Robert Charlz Zayner - Robert Charles Zaehner

R. C. Zaehner (1972)^[1][2]

Robert Charlz Zayner (1913-1974) - o'qish yo'nalishi ingliz akademigi Sharqiy dinlar. U ko'plab muqaddas matnlarning asl tilini tushungan, masalan, hindu, buddist, islomiy. Ilgari, Ikkinchi Jahon urushidan boshlab, u razvedka xodimi bo'lib xizmat qilgan Eron. Oksford Universitetida uning birinchi asarlari shu erda bo'lgan Zardushtiylik din va uning matnlari. Tayinlandi Spalding professori, uning kitoblari kabi mavzularga murojaat qilgan sirli tajriba (keng keltirilgan tipologiyani bayon qilish), Hinduizm, qiyosiy din, Xristianlik va boshqa dinlar va axloq qoidalari. U tarjima qildi Baghavad-Gita, hind urf-odatlari va manbalariga asoslangan keng sharhni taqdim etdi. Uning so'nggi kitoblarida ommaviy madaniyatning shu kabi muammolari ko'rib chiqilgan va bu uning nutqlariga sabab bo'lgan BBC. R. C. Zaehner nomi bilan nashr etilgan.^[3]

Hayot va martaba

Dastlabki yillar

1913 yil 8 aprelda tug'ilgan Sevenoaks, Kent, u Angliyaga shveytsariyalik-germaniyalik muhojirlarning o'g'li edi. Zaehner "bolaligidan frantsuz va ingliz tillarida ikki tilli edi. U butun umri davomida juda yaxshi tilshunos bo'lib qoldi."^[4][5] Yaqin atrofda ma'lumot olgan Tonbridge maktabi, u qabul qilindi Xrist cherkovi, Oksford, u qaerda o'qigan Yunoncha va Lotin, va shuningdek qadimiy forscha shu jumladan Avestaniya, Sharq tillari bo'yicha birinchi darajali sharaflarga sazovor bo'lish. 1936–37 yillarda u tahsil oldi Pahlaviy, yana bir qadimiy Eron tili, Sir bilan Xarold Beyli da Kembrij universiteti. Shundan so'ng Zaehner prof. Beylini juda hurmat qildi.^[6] Keyin u o'z kitobi ustida ishlashni boshladi Zurvan, a Zardushtiylik Dilemma, Eronning islomgacha dinini o'rganish.^[7][8]

Zaehnerga "tillar uchun ajoyib sovg'a" yoqdi. Keyinchalik u o'qish bo'yicha bilimga ega bo'ldi Sanskritcha (hind yozuvlari uchun), Pali (buddistlar uchun) va Arabcha (Islom uchun).^[9] 1939 yilda u ilmiy o'qituvchi sifatida dars berdi Xrist cherkovi, Oksford. Bu davrda u frantsuz shoirini o'qidi Artur Rimba, va So'fiy Eron shoiri Rumiy, shuningdek hindularni o'rganish Upanishadlar. Zaehner o'shanda "tabiat tasavvufi" ning shaxsiy brendini qabul qilish uchun kelgan. Shunga qaramay, uning ma'naviy rivojlanishi uni bir necha yil o'tgach, a. Bo'lib, nasroniylikni qabul qilishga undadi Rim katolik Eronda joylashgan.^[10]

Britaniya razvedkasi

Davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi 1943 yildan boshlab u a Britaniya razvedkasi ularning elchixonasi xodimi Tehron. Ko'pincha u dalada shimoliy Eronning tog'li qabilalari orasida joylashgan. Urushdan keyin u Tehron elchixonasida ko'proq diplomatik rol o'ynadi.^[11][12] Bir necha o'n yillar o'tgach, yana bir Britaniya razvedkasi xodimi Piter Rayt, uning faoliyatini quyidagicha tavsifladi:

"Men Zaehnerning shaxsiy ishini o'rganib chiqdim. U MI6 uchun javobgar edi qarshi razvedka urush paytida Forsda. Bu qiyin va xavfli ish edi. Rossiyaga muhim harbiy ta'minotni olib boruvchi temir yo'l liniyalari Germaniya sabotajining asosiy maqsadi bo'lgan. Zaehner bu ish uchun juda yaxshi jihozlangan, mahalliy lahjalarda bemalol gapira oladigan va ko'p vaqtini yashirin holda o'tkazgan, karaxtlik va karaxtlik dunyosida ishlagan. Urushning oxiriga kelib uning vazifasi yanada to'la edi. Ruslarning o'zlari temir yo'l ustidan nazoratni qo'lga kiritishga harakat qilar edilar va Zayner doimiy ravishda xiyonat qilish va nemisparast yoki rossiyaparastlik tomonidan o'ldirish xavfi ostida Rossiya saflari orqasida ishlashga majbur edi ... ".^[13]

Zaehner 1947 yilgacha Eronda Buyuk Britaniya elchixonasida matbuot attaşesi bo'lib ishlagan,^[14] va sifatida MI6 ofitser. Keyin u zardushtiylik haqidagi tadqiqotlarni olib borishda Oksforddagi ilmiy faoliyatini qayta tikladi. 1949 yil davomida u boshqa joyga ko'chirildi Maltada u qaerda mashq qilgan kommunistik albanlar. 1950 yilga kelib u an Oksford o'qituvchiga tayinlash Fors adabiyoti. 1951–1952 yillarda yana Eronga davlat xizmati uchun qaytib keldi. Prof. Nensi Lambton urush paytida Britaniyaning Eronda tashviqotini olib borgan, uni elchixona lavozimiga tavsiya qilgan. Jurnalist Kristofer de Belya Robin Zaynerni jin va afyun ta'mi bilan "Tehronda muhim bo'lgan barchani biladigan tug'ma tarmoqchi" deb ta'riflaydi. "Qachon Kingsli Martin, muharriri Yangi shtat arbobi Zehner Tehronda bo'lib o'tgan kokteylda Eron haqidagi tushunchalarini kengaytirish uchun qaysi kitobni o'qishi mumkinligini so'radi. Ko'zoynak oynasi orqali Elis."^{[15][16][17][18]}

Zaehner omma oldida darajaga ega edi Maslahatchi Tehrondagi Buyuk Britaniyaning elchixonasida. Aslida, u MI6 xodimi sifatida davom etdi. Davomida Abadan inqirozi unga muddatni uzaytirish topshirilgan edi Shoh qirollik tomonidan ushlab turilishi Quyosh taxti boshchiligidagi respublika chaqirig'iga qarshi Mohammed Mossadegh, keyin Bosh Vazir. Inqirozga tegishli Angliya-Eron neft kompaniyasi amalda bo'lgan milliylashtirilgan Mossadeg tomonidan. Shu tariqa Zayner 1951 yilda Britaniyaning Eron hukumatini ag'darish va neft qazib olishni Buyuk Britaniya hukumati nazorati ostidagi tashkilotga qaytarish bo'yicha muvaffaqiyatsiz harakatlari bilan shug'ullangan.^[19] "[M] u Mosadegni ag'darib tashlash va neft konlarini AIOCga qaytarib berishni rejalashtirgan. Keyinchalik Britaniyalik diplomat, keyinchalik Oksforddagi Sharqiy dinlar professori Robin Zayner qo'lida edi."^[20][21][22] Oxir oqibat Shohni qayta o'rnatgan bunday Anglo va keyinchalik Amerikaning Eronga aralashuvi keng tanqidga uchradi.^[23][24][25]

1960-yillarda, MI5 qarshi razvedka ofitser Piter Rayt Zaehnerni uning josusi sifatida ikki baravar ko'payganligi haqidagi ayblanuvchi ayblovlar to'g'risida so'roq qildi Sovet Ittifoqi, Britaniya razvedka operatsiyalariga zarar etkazish Eron va Albaniya davomida davr quyidagi Ikkinchi jahon urushi. Zaehnerni "bilimdonlikning chalg'itadigan jozibasi kiyingan, kichkina, qashshoq qiyofali odam" deb ta'rif berishadi. Uning 1987 yilgi kitobida Spytatcher Raytning yozishicha, Zaynnerning kamtarona muomalasi va ochiqchasiga rad etishi uni bunga ishontirgan Oksford don Britaniyaga sodiq qolgan edi. Rayt Zaynner bilan to'qnashgani uchun "men o'zimni to'piqdek his qildim" deb ta'kidlaydi.^[26]

Garchi razvedka xizmatida o'z hukumati manfaati uchun bo'lsa ham, keyinchalik Zehner mulohaza yuritganda u utilitar faoliyatni umuman jalb qilishni tushunmadi. Uning yozishicha, "chet eldagi davlat xizmati" da, "haqiqat fazilatlarning oxirgi qismi sifatida ko'riladi va yolg'on gapirish ikkinchi tabiat bo'lib chiqadi. Shunday qilib, men akademik hayotga yengil tortib qaytdim, chunki menga shunday tuyuldi" , agar haqiqatni bir fikrli izlash bilan bog'liq kasb bo'lsa, bu olimning kasbidir. "^[27][28] Prof. Jeffri Kripal "siyosiy jihatdan noto'g'ri" ko'rinishi mumkin bo'lgan "Zaynerning favqulodda haqiqatni aytishi" ni muhokama qiladi. "Juda haqiqatparast professor" josus sifatida uning "dissimulyatsiya va aldashdagi oldingi faoliyati" uchun "qutqarish yoki kompensatsiya harakati" sifatida qaralishi mumkin.^[29][30]

Oksford professori

Zaehner 1974 yil 24 noyabrda Oksfordda vafotigacha Universitetda ishlagan. "Oltmish bir yoshida u yakshanba kuni kechqurun Massga ketayotib, ko'chada yiqilib tushdi."^[31] O'limga yurak xuruji sabab bo'lgan.^[32][33]

Universitet ishi

Urushdan oldin Zaehner ma'ruza qilgan Oksford universiteti. Qaytish Masih cherkovi urushdan bir necha yil o'tgach, u o'z ustida ishlashni davom ettirdi Zurvan kitob,^[34] va fors adabiyotida ma'ruzalar o'qidi. Keyin uning obro'si "asosan zardushtiylik haqidagi maqolalarga asoslandi filologik "urushdan oldin yozilgan.^[35]

1952 yilda Zaehner saylandi Sharqiy dinlar va axloqshunoslik bo'yicha professor Spalding taniqli professorning o'rnini egallash Sarvepalli Radxakrishnan vitse-prezident bo'lish uchun iste'foga chiqqan (keyinchalik) Prezident ) Hindiston.^[36][37][38] Zaehner ushbu lavozimga murojaat qilgan edi. Radxakrishnan ilgari o'rganishga nisbatan uyg'un nuqtai nazarni ilgari surgan qiyosiy dinlar va akademik kafedra "universalizmning bir turini targ'ib qilish uchun asos solingan" degan mazmunga ega edi. Zaehnerning ochilish ma'ruzasi mazmuni bo'yicha noan'anaviy edi. U dindagi "universalizm" ni qattiq, ammo aqlli tanqid qildi.^[39]

Bu tortishuvlarga sabab bo'ldi. Prof. Maykl Dummet Zaynerni qiziqtirgan narsa - "Kafedrada ishlagan davridan boshlab u hech kimning odami emasligini anglash".^[40][41] Zaehner zardushtiylik ilmiga qiziqishni davom ettirib, o'zining ilmiy nashrlarini nashr etdi Zurvan 1950-yillarda ushbu mavzu bo'yicha kitob va yana ikki kishi.^[42]

Ammo 1952 yildan boshlab u o'zining asosiy e'tiborini Sharqqa yo'naltirdi. "Spalding kafedrasiga saylanganimdan so'ng, men asoschining xohishiga ko'ra o'zimni asosan hind dinlarini o'rganishga bag'ishlashga qaror qildim."^[43] U shu akademik kafedrada Oksfordga xizmat qilgan, shu bilan birga u ham birga ishlagan Barcha qalblar kolleji, 1974 yilda vafotigacha va hech qachon turmush qurmagan.^[44][45]

