Pali - Pali - Wikipedia

Ushbu maqola yoki bo'lim kerak ingliz tilidagi bo'lmagan tarkibidagi tilni belgilang, {{lang}}, tegishli bilan ISO 639 kodi. Buning sababini ko'ring. (Aprel 2019)

Pali tilida "Birma" yozuvida yozilgan Birma Kammavaca qo'lyozmasi.

Pali (/ˈpɑːlmen/) yoki Magadhan,^[a] O'rta Hind-oriyan uchun liturgik til Hindiston qit'asi. Tili bo'lgani uchun u keng o'rganilgan Pali Canon yoki Tipṭaka va muqaddas til ning Theravada Buddizm. Kanonik Pali mavjudligining dastlabki arxeologik dalillari kelib chiqadi Pyu shahar-shtatlari ichida joylashgan yozuvlar Birma milodiy V asrning o'rtalaridan VI asr o'rtalariga to'g'ri keladi.^[4]

Kelib chiqishi va rivojlanishi

Etimologiya

"Pali" so'zi Theravada kanonining tiliga nom sifatida ishlatiladi. So'zning kelib chiqishi sharhlash an'analaridan kelib chiqadigan ko'rinadi, unda Pali (keltirilgan asl matn qatori ma'nosida) qo'lyozmada unga ergashgan sharh yoki xalq tarjimasidan ajralib turardi.^[3] K. R. Norman uning paydo bo'lishi birikmani noto'g'ri tushunishga asoslangan deb taxmin qiladi pali-bhasa, bilan pali ma'lum bir tilning nomi sifatida talqin qilinmoqda.^[3]:1

Pali nomi kanonik adabiyotda uchramaydi va sharhlovchi adabiyotlarda ba'zida uning o'rnini bosadi tanti, mag'lubiyat yoki nasl ma'nosini anglatadi.^[3]:1 Ushbu nom milodiy II ming yillikning boshlarida Shri-Lankada pali tilidan odobli va adabiy til sifatida foydalanishda jonlanish davrida paydo bo'lganga o'xshaydi.^[5][3]:1

Shunday qilib, tilning nomi har qanday yoshdagi olimlar o'rtasida munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi; ismning yozilishi ham turlicha bo'lib, ikkala uzun "ā" harfi bilan topiladi [ɑː] va qisqa "a" [a], shuningdek, a bilan ham retrofleks [ɭ] yoki retroflekssiz [l] "l" tovushi. Ham uzun a, ham retrofleks ḷ ISO 15919 /ALA-LC ko'rsatish, Poki; ammo, shu kungacha bu atamaning yagona, standart imlosi mavjud emas va barcha to'rtta imlo imlolarini darsliklarda topish mumkin. R. C. Childers so'zni "ketma-ket" deb tarjima qilib, til "grammatik tuzilishi mukammalligi tufayli epitetni ko'taradi" deb ta'kidlaydi.^[6]

Geografik kelib chiqishi

Munosabatiga nisbatan doimiy chalkashliklar mavjud Poki ning qadimgi qirolligida aytilgan xalq tiliga Magadha zamonaviy atrofida joylashgan edi Bihar. Theravada sharhlaridan boshlab Pali "bilan aniqlandi"Magaxi, Magadha qirolligining tili va bu Buddaning hayoti davomida ishlatgan tili sifatida qabul qilingan.^[3] 19-asrda inglizlar Sharqshunos Robert Tsezar Childers pali tilining haqiqiy yoki geografik nomi shunday bo'lganligini ta'kidladi Magadhi Prakrit va buning sababi pāḷi "chiziq, satr, seriya" degan ma'noni anglatadi, dastlabki buddistlar bu atamani "kitoblar seriyasi" ma'nosiga etkazishgan, shuning uchun pāḷibhasa "matnlar tili" degan ma'noni anglatadi.^[7]

Biroq, zamonaviy stipendiya Pali-ni bir nechta aralashmalar sifatida ko'rib chiqdi Prakrit miloddan avvalgi III asr tillari birlashtirilgan va qisman sanskritlashtirilgan.^[8] Pali tilining barcha xususiyatlariga ega bo'lgan hindu-oriy tilining tasdiqlangan shevasi yo'q.^[3]:5 Zamonaviy davrda Pali tilini Magadhi Prakritda bo'lgan yozuvlar bilan, shuningdek ushbu tilning boshqa matnlari va grammatikalari bilan taqqoslash mumkin bo'ldi.^[3] Mavjud manbalarning hech birida Ashokan Magadhidan oldingi hujjat yo'q bo'lsa-da, mavjud manbalar pali tilini bu til bilan tenglashtirish mumkin emasligini ta'kidlamoqda.^[3]

Zamonaviy olimlar odatda Pali sharqiy emas, balki shimoli-g'arbiy lahjadan kelib chiqqan deb hisoblashadi.^[9] Pali ikkala g'arbiy tomon bilan bir qator umumiy xususiyatlarga ega Ashokan farmonlari da Girnar yilda Saurashtra va sharqda joylashgan Markaziy-G'arbiy Prakrit Xatigumpha yozuvi.^[3]:5 Ushbu o'xshashliklar olimlarni Palini Hindistonning g'arbiy mintaqasi bilan bog'lashiga olib keladi.^[10]

Pāi, a O'rta hind-oriy tili, dan farq qiladi Klassik sanskritcha uning paydo bo'lish vaqtidan ko'ra ko'proq dialektal asosiga nisbatan. Uning bir qatori morfologik va leksik xususiyatlari uning bevosita davomi emasligini ko'rsatadi Gvedik Sanskritcha. Aksincha, u ko'p o'xshashliklarga qaramay farq qiladigan bir yoki bir nechta lahjalardan kelib chiqadi Gvedik.^[11]

Dastlabki tarix

XIX asr burma Kammavacā (buddist rohiblar uchun e'tirof), zarhal xurmo bargiga palida yozilgan

The Theravada sharhlar pali tiliga "Magadhan "yoki" Magadha tili ".^[3]:2 Ushbu identifikatsiya birinchi navbatda sharhlarda ko'rinadi va buddistlar o'zlarini yanada yaqinroq bog'lashga urinish bo'lishi mumkin Maurya imperiyasi.^[3]

Biroq, Buddaning ba'zi ta'limotlari faqat tarixiy hududda etkazilgan Magadha qirolligi.^[3] Olimlar, uning O'rta Hind-Ariyaning bir-biriga yaqin bo'lgan bir necha shevalarida o'qitganligi ehtimoldan xoli emas deb hisoblashadi.

