylarini moliyalashtirishni 17 milliard dollarga kamaytirdi. Federal tuzatish dasturlari 19 milliard dollarni oldi, bu davlat uy-joylarini moliyalashtirishning 61 foizga kamayishiga va federal qamoqxona byudjetining 171 foizga o'sishiga olib keldi. Olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, federal qamoqxonalar qurilishi shahar kambag'allari uchun asosiy davlat uy-joy dasturlarini almashtirgan.[73] Klintonning "Bir ish tashlash va siz tashqarida" siyosatida "Bundan buyon jinoyatchilik va giyohvand moddalar bilan shug'ullanadigan aholi uchun bitta ish tashlash bo'lishi kerak va siz tashqarida bo'lasiz."[74] Giyohvandlik bilan bog'liq har qanday huquqbuzarlik uchun sudlangan davlat uylarining har qanday ijarachisi endi davlat uylaridan foydalana olmaydi.[75]

Qarama-qarshi siyosat

Giyohvandlarga qarshi urush paytida joriy etilgan bir qator siyosatlar, ayniqsa, irqiy nomutanosiblik sifatida ajratilgan.

Majburiy minimal ko'rsatkichlar

The Giyohvandlikka qarshi 1986 yilgi qonun kraka yoki kokainga ega bo'lganligi uchun 100-1 jazoning nomutanosibligini o'rnatdi. 500 g kuka kokainini iste'mol qilish besh yilga sabab bo'ldi majburiy minimal jazo, ammo bir xil majburiy minimal jazoni boshlash uchun 5 g crack kokainga ega bo'lish kerak edi.[76] Bundan tashqari, Giyohvandlikka qarshi 1988 yilgi qonun kokainni oddiy saqlash uchun bir yillik majburiy minimal jarimani belgilab qo'ydi, bu esa kokainni birinchi egalik huquqbuzarligi majburiy minimal jazoni keltirib chiqaradigan yagona boshqariladigan moddaga aylantirdi.[2]

1992 yildagi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, majburiy minimal jazo chorasi qora tanlilar va ispanlarga 1984 yildan 1990 yilgacha bo'lgan oq tanli hamkasblariga qaraganda og'irroq jazolar berishiga sabab bo'ldi.[77]

1995 yilda, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining jazo komissiyasi Kongressga hisobot topshirdi, natijada 80 foiz qora tanlilar, 100-1 nomutanosibligi nomutanosib ozchiliklarga ta'sir qildi. Kuk-kukunlarga nisbatan hukmning nisbati o'zgartirilishi va boshqa hukm ko'rsatmalarining qayta ko'rib chiqilishi tavsiya etilgan.[2] Uning tavsiyalari Kongress tomonidan rad etildi.[78] Aksincha, ba'zi mualliflar ta'kidlashlaricha Kongressning qora guruhi qo'llab-quvvatladi Giyohvandlikka qarshi 1986 yilgi qonun, bu qonun irqchi bo'lishi mumkin emasligini anglatadi.[79][80]

2010 yilda Kongress o'tgan Adolatli jazo qonuni, bu yoriq va kukun kokain o'rtasidagi hukmning nomutanosibligini 100-1 dan 18-1 gacha kamaytirdi. Majburiy minimal jarimaga 28 g dan ortiq kokainga ega bo'lganligi uchun kuchga kiradigan o'zgartirish kiritildi.[81]

Majburiy minimal jazo choralari noqonuniy xatti-harakatlarning barcha holatlariga bir xilda tatbiq etilmagani uchun tanqid qilindi.[82]

2009. Irqiy va millat qamoqqa olingan kattalar erkaklarining ulushi.[83]

Jinoyatchilik statistikasi

To'xtaydi va qidiradi

Tomonidan o'tkazilgan 2015 yilgi hisobot AQSh Adliya vazirligi qora haydovchilar kirib kelganligini aniqladilar Fergyuson, Missuri, transport vositalarining to'xtashi paytida ikki baravar ko'proq qidirilgan, ammo kontrabanda oq tanli haydovchilarga qaraganda 26 foiz kamroq bo'lganligi aniqlangan.[84]

Tomonidan o'tkazilgan 2016 yilgi hisobot San-Fransisko okrugi prokuraturasi to'xtash, qidirish va hibsga olishga nisbatan irqiy nomutanosibliklar mavjud degan xulosaga kelishdi San-Fransisko politsiya boshqarmasi va nomutanosibliklar qora tanli aholi uchun ayniqsa sezilarli bo'lganligi. To'xtashdan keyin qora tanlilar barcha kelishilgan bo'lmagan qidiruvlarning deyarli 42 foizini tashkil etgan, ammo 2015 yilda barcha to'xtash joylarining 15 foizidan kamrog'ini tashkil qilgan. Qora tanlilar eng past qidiruv darajasiga erishgan va shu sababli ular tarkibida kontrabanda moddalari topilgan bo'lishi ehtimoldan yiroq emas. qidiruv.[85]

2016 yil Chikago politsiyasining javobgarligi bo'yicha tezkor guruh hisobotida qora tanli va ispaniyalik haydovchilar tomonidan qidirilganligi aniqlandi Chikago politsiyasi oq tanli haydovchilarga nisbatan to'rt martadan ko'proq tez-tez uchraydi, ammo oq tanli haydovchilar qora tanli va ispan haydovchilarga nisbatan ikki baravar ko'p kontrabanda bilan topilgan.[86]