Uning 1957 yildagi nufuzli kitobida Tasavvuf Muqaddas va profan, Zaehner ushbu an'anaviy, madaniyatlararo ma'naviy amaliyotni muhokama qildi. Tasavvuf yozuvlari asosida u akademik jurnallarda keng muhokama qilinadigan innovatsion tipologiyani taklif qildi. Shuningdek, u bu da'volarni tahlil qildi meskalin ushbu ma'naviy izlanishga mos foydalaning. Uning xulosasi rad etishga yaqin edi. Ammo u o'zining 1972 yilgi kitobida giyohvandlik tasavvufining soddaligi to'g'risida o'zining qattiq so'zlarini qayta ko'rib chiqdi Zen, giyohvandlik va tasavvuf. Uning ogohlantirishlari ba'zi oqilona takliflar bilan ma'lum darajada malakaga aylandi. U giyohvandlik keltirib chiqargan davlatlar va diniy tasavvufni diqqat bilan ajratib ko'rsatdi. Keyin BBC undan radioda gaplashishni so'radi, u erda u quyidagilarga ega bo'ldi. U chet elda ma'ruza qilish uchun taklif qilingan.^[46][47]

Shotlandiyada uning etkazib berish Gifford ma'ruzalari uni eng sehrli kitobini yozishga undadi. Zaehner ikki marta sayohat qilgan Sent-Endryus universiteti 1967 yildan 1969 yilgacha. U tanlagan mavzu turli xil dinlarning o'zaro hamjihatlikda uzoq vaqt davomida bir-biriga bog'langan va o'zaro bog'liq tarixiga tegishli edi. U shovqinlarni yanada suveren izolyatsiyaning boshqa davrlaridan farqli o'laroq, qattiq tortishuvlarga va nisbatan o'zaro ishlov berish deb ta'rifladi. Keyinchalik ma'ruzalar 1970 yilda "o'limidan to'rt yil oldin" Oksford universiteti tomonidan nashr etilgan Kelishilgan kelishmovchilik. E'tiqodlarning o'zaro bog'liqligi.^[48][49]

Tengdoshlarning tavsiflari

Professor Zaehner sifatida "yozish uchun ajoyib imkoniyat va ish uchun juda katta ishtaha bor edi ... [shuningdek] do'stlik qobiliyati, bir qator yaqin do'stlariga chuqur mehr-muhabbat va insonning shaxsiyatini, ayniqsa g'alati yoki ekssentrik narsalarni qadrlash. ". Shunga qaramay, "u ko'p vaqtini yolg'iz o'tkazdi, aksariyati o'qish paytida ishlagan".^[50]

Amerikalik professor Zeynerni boshqacha ko'rinishda tasvirlab berdi: "Rumli, ranglari xira bo'lgan ko'zlari loy rang yuziga burilib tushgan kichkina, qushday Zaehner, Glouzlar chindan ham qo'rqinchli bo'lishi mumkin. U o'z davrining eng yaxshi po'latiga loyiq o'zgaruvchan shaxs edi ".^[51]

Uning Erondagi hamkasbi Prof. Ann K. S. Lambton ning SOAS "U esladi:" U, ehtimol, ahmoqlikdan mamnuniyat bilan azob chekmagan, ammo jiddiy talaba uchun u juda ko'p azob chekardi ". Professor Zaehner "juda g'alati kulgili" hikoyalari bilan "ko'ngil ochadigan sherik", "ekssentriklik demaslik uchun juda o'ziga xos o'ziga xos odam edi".^[52]

"Zahenner olimga qaraganda muhimroq narsaga aylanib ketgan olim edi", deydi u Maykl Dummet, uni chaqirmoqchi bo'lgan Oksforddagi falsafa professori penseur [Frantsuzcha: mutafakkir]. Zehner aql-idrok va o'rganish bilan (va uning urush davridagi tajribasi bilan) zamonaviy ruhiy hayotning muhim masalalariga oydinlik kiritdi va ko'p yozdi. "Uning iste'dodi qanday javob berishdan ko'ra, nima so'rashni bilishda edi ...".^[53]

Zaehnerning yozish uslubi haqida, Uilfred Kantvell Smit O'quvchi "aslida biron joyga borishiga" ishonch hosil qilmasligi uchun uni quvnoq sayr bilan taqqosladi. Bunday jozibali rang, shov-shuvli ovoz effektlari va intellektual faoliyatning sho'xligi, ehtimol o'zi yo'q yutuq degani. "^[54]

Teologiyada u qandaydir tarzda barcha dinlarda bir xillikni ko'rishga intilgan ekumenik tendentsiyani shubha ostiga qo'ydi. U yomon niyatdan emas, balki dinlar o'rtasidagi har qanday samarali muloqot "haqiqatga intilish" ga asoslangan bo'lishi kerakligiga ishonch bilan harakat qildi. Agar bunday chuqur muloqotlar soxta yoki yuzaki "totuvlik va do'stlik" ga asoslangan bo'lsa, bu faqat yashirin tushunmovchiliklarni kuchaytiradi, deb o'yladi Zayner, bu oxir-oqibat chuqurlashib borayotgan ishonchsizlikni keltirib chiqaradi.^[55][56]

Uning yozuvlari

Zardushtiylik

Zurvan

Dastlab Zaehnerning obro'si uning o'qishlariga bog'liq edi Zardushtiylik, birinchi maqolalar asosan filologiya akademik jurnallarda. U ko'p yillar davomida o'zining ilmiy ishida ishladi Zurvan, zardushtiylik dilemmasi (1955). Ushbu kitobda ta'sirchan kishining asl muhokamalari keltirilgan diniy qadimgi Fors zardushtiylik pravoslavligidan og'ish Ahamoniylar imperiyasi, bu juda axloqiy edi dualizm. Zurvanizm targ'ib qilindi Sosoniylar imperiyasi (224–651) keyinchalik Rim davrida paydo bo'lgan. Musulmonlar istilosiga qadar Fors dunyosida zurvanizm o'rnatildi va navbati bilan yo'q qilindi.^[57][58][59]

Zurvan zardushtiylik asl ta'limotiga o'xshash yangilik edi. Payg'ambar Zardusht xayrixoh deb va'z qildi Ahura Mazda ("Dono Rabbimiz") yaratuvchi Xudo sifatida ikkalasini ham yaratdi Spenta Mainyu (Muqaddas Ruh) va Angra Maynyu (tajovuzkor ruh) yovuzlikni tanlagan. Yaratilgan bu ikki Ruh egizak deb nomlangan, biri yaxshi, biri yomon. Asrlar davomida Ahura Mazda va uning "xabarchisi" yaxshilik Spenta Mainyu qarama-qarshi bo'lib qoldi va aniqlandi; shuning uchun yaratuvchi Ahura Mazda yovuzlikning egizagi sifatida ko'rina boshladi Angra Maynyu. Aynan shu qiyofada zardushtiylik Ahamoniylar Forsida davlat diniga aylandi. Ikkilikdan to'liq voz kechmasdan, ba'zilar o'ylashni boshladilar Zurvan (Vaqt) ikkala xayrixohlikning asosiy sababi sifatida Ahura Mazda va yovuzlik Angra Maynyu. Rasm Zurvanizmning turli xil maktablari va zardushtiylik mazhablari bilan murakkablashadi. Shuningdek, Ahura Mazda keyinchalik nomi bilan tanilgan Ohrmazd va Angra Maynyu bo'ldi Ahriman.^{[60][61][62][63]}

Zurvanni ilohiylashtirilgan vaqt deb ta'riflash mumkin (Zamon). Vaqt o'tishi bilan "ota" egizaklar paydo bo'ldi: axloqli, mo'l-ko'l Ohrmazd, unga sajda qilingan va uning shaytoniy antagonisti Ahriman, imonlilar unga qarshi kurashgan. Cheksiz vaqt sifatida Zurvan "Ohrmazd va Ahrimandan yuqori" darajaga ko'tarilib, "yaxshilik va yomonlikdan ustun" turdi. Bu an'anaviy "pravoslav" zardushtiylarni (mazdey axloqiy dualistlari) og'irlashtirdi.^[64][65] Zardushtiylar kosmologiyasi "cheklangan vaqt cheksiz vaqtdan kelib chiqishini" tushungan. 12000 yillik cheklangan vaqt davomida (Zurvan vaqtning har ikkala turi), insoniyat tarixi vujudga keladi, Ahrimanga qarshi kurash boshlanadi va so'nggi g'alaba Ohrmazd erishildi. Ammo pravoslav mazdeanlarning ta'kidlashicha, Zurvon emas, Ohrmazd ustun turadi. Boshqa tomondan, uning tarafdorlari Zurvanni Vaqt, makon, donishmandlik va qudrat xudosi va o'lim, tartib va ​​taqdirning Rabbi deb hisoblashgan.^[66]

Magilarning ta'limoti

Magilarning ta'limoti (1956)^[67] Zahennerning zardushtiylik haqidagi uch kitobdan ikkinchisi edi. U Sasaniylar davrida dinning "asosiy qoidalarini" taqdim etdi Shopur II, 4-asr qiroli. Uning asosiy manbalari edi Pahlaviy kitoblari bir necha asrlardan keyin zardushtiylar tomonidan yozilgan. Uning o'nta bobining har birida Zaynerning tarixiy matnlardan tarjimalari bilan tasvirlangan tavsiflovchi sharhlari mavjud. IV bob, "Dualizmning zaruriyati" odatiy bo'lib, yarmi muallifning bayoni va yarmi pahlaviy asaridan ko'chirmalar bo'lib, bu erda Shikand Gumani Vazar Mardan Farrux tomonidan.^[68]

Tong va alacakaranlık

Uning ichida Zardushtiylikning Tong va Alacakaranlık (1961), Zaehner xronologik dixotomiyani qabul qildi. U dastlab dinning kelib chiqishi, uning payg'ambari Zardusht tomonidan asos solinganligini o'rganadi. Uning ta'kidlashicha Gattalar, ichidagi eng dastlabki matnlar Avesta, "Zardusht bir paytlar o'z missiyasini e'lon qilganida, fuqarolik va cherkov ma'muriyatining juda qattiq qarshiliklariga duch kelganini" aniq ko'rsatib bering. "Uning dushmanlari ... qadimiy milliy dinni qo'llab-quvvatladilar." Axloqiy va ekologik asosda Zardusht "joylashtirilganlarni" qo'llab-quvvatladi pastoral va qishloq xo'jaligi jamoasi "yirtqich, talon-taroj qilayotgan qabila jamiyatlari" ga qarshi. Uning diniy va axloqiy dualizmi "Haqiqat izdoshlarini hayotni saqlovchi va hayotni kuchaytiruvchi kuchlar" ni va Yolg'onning "buzg'unchi kuchlari" ni himoya qildi.^[69] Payg'ambar hayotining sanalari uchun Zaehner miloddan avvalgi VI asr ananalarini qabul qildi.^{[70][71][72][73][74]}

Zardusht eskisini isloh qildi ko'p xudojo'y Axura Mazdahni [Dono Rabbini] Yaratguvchi, yagona Xudo qilish orqali din. Zardusht tomonidan kiritilgan yangilik bu edi mavhum tushunchalarya'ni Muqaddas Ruh va Amesha Spentas (Yaxshi aql, haqiqat, sadoqat, hukmronlik, yaxlitlik, o'lmaslik). Zaehner ularni izohladi emas chetlatilgan eski xudolarning yangi o'rnini bosuvchi sifatida, ammo "Xudo va inson o'rtasidagi vositachilik vazifasini" bajarishi mumkin bo'lgan "lekin ilohiy shaxsiyatning o'zi". The Amesha Spentas "Xudoning tomonlari, lekin inson ham baham ko'rishi mumkin bo'lgan jihatlardir".^[75] Angra Mainyu dualistik yovuzlik edi.^[76] Uchrashuv oxirgi ajralishdan oldin yo'llari Hind-eronliklar, Hindular xudolarning ikki sinfiga ega bo'lgan asuralar (masalan, Varuna ) va devas (masalan, Indra ). Keyinchalik Hindiston bosqindan keyin asuralar jin darajasiga cho'kdi. Au kontraire, Eronda aura foydalandi, ammo daevalar yiqilib haqiqatga qarshi chiqdi, bu qisman Zardusht islohoti tomonidan rag'batlantirildi. Qadimgi Eron dinida an ahura [lord] "kosmosning to'g'ri tartiblanishi" bilan shug'ullangan.^{[77][78][79][80]}