Bu kabi xronikalarda yozilgan Theravada an'anasi Mahavamsa, deb ta'kidlaydi Tipitaka miloddan avvalgi birinchi asrda yozishga sodiq bo'lgan.^[3]:5 Og'zaki saqlashning avvalgi an'analaridan voz kechish, bu tahdidlar bilan bog'liq deb ta'riflanadi Sangha ochlikdan, urushdan va raqib an'analarining kuchayib borayotgan ta'siridan Abxayagiri Vihara.^[3]:5 Ushbu hisobot odatda olimlar tomonidan qabul qilinadi, ammo Palining ushbu sanaga qadar yozma ravishda yozib olishni boshlaganiga ishora mavjud.^[3]:5 O'zining tarixidagi ushbu nuqtaga ko'ra, olimlar, Pali allaqachon dastlabki assimilyatsiyani boshdan kechirgan deb o'ylashadi Sanskritcha, masalan, O'rta-Hindning konvertatsiyasi bamhana ko'proq tanish bo'lgan sanskrit tiliga brahmana o'sha zamonaviy braxmanlar o'zlarini aniqlash uchun ishlatiladi.^[3]:6

Shri-Lankada, Pali 4-5-asrlarda tugagan tanazzul davriga kirgan deb o'ylashadi (Sanskrit shuhrat qozongan va bir vaqtning o'zida, buddizm tarafdorlari subkontinentning kichik qismiga aylangani sababli), ammo oxir-oqibat omon qolgan. Buddhosa ishi, asosan, buddistlar fikrida muhim ilmiy til sifatida qayta tiklanishi uchun javobgardir. The Visuddimagga va Buddaxosa miloddan avvalgi 3-asrdan boshlab Shri-Lankada saqlanib kelinayotgan va kengaytirilgan Sinxala sharhlash an'analarini tuzgan, kodlagan va ixchamlashtirgan boshqa sharhlar.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Faqatgina mumkin bo'lgan istisnolardan tashqari, bugungi kunda ma'lum bo'lgan Pali matnlarining butun korpusi Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya Shri-Lankada.^[9] XIII asrga qadar Hindiston materikida joylashgan Theravadinlar haqida adabiy dalillar mavjud bo'lsa-da, ushbu an'anaga xos bo'lgan hech qanday pali matnlari topilmagan.^[9] Ba'zi matnlar (masalan Milindapanha ) Shri-Lankaga etkazilishidan oldin Hindistonda tuzilgan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo matnlarning saqlanib qolgan nusxalari Mahavihara tomonidan Seylonda saqlanib qolgan va Theravada Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi monastirlar bilan bo'lishilgan.^[9]

Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoda materikda topilgan Pali shahridagi eng qadimgi yozuvlar milodning birinchi ming yilligidan, ba'zilari esa IV asrning boshlariga tegishli.^[9] Yozuvlar hozirgi Birma, Laos, Tailand va Kambodjada joylashgan bo'lib, ular Shri-Lankadan emas, balki Hindistonning janubidan tarqalishi mumkin.^[9] XI asrga kelib, uning atrofida "Pali Uyg'onish" deb nomlangan narsa boshlandi Butparast, asta-sekin qirollik sulolalari homiylik qilgan monastir nasablari sifatida Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoning qolgan qismiga tarqaldi Anuradhapuradan Mahavihara.^[9] Ushbu davr, shuningdek, sanskritcha konventsiyalar va she'riy shakllarni qabul qilish bilan tavsiflangan (masalan kavya ) ilgari Pali adabiyotining o'ziga xos xususiyatlari bo'lmagan.^[12] Bu jarayon 5-asrda boshlangan, ammo ikkinchi ming yillikning boshlarida Sanskritcha shakllar asosida yaratilgan she'riyatlar va kompozitsiyalar bo'yicha pali matnlari ommalashib bora boshlaganligi sababli kuchaygan.^[12] Ushbu davrning muhim bosqichlaridan biri nashr etilgan Subodhalankara XIV asrda Sangharakkhita Mahasomiga tegishli bo'lgan va sanskritga asoslangan asar. Kavyadarsa.^[12]

Mahavixaradan olingan monastirlar soni va ta'siri kengayganiga qaramay, Pali tadqiqotining qayta tiklanishi Pali tilida saqlanib qolgan yangi adabiy asarlarning paydo bo'lishiga olib kelmadi.^[9] Bu davrda Shri-Lanka va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi qirollik sudlari o'rtasida yozishmalar Palida o'tkazilib, Sinhal, Birma va boshqa tillarda so'zlashuvchilarga qaratilgan grammatikalar ishlab chiqarildi.^[5] Theravada to'pi tilining nomi sifatida "Pali" atamasining paydo bo'lishi ham shu davrda sodir bo'lgan.^[5]

Qo'lyozmalar va yozuvlar

Pali odatda qadimiy til sifatida tan olingan bo'lsa-da, hech qanday epigrafik yoki qo'lyozma dalillar eng qadimgi davrlardan saqlanib qolmagan.^[13][14] Kashf etilgan Palining eng qadimgi namunalari V-VIII asrlarda Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo materikida, xususan markaziy qismida joylashgan deb taxmin qilingan yozuvlardir. Siam va pastroq Birma.^[14] Ushbu yozuvlar odatda. Ning qisqa parchalaridan iborat Pali Canon va kanonik bo'lmagan matnlar, va bir nechta misollarni o'z ichiga oladi Ye dhamma hetu oyat^[14]

Ajablanarlisi shundaki, hozirgacha saqlanib kelinayotgan eng qadimgi Pali qo'lyozmasi topilgan Nepal, dan to'rtta folio shaklida Kullavagga 9-asrga tegishli.^[14] Shri-Lanka va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi eng qadimgi qo'lyozmalar XV asrga tegishli bo'lib, ularning saqlanib qolgan namunalari kam.^[14] 400 yoshdan katta bo'lgan juda oz qo'lyozma va to'rtta to'liq qo'lyozma saqlanib qolgan Nikayas faqat XVII asr va undan keyingi davrlarda keltirilgan.^[13]

G'arbning dastlabki tadqiqotlari

G'arbiy adabiyotda ilk bor Pali tilga olingan Simon de la Louber uning Siam shohligida qilgan sayohatlari tavsiflari.^[3] Dastlabki grammatika va lug'at 1824 yilda metodist missioner Benjamin Klouf tomonidan nashr etilgan va dastlabki tadqiqot tomonidan nashr etilgan. Eugène Burnouf va Xristian Lassen 1826 yilda (Essai Sur Le Pali, Ou Langue Sacree de La Presqu'ile Au-Dela Du Gange.).^[3] Birinchi zamonaviy pali-ingliz lug'ati 1872 va 1875 yillarda Robert Childers tomonidan nashr etilgan.^[15] Poydevoriga rioya qilgan holda Pali Matn Jamiyati, Ingliz pali tili bo'yicha tadqiqotlar jadal rivojlanib, Childer lug'ati eskirgan.^[15] Yangi lug'atni rejalashtirish 1900-yillarning boshlarida boshlangan, ammo kechikishlar (Birinchi Jahon urushi boshlanishini ham hisobga olgan holda) bu ish 1925 yilgacha tugamaganligini anglatadi.^[15]

T. V. Ris Devids uning kitobida Buddist Hindiston,^[16] va Vilgelm Geyger uning kitobida Pali adabiyoti va tili, Pali a sifatida paydo bo'lishi mumkin deb taxmin qildi lingua franca yoki Shimoliy Hindistonda Buddaning davrida ishlatilgan va u ishlagan turli xil dialektlardan foydalangan odamlar orasida madaniyatning umumiy tili. Boshqa bir olimning ta'kidlashicha, u o'sha paytda "barcha oriy tilida so'zlashadigan odamlarning nozik va nafis xalq tili" bo'lgan.^[17] Zamonaviy stipendiya ushbu masala bo'yicha bir fikrga kelmagan; tarafdorlari va kamsituvchilar bilan turli xil qarama-qarshi nazariyalar mavjud.^[18] Budda vafotidan keyin Pali buddistlar orasida Buddaning tilidan yangi sun'iy til sifatida rivojlangan bo'lishi mumkin.^[19] Pali qadimgi Magadhi bo'lgan degan nazariyani qo'llab-quvvatlagan RC Childers shunday deb yozgan edi: "Agar Gautama hech qachon va'z qilmagan bo'lsa, Magadhese Hindustanning boshqa ko'plab xalq tillaridan ajralib turishi ehtimoldan yiroq emas, faqat uni o'ziga xos inoyati va kuchi bilan. bir xil Toskana Prakritlar orasida. "^[20]