Hibsga olishlar

1995 yil Adliya statistikasi byurosi Hisobotda 1991 yildan 1993 yilgacha giyohvand moddalar sotganlarning 16 foizi qora tanli bo'lganligi, shu bilan hibsga olinganlarning 49 foizi qora tanli ekanligi aniqlandi.[87]

2006 yildagi bir tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra, giyohvand moddalarni etkazib berishda jinoyati uchun hibsga olinganlar uchun qora tanlilar sezilarli darajada ko'p bo'lgan Sietl. The same study found that it was a result of law enforcement focusing on crack offenders and outdoor venues and dedicating resources to racially-heterogeneous neighborhoods.[88]

A 2010 study found little difference by race with regards to the rates of adolescent drug dealing.[89] A 2012 study found that black youths were less likely than white youths to use or sell drugs but more likely to be arrested for doing so.[90]

Tomonidan 2013 yilgi tadqiqot Amerika fuqarolik erkinliklari ittifoqi determined that a black person in the United States was 3.73 times more likely to be arrested for marijuana possession than a white person, but both races have similar rates of marijuana use.[91] Iowa had the highest racial disparity of the fifty states.[92] Blacks in Iowa were arrested for marijuana possession at a rate 8.4 times higher than whites.[92] One factor that may explain the difference in arrest rates between whites and blacks is that blacks are more likely than whites to buy marijuana outdoors, from a stranger, and away from home.[93]

A 2015 study concluded that minorities have been disproportionately arrested for drug offenses and the difference could not "be explained by differences in drug offending, non-drug offending, or residing in the kinds of neighborhoods likely to have heavy police emphasis on drug offending."[94]

Hukm

In 1998, there were wide racial disparities in arrests, prosecutions, sentencing, and deaths. Blacks, despite being only 13% of regular drug users, made up for 35% of drug arrests, 55% of convictions, and 74% of people sent to prison for drug possession crimes.[95] Nationwide African-Americans were sent to state prisons for drug offenses 13 times more often than white men.[96][97]

Crime statistics show that in 1999 in the United States, blacks were far more likely to be targeted by law enforcement for drug crimes, and they received much stiffer penalties and sentences than whites.[98] A 2000 study found that the disproportionality of black drug offenders in Pennsylvania prisons was unexplained by higher arrest rates, which suggested the possibility of operative discrimination in sentencing.[99]

A 2008 paper stated that drug use rates by blacks (7.4%) were comparable to those by whites (7.2%), andsince there are far more whites than blacks, 72% of illegal drug users in America are white, and only 15% are black.[97]

Ga binoan Mishel Aleksandr, muallifi Yangi Jim qarg'a and a professor of law at Stenford yuridik fakulteti, drug trading is done at similar rates all over the US, but most people arrested for it are colored. Together, blacks and Hispanics were 58% of all prisoners in 2008 but only one quarter of the US population.[100] Most prisoners are arrested for drug related crime, and in at least 15 states, three quarters of them are black or Latino.

A 2012 report by the United States Sentencing Commission found that drug sentences for black men were 13.1% longer than drug sentences for white men between 2007 and 2009.[101]

Reabilitatsiya

Professor Cathy Schnieder of International Service at American University noted that in 1989, blacks, representing 12-15% of all drug use in the United States, made up 41% of all arrests. That was a noted increase from 38% in 1988. Whites were 47% of those in state-funded treatment centers but fewer than 10% of those committed to prison.[102]

Incarceration by race and ethnicity

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Qo'shma Shtatlardagi qamoq
2010. Inmates in adult facilities, by race and ethnicity. Jails, and state and federal prisons.[103]
Race, ethnicity% of US population% of U.S.
incarcerated population		National incarceration rate
(per 100,000 of all ages)
Oq (ispaniy bo'lmagan)6439450 per 100,000
Ispancha1619831 per 100,000
Qora13402,306 per 100,000

Huquqiy tarix

Ba'zilar buni taklif qilishdi AQSh Oliy sudi rulings related to the War on Drugs have reinforced racially-disproportionate treatment.[104]

Yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va Armstrong (1996), the Supreme Court heard the case of Armstrong, a black man charged with conspiring to possess and distribute more than 50 g of crack cocaine. Facing the District Court, Armstrong claimed that he was singled out for prosecution because of his race and he filed a motion for discovery. The District Court granted the motion, required the government to provide statistics from the last three years on similar crimes, and dismissed Armstrong's case after the government refused to do so.

The government appealed the decision, and the AQSh Apellyatsiya sudi affirmed the dismissal by holding that defendants in selective-prosecution claims did not have to demonstrate that the government had failed to prosecute similar cases. The case was then sent to the Supreme Court, which reversed the decision and held that defendants had to show that the government had failed to prosecute similar cases.[105]

Yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Bassga qarshi (2002), the Supreme Court heard a similar case. John Bass was charged with two counts of homicide, and the government sought the death penalty. Bass filed for dismissal, along with a discovery request alleging that the death sentence was racially motivated. When the government refused to comply with the discovery request, the District Court dismissed the death penalty notice. Upon appeal, the US Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal, and the case was sent to the Supreme Court.