II qismda Zayner zardushtiylik dinining uzoq vaqt tanazzulga uchrashini muhokama qildi.^[81] Haqida ta'limotlar paydo bo'ldi Zurvan i Akanarak [Cheksiz vaqt]. Sosoniylar davlatining g'oyaviy asoslari zardushtiylik kosmologiyasi va fazilat tuyg'usidan kelib chiqqan. The Amesha Spentas inson faoliyati uchun ma'naviy qo'llab-quvvatladi anglatadi (masalan, "ortiqcha va etishmovchilik o'rtasidagi adolatli muvozanat", zardushtiylik "qonuni" va "donolik yoki aql"). Axloqiy tamoyil sifatida anglatadi o'rtasidagi "shartnoma" konturlarini kuzatib bordi Ohrmazd [Ahura Mazda] va Ahriman [Angra Mainyu], ular Oxirgi vaqtdagi kurashni boshqargan. Boshqa ta'limotlar, masalan, kelajakdagi qutqaruvchi haqidagi tushunchalar paydo bo'ldi Saoshyans (Zardushtning o'zi yoki vafotidan keyingi o'g'li). Yaxshi dinning so'nggi g'alabasidan keyin dono lord Orhmazd "butun moddiy ijodni ma'naviy tartibga ko'taradi va u erda har bir yaratilgan narsa Xudoning qo'lidan chiqargan mukammalligi unga qaytariladi" Frashkart yoki "Ajoyib qilish".^[82][83][84]

Maqolalar, boblar

Zahenner Zardushtga oid boshqa ishlarga o'z hissasini qo'shgan va qadimgi Eronda din boshlangan. "Zardushtiylik" maqolasi u tahrir qilgan ikki ustunli kitobga kiritilgan, Tirik imonlarning qisqacha ensiklopediyasi, birinchi marta 1959 yilda nashr etilgan.^[85] Shuningdek, uning sobiq milliy dinning ommaviy madaniyatida "Eron folkloridagi zardushtiylar tirik qolganligi" ni saqlashga bag'ishlangan bir nechta maqolalari.^[86] Zardushtiylik haqidagi boblar qisman yoki qisman uning boshqa bir nechta kitoblarida uchraydi: Har xil vaqtlarda (1958), aka Dinlarni taqqoslash (1962);^[87] Konvergent ruh, aka Materiya va ruh (1963);^[88] va Kelishilgan kelishmovchilik (1970).^[89]

Qiyosiy din

Quyidagi ikkita nomdan tashqari, Zaehnerning boshqa asarlari qiyosiy yoki muhim qiyosiy elementga ega.^[90] Ular orasida: Kelishilgan kelishmovchilik (1970),^[91] va Bizning vahshiy Xudoyimiz (1974).^[92]

Perspektivni tanlash

G'arbda qiyosiy dinning akademik sohasi kelib chiqishi bilan meros bo'lib o'tganma'rifat "ob'ektiv, qiymatga xolis, ammo" dunyoviy "ratsionalizm idealidir. An'anaviy nasroniy va yahudiy yozuvlari, ammo dastlab dastlabki ma'lumotlarning ko'p qismini taqdim etgan mumtoz adabiyot, keyinchalik ularga g'arbiy bo'lmagan diniy matnlar va dala tadqiqotlari qo'shildi,^[93] keyin oxir-oqibat xalq dinlarini etnologik tadqiqotlar bilan.^[94][95] O'zini mutlaqo oqilona deb ta'riflagan imtiyozli "ma'rifatparvarlik" yo'nalishi amalda neytral bo'lmadi va o'zi tobora turli lagerlar bilan bahslasha boshladi.^[96] Neytral mezonlarga kelsak, Zaehner o'zini quyidagicha joylashtirdi:

"Har qanday e'tiqodga ega bo'lgan har qanday odam, umuman ob'ektiv yondashishga harakat qilganda ham, ularning ta'siriga tushishi kerak; lekin u buni boshidanoq tan olsin va undan saqlansin. Agar u shunday qilsa, u hech bo'lmaganda kamroq bo'ladi o'zini va boshqalarni aldash uchun javobgar. " "Men yozgan kitoblardan ba'zilari ob'ektiv bo'lishi uchun mo'ljallangan, boshqalari, ochig'ini aytganda, yo'q". "Qiyosiy din haqidagi barcha yozuvlarimda diniy tarixda izchil naqsh mavjudligini ko'proq isbotlamoqchiman. Men uchun hamjihatlik markazi faqat Masih bo'lishi mumkin." Shunga qaramay "Men diniy seminariyada tabiiy joy topadigan deyarli hamma narsani o'zimning mavzuim uchun ahamiyatsiz deb rad etdim, ya'ni Xristian ilohiyoti, xususan, zamonaviy ilohiyotshunoslik. "" Nima uchun men hamdardman, deb so'rashingiz mumkin. Juda sodda qilib aytganda, Sharq va G'arbning "buyuk dinlari" uchun ... har bir din eng muqaddas deb bilgan matnlarda va ular keltirgan ta'sirda ifodalangan. "^[97][98][99]

Shunga ko'ra, Zaehner o'zining asosiy yo'nalishi uchun faol ishtirokchilar orasidan tanladi: katolik ko'rinishida nasroniylik. Shu bilan birga akademik Zaehner qiyosiy tahlil turini ham qo'llagan, masalan, zardushtiylik yoki hindulikdan yoki yahudiy yoki islomiy qarashlardan farqli o'laroq tushuncha olish uchun.^[100][101] Ko'pincha u taqqoslashni psixologiya yoki madaniy evolyutsiyani o'z ichiga olgan "modernist" tanqid bilan birlashtirdi.^[102][103] Zaehnerning keyingi asarlari haqida ma'lumot beriladi Vatikan II (1962-1965) va mo''tadil Nostra aetate.^[104]

Uning tanlagan nuqtai nazariga intilish, shu jumladan boshqa akademiklar tomonidan ham tanqidlarsiz o'tmadi.^{[105][106][107][108]} Shuningdek, Zaehnerrning nasroniylik e'tiqodi unga tarixiy cherkovga nisbatan o'zining aniq, haqiqat bilan aytilgan tanqidlarini oshkor qilishga xalaqit bermadi.^[109]

Har xil vaqtlarda

Uning 1958 yilgi kitobida Har xil vaqtlarda. Dinlarni taqqoslash bo'yicha insho,^[110] Zaehner "masihiy nasroniy bo'lmagan dinlarga qanday munosabatda bo'lishi kerakligi va agar ularni umuman o'z dinlari bilan bog'lashi mumkin bo'lsa" (9-bet [So'z boshi]). Unga kirish (1), so'ngra hinduizm (2), hinduizm va buddizm (3), "Isroildan tashqarida payg'ambarlar", ya'ni zardushtiylik va islom (4) boblari kiradi va taqqoslaydigan va qarama-qarshi bo'lgan Ilova bilan yakunlanadi. "Qur'on va Masih". Ehtimol, asosiy bob "Consummatum Est" (5) bo'lishi mumkin, u "bir tomondan [mistik] hinduizm va buddizmning asosiy yo'nalishi, boshqa tomondan zardushtiylikning [payg'ambarlik] asosiy tendentsiyalari qanday uchrashishini va ko'rsatib berishga harakat qiladi. nasroniylarning vahiylarida bir-birlariga "(So'z boshi, 9-bet, qavsdagi so'zlar qo'shilgan).

Kitob o'zining bahsli germenevtik so'zlari bilan ochiladi: "qiyosiy din bilan," deydi u, "kim usta bo'lishi kerak, barchasi shu erda" (9-bet).^[111] U salom berishni boshlaydi E. O. Jeyms. Keyingi Zaehner eslatib o'tadi Rudolph Otto (1869-1937) va al-G'azzoliy (1058-1111), ikkalasi ham mavzuni tushuntirib beradigan diniy tajribaga ega bo'lmagan har qanday "aqlli" yozuvchiga skeptik sifatida qarashadi. Bu erda Zaehner ko'plab masihiylar faqat o'zlarining din turlari (yahudiylik va islom diniga o'xshash) bilan tanish bo'lishi mumkinligini va shuning uchun hindu yoki buddist tasavvufini etarli darajada anglash uchun jihozlangan bo'lishi mumkinligini tan oladi (12-15-betlar).

Keyin Zaehner ularni taqqosladi Eski Ahd va Budda Birinchisi, payg'ambarlar tomonidan yahudiy xalqiga etkazilgan Xudoning amrlari tarixi va ularning shunga yarasha yashash uchun kurashganligi, ikkinchisi esa o'z tajribasidan kelib chiqqan yo'lni o'qituvchisi bo'lib, bu Xudosiz va Xudodan tashqari ruhiy ma'rifatga olib keladi. tarixiy voqealar (15-19, 24-26 betlar). Bu ikkalasi orasidagi bu bo'shliqni bartaraf etish uchun yo'l kerak (15, 19, 26, 28-betlar). Bo'shliq istak va azob-uqubatlar (21-bet), tana va ruh (22-23-betlar), shaxsiyat va o'lim (23-24-betlar) bilan bog'liqligi sababli yanada ko'proq tasvirlangan. U kitob uchun maxsus "usul" ni e'lon qildi: "Men samimiy erkaklar ishongan narsalar haqida o'ylayman" (29-bet).

Xristianlik va boshqa dinlar

1964 yilgi kitob,^[112] joriy etilgandan so'ng, to'rt qismdan iborat: Hindiston, Xitoy va Yaponiya, Islom va katolik cherkovi. Zehner davomida "boshqa dinlar" va yahudiy-nasroniylarning o'zlarini anglashi o'rtasidagi aloqalar mavjud, masalan, Upanishadlar va Tomas Merton (25-26 betlar), Daosizm va Odam (68-bet), Sunyata va Aflotun (96-bet), Al-G'azzoliy va Aziz Pol (119-120-betlar), Samxya va Martin Buber (131-132-betlar).

Kirish so'zida Zaehner cherkovning "juda katakli tarixi" haqida afsuslanadi. Shunga qaramay u o'zining hayratini bildiradi Papa Jon (1881-1963), u butun insoniyat "Xudo oldida" ega bo'lgan qadr-qimmatni yuksaltirdi. Keyin Zaehner dunyo miqyosida nasroniylikning qisqacha tarixini taqdim etadi. Cherkov Isoning vahiysi va xizmati bilan "butparastlik bilan uyg'un deb hisoblagan har qanday narsani o'ziga qo'shganidan xursand edi". Uning so'zlari bilan uning ishonchi aniqlandi Gamaliel (7-9-betlar).^[113] Evropa Iso haqida yigirma asrdan beri bilgan bo'lsa, Osiyoda "undan ham ko'proq" atigi uch yil bor. Biroq Iso u erga dengizning narigi tomonidagi g'oliblar bilan kelganga o'xshaydi va "azob chekayotgan xizmatkor sifatida emas" (9-bet).^[114] Osiyodagi qadimiy urf-odatlarga kelsak, xristianlar "birinchi marta tushunishni o'rganmagan narsalarini aniq qoraladilar" (11, 13-betlar). Shunday qilib Zaehner qadimiy an'analarni zamonaviy ko'rib chiqish uchun zamin yaratadi.