Zamonaviy stipendiya

Ga binoan K. R. Norman, kanon ichidagi turli xil matnlar o'rtasidagi farqlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, unda bitta shevadan ko'proq material mavjud.^[3]:2 U, ehtimol, deb taxmin qiladi viharalar Shimoliy Hindistonda mahalliy lahjada saqlanib qolgan alohida materiallar to'plamlari mavjud edi.^[3]:4 Dastlabki davrda ushbu materialni boshqa sohalarga etkazishda hech qanday tarjima zarurati bo'lmasligi ehtimoldan yiroq emas. Ashoka davrida ko'proq lingvistik kelishmovchiliklar bo'lgan va barcha materiallarni yig'ishga harakat qilingan.^[3]:4 Ehtimol, bu jarayon natijasida kanoniyaning palisiga juda yaqin bo'lgan til paydo bo'lib, unda eng qadimgi materiallar saqlanib qolgan turli lahjalarning murosasi kelib chiqqan va bu til Hindistondagi sharqiy buddistlar orasida lingua-frank bo'lib xizmat qilgan. shu vaqtdan boshlab.^[3]:5 Ushbu davrdan keyin til ozgina sanskritatsiyani boshdan kechirdi (ya'ni, IIV bamhana> brahmana, ba'zi hollarda tta> tva).^[21]

Bxikxu Bodhi, stipendiyalarning hozirgi holatini sarhisob qilar ekan, til "Buddaning o'zi gapirgan til bilan (yoki, ehtimol, turli mintaqaviy lahjalar bilan) chambarchas bog'liq" ekanligini ta'kidlaydi. U yozishni davom ettiradi:

Olimlar bu tilni miloddan avvalgi III asrda ishlatilgan, qisman sanskritlash jarayoniga uchragan bir necha prakrit lahjalarining xususiyatlarini ko'rsatadigan duragay sifatida qaraydilar. Til Buddaning o'zi aytgan so'zlar bilan bir xil bo'lmasada, u ishlatgan tillar bilan bir xil keng tillar oilasiga mansub va bir xil kontseptual matritsadan kelib chiqqan. Shu tariqa Budda o'zi tug'ilgan Hindiston madaniyatidan meros bo'lib qolgan fikr dunyosini aks ettiradi, shuning uchun uning so'zlari ushbu fikr dunyosining nozik nuanslarini qamrab oladi.

— Bxikxu Bodhi^[8]

Ga binoan A. K. Varder, pali tili - mintaqada ishlatiladigan prakrit tili G'arbiy Hindiston.^[22] Varder Palini hind mulki bilan bog'laydi (janapada ) ning Avanti, qaerda Sthavira nikaya markazlashtirilgan edi.^[22] Buddistlar jamoasidagi dastlabki bo'linishdan so'ng, Sthavira nikoya G'arbda va Janubiy Hindiston esa Mahasāghika filiali Markaziy va Sharqiy Hindiston.^[10] Akira Xirakava va Pol Groner shuningdek, Palini G'arbiy Hindiston va Sthavira nikoya bilan bog'laydilar, pali tiliga lingvistik jihatdan eng yaqin bo'lgan Saurashtran yozuvlarini keltirdilar.^[10]

Palining emic ko'rinishlari

Garchi Sanskrit tilida aytilgan bo'lsa-da Braxmancha har bir so'z o'ziga xos ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan xudolar gapiradigan o'zgarmas til bo'lish an'anasi, bu buddistlik an'analarida tilga bunday qarash keng tarqalmagan edi,^{[qaysi? ]} unda so'zlar faqat odatiy va o'zgaruvchan belgilar edi.^[23] Tilning bu ko'rinishi tabiiy ravishda pali tiliga tarqaldi va sanskrit o'rniga uning ishlatilishiga (mahalliy o'rta hind lahjalarini yaqinlashtirish yoki standartlashtirish kabi) hissa qo'shgan bo'lishi mumkin. Biroq, Pali tafsirlari (IV yoki V asrlar) tuzilgan paytgacha Pali noma'lum mualliflar tomonidan barcha mavjudotlarning tabiiy tili, deb tilga olingan.^[24][3]:2

Bilan solishtirish mumkin Qadimgi Misr, Lotin yoki Ibroniycha ichida G'arbning sirli an'analari, Pali qiroatlarida ko'pincha a bo'lishi mumkin deb o'ylar edilar g'ayritabiiy kuch (bu ularning ma'nosiga, tilovat qiluvchining xarakteriga yoki tilning o'ziga xos xususiyatlariga bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin) va buddist adabiyotining dastlabki qatlamlarida biz allaqachon Pali-ni ko'rishimiz mumkin daraṇīs masalan, ilonlarning ısırmasına qarshi joziba sifatida ishlatiladi^{[iqtibos kerak ]}. Theravada madaniyatidagi ko'plab odamlar hanuzgacha Palida qasam ichish alohida ahamiyatga ega, deb ishonishadi va tilda aytilgan g'ayritabiiy kuchning misoli sifatida va'dalarni o'qish. Agulimola Shri-Lankada tug'ilish og'rig'ini engillashtiradi deb ishoniladi. Tailandda, bir qismining ashulasi Abhidhammapiṭaka Yaqinda ketganlar uchun foydali deb hisoblashadi va bu marosim muntazam ravishda etti ish kunini tashkil qiladi. Oxirgi matnda ushbu mavzu bilan bog'liq hech narsa yo'q va urf-odatlarning kelib chiqishi aniq emas.

Pali bugun

Pali XIV asrda materik Hindistonda adabiy til sifatida vafot etdi, ammo o'n sakkizinchi asrgacha boshqa joylarda omon qoldi.^[25] Bugungi kunda Pali asosan Buddist yozuvlaridan foydalanish uchun o'rganilgan va marosimlar doirasida tez-tez aytilgan. Pali tarixiy xronikalari, tibbiy matnlar va bitiklarning dunyoviy adabiyoti ham katta tarixiy ahamiyatga ega. Pali tilining buyuk markazlari Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi Theravada xalqlarida saqlanib qolgan: Myanma, Shri-Lanka, Tailand, Laos va Kambodja. 19-asrdan boshlab Hindistondagi paliyshunoslikni tiklash uchun turli xil jamiyatlar til va uning adabiyoti, shu jumladan Maha Bodhi Jamiyati tomonidan tashkil etilgan Anagarika Dhammapala.

Evropada Pali Matn Jamiyati 1881 yilda tashkil topganidan beri G'arb olimlari tomonidan pali tilini o'rganishda katta kuch bo'ldi. Birlashgan Qirollikda joylashgan jamiyat ushbu manbalarning ko'plab ingliz tilidagi tarjimalari bilan bir qatorda romanlashtirilgan pali nashrlarini nashr etadi. 1869 yilda birinchi Pali lug'ati Pali Matn Jamiyatining asoschilaridan biri bo'lgan Robert Tsezar Childers tadqiqotlari yordamida nashr etildi. Bu ingliz tilidagi birinchi pali tarjima qilingan matn bo'lib, 1872 yilda nashr etilgan. Keyinchalik Childers lug'ati ushbu matnni oldi Volney mukofoti 1876 ​​yilda.

Pali Matn Jamiyati qisman XIX asr oxirida Angliya va Buyuk Britaniyaning qolgan qismida Indologiyaga ajratilgan mablag'larning juda past miqdorini qoplash uchun tashkil etilgan; bir-biriga mos kelmasa, Buyuk Britaniya fuqarolari Germaniya, Rossiya va hattoki sanskrit va prakrit tillarini o'rganishda deyarli kuchli edilar. Daniya. Shri-Lanka va Birmani sobiq Angliya istilosi kabi mustamlakachilik xokimiyatining ilhomisiz ham Daniya qirollik kutubxonasi pali qo'lyozmalarining asosiy to'plamlarini va paliyshunoslikning asosiy an'analarini yaratdilar.