Reversing the decision, the Supreme Court ruled that a defendant in a selective prosecution case had to make a "credible showing" of evidence that the prosecution policy in question was intentionally discriminatory. The court ruled that Bass did not do so because he failed to show that similar cases with those different races were treated differently. Specifically, the Court rejected Bass's use of national statistics and held that they were not representative of cases.[106]

Both cases have been criticized for perpetuating racially-motivated legal standards. It has been suggested that the current standard is impossible to meet for selective prosecution claims because the relevant data may not exist, or the prosecution may have sole access to it.[104]

Effects of War on Drugs

Negative health effects

Felony drug convictions often lead to circumstances that carry negative health-related consequences. Employment opportunities (and associated healthcare benefits), access to public housing and food stamps, and financial support for higher education are all jeopardized, if not eliminated, as a result of such a conviction.[8] In addition, a felony distribution charge often precludes a convict from benefiting from most healthcare programs that receive federal funding.[7]

Collateral consequences

Ba'zi mualliflar buni taklif qilishdi jinoiy hukmning garovga qo'yiladigan oqibatlari are more serious than the legal penalties. In many cases, statutes do not require that convicts are informed of these consequences.[7] Many felons cannot be employed by the federal government or work in government jobs, as they do not meet the standards to gain security clearance. Felons convicted of distributing or selling drugs may not enlist in the military.[7]

Certain states are financially incentivized to exclude criminals from access to public housing. All states receive less federal highway funding if they fail to revoke or suspend driver's licenses of drug-related felons.[7]

Collateral consequences, and felon disenfranchisement in particular, have historically been at least partially racially motivated.[7][107]

Afro-amerikalik jamoalar

The War on Drugs has incarcerated high numbers of African-Americans. However, the damage has compounded beyond individuals to affect African-American communities as a whole, with some social scientists suggesting the War on Drugs could not be maintained without societal racism and the manipulation of racial stereotypes.[108]

African-American children are overrepresented in balog'atga etmagan bolalar zali and family court cases,[109] a trend that began during the War on Drugs.[8] From 1985 to 1999, admissions of blacks under the age of 18 increased by 68%. Some authors posit that the overrepresentation is caused by minority juveniles committing crime more often and more serious crimes.[110][111]

A compounding factor is often the imprisonment of a father. Boys with imprisoned fathers are significantly less likely to develop the skills necessary for success in early education.[112] In addition, African-American youth often turn to gangs to generate income for their families, oftentimes more effectively than at a minimum wage or entry-level job.[113] Still, this occurs even as substance abuse, especially marijuana, has largely declined among high school students.[114] In contrast, many black youths drop out of school, are subsequently tried for drug-related crime, and acquire AIDS at disparate levels.[113]

In addition, the high incarceration rate has led to the juvenile justice system and family courts to use race as a negative heuristic in trials, leading to a reinforcing effect. As more African-Americans are incarcerated, the more the heuristic is enforced in the eyes of the courts, which contributes to yet higher imprisonment rates among African-American children.[iqtibos kerak ]

High numbers of African American arrests and charges of possession show that although most drug users in the United States are white, blacks are the largest group being targeted as the root of the problem.[115] Furthermore, a study by Andrew Golub, Bruce Johnson, and Eloise Dunlap affirms the racial divide in drug arrests, notably marijuana arrests, where blacks with no prior arrests (0.9%) or one prior arrest (4.3%) were nearly twice as likely to be sentenced to jail as their white counterparts (0.4% and 2.3%, respectively).[116] Harboring such emotions can lead to a lack of will to contact the police in case of an emergency by members of African-American communities, ultimately leaving many people unprotected.[iqtibos kerak ] Disproportionate arrests in African-American communities for drug-related offenses has not only spread fear but also perpetuated a deep distrust for government and what some call racist drug enforcement policy.[iqtibos kerak ]

Additionally, a black-white disparity can be seen in probation revocation since black probationers were revoked at higher rates than white and Hispanic probationers in studies as published under the Shahar instituti.[117]

Rangli ayollar

The War on Drugs also plays a negative role in the lives of women of color. The number of black women imprisoned in the United States increased at a rate more than twice that of black men, over 64% from 1986 to 1991. During that same period, the percentage of females incarcerated for drug-related offenses more than doubled.[118] In 1989, black and white women had similar levels of drug use during homiladorlik. However, black women were 10 times as likely as white women to be reported to a child welfare agency for tug'ruqdan oldin giyohvand moddalarni iste'mol qilish.[119] In 1997, of women in state prisons for drug-related crimes, forty-four percent were Hispanic, thirty-nine percent were black, and twenty-three percent were white, quite different from the racial make up shown in percentages of the United States as a whole.[120] Statistics in England, Wales, and Canada are similar. Women of color who are implicated in drug crimes are "generally poor, uneducated, and unskilled; have impaired mental and physical health; are victims of physical and sexual abuse and mental cruelty; are single mothers with children; lack familial support; often have no prior convictions; and are convicted for a small quantity of drugs".[120]