"Katolik cherkovi" bobi uning inklyuzivligini nishonlash bilan boshlanadi. Zaynerning so'zlari Kardinal Nyuman erta cherkovning singdirilishini maqtab klassik O'rta er dengizi fazilatlar ("g'ayritabiiy" degan ba'zi bir manba).^[115] Chunki "boshidanoq dunyoning axloqiy hokimi haqiqat urug'ini olislarga sochdi ...".^[116] Xristianlar uchun boshqa dinlarning ma'naviy haqiqatlarini o'rganishda ba'zi bir xavf tug'dirishi mumkin, ammo bu oyatlarda uchraydi.^[117]

Zaehner o'quvchiga hinduizm va buddizmning "guvohlarini e'tiborsiz qoldirmaslik" ni maslahat beradi, chunki ular masihiylar orasida so'nib, bir tomonga aylanib ketgan ichki haqiqatlarni o'rgatadilar. Islohot. Cherkov doimiy ravishda "transsendentlar ... Hukmdor va Shoh va yashayotgan Masih o'rtasidagi mukammal, ammo xavfli muvozanatni" saqlash uchun kurashadi. 1964 yilda yozgan Zahner "Hindistondagi Yogin yoki Yaponiyaning Zen" filmini tobora ko'proq qabul qilishda "yaxshi tomonga o'zgarishni" sezdi. Shunga qaramay, boshqa dinlarni o'rganishda Xudodan qo'rqishdan tashqariga chiqadigan "beparvo qalb" uchun xavf mavjud. Shunda odam sirli tajribaning nozik tomonlariga kirib, "o'z qalbini Xudo deb adashishi" mumkin. Ularning orasidagi farqni ajratishda bunday xato abadiy davlatlar ego inflyatsiyasiga, ma'naviy bekorga va bepushtlikka olib kelishi mumkin.^{[118][119][120]}

Zaehner ba'zi bir asosiy diniy aloqalarni kategorik tahlil qilishni taklif qiladi: a) harakatga yo'naltirilgan, dunyoviy (yahudiylik, islom, protestantizm, konfutsiylik); b) tafakkurga yo'naltirilgan, boshqa dunyoviy (hinduizm, Theravada buddizmi, daosizm); v) o'rtasida (Mahayana buddizmi, neo-konfutsiylik, Gandi isloh qilingan hinduizm, katolik cherkovi).^[121]

Sirli tajriba

Tasavvuf tadqiqotning akademik sohasi sifatida diniy va adabiy talaffuz bilan oldingi asarlardan paydo bo'lgan nisbatan yaqinda. Tasavvuf asarlarini o'qishdan boshlab, uning psixologik tabiati va ijtimoiy-madaniy konteksti kabi turli xil an'anaviy farqlar yanada takomillashtirildi. Muhokamalar, shuningdek, uning fenomenologiyasini tasavvuf yoki boshqalar tomonidan qanday talqin qilinganiga nisbatan shaxsiy tajriba sifatida ifodaladi.^[122] Professor Zaehner o'z hissasini qo'shdi, masalan, qiyosiy tahlil va uning tipologiyasiga.

Muqaddas va profan

Zahennerning zardushtiylik haqidagi dastlabki ishlaridan so'ng, Tasavvuf. Muqaddas va profan (1957) boshqa mavzudagi birinchi nashridir. Bu uning taxminidan keyin sodir bo'ldi Spalding kafedra Barcha qalblar kolleji, Oksford. Kitobning suhbat uslubi qiyin mavzudagi ravshanlik va donolikni beradi va shu bilan birga ko'plab yorituvchi chekinishlar va chetga chiqadi.

Nopok tomonga birinchi navbatda ulardan foydalanish masalasi ko'rib chiqiladi meskalin. Zaehnerning o'zi ushbu tabiiy psixedel preparatini ehtiyotkorlik bilan qabul qildi. U, xususan, muhokama qildi Aldous Xaksli, ayniqsa, uning 1954 yilgi mashhur kitobida Sezgi eshiklari (1–29, 208-226-betlar). Keyinchalik, tabiat tasavvufi mavzusi tavsiflanadi va baholanadi, shu jumladan adabiyotdan ikkita misol: Proust va Rimba (30-83 betlar). "Jinnilik", ba'zida tasavvuf ahliga mos keladigan ruhiy holatlarga olib kelishi mumkin (84-105-betlar).

"Integratsiya va yakkalanish" bobi qiyosiy nuqtai nazarga ega bo'lib, hinduizm, nasroniylik va islom dinlari tasavvufi va shuningdek Jung psixologiya. Integratsiya tabiat tasavvufi aqlga qo'shilib, aql va ongsiz ravishda bir-birini oziqlantiradi deb ta'riflanadi (114-bet). Izolyatsiya deganda Samxya tasavvuf purusa (jon) va prakrti (tabiat) ajratilgan (106-128-betlar). Zahner hindu tasavvufchilari haqida Yoga uslubi bilan bog'liq dualistik ta'limot va dualist bo'lmagan Samxiyani qarama-qarshidir. Vedanta, dan ilhomlangan monizm Upanishadlar. Monizmning Teizm oyatlarining nisbiy afzalliklari va aksincha, muhokama qilinadi (153-197-betlar). Zehner xulosa yakunida monist va teoistik "tasavvufning o'ziga xos va o'zaro qarama-qarshi turlari" degan fikrini takrorlaydi (204-bet).

Hindu va musulmon

Uning 1960 yilgi innovatsion kitobida mistik adabiyot va amaliyot taqqoslangan Hindular va Musulmonlar. U uni xilma-xillik mavzusi bilan ramkaga soladi.^[123] Tajribali asoslarda Zaehner keyinchalik sirli tasavvufchilar bizga qoldirgan ma'naviy xazinalarni o'rganishga kirishadi. Santana Dxarma va of So'fiy tariqatlar. Ko'pincha u xabar qilingan tajribalarning fenomenologik tavsifini taklif qiladi, shundan so'ng ularni turli xil diniy ma'nolarda sharhlaydi.^[124]

Keyingi Surendranat N. Dasgupta, Zaehner tasavvufning hind an'analarida uchraydigan besh xil turini tasvirlaydi: " qurbonlik, Upanishadik, Yogic, Buddistik va bu baxti."^[125] Zaehner "qurbonlik" ni (asosan tarixiy ahamiyatga ega) va "buddistni" (qarama-qarshi ta'riflari tufayli) tark etadi. nirvana ),^[126] shuning uchun u sirli tajribaning namunalari sifatida quyidagilarni taqdim etadi:

• (a) upanisadik "men hammaman" (i) a ga bo'lish mumkin teistik izohlash yoki (ii) a monistik;
• b) tasavvufning o'z shaxsiy ruhining abadiy monadasi yoki (i) tashqi makon va vaqtdan tashqari Yogik "birlik". Yoga sutralari ning Patanjali yoki (ii) ning Braxman, koinot zamini advaita Vedanta ning Sankara; va,
• (c) Bhakti tasavvufi muhabbat, sharhiga ko'ra Bhagavad Gita tomonidan Ramanuja.^[127]

Yuqoridagi sxemaga asoslanib, natijada ikki dinning tasavvufini o'rganish biroz assimetrikdir. Zaehner dastlab hind mistiklarini davolashga qaror qildi, chunki ular aqida yoki dogmaga nisbatan nisbatan erkin edilar. Islomning tasavvuf va sufiylari butun Islom olamidan tanlangan, masalan. Bag'dodlik Junayd va Al-G'azzoliy.^[128] Bunga tasavvufchilar kiritilgan Mughal davr. Hind va musulmonlarni sinchkovlik bilan tekshirish kerak, Zaehner sirli tajriba haqidagi fikrlarini muhokama qilmoqda.

Qiyosiy tasavvuf

Qiyosiy din bo'yicha ishlarida Zayner bevosita murojaat qilgan tasavvuf xususan hinduizm, nasroniylik va islom dinida. U o'sha paytdagi tasavvuf tajribasida barcha dinlar birligining kalitini topish kerak degan keng tarqalgan fikrni tanqid qildi. U o'zining qarama-qarshi fikrlarini turli urf-odatlar tasavvuf mualliflari tomonidan taniqli matnlarga asoslagan. Zaehner, o'zlarining g'ayrioddiy ong holatlarini boshdan kechirganliklari haqidagi dastlabki hisobotlarini tasvirlab bergandan so'ng, o'zlarining an'anaviy talqinlarini ham taqdim etdilar. Natijada, mistik tajribaning xilma-xilligi va ularni qanday qilib ilohiy jihatdan tushunishda aniq farqlar borligi ko'rinib turibdi. Ko'pgina tajribalar ma'lum bir dunyoqarashni, masalan, teizmlar, monizmlar, dualizmlar, panteizmlar yoki agnostiklarni tasdiqlaydi.^[129][130]

Uning tanqidiy tezisiga qarshi chiqdi Richard Buck, uning 1901 yilgi kitobida ishlab chiqilgan, Kosmik ong. Buck ba'zi bir kichik ob'ektlarni tavsiflaydi, so'ngra "kosmik" ruhiy holat haqida ma'lumot beradi. Taqdim etilgan o'n to'rtta namunali tarixchilar, ularning har biri biroz o'xshash tushunchaga erishganligini ko'rsatdi: kosmik ong tekisligi.^[131][132]

Deb nomlangan ushbu g'oya Ko'p yillik falsafa, turli xil rivojlangan, masalan, tomonidan Aldous Xaksli, tomonidan Frithyof Schuon, tomonidan Xyuston Smit. Zaehner ushbu ruhiy vizyonerlarning taniqli darajadagi xabardorlik darajasiga erishganiga qarshi emas. Vaqt o'tishi bilan intizomli hayot ketma-ketligini kuzatib borish sirli tajribaga olib kelishi mumkinligini ham inkor etmaydi: chekinish, tozalash, yoritish. Buning o'rniga, Zaeherning ta'kidlashicha, tabiat tasavvufining panteistik vizioni, shubhasiz yoqimli va foydali va teoistning insoniyatning ilohiy sevgilisi bilan shaxsiy birlashishi o'rtasidagi chuqur farq.^{[133][134][135][136][137]}

Jins: ruh va ruh

Zaehnerning tasavvufiy asarlarni o'rganishi, shuningdek, uning psixologik o'lchovlarini o'z ichiga olgan, ammo bu aniq emas.^[138][139] G'ayrioddiy ong holatlari tajribasi haqida ko'plab tasavvufchilar nikoh ramzi yoki shahvoniylik bilan bog'liq tavsiflovchi metafora tili sifatida foydalanganlar.^{[140][141][142][143]}

Ibrohim dinlar an'anaviy ravishda oliy borliqning jinsini erkaklar deb belgilaydilar. Islomda va nasroniylikda ko'pincha erkaklarning ruhi so'fiy yoki tasavvuf, uning ruhiy tarbiyasiga rioya qilgan holda, erkak Xudoning muqaddas huzuriga duch kelishi mumkin.^[144][145] Xristian cherkovi, bir necha ming yillar davomida, ruhlar jamiyati sifatida o'zini o'zi ta'riflagan Masihning kelini.^{[146][147][148][149]}

Asrlar va qit'alar bo'ylab tasavvufchilar ilohiy sevgini tasvirlashda erotik metafora va jinsiy o'xshashliklardan foydalanganlar. Ular qayd etgan ongning maxsus holatlari zamonaviy psixologik tadqiqotlar mavzusiga aylandi, masalan, maktab tomonidan C. G. Jung (ko'pincha Zaehner tomonidan yoqadi).^{[150][151][152]} Xristian tasavvufchilari orasida Tereza de Jezus (1515-1582) ishlagan ma'naviy nikoh uning tajribalari haqida yozma ravishda metafora.^[153][154] Mextild fon Magdeburg (c.1208-1282 / 1294)^{[155][156][157][158][159]} mistik ayolning alohida namunasini taqdim etadi.^[160][161]

Zehner boshqa mualliflar qatori tasavvufchilarning nikoh ramzi va shahvoniy obrazlari haqida yozadi. U namunali parchani keltiradi François de Sales (1567-1622),^[162] keyin davom etadi:

"Ikkala sirli ushlashda ham, jinsiy birlashishda ham aql va aql bir zumda bekor qilinadi. Ruh" oqadi "va" o'zini o'zi otib tashlaydi "... ... xudoning barcha ongi yo'qoldi. Buddist aytganidek, u erda endi "men" yoki "meniki" emas, ego katta butunlikka yutilib ketgan. "^{[163][164][165][166]}

Shunga qaramay, ushbu nozik mavzuga yaqinlashganda, ayniqsa a uchun tartibsiz ostonada Yangi asr, tezda yuz beradigan o'zgarishlar chalkashishi mumkin jinsiy aloqa va turli xil sharhlarni keltirib chiqaradigan qarama-qarshiliklarni taqqoslash.^{[167][168][169][170]} Tasavvufiy davlatlarning madaniy tajribasiga kelsak, nikoh ramziyligining an'anaviy o'xshashligi davom etmoqda, qiziqish va himoyachilarni jalb qilmoqda. Yuqoridagi misollarni ko'paytirish Gollandiyalik tasavvufdir Yan van Ruusbroek (1239-1381).^{[171][172][173][174][175]}

Zaehner evolved into a committed Christian, whose ethics and morals were founded on his Catholic faith. Accordingly, sexuality is blessed within the context of marriage.^[176] His sexual orientation before and during World War II was said to have been homosexual. During his later life, while a don at Oxford, he became wholly devoted to teaching, research and writing; he abstained from sexual activity.^{[177][178][179]}

Typology of mysticism

In 1958, Zaehner presented a general analysis of the range of mystical experience in the form of a typology. Dasgupta was a source, which Zaehner modified, truncated and refashioned.^[180][181] The resulting schema of the typology aimed to reflect both the mystic's report of the experience itself and the mystic's personal 'explanation' of it. Commentaries by others found in traditional spiritual literature (spanning centuries) were also referenced. The 'explanations' usually drew the mystic's religious heritage. Of the various typologies suggested by Zaehner,^{[182][183][184][185][186][187]} the following has been selected here.^[188]

• (1) Nature mystics, e.g., secular 'oceanic';
• (2) Isolation, interpreted as either:^[189]
  • Dualist, e.g., Samxya -Yogin, or
  • Monistic, e.g., non-dualist Vedanta;
• (3) Theistic, e.g., Ibrohim dinlari.