Pali adabiyoti

Pali adabiyoti odatda kanonik va kanonik bo'lmagan yoki kanonikadan tashqari matnlarga bo'linadi.^[26] Kanonik matnlarga butun Pali Canon yoki Tipitaka. Da joylashtirilgan uchta kitob bundan mustasno Xuddaka Nikaya faqat birma an'analariga ko'ra ushbu matnlar (beshtadan iborat) Nikayas ning Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka va kitoblari Abhidhamma Pitaka ) Theravada urf-odati bo'yicha Buddaning va uning bevosita shogirdlarining so'zlarini o'z ichiga olgan sifatida an'anaviy ravishda qabul qilinadi.

Qo'shimcha kanonik matnlarni bir nechta toifalarga bo'lish mumkin:

• Sharhlar (Atxata ) Suttas tarkibiga oid qo'shimcha tafsilotlar va tushuntirishlarni yozib olgan.
• Sub-sharhlar (ākā ) tushuntiradigan va sharhlarga tarkib qo'shadigan
• Solnomalar (Vaṃsa Shri-Lankadagi buddizm tarixi, shuningdek mashhur yodgorliklar va ziyoratgohlarning kelib chiqishi va tarixiy va afsonaviy shohlarning ishlari bilan bog'liq bo'lgan
• Kanonik kitoblarning qisqacha mazmuni va shunga o'xshash ta'limot va uslublar to'plamlarini o'z ichiga olgan qo'llanmalar va risolalar Visuddimagga
• Abhidhamma mazmunini tushuntirib beradigan qo'llanmalar Abhidhamma Pitaka

Pali adabiyotida mavjud bo'lgan matnlarning boshqa turlariga grammatika va poetikaga oid asarlar, tibbiyot matnlari, astrolojik va bashorat matnlari, kosmologiyalar va antologiyalar yoki kanonik adabiyotlardan materiallar to'plami kiradi.^[3]

Pali tilidagi asarlarning aksariyati Shri-Lanka an'analaridan kelib chiqqan va keyinchalik boshqa Theravada hududlariga tarqalgan deb hisoblansa, ba'zi matnlar boshqa manbalarga ega bo'lishi mumkin. The Milinda Panha tarjima qilinmasdan oldin shimoliy Hindistonda paydo bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin Sanskritcha yoki Gandari Prakrit.^[27] Shuningdek, Shri-Lanka, Tailand va Birmadagi Pali tilida tuzilgan, ammo keng tarqalmagan deb hisoblanadigan bir qator matnlar mavjud. Ushbu mintaqaviy Pali adabiyoti hozirda nisbatan kam ma'lum, xususan Tailand an'analarida, ko'plab qo'lyozmalar hech qachon kataloglanmagan va nashr etilmagan.^[14]

Boshqa tillarga aloqadorlik

Paycācī

Paycācī asosan tekshirilmagan da tilga olingan klassik Hindistonning adabiy tili Prakrit va antik davrning sanskritcha grammatikalari. U prakrit tillari bilan birlashtirilgan bo'lib, ular bilan ba'zi til o'xshashliklarini baham ko'radi, ammo dastlabki grammatika mutaxassislari uni og'zaki til deb hisoblamadilar, chunki bu faqat adabiy til edi.^[28]

Kabi sanskrit poetikasi asarlarida Daṇḍin "s Kavyadarsha, nomi bilan ham tanilgan Bhūtabhāṣā, "o'lik til" deb talqin qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan epitet (ya'ni omon qolgan so'zlovchilarsiz) yoki bhūta o'tgan va ma'nosini anglatadi bhāā tilni anglatadi, ya'ni "o'tmishda gapirgan til". Ushbu talqinni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi dalillar shundan iboratki, Pakatsidagi adabiyot parchalanib ketgan va juda kam uchraydi, lekin bir paytlar keng tarqalgan bo'lishi mumkin.

XIII asr Tibet tarixchisi Rinchen Drub tugmachasi deb yozgan dastlabki buddaviy maktablari tanlovi bilan ajratilgan muqaddas til: the Maxashoghikas ishlatilgan Prakrit, Sarvastivadinlar sanskrit tilida ishlatilgan Stxaviravadinlar Payśācī ishlatgan, Samitiya esa ishlatgan Apabhraṃśa.^[29] Ushbu kuzatish ba'zi olimlarni Pali va Paykatsi o'rtasidagi aloqalarni nazariylashtirishga undadi; Sten Konov so'zlashadigan hind-oriy tili bo'lishi mumkin degan xulosaga keldi Dravidian odamlar Janubiy Hindistonda va Alfred Master omon qolgan parchalar va Pali morfologiyasi o'rtasida bir qator o'xshashliklarni qayd etdi.^[28][30]

Arda-Magadhi Prakrit

Ardhamagadhi Prakrit - o'rta hind-oriy tili va zamonaviy Bihar va Sharqiy Uttar-Pradeshda so'zlashadigan va ba'zi dastlabki buddistlik va Jayn dramalarida ishlatilgan deb o'ylagan dramatik prakrit. Dastlab u mahalliy xalq Magadhi Prakritning o'tmishdoshi, shuning uchun bu nom (so'zma-so'z "yarim Magadhi") deb o'ylashgan. Ardhamagadhidan Jeyn olimlari [4] mashhur foydalanganlar va Jayn Agamalarda saqlanib qolgan.^[31]

Ardhamagadhi Prakrit keyingi Magadhi Prakritdan Pali bilan o'xshash jihatlari bilan farq qiladi va ko'pincha Pali Buddaning nutqini erta Magadiy lahjasida yozib olgan degan ishonch asosida Pali bilan bog'langan deb hisoblar edi.

Magadhi Prakrit

Magadhi Prakrit a O'rta hind tili hozirgi Biharda va sharqiy Uttar-Pradeshda gaplashmoqda. Keyinchalik undan foydalanish janubi-sharqda kengayib, hozirgi Bengal, Odisha va Assamning ba'zi mintaqalarini qamrab oldi va ba'zi Prakrit dramalarida mahalliy muloqotni namoyish etish uchun ishlatilgan. Magadhi Prakritning saqlanib qolgan namunalari Buddaning nazariy hayotidan keyin bir necha asrlarga oid bo'lib, ularga tegishli yozuvlarni o'z ichiga oladi. Asoka Maurya.^[32]

Magadhi Prakrit va Pali saqlanib qolgan misollari o'rtasida kuzatilgan tafovut olimlarning xulosasiga ko'ra, Pali O'rta hind tilida so'zlashadigan tilning davomi emas, balki shimoliy-g'arbiy lahjasining rivojlanishini anglatadi. Magadha Budda davrida.