Additionally, these women typically have an economic attachment to, or fear of, male drug traffickers, creating a power paradigm that sometimes forces their involvement in drug-related crimes.[121] Though there are programs to help them, women of color are usually unable to take advantage of social welfare institutions in America due to regulations. For example, women's access to methadone, which suppresses cravings for drugs such as heroin, is restricted by state clinics that set appointment times for women to receive their treatment. If they miss their appointment, (which is likely: drug-addicted women may not have access to transportation and lead chaotic lives), they are denied medical care critical to their recovery. Additionally, while women of color are offered jobs as a form of government support, these jobs often do not have childcare, rendering the job impractical for mothers, who cannot leave their children at home alone.[121]

However, with respect to mandatory minimum sentencing, female offenders receive relief almost 20% more often than male offenders.[122] In addition, female offenders, on average, receive lighter sentences than those who commit similar offenses.[82]

Shuningdek qarang

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ a b Baum, Dan (April 1, 2016). "Legalize It All". Harper jurnali. ISSN  0017-789X. Olingan 7 mart, 2017.
  2. ^ a b v "1995 Report to the Congress: Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy". Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining jazo komissiyasi. 2013 yil 28 oktyabr. Olingan 7 mart, 2017.
  3. ^ a b Gelman, Endryu; Fagan, Jefri; Kiss, Aleks (2007 yil 1 sentyabr). "An Analysis of the New York City Police Department's "Stop-and-Frisk" Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias". Amerika Statistik Uyushmasi jurnali. 102 (479): 813–823. CiteSeerX  10.1.1.300.2930. doi:10.1198/016214506000001040. ISSN  0162-1459. S2CID  8505752.
  4. ^ "How the War on Drugs Damages Black Social Mobility | Brookings Institution". Brukings. 2017 yil 6 mart. Olingan 6 mart, 2017.
  5. ^ Tonry, Michael (January 1, 2015). "Race and the War on Drugs". Chikago universiteti yuridik forumi. 1994 (1). ISSN  0892-5593.
  6. ^ Walters, John P. (1994). "Race and the War on Drugs". Chikago universiteti yuridik forumi. 107.
  7. ^ a b v d e f Chin, Gabriel (April 14, 2011). "Race, the War on Drugs, and the Collateral Consequences of Criminal Conviction". Rochester, Nyu-York. SSRN  390109. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
  8. ^ a b v Iguchi, M. Y.; Bell, James; Ramchand, Rajeev N.; Fain, Terry (November 29, 2005). "How Criminal System Racial Disparities May Translate into Health Disparities". Kambag'al va kam ta'minlanganlarga sog'liqni saqlash jurnali. 16 (4): 48–56. doi:10.1353/hpu.2005.0114. ISSN  1548-6869. PMID  16327107. S2CID  40700366.
  9. ^ a b Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The New Jim Crow : Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. 50-51 betlar. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  10. ^ Richard Nixon. "If Mob Rule Takes Hold." (1966 yil 15-avgust) AQSh yangiliklari va dunyo hisoboti.
  11. ^ Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The New Jim Crow : Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 52. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  12. ^ Barry Goldwater, "Peace Through Strength" in Kunning muhim nutqlari jild 30 (New York: City News, 1964) 744.
  13. ^ Vesla M. Weaver, "Frontlash: Race and the Development of Punitive Crime Policy," Amerika siyosiy taraqqiyoti bo'yicha tadqiqotlar 21 (Fall 2007) 2442.
  14. ^ See Kevin Phillips, Rivojlanayotgan respublika aksariyati (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1969).
  15. ^ a b v "Richard Nixon: Special Message to the Congress on Drug Abuse Prevention and Control". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Olingan 6 mart, 2017.
  16. ^ "The Controlled Substances Act". www.dea.gov. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  17. ^ a b Gabriel Nahas (1972) "The First Report of the National Commission of Marihuana (1972) Signal of Misunderstanding or Exercise in Ambiguity (PDF) Bully N.Y. Academy of Medicine. 50:56
  18. ^ a b Dufton, Emily. Grass roots : the rise and fall and rise of marijuana in America. p. 54. ISBN  978-0-465-09616-9. OCLC  982093585.
  19. ^ Loewenstein, Antony, Pills, powder and smoke : inside the bloody war on drugs, ISBN  978-0-6556-3139-2, OCLC  1131905930
  20. ^ Forman, James, Jr. (2018). LOCKING UP OUR OWN. ABACUS. ISBN  978-0-349-14368-2. OCLC  1042083139.
  21. ^ a b Friedersdorf, Conor (June 15, 2011). "The War on Drugs Turns 40". Atlantika. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  22. ^ "$150,000,000 in 1971 → 2020 | Inflation Calculator". www.in2013dollars.com. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  23. ^ a b Forman, James, Jr. (2018). LOCKING UP OUR OWN. ABACUS. p. 26. ISBN  978-0-349-14368-2. OCLC  1042083139.