An endemic problem with such an analytic typology is the elusive nature of the conscious experience during the mystical state, its shifting linguistic descriptions and perspectives of subject/object, and the psychology of spiritual awareness itself. In addition, each type category is hardly pure, in that there is a great variety of overlap between them.^[190] Furthermore, each religion appears to field contending schools of mystical thought, and often interpretations of subtle conscious states may differ within each of the schools.^[191] When a list of the several proposed typologies suggested by Zaehner over the years are mustered and compared, Fernandes found the results "unstable".^[192] Accordingly, an observer might conclude that the spiritual map of possible mysticisms would present a confused jumble through which snake perplexing pathways, difficult of analysis. Zaehner's proposals suffer from such endemic difficulties.^[193][194]

Nota bene: Kripal remarks that Zaehner is known for a "tripartite typology of mystical states".^[195] However here to'rt xil muhokama qilinadi. Zaehner's "Isolation" composite is divided in its two components: the Dualist, and the Monistic. These two types may be deemed functionally equivalent, yet as self-defined the Monistic experience (of Vedanta ) is not an isolated event but instead is connected to the cosmic unity.^[196]

Nature mysticism

Nature mysticism is a term used to catalogue generally those spontaneous experiences of an okean tuyg'usi in which a person identifies with nature, or is similarly thrown back in awe of the unforgettable, vast sweep of the cosmos. Such may be described philosophically as a form of panteizm, or often as pan-en-hen-ic.^[197] Nature mysicism may also include such a state of consciousness induced by drugs. Yoqdi Aldous Xaksli^[198] he had taken meskalin, but Zaehner came to a different conclusion. In his 1957 book Mysticism. Sacred and Profane. An Inquiry into some Varieties of Praeternatural Experience, there is a narrative description of the author's experience under the influence of mescalin.^[199]

In part, about nature mysticism, Zaehner relies on Uilyam Jeyms,^{[200][201][202]} Karl Jung,^{[203][204][205]} a personal experience recorded by Martin Buber,^{[206][207][208]} the descriptions of Marsel Prust va of Artur Rimba, Boshqalar orasida.^{[209][210][211]} and writings of Richard Jeffris va of Richard Maurice Buck,^[212][213] Hind Upanishadlar were viewed by Zaehner as "a genuine bridge" between nature mysticism and theistic mysticism.^[214][215]

A primary aims of Zaehner appeared to be making the distinction between a morally open experience found in nature mysticism as contrasted with the beatific vision of the theist.^[216][217] Zaehner set himself against Aldous Huxley's style of the Perennial Philosophy which held as uniform all mystical experience. Accordingly, he understood Huxley's interpretation of 'nature mysticism' as naïve, self-referent, and inflated, an idea seeded with future misunderstandings.^{[218][219][220]} Yet, considering Huxley's conversion to Vedanta and to his immersion in Zen, Zaehner arrived at an appraisal of Huxley that was nuanced, and selectively in accord.^[221]

Dualism, e.g., Samkhya

Samxya philosophy is an ancient dualist doctrine of India.^[222] In appraising the experienced world, Samkhya understood it as composed mostly of prakrti (nature, unconscious matter), but also of purusa (the human soul aware). Its dualism puts in contrast the objective seen (prakriti) and the subjective seer (purusa). Uzoq vaqt oldin Yoga adherents adopted doctrines of Samkhya.^{[223][224][225][226]} As a person pursues his spiritual quest under Samkhya-yoga, his o'lmas soul (purusa) emerges, becomes more and more defined and distinct, as it separates from entangling nature (prakriti). Prakriti includes even the nature affecting personal qualities, such as the three gunalar (modes), the buddhi (universal intellect), the mind (manas), tana, ahamkara (the ego): all of which the purusa sheds. Of the resulting refined and purified purusa there is yielded the eternity of the yogin's true Self in isolation.^{[227][228][229]}

An advanced mystic may attain a recurrent state of tranquil, steady illumination in meditative isolation. The Samkhya understands this as the benign emergence within the practicing yogin of his own purified, immortal purusa. A plurality of purusas exist, as many as there are people. A mystic's own purusa generally is about identical to the many other isolated purusas, each separately experienced from within, by millions of other humans.^[230][231] Under the Samkhya, Hindus may refer to this personal, isolated experience of immortality as the purified self, the purusa, or otherwise called the personal atman (Sanskrit: self). Au contraire, a Hindu mystic following a rival school of Vedanta may understand the same tranquil, steady illumination differently (i.e., as not Samkhya's purusa). As Zaehner proposed: the same or similar mystical experience may result in very different theological interpretations.^{[232][233][234]}

Instead of the isolated purusa experience of Samkhya, the Advaita Vedanta mystic might interpret it as the experience of the Self, which illuminates the mystic's direct connection to the all-inclusive entity of cosmic totality. Such a numinous, universal Self is called Braxman (Sanskritcha: sacred power),^[235] yoki Paramatma.^[236][237] Here, the Samkhya understands an isolated, purified, eternal purusa (self); the contrary Vedanta mystic would experience a connection to the cosmic Brahman.^[238][239]

Hence, the mystical experience (briefly outlined here) is differently interpreted; the subject: (1) may achieve, by separation from prakriti (nature), the goal of immortality of her purusa, purified in isolation within herself; or (2) may become absorbed by discovery of her direct identity with the divine, immortal, luminous Brahman,^[240] Accordingly, in Zaehner's terms, such experience may be either (1) a dualistik Samkhya atheism, or (2) a monistik type of Advaita Vedanta. Neither for Zaehner can be called teistik, i.e., in neither case is there an interactive, sacred experience with a numinous personality.^[241][242]

Monism, e.g., Vedanta

[Under construction]

In non-dualist Vedanta,^{[243][244][245]} the Hindu mystic would understand haqiqat as nothing but the Divine Unity, inclusive of the mystic subject herself. A special, awesome, impersonal Mavjudligi tajribali bo'lishi mumkin. The persistent Hindu, after years of prescriptive discipline to purge her soul, may discover a sacred ocean or inner stream of Being, the Braxman. Such conscious spiritual energy conveys bliss, and transformation.^[246]

What is called 'nature' (prakriti in Samkhya), philosophically, does not exist, according to the Advaita Vedanta ning Sankara (c. 7th century).^[247][248] The objective 'other' is ultimately an illusion or maya.^[249][250] A realized person's antaratma or inner self is directly identical the paramatma, the Supreme Soul or Brahman. Sifatida Upanishadlar states to the seeker, "thou art that", Tat Tvam Asi, i.e., the personal atma bu the divine Atma. What Samkhya darsana mistakes for an isolated purusa (self) is really the Brahman: the whole of the universe; all else is illusion.^[251][252] Brahma is being, consciousness, bliss.^[253][254]

Zaehner focused especially on some Hindu forms of mysticism, i.e., the Astika of the dualist Samxya and of the non-dualist Vedanta. Not addressed as well were other forms of mysticism, e.g., the Theravada, the Mahayana, the Islamic, and Sankara, Ramauja, as well as various Sufis.^{[255][256][257][258]}

The non-dualist finds a complete unity within a subjective sovereignty: ultimately absorption in a raqamli presence, the absolute; its is a meditative perception of an all-encompassing "we" without any "they". The Samkhya dualist, however, understands that in transcendent meditation he will perceive himself as an isolated purusa, purified from enmeshment in an 'objective' prakrti. The mystic experience itself as found in Hindu literature Zaehner presents, as well as its theological filter of explanation.^[259]

Theism, e.g., Christian

[Under construction]Theistic mysticism is common to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Hinduism also includes its own traditions of theistic worship with a mystical dimension. Ramanuja (11th-12th century) articulated this theological schema, Vishishtadvaita, which departs from the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara (see above section).

According to Zaehner, Christianity and theistic religions offer the possibility of a sacred mystical union with an attentive creator God, whereas a strictly monistic approach instead leads to the self-unity experience of natural religion.^[260][261] Yet Zaehner remained hopeful in the long run of an ever-increasing understanding between religions. "We have much to learn from Eastern religions, and we have much too to give them; but we are always in danger of forgetting the art of giving--of giving without strings... ."^[262][263]

Mystical union between the mystic and the Deity in a sense confounds the distinction between dualistic and monistic mysticism. For if the two are identical already, there is no potential for the act of union. Yet the act of divine union also negates a continuous dualism.^[264][265]

During the 1940s spent in Eron he returned to the Christian faith. Decades later he published The Katolik cherkovi and World Religions (1964), expressly from that perspective. As an objective scholar, he drew on his acquired insights from this source to further his understanding of others. Zaehner "did not choose to write to convince others of the truth of his own faith," rather "to frame questions" was his usual purpose.^[266]

Hindu tadqiqotlari

His translations and the Hinduizm book "made Zaehner one of the most important modern exponents of Hindu theological and philosophical doctrines... . The works on mysticism are more controversial though they established important distinctions in refusing to regard all mysticisms as the same," wrote Prof. Jefri Parrinder.^[267] For Zaehner's Hind va musulmon tasavvufi (1960), and like analyses, see "Comparative Mysticism" section.