Leksika

Paxi tilidagi deyarli har bir so'z bor qarindoshlar boshqa o'rta hind-oriy tillarida Prakrits. Bilan munosabatlar Vedik sanskrit kamroq to'g'ridan-to'g'ri va murakkabroq; Prakritlar kelib chiqqan Qadimgi hind-oriy tillari. Tarixiy jihatdan, Pali va Sanskrit o'rtasidagi ta'sir har ikki yo'nalishda ham sezilgan. Pali tilining sanskrit tiliga o'xshashligi, keyinchalik sanskrit tili bo'lishni to'xtatgandan bir necha asr o'tgach yozilgan va rivojlanganlar ta'sirida bo'lgan keyingi sanskritcha kompozitsiyalar bilan taqqoslash orqali bo'rttirib ko'rsatiladi. O'rta hind shu jumladan O'rta hind lug'atining bir qismini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qarz olish; Holbuki, keyinchalik pali texnik terminologiyasining to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki ba'zi bir fonologik moslashuvlari bilan sanskrit tilidagi ekvivalent fanlarning lug'atidan olingan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Post-kanonik pali, shuningdek, pali ishlatilgan mahalliy tillardan bir nechta qarz so'zlariga ega (masalan, shri-lankaliklar pali tiliga sinhal so'zlarini qo'shadilar). Ushbu foydalanish Pali-ni topadi Suttapiskaka Pali kanoniga sharhlar va folklor kabi keyingi kompozitsiyalardan (masalan, sharhlar Jataka ertaklari ) va bunday qarz so'zlari asosida matnlarni qiyosiy o'rganish (va tanishish) endi o'zi uchun ixtisoslashgan sohaga aylandi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Pali Buddaning ta'limotlarini etkazish uchun ishlatilgan emas, chunki pali tilida tibbiyot fanlari / yo'riqnomalari kabi bir qator dunyoviy matnlar mavjudligidan xulosa qilish mumkin. Biroq, ushbu tilga bo'lgan ilmiy qiziqish diniy va falsafiy adabiyotga qaratilgan edi, chunki u noyob rivojlanish oynasining bir bosqichida ochiladi. Buddizm.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Fonologiya

Ushbu maqolada mavjud IPA fonetik belgilar. Tegishli bo'lmagan holda qo'llab-quvvatlash, ko'rishingiz mumkin savol belgilari, qutilar yoki boshqa belgilar o'rniga Unicode belgilar. IPA belgilariga oid kirish qo'llanmasi uchun qarang Yordam: IPA.

Unlilar

Unlilar ikkiga bo'linishi mumkin

a. sof unlilar: a, ā

sonant unlilar: i, ī, u, ū

diftonglar: e, o ^[33]

b. tabiatan kalta unlilar: a, i, u

tabiatan uzun unlilar: ā, ī, ū

o'zgaruvchan uzunlikdagi unlilar: e, o ^[33]

Uzoq va qisqa unlilar faqat ochiq hecalarda kontrastli; yopiq hecelerde barcha unlilar har doim qisqa. Qisqa va uzoq e va o qo'shimcha taqsimotda: qisqa variantlar faqat yopiq hecalarda, uzun variantlar faqat ochiq hecelerde uchraydi. Qisqa va uzoq e va o Shuning uchun ular alohida fonemalar emas.

unlilar e va o uzun bo'g'inda:

bo'g'in oxirida [ne-tum̩] เน ตุํ lead 'etakchi'

bo'g'in oxirida [so-tum̩] โส ตุํ 'eshitish' kabi^[33]

unlilar yopiq hecada qisqa:

undoshdan keyin ular [upek-khā] 'befarqlik', [sot-thi] 'xavfsizlik' kabi bo'g'in hosil qiladi.^[33]

Unlilar uchun ā, ī, ū

e uchun paydo bo'ladi a juft kelishuvdan oldin:

  seyyā = sayyā "karavot"

  pheggu = phaigu "bo'sh, befoyda" ^[34]

Egiluvchan sonlarda cho'zilgan i, u a unli tovushlari, shu jumladan: -īhi, -ūhi va -īsu ^[34]

Qo'ng'iroq qilindi anusvara (Skt.; Pali: niggahīta ), harf bilan ifodalangan ṁ (ISO 15919) yoki ṃ (ALA-LC) romanizatsiyalashda va aksariyat an'anaviy alfavitlarda yuqori nuqta bilan, avvalgi unlini burunlashtirganligi aslida aniqlangan. Anavi, aṁ, iṁ va uṁ vakili [ã], [ĩ] va [ũ]. Ko'pgina an'anaviy talaffuzlarda esa anusvara velar burun kabi kuchli talaffuz qilinadi [ŋ], shuning uchun bu tovushlar o'rniga talaffuz qilinadi [aŋ], [ĩŋ] va [ũŋ]. Biroq, aniq, ṁ hech qachon uzun unliga ergashmaydi; ā, ī va ū qachon tegishli qisqa unlilarga aylantiriladi ṁ cho‘ziq unli bilan tugaydigan o‘zakka qo‘shiladi, masalan. kathā + ṁ bo'ladi kathaṁ, emas * kathāṁ, devī + ṁ bo'ladi deviṁemas *devīṁ.

So'zning tuzilishi tufayli unlilarning o'zgarishi

Yakuniy unlilar

Sanskritcha so'zlarning so'nggi undoshlari pali tilida tushirilgan va shu bilan barcha so'zlar unli yoki burun unli bilan tugaydi: kāntāt -> sevgan kishidan kantā '; kāntāṃ -> sevgan kantaṃ '

Oxirgi unlilar odatda talaffuzda zaif bo'lgan va shu sababli ular qisqartirilgan: akarsit -> akasi 'u qildi'.^[33]

Undoshlar

Quyidagi jadvalda undoshlar Pali (boshqa ko'plab mumkin bo'lgan skriptlarning tayland yozuvidan foydalangan holda). Qalin harfda an'anaviy tarzda harfning translyatsiyasi romanizatsiya va to'rtburchaklar ichida uning talaffuzi IPA.

Labiy undoshlari orasida [ʋ] bu labiodental va qolganlari bilabial. Tish / alveolyar undoshlar orasida aksariyati stomatologik, ammo [lar] va [l] bor alveolyar.

Yuqorida sanab o'tilgan tovushlardan faqat qavs ichidagi uchta undosh, ṅ, ḷva ḷh, alohida emas fonemalar pali tilida: ṅ faqat velar to'xtashidan oldin sodir bo'ladi, while ḷ va ḷh bor allofonlar bitta ḍ va ḍh o'rtasida sodir bo'ladi unlilar.

Pali tilida undoshlar kuchi yoki qarshilik kuchiga qarab bo'linishi mumkin. Kuch quyidagi tartibda kamayadi: mute, sibilant, nasals, l, v, y, r

Ikki undosh birlashganda, ular quyidagi o'zgarishlardan biriga duch keladi:

a. ular o'zlashtirilgan bir-biriga

b. ular avval moslashtirilib, keyin bir-biriga singdiriladi

v. ular yangi undoshlar guruhini vujudga keltiradi

d. ular unli qo'shilishi bilan ajratilgan infiks

e. ular ba'zan o'zaro almashtiriladi metatez ^[35]

Undoshlarni aspiratsiya qiling

ikki undoshdan biri sibilant s bo'lsa, yangi undoshlar guruhi so'nggi undoshda intilishga ega bo'ladi: as-ti อ สฺ - ติ (root: อ สฺ kabi)> atthi อ ตฺ ถิ "bu"

sibilant s, undan keyin burun, h ga o'zgartiriladi va keyin burundan keyin ko'chiriladi: akas-ma อก สฺ ม> akah-ma อก หฺ ม> akamha อก มฺ ห "biz qildik"^[35]

O'zaro almashtirish y va v

Skali uchun Pali v paydo bo'ladi. y. Masalan; misol uchun, avudha อาวุธ -> ayudha อายุ ธ "qurol"; kasāva ก สาว -> kasaya ก สาย "axloqsizlik, gunoh". Svarabhakti-unli I dan keyin u kabi y o'rniga v paydo bo'ladi praṭyamsa ปฺ ร ฏฺ ย มฺ ส -> pativimsa sa วิ มฺ ส. ^[34]

O'zaro almashtirish r va l

Ning vakili r tomonidan l Pali va Pkrda juda keng tarqalgan. Magadhi uchun bu qoidadir, garchi bu almashtirish boshqa lahjada ham uchraydi. Dastlab, bu lūjjati ลู ชฺ ช ติ -> rūjyate รู ชฺ ย เต 'yiqilib tushadi.; ba'zida l va r bo'lgan juft shakllar Skrda uchraydi: lūkha ลู ข -> lūksa ลู กฺ ส, rūksa รู กฺ ส 'qo'pol, yomon^[34]

Morfologiya

Pali - bu juda ta'sirchan til bo'lib, unda deyarli har bir so'zda asosiy ma'noni anglatuvchi ildizdan tashqari, ma'noni qandaydir tarzda o'zgartiradigan bir yoki bir nechta qo'shimchalar (odatda qo'shimchalar) mavjud. Ismlar jinsi, soni va ishi uchun kiritiladi; og'zaki burilishlar shaxs, raqam, zamon va kayfiyat haqida ma'lumot beradi.