  24. ^ Barber, Chris (June 29, 2016). "Public Enemy Number One: A Pragmatic Approach to America's Drug Problem: Richard Nixon Foundation". Richard Nikson jamg'armasi. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  25. ^ Forman, James, Jr. (2018). LOCKING UP OUR OWN. ABACUS. p. 30. ISBN  978-0-349-14368-2. OCLC  1042083139.
  26. ^ a b Alexander, Michelle (January 7, 2020). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 53. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  27. ^ "The DEA Years" (PDF). Giyohvandlikka qarshi kurash agentligi. Retrieved 4/19/20
  28. ^ a b v Rockefeller, Nelson. "The Drug Laws That Changed How We Punish". NPR.org. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  29. ^ Hanson, Hilary (March 25, 2016). "Nixon Aides Suggest Colleague Was Kidding About Drug War Being Designed To Target Black People". Huffington Post. Olingan 26 mart, 2016.
  30. ^ Forman, James, Jr. (2018). LOCKING UP OUR OWN. ABACUS. p. 21. ISBN  978-0-349-14368-2. OCLC  1042083139.
  31. ^ Loewenstein, Antony, Pills, powder and smoke : inside the bloody war on drugs, ISBN  978-0-6556-3139-2, OCLC  1131905930 p. 150
  32. ^ Loewenstein, Antony, Pills, powder and smoke : inside the bloody war on drugs, ISBN  978-0-6556-3139-2, OCLC  1131905930 151-bet
  33. ^ Cooper, Hannah LF (January 1, 2015). "War on Drugs Policing and Police Brutality". Moddani ishlatish va uni noto'g'ri ishlatish. 50 (8–9): 1188–1194. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007669. ISSN  1082-6084. PMC  4800748. PMID  25775311.
  34. ^ "Analysis of Racial Disparities in the New York Police Department's Stop, Question, and Frisk Practices". 2007 yil 1-yanvar. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
  35. ^ Koviello, Decio; Persico, Nicola (June 1, 2015). "An Economic Analysis of Black-White Disparities in the New York Police Department's Stop-and-Frisk Program". Huquqiy tadqiqotlar jurnali. 44 (2): 315–360. doi:10.1086/684292. ISSN  0047-2530. S2CID  58942051.
  36. ^ "Federal prison population fell during Obama's term". Pew tadqiqot markazi. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  37. ^ a b Beckett, Katherine. (2000). Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics (Studies in crime and public policy). Oksford universiteti matbuoti. p. 56. OCLC  940651619.
  38. ^ Alexander, Michelle (January 7, 2020). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 57. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  39. ^ Robert Strutman, Yetkazib berishda o'lganlar: Narkotiklar urushi ichida, ko'chadan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri (New York: Warner Books, 1992), 142.
  40. ^ a b Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The New Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 66. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  41. ^ See Craig Reinarman and Harry Levine, "The Crack Attack: America's Latest Drug Scare, 1986-1992," in Images of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems, ed. Joel Best (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1995).
  42. ^ a b Alexander, Michelle (January 7, 2020). The New Jim Crow : Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 98. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  43. ^ a b Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 99. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  44. ^ Eric Blumenson and Eva Nilsen, "Policing for Profit: The Drug War's Hidden Economic Agenda," Chikago universiteti yuridik sharhi 65 (1998): 35, 64
  45. ^ Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The New Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 67. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  46. ^ "ACLU Releases Crack Cocaine Report, Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 Deepened Racial Inequity in Sentencing". Amerika fuqarolik erkinliklari ittifoqi. Olingan 22 aprel, 2020.
  47. ^ a b Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 68. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  48. ^ Provine, Doris Marie. (2008). Unequal under Law. Chikago universiteti matbuoti. p. 111. ISBN  978-1-281-96626-1. OCLC  824151853.
  49. ^ Webb, Gary (March 3, 2015). Dark alliance : the CIA, the contras, and the crack cocaine explosion. ISBN  978-1-908699-74-9. OCLC  887941171.
  50. ^ a b v Kokburn, Aleksandr. Whiteout : the CIA, Drugs, and the Press. 1-11 betlar. ISBN  978-1-78478-261-0. OCLC  1051829578.
  51. ^ Kokburn, Aleksandr. Whiteout : the CIA, Drugs, and the Press. p. 20. ISBN  978-1-78478-261-0. OCLC  1051829578.
  52. ^ Corn, David (August 9, 1998). "Dark Alliance". Washington Post
  53. ^ Adams, James (September 27, 1998). "Moonlighting," The New York Times.
  54. ^ "Conclusions". Allegations of Connections Between CIA and The Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States, Volume I: The California Story. 1998.