Hinduizm

While an undergraduate at Christ Church in Oxford, Zaehner studied several Persian languages. He also taught himself a related language, Sanskritcha, used to write the early Hindu sacred books. Decades later he was asked by OUP to author a volume on Hinduizm. Unexpectedly Zaehner insisted on first reading in Sanscrit the Mahabxarata, a very long epic.^[268] Dan ko'proq qahramonlik yoshi story of an ancient war, the Mahabxarata gives us the foremost compendium on Hindu religion and way of life.^[269]

The resulting treatise Hinduizm (1962) is elegant, deep, and short. Zaehner discusses, among other things, the subtleties of dharma va Yudxishtira, the son of Dharma, who became the King of righteousness (dharma raja). Yudhishthira is the elder of five brothers of the royal Pandava family, who leads one side in the war of the Mahabxarata. Accordingly, he struggles to follow his conscience, to do the right thing, to avoid slaughter and bloodshed. Yet he finds that tradition and custom, and the Lord Krishna, are ready to allow the usual killing and mayhem of warfare.^[270][271]

Tushuntirilganidek Hinduizm, all his life Yudhishthira struggles to follow his conscience.^[272] Yet when Yudhishthira participates in the battle of Kuruksetra, he is told by Krishna to state a "half truth" meant to deceive. Zaehner discusses: Yudhishthira and moksha (liberation), and karma; and Yudhishthira's troubles with jangchi kasta dharma.^{[273][274][275]} In the last chapter, Yudhishthira 'returns' as Maxatma Gandi.^[276] Other chapters discuss the early literature of the Vedalar, the deities, Bxakti devotional practices begun in medieval India, and the encounter with, and response to, modern Europeans.^[277]

Yudxishtira

Zaehner continued his discussion of Yudxishtira in a chapter of his book based on his 1967-1969 Gifford Lectures.^[278][279] Zaehner finds analogies between the Mahabxarata 's Yudhishthira and the biblical Ish. Yet their situations differed. Yudhishthira, although ascetic by nature, was a royal leader who had to directly face the conflicts of his society. His realm and his family suffered great misfortunes due to political conflict and war. Yet the divine Krishna evidently considered the war and the destructive duties of the warrior (the kshatriya dharma) acceptable. The wealthy householder Job, a faithful servant of his Deity, suffers severe family and personal reversals, due to Divine acquiescence. Each human being, both Job and Yudhishthira, is committed to following his righteous duty, acting in conforming to his conscience.^[280][281]

When the family advisor Vidura reluctantly challenges him to play dice at Dhrtarastra 's palace, "Yudhishthira believes it is against his moral code to decline a challenge."^[282][283] Despite, or because of, his devotion to the law of dharma, Yudhishthira then "allowed himself be tricked into a game of dice." In contesting against very cunning and clever players, he gambles "his kingdom and family away." His wife becomes threatened with slavery.^{[284][285][286]}

Even so, initially Yudhishthira with "holy indifference" tries to "defend traditional dharma" and like Job to "justify the ways of God in the eyes of men." Yet his disgraced wife Draupadi dramatically attacks Krishna for "playing with his creatures as children play with dolls." Although his wife escapes slavery, the bitter loss in the dice game is only a step in the sequence of seemingly divinely-directed events that led to a disastrous war, involving enormous slaughter. Although Yudhishthira is the King of Dharma, eventually he harshly criticizes the bloody duties of a warrior (the kshatriya dharma), duties imposed also on kings. Yudhishthira himself prefers the "constant virtues" mandated by the dharma of a brahmin. "Krishna represents the old order," interprets Zaehner, where "trickery and violence" hold "an honorable place".^[287][288]

Tarjimalar

Uning ichida Hind yozuvlari (1966) Zaehner translates ancient sacred texts, his selections of the Rig-Veda, Atharva-Veda, Upanishadlar, and the entire, 80-page Bhagavad Gita. He discusses these writings in his short Introduction. A brief Glossary of Names is at the end.^[289] "Zaehner's extraordinary command of the texts" wast widely admired by his academic peers.^[290]

That year Zaehner also published an extensively annotated Bhagavad Gita.^[291] which is a prized and celebrated episode of the Mahabxarata doston. Before the great battle, the Lord Krishna discusses with the Pandava aka Arjuna the enduring spiritual realities and the duties of his caste dharma. Krishna "was not merely a local prince of no very great importance: he was God incarnate--the great God Vishnu who has taken on human flesh and blood." After his translation, Zaehner provides a long Commentary, which is informed by: the medieval sages Sankara va Ramanuja, ancient scriptures and epics, and modern scholarship. His Introduction places the Gita within the context of the Mahabxarata epic and of Hindu religious teachings and philosophy. Issues of the Gita are addressed in terms of the individual Self, material Nature, Liberation, and Deity. The useful Appendix is organized by main subject, and under each entry the relevant passages are "quoted in full", giving chapter and verse.^[292][293]

Shri Aurobindo

Uning 1971 yilgi kitobida Evolution in Religion, Zaehner discusses Shri Aurobindo Ghose (1872–1950), a modern Hindu spiritual teacher, and Per Tilxard de Shardin (1881–1955), a French paleoontolog and Jesuit visionary.^[294][295] Zaehner discusses each, and appraises their religious innovations.^[296]

Aurobindo at age seven was sent to England for education, eventually studying western klassiklar at Cambridge University. Qaytish paytida Bengal in India, he studied its ancient literature in Sanskrit. He later became a major political orator with a spiritual dimension, a prominent leader Hindiston mustaqilligi uchun. Hence he was jailed. There in 1908 he had a religious experience. Relocating to the then French port of Pondicherry, u a bo'ldi yogin and was eventually recognized as a Hindu sage. Sri Aurobindo's writings reinterpret the Hindu traditions.^[297] Sarvepalli Radxakrishnan, later President of India, praised him.^[298] "As a poet, philosopher, and mystic, Sri Aurobindo occupies a place of the highest eminence in the history of modern India."^{[299][300][301]}

Aurobindo, Zaehner wrote, "could not accept the Vedanta in its classic non-dualist formulation, for he had come to accept Darvinizm and Bergson's idea of ijodiy evolyutsiya." If the One being was "totally static" as previously understood "then there could be no room for evolution, creativity, or development of any kind." Instead, as reported by Zaehner, Aurobindo considered that "the One though absolutely self sufficient unto itself, must also be the source... of progressive, evolutionary change." He found "the justification for his dynamic interpretation of the Vedanta in the Hindu Scriptures themselves, particularly in the Baghavad-Gita."^[302][303] According to Aurobindo, the aim of his new yoga was:

"[A] change in consciousness radical and complete" of no less a jump in "spiritual evolution" than "what took place when a mentalised being first appeared in a vital and material animal world." Regarding his new Integral yoga: "The thing to be gained is the bringing in of a Power of Consciousness... not yet organized or active directly in earth-nature, ...but yet to be organized and made directly active."^[304][305]

Aurobindo foresaw that a Power of Consciousness will eventually work a collective transformation in human beings, inviting us as a specie then to actually be able to form and sustain societies of liberté, égalité, fraternité.^[306]

Adherents of Aurobindo's new Integral yoga (Purna Yoga)^[307] seek to lead India to a spiritual awakening, by facilitating an increasingly common soul-experience, in which each person achieves a mystic union with the One. Shunaqangi gnosis would be guided by the Power of Consciousness. In choosing to pursue the spiritual realization of social self-understanding, India would hasten the natural evolution of humanity.^[308][309] Hence furthering the conscious commitment everywhere, to collaborate with the hidden drive of creative evolution toward a spiritual advance, is high among the missions of Aurobindo's new 'Integral Yoga'.^{[310][311][312]} "It must be remembered that there is Aurobindo the socialist and Aurobindo the mystic."^[313]

Gifford lecture at St Andrews

Zaehner gave the Gifford ma'ruzalari in Scotland during the years 1967–1969. In these sessions he revisits comparative mysticism and Bucke, focuses on Hinduism and Buddhism, Yudhishthira and later Job, discusses Taoist classics, Neo-Confucianism, and Zen. He doesn't forget Jung or Zoroaster, Marx or Teilhard. The result is a 464-page book: Concordant Discord. The Interdependence of Faiths.

In the course of the discourse, he mentions occasionally a sophisticated view: how the different religions have provided a mutuality of nourishment, having almost unconsciously interpenetrated each other's beliefs. The historically obfuscated result is that neighbouring religions might develop the other's theological insights as their own, as well as employ the other's distinctions to accent, or explain, their own doctrines to themselves. Although Zaehner gives a suggestive commentary at the conjunction of living faiths, he respects that each remains distinct, unique. Zaehner allows the possibility of what he calls the convergence of faiths, or solidarity.^[314][315]

Regarding the world religions Zaehner held, however, that we cannot use the occasional occurrence of an ironic sinkretizm among elites as a platform from which to leap to a unity within current religions. His rear-guard opinions conflicted with major academic trends then prevailing. "In these ekumenik days it is unfashionable to emphasize the difference between religions." Yet Zaehner remained skeptical, at the risk of alienating those in the ecumenical movement whose longing for a festival of conciliation caused them to overlook the stubborn divergence inherent in the momentum. "We must force nothing: we must not try to achieve a 'harmony' of religions at all costs when all we can yet see is a 'concordant discord'... At this early stage of contact with the non-Christian religions, this surely is the most that we can hope for."^[316]

Social ideology and ethics

A militant state cult

Zaehner used a comparative-religion approach in his several discussions of Kommunizm, both as philosophical-religious theory (discussed below),^[317] and here in its practical business running a sovereign state. In its ideological management of political and economic operations, Soviet party rule was sometimes said to demonstrate an attenuated resemblance to Catholic Church governance. Features in common included an authoritarian command structure (similar to the military), guided by a revered theory (or dogma), which was articulated in abstract principles and exemplars that could not be questioned.^{[318][319][320]}

Uchun Marksist-leninchi adherent, the 'laws of nature', i.e., dialektik materializm, was the orthodox, mandatory bilimlilik. It dominated the political economy of society through its application, tarixiy materializm.^[321] Accordingly, a complex dialektik jalb qilish sinf ziddiyati provided a master key to these "natural" laws, however difficult to decipher.^{[322][323][324][325]}

"Stalin saw, quite rightly, that since the laws of Nature manifested themselves in the tactical vicissitudes of day-to-day politics with no sort of clarity, even the most orthodox Marxists were bound to go astray. It was, therefore, necessary that some one man whose authority was absolute, should be found to pronounce sobiq sobor what the correct reading of historical necessity was. Such a man he found in himself."^{[326][327][328][329]}

A Sovet hierarchical system thus developed during the Stalinist era, which appeared to be a perverse copy of the organization of the Roman Catholic Church.^[330][331] Zaehner did not overlook the deadly, hideous atrocities, whether episodic in the millions yoki shunchaki continuously sadistic, perpetrated during Stalin's rule, chiefly on his own overworked citizenry.^{[332][333][334][335][336]} Zaehner, however, did not further pursue the Leninchi party's monopoly of state power. Instead, what perplexed him were other aspects of Marx and Engels: the artful pitch able to inspire popular motivation, its putative visionary import and quasi-religious dimensions that could attract the interest of free peoples.^{[337][338][339]}

Dialektik materializm

Marksistik ideology has been compared to religious theology, perhaps its original source.^{[340][341][342][343]} Zaehner explored its explicitly materialist perspective, an ancient philosophical view further developed post-Hegel, then adopted by Karl Marks and Friedrich Engels. Natijada, Hegel 's idealist system of dialektika was turned 'downside up'.^[344][345] Zaehner's experience in josuslik va qiyosiy din informed his search for the positive in the proffered dialectic of matter. An unlikely analogy was to the worldly benefits caused by the Ruh of Christianity, through its centuries-long role in guiding the social-development of church communities. Here Zaehner was inspired by Per Tilxard de Shardin: his writings on spirit and matter.^{[346][347][348]}

Zaehner writes that Fridrix Engels in his later life combined "Marxian materialism, Darvin evolyutsiyasi, and eastern mysticism" in a philosophy that resembled religious teaching. This theme, however, was not taken up or developed in an Marksist-leninchi kontekst. Writing in an philosophical mode, Engels utilized "a religion without a personal God and even without a Hegelian Absolute " in pursuit of fostering his nascent communist mafkura.^[349][350]

Shunga qaramay Gerbert Markuz condemned such static philosophizing, i.e., when party ideologists had employed the dialectic as if an academic tool to analyze industrialization in the mid-Soviet period. Marcuse rejected such abstract schema as inert, lifeless, not up to the stormy task of running a authentic socialist state. Instead, Marcuse averred, true materialist dialectics are fluid, flexible, and trade insights with the push and pull of human affairs. The true dialectic stays closely connected to the possibly-fierce dynamic of working-class struggle.^{[351][352][353][354]}

Au contraire, Artur Kestler was dismayed to find that dialectical reason could not chart the party line. Yet the party simply rejected such thinking as "mechanistic". Are the dialectic and party line unpredictable, Koestler asked, irrational in their own terms? All was subtle and complex, the party counseled, reserved for party leaders trained in the malleable ideology. They alone could discern the interplay and feed-back of it all in actual operation. Koestler became cynical. Often the party appeared to manipulate its dialectical explanations to cover unjustified, abrupt changes in the party line. Such practices permitted an arbitrary rule by the party's leadership.^[355][356]

Haqida materialist dialectic itself, its signature political application by communist parties is to a conjectured 'history' of sinfiy urush.^[357] In theory, the replacement of the burjua (the dialectical thesis) in violent struggle by the proletariat (the antithesis),^[358] in results in the fabled 'sinfsiz jamiyat ' (synthesis),^[359][360] an "allegedly scientific utopia".^[361] Among its proponents such dialectic has drawn widely different interpretations.^[362][363] Zaehner, however, sought to find and to honor the beneficial and illuminating points in the grand materialist, humanistic vision of Karl Marx,^[364] from among its otherwise disastrous teaching of calculated animosity, soulless violence, murderous class war, followed by an apocalyptic dictatorship.^{[365][366][367]}