Nominal burilish

Pali ismlari uchtasini ajratadi grammatik jinslar (erkak, ayol va neytral) va ikkita raqam (birlik va ko'plik). Ismlar, shuningdek, printsipial jihatdan sakkiztani namoyish etadi holatlar: nominativ yoki pakkatta ish, ovozli, ayblov yoki upayoga ish, instrumental yoki karaṇa ish, tarixiy yoki sampadana ish, ablativ, genetik yoki samin ishi va mahalliy yoki bhumma ish; ammo, ko'p hollarda, ushbu holatlarning ikkitasi yoki bir nechtasi shakl jihatidan bir xil; bu, ayniqsa, genitiv va dative holatlarga taalluqlidir.

jarohatlaydi

a-jarohatlaydi, uning egilmagan poyasi qisqacha tugaydi a (/ ə /), erkak yoki neytral. Erkak va neytral shakllar faqat nominativ, ovozli va ayblov holatlarida farqlanadi.

a-jarohatlaydi

Ā bilan tugaydigan ismlar (/ aː /) deyarli har doim ayollarga xosdir.

i-jarohatlaydi va u-jarohatlaydi

i-poyalar va u-poyalar erkak yoki neytral. Erkak va neytral shakllar faqat nominativ va ayblov holatlarida farqlanadi. Vokativ nominativ bilan bir xil shaklga ega.

Pali matnini lingvistik tahlil qilish

Ochilishidan Dhammapada:

Manopubbaṅgama dhammā, manoseṭṭhā manomayā;

Manasā ce paduṭṭhena, bhāsati vā karoti vā,

Tato naṁ dukhaṁ anveti, cakkaṁ'va vahato padaṁ.

Element porlashi uchun element:

Mano-pubbaṅ-gam-ā dham-ā, mano-seṭṭh-ā mano-may-ā;

Aqldan oldin -m.pl.nom. dharma -m.pl.nom., aql-idrokm.pl.nom. aql bilan qilinganm.pl.nom.

Manas-ā = ce paduṭṭh-ena, bhasa-ti = vā karo-ti = vā,

Aqln.sg.inst.= buzilgan bo'lsa -n.sg.inst. gapirish-3.sg.pr.= yoki harakat-3.sg.pr.= yoki,

Ta-to naṁ dukhaṁ anv-e-ti, cakkaṁ 'va vahat-o pad-aṁ.

Undan keyin u azob chekmoqda3.sg.pr., g'ildirak (hayvon)m.sg.gen. oyoqn.sg.acc.

Birinchi qatordagi uchta birikma so'zma-so'z ma'noda:

manopubbaṅgama "kimning kashshofi aql", "aqlni oldindan biladigan yoki etakchiga ega bo'lgan"

manosheha "uning eng asosiy a'zosi aql", "ongni bosh sifatida tutish"

manomaya "aqldan iborat" yoki "aql bilan qilingan"

Shuning uchun to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ma'no: "The dharmas aql ularning rahbari sifatida, aql ularning boshi sifatida, aql bilan qilingan. Agar [kimdir] buzuq aql bilan gapirsa yoki ish tutsa, azob uning orqasidan ketadi, chunki [aravaning g'ildiragi] chorva hayvoni etagiga ergashadi ».

Acharya Buddharakkhita tomonidan biroz erkinroq tarjima

Aql barcha ruhiy holatlardan oldinroq. Aql ularning boshlig'i; ularning hammasi aql bilan ishlangan.

Agar odam nopok aql bilan gapirsa yoki azob chekayotgan bo'lsa, unga ergashadi

ho'kizning etagidan yuradigan g'ildirak kabi.

Sanskrit va pali shakllari o'rtasidagi konversiya

Pali va sanskritlar bir-biri bilan chambarchas bog'liq va Pali va Sanskritning umumiy xususiyatlari har doim ikkalasini ham yaxshi biladigan Hindiston tomonidan tan olinardi. Pali va sanskritcha so'z turkumlarining katta qismi shakl jihatidan bir xil, faqat burilish tafsilotlari bilan farq qiladi.

Sanskrit tilidan olingan texnik atamalar an'anaviy fonologik o'zgarishlarning to'plami bilan pali tiliga aylantirildi. Ushbu o'zgarishlar Proto-Palida sodir bo'lgan fonologik o'zgarishlarning bir qismini taqlid qildi. Ushbu transformatsiyalar keng tarqalganligi sababli, berilgan pali so'zi eski Prakrit leksikasining bir qismi ekanligini yoki sanskrit tilidan o'zgartirilgan qarz olishini har doim ham aytish mumkin emas. Pali so'ziga muntazam ravishda mos keladigan sanskrit so'zining mavjudligi har doim ham pali etimologiyasining ishonchli dalili emas, chunki ba'zi hollarda sun'iy sanskrit so'zlari Prakrit so'zlaridan orqaga qaytish yo'li bilan yaratilgan.^{[shubhali – muhokama qilish]}

The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pali from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pali, with no claim to completeness.

Unlilar va diftonglar

• Sanskritcha ai va au always monophthongize to Pali e va onavbati bilan

Misollar: maitrī → metta, auṣadha → osadha

• Sanskritcha aya va ava likewise often reduce to Pali e va o

Misollar: dhārayati → dhāreti, avatora → otāra, bhavati → hoti

• Sanskritcha avi becomes Pali e (ya'ni avi → ai → e)

Misol: sthavira → Thera

• Sanskritcha ṛ appears in Pali as a, men yoki siz, often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. ṛ also sometimes becomes siz after labial consonants.

Misollar: kṛta → kata, tṛṣṇa → taṇha, smṛti → sati, ṛṣi → isi, dṛṣṭi → dihhi, ṛddhi → iddhi, ṛju → uju, spṛṣṭa → phuṭṭha, vṛddha → vuddha

• Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants.

Misollar: kānti → xanti, rājya → rajja, aravara → issara, tīrṇa → tiṇṇa, pūrva → pubba

Undoshlar

Ovoz o'zgaradi

• Sanskritcha sibilantlar ś, ṣva s merge as Pali s

Misollar: śaraṇa → saraṇa, doṣa → dosa

• The Sanskrit stops ḍ va ḍh bo'lish ḷ va ḷh between vowels (as in Vedic)

Misol: cakravāḍa → cakkavāḷa, virūḍha → virūḷha

Assimilations

Umumiy qoidalar

• Ko'pchilik assimilyatsiya of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing a large number of geminat (double) consonants. Beri intilish of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph va bh kabi ko'rinadi kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph va bbhkabi emas khkh, ghgh va boshqalar.
• When assimilation would produce a geminate consonant (or a sequence of unaspirated stop+aspirated stop) at the beginning of a word, the initial geminate is simplified to a single consonant.