  55. ^ Bromvich, Maykl R. "CIA-Contra-Crack Cocaine Controversy: Epilogue". Arxivlandi asl nusxasidan 2015 yil 2 martda. Olingan 9-fevral, 2015.
  56. ^ Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari palatasining Razvedka bo'yicha doimiy tanlov qo'mitasi (2000 yil fevral). Report On the Central Intelligence Agency's Alleged Involvement in Crack Cocaine Trafficking in the Los Angeles Area. p. 44.
  57. ^ "George H. W. Bush Remembered for Ramping Up the War on Drugs". WBEZ Chikago. 2018 yil 11-dekabr. Olingan 23 aprel, 2020.
  58. ^ Katherine Beckett, citing New York Times/ CBS News Poll, Aug. 1990 2-4
  59. ^ Katherine Beckett, Making Crime Pay, 56.
  60. ^ See Beckett, Making Crime Pay, 14-27
  61. ^ "Drug Buy Set Up For Bush Speech". www.washingtonpost.com. Olingan 23 aprel, 2020.
  62. ^ Purtil, Korin. "US agents lured a teen near the White House to sell drugs so George H.W. Bush could make a point". Kvarts. Olingan 23 aprel, 2020.
  63. ^ a b v Eisenach, Jeffrey A. "From George Bush, A Convincing Declaration of War on Drugs". Heritage Foundation. Olingan 23 aprel, 2020.
  64. ^ "Federal prison population fell during Obama's term". Pew tadqiqot markazi. Olingan 23 aprel, 2020.
  65. ^ Lisa M. Seghetti, CRS Report for Congress: Federal Crime Control: Background, Legislation, and Issues. Updated June 12, 2007.
  66. ^ Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 71. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  67. ^ Shichor, Devid (1997 yil 1 oktyabr). "Uch ish tashlash davlat siyosati sifatida: yangi penologiyaning yaqinlashishi va jazoning McDonaldizatsiyasi". 43 (4): 470–492.
  68. ^ Justice Policy Institute, "Clinton Crime Agenda Ignores Proven Methods for Reducing Crime." 2008 yil 14 aprel.
  69. ^ "The Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994". Office of the United States Attorneys. Department of Justice. Qabul qilingan 17 may 2013 yil.
  70. ^ Murch, Donna (February 9, 2016). "The Clintons' War on Drugs: When Black Lives Didn't Matter". Yangi respublika. ISSN  0028-6583. Olingan 23 aprel, 2020.
  71. ^ "Education as Crime Prevention: The Case for Reinstating Pell Grant Eligibility for the Incarcerated" (PDF). Bard Prison Initiative. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2007.
  72. ^ Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 72. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  73. ^ Wacquant, Loïc (2019), Prisons, State and Violence, Springer International Publishing, pp. 15–32, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13077-0_3, ISBN  978-3-030-13076-3 Yo'qolgan yoki bo'sh sarlavha = (Yordam bering); | bob = mensimagan (Yordam bering) pg. 77
  74. ^ Bill Clinton, Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the State of the Union, Jan. 23, 1996.
  75. ^ Aleksandr, Mishel (2010). The new Jim Crow : mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. p. 73. ISBN  978-1-62097-194-9. OCLC  1138030698.
  76. ^ "H.R.5484 - Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986". Kongress.gov. 1986 yil 27 oktyabr. Olingan 6 mart, 2017.
  77. ^ "NCJRS Abstract - Jinoyat odil sudlov bo'yicha milliy ma'lumot xizmati". www.ncjrs.gov. Olingan 16 mart, 2017.
  78. ^ "A Brief History of Crack Cocaine Sentencing Laws" (PDF). Majburiy minimal ko'rsatkichlarga qarshi oilalar. 2012 yil 13 aprel. Olingan 6 mart, 2017.
  79. ^ Thernstrom, Abigail; Thernstrom, Stephan (1999), "Crime", in Thernstrom, Abigail; Thernstrom, Stephan (eds.), America in black and white: one nation, indivisible, Simon va Shuster, p. 278, ISBN  9780684844978 Oldindan ko'rish.
  80. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2000), "The cult of victimology", in McWhorter, John H. (ed.), Losing the race: self-sabotage in Black America, Simon va Shuster, p.14, ISBN  9780684836690 Oldindan ko'rish.
  81. ^ "2010 yilgi adolatli hukm to'g'risida qonun". Kongress.gov. 2010 yil 3-avgust. Olingan 6 mart, 2017.
  82. ^ a b "NCJRS Abstract - Jinoyat odil sudlov bo'yicha milliy ma'lumot xizmati". www.ncjrs.gov. Olingan 7 mart, 2017.
  83. ^ Midyear 2009-dagi qamoq mahbuslari - statistik jadvallar (NCJ 230113). AQSh Adliya statistika byurosi. Stavkalar kattalar erkaklariga tegishli bo'lib, 18 va 19-jadvallardan olingan PDF fayli. 100000 uchun stavkalar foizlarga o'tkazildi.
  84. ^ "Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department" (PDF). Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Adliya vazirligi Fuqarolik huquqlari bo'limi. 2015 yil 4 mart. Olingan 16 mart, 2017.
  85. ^ "The Blue Ribbon Panel on Transparency, Accountability, and Fairness in Law Enforcement" (PDF). SFDistrictAttorney.org. 2016 yil iyul. Olingan 16 mart, 2017.
  86. ^ "Recommendations for Reform: Restoring Trust between the Chicago Police and the Communities they Serve" (PDF). 2016 yil aprel. Olingan 16 mart, 2017.