Madaniy evolyutsiya

Ning o'zaro ta'siri evolyutsion science and of social studies with traditional religions thought, particularly Christian, drew Zaehner's attention. Serving him as a catalyst were the writings on evolution by Teilxard de Shardin,^[368][369] va boshqalar meskalin tomonidan Aldous Xaksli.^[370][371] Engendered is the mystical body of Christ as an active symbol of transformation, Christianity as a soul collective, which carries "the promise of sanctification to the material world re-created by man."^{[372][373][374][375][376]}

The physical potential in inorganic materiya, according to Teilhard, 'spontaneously' develops into life organisms that reproduce, then such living materiya eventually evolves consciousness, until eons hence a Xristologik jamoaviy Omega nuqtasi will be reached.^[377] The issue of such a future humanity-wide salvation on earth, in juxtaposition to the orthodox salvation of each individual confirmed at death, is apprehended and discussed.^{[378][379][380]} While energized and often favorable, Zaehner could turn a more critical eye toward Teilhard,^[381] while acknowledging his advocacy for the poor.^{[382][383][384]}

Juxtaposing (1) a spiritual understanding of graphic biblical stories, often from Ibtido, that illuminate the human choices and conflicts, with (2) a conjectured historical narrative of early human society, Zaehner would then employ psychology^[385] and literature to craft an antropologiya zamonaviy ijtimoiy normalar, within a spiritual commentary.^[386]

In a few different books Zaehner retold in several versions the 'simple' story of the Adan bog'i. Adam and Eve start in an unconscious state, analogous to prehistoric human beings. They remain unaware of good or evil, unconscious of sin. Tasting the forbidden fruit, however, of the tree of knowledge, offered by the ilon, opens their eyes. This their asl gunoh results in their awakening. They are naked in the garden, they must leave it. Once unconsciously they enjoyed the free bounty of nature, but now they must work for a living and create a yiqilgan human society to live in.^{[387][388][389][390][391][392]} Zaehner writes:

The discovery of evolution hit the Christian churches hard... . [T] u Ibtido story has to be interpreted against the background of our evolutionary origin. Once we do this, then the Fall begins to look more like an ascent than a degradation. For self-consciousness which transforms man into a oqilona animal is a qualitative leap in the evolutionary process... life becomes conscious of itself.^{[393][394][395]}

In the multiple discussions referenced above, Zaehner is referring to the long-term madaniy evolyutsiya of human societies, which happens in the wake of the billion-year biological evolution by tabiiy selektsiya. Of the later our bodies are heirs. Of the former our consciousness takes the lead. Shri Aurobindo, the subject of another book by Zaehner, advocated a disciplined commitment of the spirit, informed by yoga, to advancing the cultural evolution of the species.^{[396][397][398]}

'New Age' drug culture

In his last three books, Drugs, Mysticism and Makebelieve (1972), Bizning vahshiy Xudoyimiz (1974) va City within the Heart (1981) [posthumous], Zaehner turned to address issues in contemporary society, drawing on his studies of comparative religion. He further explored the similarities and the differences between drug-induced experiences and traditional mysticism. As an academic he had already published several books on such issues starting in 1957.^{[399][400][401]} In the meantime, a widespread qarshi madaniyat had arisen, often called Yangi asr, which included artists, rebels, and youth. Ularning psixedel tajribalari were often self-explained spiritually, with reference to zen va eastern mysticism.^[402][403] Consequently, Zaehner wanted to reach this "wider public".^[404] During the late 1960s he was "very often invited to talk on the BBC."^[405]

Zaehner described various ancient quests to attain a mystical state of transcendence, of unification. Therein all contradictions and oppositions are reconciled; subject and object disappear, one passes beyond good and evil. That said, such a monist view can logically lead to excess, even to criminal acts.^[406] If practiced under the guidance of traditional religious teachers, no harm usually results.^{[407][408][409]} The potential for evil exists, however, through subtle misunderstanding or careless enthusiasm, according to Zaehner. After arriving at such a transcendent point, a troubled drug user may go wrong by feeling licensed to do anything, with no moral limit. The misuse of a mystical state and its theology eventually can lead to an horrific end.^[410][411]

Zaehner warned of the misbehavior propagated by LSD advokat Timoti Leary,^[412][413] the earlier satanism of Aleister Krouli,^[414] and ultimately the criminal depravity of Charlz Menson.^{[415][416][417]} His essay "Rot in the Clockwork Orange" further illustrates from popular culture the possible brutal effects of such moral confusion and license.^[418]

Yet Zaehner's detailed examination and review was not a witch hunt. His concluding appraisal of the LSD experience, although not without warning of its great risks and dangers, contained a limited, circumscribed allowance for use with a spiritual guide.^{[419][420][421]}

Drugs, Mysticism

As its title indicates, the book addresses a range of contemporary issues.^[422] It was expanded from three talks he gave on BBC radio in 1970, which were printed in Tinglovchi [9]. Although admittedly it repeats some material from his prior books, it is "aimed at a wider audience" (p. 9).

In his appraisal of LSD The psixedel preparati and its relevance to mysticism, Zaehner discussed the drug's popular advocate Timoti Leary and his 1970 book.^[423] Zaehner comments that, to the inexperienced, "most descriptions of Zen enlightenment, and some of LSD experience would appear to be almost identical." What Leary calls the "timeless energy process around you" (pp. 113–114 quote; 70 & 112 quote). Yet Zaehner refers to Krishnamurti of India, and zen abbot Zenkei Shibayama Yaponiya.Ko'rinib turibdiki, har biri meditatsiya va LSD kabi tajribalar o'rtasidagi hal qiluvchi farqni tasvirlaydi (114-116-betlar).

Leary va shuningdek, giyohvandlik madaniyati ko'pchilik Zaehner ta'sirida bo'lgan paytda jinsiy aloqani nishonlash turli diniy madaniyatlar mistiklari tomonidan jinsiy tasvirlardan tez-tez foydalanish bilan taqqoslaganda [63, 66-70]. Lirining kitobidagi parchalar hindularga tegishli bo'lsa ham Upanishadlar, Zaehnerning aytishicha, Lirining shahvoniylikni ilohiylashtirishi bilan u ko'plab tabiat mistiklari bilan va "masalan, St. Frensis de Sotish, mistik ekstaz va jinsiy ekstazni ajratib turadigan (68-69 betlar, 70 ta taklif). Keyinchalik muhokama qilishda Jorj Bernanos,^[424] Zaehner, "sevgisiz jinsiy aloqa" fazilatlardan voz kechishni anglatadi (174-175-betlar).

Zaehner Karl Jung va uning 1952 yildagi kitobi haqida bahs yuritadi Ayubga javob (163-170-betlar).

Bizning vahshiy Xudoyimiz

Kitobning nomi biroz chalg'ituvchi.^[425] Shu bilan birga, u o'zining "Soat ishi apelsinida chirigan" birinchi bobiga, o'sha paytdagi mayhem va qotillik epizodlarining taxminiy asoslari to'g'risida yaxshi qo'shilgan. Haqida hippi psixotik chekkasi, bu dunyo sarlavhalariga aylandi. Zaehnerning e'tiborini odatdagi jinoyatchilikka emas, balki diniy sanktsiyani talab qiladigan jirkanch harakatlarga qaratadi, bu dahshatli hiyla bilan soxtalashtiradi "yangi asr '(12-bet). Ushbu bobning nomiga ishora qilinadi 1962 yilgi roman tomonidan Entoni Burgess va 1971 yilgi film tomonidan Stenli Kubrik (35-bet). Unda aqldan ozgan, jonni o'ldiradigan zo'ravonlik tasvirlangan.^[426][427]

Ammo Zeynerning kitobi haqida umuman boshqacha, uning qahramoni shunday deydi Aristotel. Yordamchi aktyorlar uning "falsafiy muhitidan" olingan (14-bet). Keyingi to'rtta bob quyidagilarni o'z ichiga oladi: Geraklit qarama-qarshi tomonlarning dialektik birligi uchun (92, 102-betlar);^[428] Parmenidlar kimning Haqiqat yo'li bilan taqqoslanadi Vedanta Braxman (121-122); Aflotun (141-160); va stagirit etib kelgan qahramon Bo'lish, o'xshash Sat-Cit-Ananda (192-bet). Ko'rsatilganidek, Zaehner ushbu qadimgi yunon faylasuflarini qadimgi Hindistonning Vedik donoligi bilan taqqoslashni taklif qiladi, ayniqsa mifopoetik elementi Upanishadlar (masalan, 133-138-betlar).

Shunga qaramay, ushbu falsafiy mavzu ham biroz chalg'itadi, chunki Zayner har doim mavjud va istalmagan jinoyatchilik va mayhemlik ehtimoli bilan vaqti-vaqti bilan aralashib turadi. Charlz Menson ba'zida zamonaviy giyohvandlik madaniyati yomon tomoni timsoli sifatida namoyon bo'ladi. Uning buzuq sirli o'yini o'ylash uchun ozgina yoqimsiz ovqat beradi.^[429]

Iqtiboslar

• Haqiqatan ham diniy tajribaning o'ziga xos shakli ibodat va sajda qilish bo'lgan dinlar o'rtasida keskin bo'linish mavjud Paskal Xudoning Ibrohim, Ishoqning Xudosi, Yoqubning Xudosi va bir tomondan dinlarni o'z ichiga olgan holatlar Xudo ichida siz Xudoga yaqinlashishning eng to'g'ri usuli deb o'ylaysiz.^[430][431]
• Jung milodiy yigirmanchi asrda hindular miloddan avvalgi VIII asrda qilgan ishlarini qildilar; u insonda vaqt va makondan tashqarida yashaydigan o'lmas ruhning mavjudligini tajriba bilan kashf etdi va buni aslida his etish mumkin. Bu ruh Jung hindular singari "o'zini" chaqiradi ... (buni so'z bilan ta'riflash juda qiyin). Shuning uchun uning "o'zini" anglash hindu kabi qiyin atman.^[432][433]
• Zardushtiylik va nasroniylik o'rtasidagi juda o'xshash o'xshashlik e'tiborga olinishi kerak. Bu Haoma qurbonlik va muqaddas marosimning ko'rinishini beradi Katolik massasi juda g'alati tarzda. ... [T] u qisman fermentlangan sharbat bilan Haoma marosimi zardushtiylik ibodatining asosiy harakatiga aylandi ....^{[434][435][436]}
• Butun astsetik buddaviy bo'ladimi, platonistmi, Manixey, Nasroniy yoki islomiy manbalar, eng ko'p ifloslangan manbalardan kelib chiqadi, shaytonning mag'rurlik gunohi, "xudolarga o'xshash" bo'lishni xohlaydi. Biz xudolar emasmiz, biz aqlli, ijtimoiy hayvonlar bo'lishga mo'ljallangan ijtimoiy va mantiqsiz hayvonlarmiz va nihoyat, o'z uyimizni mustahkam Aristoteliya toshiga qurib, "xudoga o'xshab" bo'lishimiz uchun ishimiz yaxshi bajarilgan.^{[437][438][439]}
• Hozir ozgina katoliklar bu bilan faxrlanadilar Konstantinopol xaltasi, Albigensiya salib yurishi, Inkvizitsiya yoki Din urushlari, na ... the Salib yurishlari. O'zimizdagi nurdan xalos bo'lmasdan, birodarimizning ko'zidan parchani olib tashlay olmasligimizni anglab etishimiz uchun ko'p vaqt kerak edi.^{[440][441][442]}
• To'g'ri, odam filomasi boshqa hayvonlarda bo'lgani kabi alohida pastki ko'rinishga bo'linmagan turlari, lekin u har xil dinlarga va madaniyatlarga bo'lindi, ularning har biri o'ziga xos ta'mga ega edi va har biri qolganlardan ajralib chiqdi. Muqaddas Ruh tushishi bilan ... ning ramzi bo'lgan odamning tarqalishi Bobil minorasi nihoyasiga yetmoqda: Masihning cherkovi tug'ildi va birlik va birlikning ramzi topildi.^{[443][444][445]}
• Aristotel Xudoni faqat "qisqa vaqt ichida" bilishini da'vo qildi, ammo bu etarli edi. U hech qachon men bilaman deb da'vo qiladigan darajada beozor bo'lmagan Haqiqatchunki bu faqat Xudoga tegishli ekanligini bilar edi.^[446][447]