Misollar: prāṇa → pāṇa (emas ppāṇa), sthavira → Thera (emas tthera), diyaana → jana (emas jjhāna), jñāti → ñāti (emas ññāti)

• When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.

Misollar: uttrāsa → uttāsa (emas utttāsa), mantrani → manta (emas mantta), indra → inda (emas indda), vandhya → vañjha (emas vañjjha)

• Ketma-ketlik vv resulting from assimilation changes to bb

Misol: sarva → savva → sabba, pravrajati → pavvajati → pabbajati, divya → divva → dibba, nirvāṇa → nivvāṇa → nibbona

Total assimilation

Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound.

Regressive assimilations

• Ichki visarga assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant

Misollar: duḥkṛta → dukkata, duxa → duxha, duḥprajña → duppañña, niḥkrodha (=niṣkrodha) → nikkodha, niḥpakva (=niṣpakva) → nippakka, niḥśoka → nissoka, niḥsattva → nissatta

• In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop

Misollar: vimukti → vimutti, dugdha → duddha, utpada → uppāda, pudgala → puggala, udghoṣa → ugghosa, adbhuta → abbhuta, śabda → sadda

• In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal

Misol: unmatta → ummatta, pradyumna → pajjunna

• j quyidagilarni o'zlashtiradi ñ (ya'ni, jñ bo'ladi ññ)

Misollar: praja → paña, jñāti → ñāti

• The Sanskrit liquid consonants r va l assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or v

Misollar: mārga → magga, karma → kamma, varṣa → vassa, kalpa → kappa, sarva → savva → sabba

• r quyidagilarni o'zlashtiradi l

Misollar: durlabha → dullabha, nirlopa → nillopa

• d sometimes assimilates to a following v, producing vv → bb

Misollar: udvigna → uvvigga → ubbigga, dvādaśa → bārasa (beside dvādasa)

• t va d may assimilate to a following s yoki y when a morpheme boundary intervenes

Misollar: ut+sava → ussava, ud+yāna → uyyāna

Progressive assimilations

• Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs)

Misollar: agni → aggi, otman → atta, prāpnoti → pappoti, śaknoti → sakkoti

• m assimilates to an initial sibilant

Misollar: smarati → sarati, smṛti → sati

• Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals

Misollar: tīkṣṇa → tikṣa → tikkha, lakṣmī → lakṣī →lakkhī

• The Sanskrit liquid consonants r va l assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or v

Misollar: prāṇa → pāṇa, grāma → gama, ārāvaka → savaka, agra → agga, indra → inda, pravrajati → pavvajati → pabbajati, aśru → assu

• y assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals

Misollar: cyavati → cavati, jyotiṣ → joti, rājya → rajja, matsya → macchya → maccha, lapsyate → lacchyate → lacchati, abhyāgata → abbhāgata, ākhyāti → akkhāti, saxxiya → saṅkhā (Biroq shu bilan birga saṅkhyā), ramya → ramma

• y assimilates to preceding non-initial v, producing vv → bb

Misol: divya → divva → dibba, veditavya → veditavva → veditabba, bhāvya → bhavva → bhabba

• y va v assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing ss

Misollar: paśyati → passati, śyena → sena, aśva → assa, aravara → issara, kariṣyati → karissati, tasya → tassa, svāmin → sāmī

• v sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop

Misollar: pakva → pakka, catvāri → cattāri, satva → satta, dhvaja → dhaja

Partial and mutual assimilation

• Sanskritcha sibilantlar before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; masalan. śc, st, ṣṭ va sp bo'lish cch, tth, ṭṭh va pph

Misollar: paścāt → pacchā, asti → atti, stava → thava, śreṣṭha → seṭṭha, aṣṭa → aṭṭha, sparśa → phassa

• In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; masalan. str va ṣṭr bo'lish tth va ṭṭh

Misollar: śāstra → śasta → sattha, rāṣṭra → raṣṭa → raṭṭha

• t va p bo'lish v oldin s, and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences ts va ps bo'lish cch)

Misollar: vatsa → vaccha, apsaralar → accharā

• A sibilant assimilates to a preceding k as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence kṣ bo'ladi kkh)

Misollar: bxiku → bxikxu, kānti → xanti

• Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by y converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the y assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny bo'lish cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ; xuddi shunday ṇy bo'ladi ññ. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.

Misollar: tyajati → cyajati → cajati, satya → sacya → sakka, mithyā → michyā → micchā, vidyā → vijyā → vijjā, madya → majhya → majjha, anya → añya → añña, puṇya → puñya → puñña, vandhya → vañjhya → vañjjha → vañjha

• Ketma-ketlik Janob bo'ladi mb, via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.

Misollar: āmra → ambra → amba, tāmra → tamba

Epentez

An epentetik vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. Xuddi shunday ṛ, the vowel may be a, men, yoki siz, depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. men is often found near men, y, or palatal consonants; siz is found near siz, v, or labial consonants.

• Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by a yoki siz

Misol: ratna → ratana, padma → paduma (siz influenced by labial m)

• Ketma-ketlik sn bo'lishi mumkin gunoh dastlab

Misollar: snāna → sināna, sneha → sineha

• men may be inserted between a consonant and l

Misollar: kleśa → Kilea, glāna → gilāna, mlāyati → milāyati, ślāghati → silāghati

• An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and r

Misol: śrī → janobī

• Ketma-ketlik ry odatda bo'ladi riy (men influenced by following y), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening

Misol: ariya → arya → ariya, sūrya → surya → suriya, vīrya → virya → viriya

• a yoki men is inserted between r va h

Misol: arhati → arahati, garhā → garahā, barhiṣ → barihisa

• There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences

Misollar: caitya → cetiya (emas cecca), vajra → vajira (emas vajja)

Boshqa o'zgarishlar

• Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by h, ya'ni ṣṇ, sn va sm bo'lish ṇh, nhva mh

Misollar: tṛṣṇa → taṇha, uṣṇīṣa → uṇhīsa, asmi → amhi

• Ketma-ketlik śn bo'ladi ñh, due to assimilation of the n to the preceding palatal sibilant

Misol: prina → praśña → pañha

• Ketma-ketliklar hy va hv duchor metatez

Misollar: jiho → jivha, gṛhya → gayha, guhya → guyha

• h undergoes metathesis with a following nasal

Misol: gṛhṇāti → gaṇhāti

• y is geminated between e and a vowel

Misollar: śreyas → seyya, Maydon → Metteyya

• Voiced aspirates such as bh va gh on rare occasions become h

Misollar: bhavati → hoti, -ebhiṣ → -ehi, laghu → lahu

• Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another

Misollar: jnāna → ñāṇa (emas ñāna), dahati → ḍahati (beside Pali dahati) nīḍa → nīla (emas nīḷa), stana → ṭhāna (emas thāna), duḥkṛta → dukkaṭa (beside Pali dukkata)

Istisnolar

There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit.

• ariya → ayya (beside ariya)
• guru → garu (adj.) (beside guru (n.))
• puruṣa → purisa (emas purusa)
• vṛkṣa → rukṣa → rukha (emas vakkha)

Yozish

Alphabet with diacritics

Imperator Ashoka erected a number of pillars with his edicts in at least three regional Prakrit languages in Braxmi yozuvi,^[36] all of which are quite similar to Pali. Historically, the first written record of the Pali canon is believed to have been composed in Sri Lanka, based on a prior oral tradition. Ga ko'ra Mahavamsa (the chronicle of Sri Lanka), due to a major famine in the country Buddhist monks wrote down the Pali canon during the time of King Vattagamini in 100 BCE.

Bilingual coins containing Pali written in the Xarosti script and Greek writing were used by Jeyms Prinsep to decipher the Xarosti abugida.^[37] This script became particularly significant for the study of early Buddhism following the discovery of the Gandharan Buddhist texts.