  87. ^ "The Racial Disparity in U.S. Drug Arrests" (PDF). Adliya statistikasi byurosi. 1995 yil 1 oktyabr. Olingan 22 mart, 2016.
  88. ^ BECKETT, KATHERINE; NYROP, KRIS; PFINGST, LORI (February 2006). "Race, Drugs, and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests". Kriminologiya. 44 (1): 105–137. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x.
  89. ^ Floyd, Leah J.; Alexandre, Pierre K.; Hedden, Sarra L.; Lawson, April L.; Latimer, William W.; Giles, Nathaniel (March 25, 2010). "Adolescent Drug Dealing and Race/Ethnicity: A Population-Based Study of the Differential Impact of Substance Use on Involvement in Drug Trade". Giyohvand moddalar va spirtli ichimliklarni suiiste'mol qilish bo'yicha Amerika jurnali. 36 (2): 87–91. doi:10.3109/00952991003587469. PMC  2871399. PMID  20337503.
  90. ^ Kakade, Meghana; Duarte, Cristiane S.; Liu, Xinhua; Fuller, Cordelia J.; Draker, Ernest; Hoven, Christina W.; Fan, Bin; Wu, Ping (July 2012). "Adolescent Substance Use and Other Illegal Behaviors and Racial Disparities in Criminal Justice System Involvement: Findings From a US National Survey". Amerika sog'liqni saqlash jurnali. 102 (7): 1307–1310. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300699. PMC  3477985. PMID  22594721.
  91. ^ The war on marijuana in black and white: billions of dollars wasted on racially biased arrests (PDF). Amerika fuqarolik erkinliklari ittifoqi. 2013 yil iyun.
  92. ^ a b "Iowa ranks worst in racial disparities of marijuana arrests". ACLU of Iowa News. American Civil Liberties Union of Iowa. 2013 yil 4-iyun.
  93. ^ RAMCHAND, R; PACULA, R; IGUCHI, M (October 1, 2006). "Racial differences in marijuana-users' risk of arrest in the United States". Giyohvandlik va alkogolga qaramlik. 84 (3): 264–272. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.02.010. PMID  16600529.
  94. ^ Mitchell, Ojmarrh; Caudy, Michael S. (January 22, 2013). "Examining Racial Disparities in Drug Arrests". Har chorakda adolat. 32 (2): 288–313. doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.761721. S2CID  30672325.
  95. ^ Burton-Rose, Daniel, ed. (1998). The Celling of America: An Inside Look at the U.S. Prison Industry. Umumiy jasorat matbuoti. ISBN  978-1567511406. possession of 500 grams of powdered cocaine--100 times the amount of crack--carries a 5 year minimum sentence"... in reality a racist war being waged against poor Blacks
  96. ^ "Key findings at a glance". Racial disparities in the war on drugs. Human Rights Watch tashkiloti. Olingan 3 fevral, 2010.
  97. ^ a b Moore, Lisa D.; Elkavich, Amy (May 2008). "Who's Using and Who's Doing Time: Incarceration, the War on Drugs, and Public Health". Amerika sog'liqni saqlash jurnali. 98 (5): 782–786. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.126284. PMC  2518612. PMID  18687610.
  98. ^ "I. Summary and recommendations". Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs. Human Rights Watch tashkiloti. 2000 yil. Olingan 3 fevral, 2010.
  99. ^ AUSTIN, R. L.; ALLEN, M. D. (May 1, 2000). "Racial Disparity in Arrest Rates as an Explanation of Racial Disparity in Commitment to Pennsylvania's Prisons". Jinoyatchilik va huquqbuzarlik tadqiqotlari jurnali. 37 (2): 200–220. doi:10.1177/0022427800037002003. S2CID  145605885.
  100. ^ West, Michelle Alexander (2012), "Chapter 3: The color of justice", in West, Michelle Alexander (ed.), The new Jim Crow: mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness, Cornel (foreword) (Rev. ed.), New York: New Press, pp. 97–139, ISBN  9781595586438
  101. ^ "2012 Report to the Congress: Continuing Impact of United States v. Booker on Federal Sentencing". Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining jazo komissiyasi. 2016 yil 28 mart. Olingan 16 mart, 2017.
  102. ^ Schnieder, C. (1998). "Racism, Drug Policy, and Aids". Siyosatshunoslik chorakda. 113 (3): 427–446. doi:10.2307/2658075. JSTOR  2658075.
  103. ^ Breaking Down Mass Incarceration in the 2010 Census: State-by-State Incarceration Rates by Race/Ethnicity. Briefing by Leah Sakala. 2014 yil 28-may. Qamoqxonalar siyosati tashabbusi. Figures calculated with AQSh aholini ro'yxatga olish 2010 SF-1 table P42 and the PCT20 table series.
  104. ^ a b Coker, Donna (January 1, 2003). "Foreword: Addressing the Real World of Racial Injustice in the Criminal Justice System". Jinoyat huquqi va kriminologiya jurnali (Qo'lyozma taqdim etilgan). 93 (4): 827–880. doi:10.2307/3491312. JSTOR  3491312.
  105. ^ "United States v. Armstrong". Oyez. Olingan 15 mart, 2017.
  106. ^ "United States v. Bass". Oyez. Olingan 15 mart, 2017.
  107. ^ Shapiro, Andrew L. (January 1, 1993). "Challenging Criminal Disenfranchisement under the Voting Rights Act: A New Strategy". Yel qonunlari jurnali. 103 (2): 537–566. doi:10.2307/797104. JSTOR  797104.
  108. ^ Provine, Doris Marie (January 1, 2011). "Race and Inequality in the War on Drugs". Huquq va ijtimoiy fanlarning yillik sharhi. 7 (1): 41–60. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102510-105445.