Shuningdek qarang

• Qiyosiy din
• Dinlar tarixi
• Diniy tadqiqotlar
• Zardushtiylik
• Dinlararo dialog

Izohlar

Bibliografiya

Zaehnerning asarlari

• Yunonlarga ahmoqlik. Oksford universiteti, 1953 (risola). Qayta nashr etish: Descale de Brouwer, Parij, 1974. Qo'shimcha sifatida Kelishilgan kelishmovchilik (1970), 428-443 betlar.
• Zurvan. Zardushtiylik dilemmasi. Oksford universiteti, 1955. Qayta nashr: Biblio va Tannen, Nyu-York, 1972 y.
• Magilarning ta'limoti. Zardushtiylik e'tiqodlari to'plami. Jorj Allen va Unvin, London, 1956. Qayta nashr etilgan: Sheldon Press, 1972; Oksford, 1976. Tarjima:
  • Il Libro del Consiglio di Zarathushtra e altri testi. Compendio delle teorie zoroastriane. Astrolabio Ubaldini, "Roma", 1976 yil.
• Tasavvuf: Muqaddas va haqoratli. Clarendon Press, Oksford universiteti, 1957, qayta nashr 1961. Tarjimalar:
  • Mystik, religiös und profan. Ernst Klett, Shtuttgart, 1957 yil.
  • Mystiek sacraal en profaan. De Bezige Bij, Amsterdam, 1969 yil.
  • Mystique sacrée, Mystique profane. De Rocher tahririyati, Monako, 1983 yil.
• Har xil vaqtlarda. Dinlarni taqqoslash bo'yicha insho. Faber & Faber, London, 1958. Muqobil nom va tarjima:
  • Dinlarni taqqoslash. Beacon Press, Boston, 1962 yil.
  • Index, Isroil, Islom: dinlar sirlari va révelations prophetiques. Desclée de Brouwer, Parij, 1965 yil.
• Hind va musulmon tasavvufi. Athlone Press, London universiteti, 1960. Qayta nashr etilgan: Shocken, Nyu-York, 1969; Oneworld, Oksford, 1994 yil.
• Zardushtiylikning Tong va Alacakaranlık. Vaydenfeld va Nikolson, London, 1961. Tarjima:
  • Zardusht e la fantasia Religiosa. Il Saggiatore, Milano, 1962 yil.
• Hinduizm. Oksford universiteti matbuoti, London, 1962. Tarjimalar:
  • Der Hinduismus. Seine geschichte und seine lehre. Goldman, Myunxen, 1964 yil.
  • L'Induismo. Il Mulino, Bolonya, 1972 yil.
  • Linduizm. Desclée de Brouwer, Parij, 1974 yil.
• Konvergent ruh. Din dialektikasi tomon. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1963. Muqobil nom:
  • Materiya va ruh. Ularning Sharq dinlari, Marks va Teilxard de Shardinlar bilan yaqinlashuvi. Harper va Row, Nyu-York, 1963 yil.
• Katolik cherkovi va dunyo dinlari. Burns & Oates, London, 1964. Muqobil nom va tarjima:
  • Xristianlik va boshqa dinlar. Hawthorn Books, Nyu-York, 1964 yil.
  • El Cristianismo y les grandes Religes de Asia. Tahririyat Herder, Barselona, ​​1967 yil.
• Kelishilgan kelishmovchilik. Imonlarning o'zaro bog'liqligi. Clarendon Press, Oksford universiteti, 1970 yil. Gifford ma'ruzalari 1967-1969 yillar. Tarjima:
  • Mystik. Harmonie und dissonanz. Valter, Olten / Frayburg, 1980 yil.
• Dialektik nasroniylik va nasroniy materializm. Riddell yodgorlik ma'ruzalari. Oksford universiteti matbuoti, London, 1971 yil.
• Dindagi evolyutsiya. Shri Aurobindo va Per Teilxard de Shardin tadqiqotlari. Clarendon Press, Oksford universiteti, 1971 yil.
• Giyohvandlik, tasavvuf va ishonish. Uilyam Kollinz, London, 1972 yil. Muqobil sarlavha:
  • Zen, giyohvand moddalar va tasavvuf. Pantheon Books, Nyu-York, 1972 yil.
• Bizning vahshiy Xudoyimiz. Sharq tafakkurining buzuq ishlatilishi. Sheed & Ward, Nyu-York, 1974 yil.
• Yurak ichidagi shahar. Crossroad Publishing, Nyu-York, 1981. Kirish tomonidan Maykl Dummet.

Tanlangan maqolalar

• "Zardushtiylarning tirik qolganlari Eron folklori, "ichida Britaniya forsshunoslik instituti jurnali, 1952; qayta bosilgan Eron, v.3, 87-96-betlar, 1965; II qism, ichida Eron, v.30, 65-75 betlar, 1992 y.
• "Bistamlik Abu Yazid "ichida Hind-Eron jurnali, v.1, 286-301-betlar, 1957 y.
• "Islom va Masih" Dublin sharhi, yo'q. 474, 271-88 betlar, 1957 yil.
• Unda "Yangi Budda va yangi Tao" Qisqacha ensiklopediya (1967), 402-412 betlar. Jung,^[1] Marks.^[2]
• "Zardushtiylik", Zahner tahririda Qisqacha ensiklopediya (1967), 209-222 betlar; 1997 yilgi nashr.
• "Xristianlik va marksizm", In Yubiley 11: 8-11, 1963.
• "Jinsiy ramziy ma'noda Svetasvatara Upanishad, "ichida J. M. Kitagava (muharrir), Afsonalar va ramzlar: sharafiga bag'ishlangan tadqiqotlar Mircha Eliade, Chikago universiteti, 1969 yil.
• "Boshqa dinlardan o'rganish: hinduizm" Expository Times, v.83, 164-168 betlar, 1972 y.
• Gignoux va A. Tafazzolidagi "Bizning Otamiz Aristotel", muharrirlar, Yodgorlik Jan de Menasce, Luvayn: Impremerie orientaliste, 1974 y.

Tarjimon / muharrir sifatida

• Hind yozuvlari. R. C. Zaehner tomonidan tarjima qilingan va tahrirlangan. J. M. Dent, London, 1966 yil.
• Bhagavad Gita. Qadimgi manbalarga asoslangan sharhlar bilan. R. C. Zaehner tomonidan tarjima qilingan. Oksford universiteti, London, 1969 yil.
• Tirik imonlarning qisqacha ensiklopediyasi. R. C. Zaehner tomonidan tahrirlangan. Hawthorn Books, Nyu-York, 1959. Qayta nashr etilgan:
  • Tirik imonlarning qisqacha ensiklopediyasi. Beacon Press, Boston, 1967 yil.
  • Xattinson tirik imonlar ensiklopediyasi. Century Hutchinson, London, 1988 yil.
  • Dunyo dinlari entsiklopediyasi. Barns va Noble, Nyu-York, 1997 yil.

Izohlar

Tanqid, sharh

Zaehner bibliografiyasi Fernandesda (327-346-betlar).

Kitoblar

• Albano Fernandes, Hind mistik tajribasi: R. C. Zayner va Bede Griffitsning yondashuvlarini qiyosiy falsafiy o'rganish. Intercultural Pub., Nyu-Dehli, 2004 yil.
• Jorj Kizhakkemury, Yaqinlashayotgan nuqta. Professor R. C. Zaynnerning islomiy tasavvufga yondashuvini baholash. Alwaye MCBS, Nyu-Dehli, 1982 yil.
• Uilyam Lloyd Nyuell, Kurash va bo'ysunish: R. C. Zaehner tasavvuf haqida. University Press of America, Vashington, 1981 yil, oldinga Gregori Baum.
• Jon Pol Rirdon, R. C. Zaynnerning tasavvuf nazariyasi haqidagi ilohiy tahlil. Fordham Universitetidagi dissertatsiya, Nyu-York 2012. {veb-sayt}
• Richard Charlz Schebera, Xristian va nasroniy bo'lmaganlar bilan muloqot. R. C. Zaehnerning ko'rinishi. Amerika universiteti matbuoti, Vashington 1978 yil.
• K. D. Setna, Kelajak ma'naviyati: R. S Zaynerning Shri Aurobindoda va Teilxard De Chardinda o'qigan aproposlari. Fairleigh Dikkinson universiteti, Teaneck 1981 yil.
• S. I. Sudiarja, Professor R. C. Zaynnerning fikricha hinduizmda Xudo g'oyasi. Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Roma 1991).
  • Jeffri Jon Kripal, Ortiqcha yo'llar, Donolik saroylari. Chikago universiteti 2001 yil. III bob "Aldash eshiklari" (156–198-betlar) Zayner haqida.
  • Shri Krishna Saksena, Hind falsafasi insholari. Gavayi universiteti Prss, Honolulu 1970. Zaehner haqidagi bob (102–116-betlar).
  • Maykl Stiber, Teo-monistik tasavvuf. Hind-nasroniylarning taqqoslanishi Sent-Martin, Nyu-York 1994). Xususan. 5-bobda "Teo-Monistik iyerarxiya" (87-112-betlar) Zaynerga murojaat qiladi.

Maqolalar

• Karlo Cereti, "Zaehner, Robert Charlz" Ehsan Yarshater, muharriri, Entsiklopediya Iranica. {veb-sayt}
• Robert D. Xyuz, "Zen, Zurvan va Zaynner: yodgorlik hurmati ..." Din bo'yicha tadqiqotlar 6: 139-148 (1976-1977).
• Ann K. S. Lambton, "Robert Charlz Zaynner" B.S.O.A.S. 38/3: 623-624 (London 1975).
• Morrison, Jorj (1975). "Professor R. C. Zaehner". Eron. 13: iv. JSTOR  4300520.
• Jefri Parrinder, "Robert Charlz Zaehner (1913-1974)" yilda Dinlar tarixi 16/1: 66-74 (Chikago universiteti, 1976).
• A. V. Sadler, "Zehner-Xaksli munozarasi", yilda Diniy fikrlar jurnali, 21/1 (1964), 43-50 betlar.
• F. Whaling, "R. C. Zaehner: Tanqid" Diniy tadqiqotlar jurnali 10: 77-118 (1982).
  • Maykl Dummet, Ziehnerning o'limidan so'ng, xi-xix-betdagi "Kirish" Yurak ichidagi shahar (1981).

Tashqi havolalar

• R. C. Zaehner, Zardushtiylik shafaqi va alacakaranlık (1961), 9-bob: "Zurvanizmning navlari", da Zardushtiylik merosi.
• R. C. Zaehner, Zurvan. Zardushtiylik dilemmasi. Oksford universiteti, 1955. Qayta nashr: Biblio va Tannen, Nyu-York, 1972. {Google}
• R. C. Zaehner, "Eron folklorida zardushtiylar tirik qolganlari", 1952; qayta bosilgan Eron, 3: 87-96 (1965). {JSTOR}
• J. P. Reardon, R. C. Zaynnerning tasavvuf nazariyasi haqidagi ilohiy tahlil, T.f.n. Dissertatsiya, Fordham universiteti, 2012 y.
• Anonim, "R. C. Zaehner. Britaniyalik tarixchi" da Britannica entsiklopediyasi, yangilangan 4-1-2018.
• Karlo Cereti, "Zayner, Robert Charlz" da Entsiklopediya Iranica, 2015 yil 22 sentyabr.
• Alana Xovard, "Robert Charlz Zayner, 1913-1974, professor, Oksford", da Gifford ma'ruzalari.
• Anonim, "R. Tsaynerning tasavvuri muqaddas va haqoratli", da Psychedelic Press UK, 2012, 2015.