  109. ^ Alexander, Rudolph (November 30, 2009). "The Impact of Poverty on African American Children in the Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice Systems". Onlaynda davlat siyosati bo'yicha forum. 2010 (4). ISSN  1938-9809.
  110. ^ Engen, Rodney L.; Steen, Sara; Bridges, George S. (May 1, 2002). "Racial Disparities in the Punishment of Youth: A Theoretical and Empirical Assessment of the Literature". Ijtimoiy muammolar. 49 (2): 194–220. doi:10.1525/sp.2002.49.2.194. ISSN  0037-7791.
  111. ^ Bridges, George S.; Crutchfield, Robert D.; Simpson, Edith E. (October 1, 1987). "Crime, Social Structure and Criminal Punishment: White and Nonwhite Rates of Imprisonment". Ijtimoiy muammolar. 34 (4): 345–361. doi:10.2307/800812. ISSN  0037-7791. JSTOR  800812.
  112. ^ Haskins, Anna R. (March 7, 2017). "Unintended Consequences: Effects of Paternal Incarceration on Child School Readiness and Later Special Education Placement". Sotsiologik fan. 1: 141–158. doi:10.15195/v1.a11. ISSN  2330-6696. PMC  5026124. PMID  27642614.
  113. ^ a b Jozef, J .; Pearson, P. G. (July 26, 2016). "Black Youths and Illegal Drugs". Qora tadqiqotlar jurnali. 32 (4): 422–438. doi:10.1177/002193470203200404. S2CID  144650667.
  114. ^ Johnson, Renee M.; Fairman, Brian; Gilreath, Tamika; Syuan, Tsiming; Rotman, Emili F.; Parnham, Taylor; Furr-Holden, C. Debra M. (October 1, 2015). "Past 15-Year Trends in Adolescent Marijuana Use: Differences by Race/Ethnicity and Sex". Giyohvandlik va alkogolga qaramlik. 155: 8–15. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.025. ISSN  0376-8716. PMC  4582007. PMID  26361714.
  115. ^ Mitchell, Ojmarrh; Caudy, Michael S. (March 4, 2015). "Examining Racial Disparities in Drug Arrests". Har chorakda adolat. 32 (2): 288–313. doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.761721. ISSN  0741-8825. S2CID  30672325.
  116. ^ GOLUB, ANDREW; JOHNSON, BRUCE D.; DUNLAP, ELOISE (January 1, 2007). "The Race/Ethnicity Disparity in Misdemeanor Marijuana Arrests in New York City". Kriminologiya va jamoat siyosati. 6 (1): 131–164. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00426.x. PMC  2561263. PMID  18841246.
  117. ^ Siddique, Julie A.; Belshaw, Scott H. (July 1, 2016). "Racial Disparity in Probationers' Views about Probation". Irq va adolat. 6 (3): 222–235. doi:10.1177/2153368715602932. ISSN  2153-3687. S2CID  148452213.
  118. ^ Miller, Susan L. (February 12, 1998). Crime Control and Women: Feminist Implications of Criminal Justice Policy. SAGE nashrlari. ISBN  9781452250489.
  119. ^ Chasnoff, Ira J.; Landress, Harvey J.; Barrett, Mark E. (1990). "The prevalence of illicit-drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory reporting in Pinellas County, Florida". Nyu-England tibbiyot jurnali. 322 (17): 1202–1206. doi:10.1056/NEJM199004263221706. PMID  2325711. During the six-month period in which we collected the urine samples, 133 women in Pinellas County were reported to health authorities after delivery for substance abuse during pregnancy. Despite the similar rates of substance abuse among black and white women in our study, black women were reported at approximately 10 times the rate for white women (P<0.0001), and poor women were more likely than others to be reported. We conclude that the use of illicit drugs is common among pregnant women regardless of race and socioeconomic status. If legally mandated reporting is to be free of racial or economic bias, it must be based on objective medical criteria.
  120. ^ a b Reynolds, Marylee (2008). "The war on drugs, prison building, and globalization: catalysts for the global incarceration of women". NWSA jurnali. 20 (1): 72–95. Olingan 16 mart, 2012.
  121. ^ a b Windsor, Liliane C.; Benoit, Ellen; Dunlap, Eloise (2010). "Dimensions of oppression in the lives of impoverished Black women who use drugs". Qora tadqiqotlar jurnali. 41 (1): 21–39. doi:10.1177/0021934708326875. PMC  2992333. PMID  21113410.
  122. ^ "2011 Report to the Congress: Mandatory Minimum Penalties in the Federal Criminal Justice System". Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining jazo komissiyasi. 2013 yil 28 oktyabr. Olingan 7 mart, 2017.

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Kitoblar

Jurnal maqolalari

Konferentsiya ishlari

  • Johnson, Devon (2003). "Round Up the Usual Suspects: African Americans' Views of Drug Enforcement Policies". Conference Papers -- American Association for Public Opinion Research.
  • Holloway, Johnny (2006). "Past as Prologue: Racialized Representations of Illicit Substances and Contemporary U.S. Drug Policy". Conference Papers -- International Studies Association: 1–19.
  • Jeff Yates; Andrew Whitford (2008). "Racial Dimensions of Presidential Rhetoric: The Case of the War on Drugs". Conference Papers -- Midwestern Political Science Association: 1.

Yangiliklar