The transmission of written Pali has retained a universal system of alphabetic values, but has expressed those values in a variety of different scripts.

In Sri Lanka, Pali texts were recorded in Sinxala yozuvi. Other local scripts, most prominently Kxmer, Birma va zamonaviy zamonda Tailandcha (since 1893), Devanagari va Mon stsenariysi (Mon shtati, Burma) have been used to record Pali.

Since the 19th century, Pali has also been written in the Roman script. An alternate scheme devised by Frans Velthuis, called the Velthuis scheme (see § Text in ASCII ) allows for typing without diakritiklar using plain ASCII methods, but is arguably less readable than the standard IAST system, which uses diacritical marks.

The Pali alphabetical order is as follows:

• a ā i ī u ū e o ṃ k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l ḷ v s h

ḷh, although a single sound, is written with ligature of ḷ va h.

Transliteration on computers

There are several fonts to use for Pali transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit, Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable, they are eskirgan, since they are not compatible with one another, and are technically out of date. Instead, fonts based on the Unicode standard are recommended.

However, not all Unicode fonts contain the necessary characters. To properly display all the diacritic marks used for romanized Pali (or for that matter, Sanskrit), a Unicode font must contain the following character ranges:

• Basic Latin: U+0000 – U+007F
• Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 – U+00FF
• Latin Extended-A: U+0100 – U+017F
• Latin Extended-B: U+0180 – U+024F
• Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 – U+1EFF

Some Unicode fonts freely available for typesetting Romanized Pali are as follows:

• The Pali Text Society tavsiya qiladi VU-Times va Gandhari Unicode for Windows and Linux Computers.
• The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library tavsiya qiladi Times Ext Roman, and provides links to several Unicode diacritic Windows va Mac fonts usable for typing Pali together with ratings and installation instructions. Bu shuningdek beradi makrolar for typing diacritics in OpenOffice and MS Office.
• SIL: International beradi Charis SIL and Charis SIL Compact, Doulos SIL, Gentium, Gentium Basic, Gentium Book Basic shriftlar. Of them, Charis SIL, Gentium Basic and Gentium Book Basic have all 4 styles (regular, italic, bold, bold-italic); so can provide publication quality typesetting.
• Libertine Openfont Project provides the Linux Libertine font (4 serif styles and many Opentype features) and Linux Biolinum (4 sans-serif styles) at the Sourceforge.
• Junikod (short for Junius-Unicode) is a Unicode font for medievalists, but it provides all diacritics for typing Pali. It has 4 styles and some Opentype features such as Old Style for numerals.
• Thryomanes includes all the Roman-alphabet characters available in Unicode along with a subset of the most commonly used Greek and Cyrillic characters, and is available in normal, italic, bold, and bold italic.
• GUST (Polish TeX User Group) provides Lotin zamonaviy va TeX Gyre shriftlar. Each font has 4 styles, with the former finding most acceptance among the LaTeX users while the latter is a relatively new family. Of the latter, each typeface in the following families has nearly 1250 glyphs and is available in PostScript, TeX and OpenType formats.
  • The TeX Gyre Adventor family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Gothic L family. The original font, ITC Avant Garde Gothic, was designed by Herb Lubalin and Tom Carnase in 1970.
  • The TeX Gyre Bonum family of serif fonts is based on the URW Bookman L family. The original font, Bookman or Bookman Old Style, was designed by Alexander Phemister in 1860.
  • The TeX Gyre Chorus is a font based on the URW Chancery L Medium Italic font. Asl nusxa, ITC Zapf Chancery, was designed in 1979 by Hermann Zapf.
  • The TeX Gyre Cursor family of monospace serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Mono L family. The original font, Kuryer, was designed by Howard G. (Bud) Kettler in 1955.
  • The TeX Gyre Heros family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Sans L family. The original font, Helvetica, was designed in 1957 by Max Miedinger.
  • The TeX Gyre Pagella family of serif fonts is based on the URW Palladio L family. The original font, Palatino, was designed by Hermann Zapf in the 1940s.
  • The TeX Gyre Schola family of serif fonts is based on the URW Century Schoolbook L family. The original font, Asr maktab kitobi, was designed by Morris Fuller Benton in 1919.
  • The TeX Gyre Termes family of serif fonts is based on the Nimbus Roman No9 L family. The original font, Times Roman, was designed by Stanley Morison together with Starling Burgess and Victor Lardent.

• John Smith provides IndUni Opentype fonts, based upon URW++ fonts. Of them:
  • IndUni-C is Courier-lookalike;
  • IndUni-H is Helvetica-lookalike;
  • IndUni-N is New Century Schoolbook-lookalike;
  • IndUni-P is Palatino-lookalike;
  • IndUni-T is Times-lookalike;
  • IndUni-CMono is Courier-lookalike but monospaced;
• An English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some Pali OpenType fonts he has designed himself. Of them:
  • Acariya is a Garamond style typeface derived from Guru (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).
  • Balava is a revival of Baskerville derived from Libre Baskerville (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).
  • Cankama is a Gothic, Black Letter script. Regular style only.
  • (Karita has been discontinued.)
  • Garava was designed for body text with a generous x-height and economical copyfit. Bunga kiradi Petite Caps (as OpenType Features), and Heavy styles besides the usual four styles (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).
  • Guru is a condensed Garamond style typeface designed for economy of copy-fit. A hundred A4 pages of text set in Pali would be about 98 pages if set in Acariya, 95 if set in Garava or Times New Roman, but only 90 if set in Guru.(regular, italic, bold, bold italic styles).
  • Xari is a hand-writing script derived from Allura by Robert E. Leuschke.(Regular style only).
  • (Hattha has been discontinued)
  • Jivita is an original Sans Serif typeface for body text. (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).
  • Kabala is a distinctive Sans Serif typeface designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
  • Lekhana is a Zapf Chancery clone, a flowing script that can be used for correspondence or body text. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
  • Mahakampa is a hand-writing script derived from Great Vibes by Robert E. Leuschke. Regular type style.
  • Mandala is designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
  • Nacca is a hand-writing script derived from Dancing Script by Pablo Impallari and released on Font Squirrel. Regular type style.
  • Odana is a calligraphic brush font suitable for headlines, titles, or short texts where a less formal appearance is wanted. Regular style only.
  • Sans-ni oching is a Sans Serif font suitable for body text. Ten type styles.
  • Pali is a clone of Hermann Zapf's Palatino. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
  • Sukhumala is derived from Sort Mills Goudy. Five type styles
  • Talapanna is a clone of Goudy Bertham, with decorative gothic capitals and extra ligatures in the Private Use Area. Regular and bold styles.
  • (Talapatta is discontinued.)
  • Veluvana is another brush calligraphic font but basic Greek glyphs are taken from Guru. Regular style only.
  • Verajja is derived from Bitstream Vera. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
  • VerajjaPDA is a cut-down version of Verajja without symbols. For use on PDA devices. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
  • He also provides some Pali keyboards for Windows XP.
• The font section of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be used for Pali typing if they cover the character ranges above.

Some of the latest fonts coming with Windows 7 can also be used to type transliterated Pali: Arial, Kalibri, Kambriya, Kuryer yangi, Microsoft Sans Serif, Segoe UI, Segoe UI Light, Segoe UI Semibold, Taxomava Times New Roman. And some of them have 4 styles each hence usable in professional typesetting: Arial, Calibri va Segoe UI are sans-serif fonts, Kambriya va Times New Roman are serif fonts and Kuryer yangi is a monospace font.

Text in ASCII

The Velthuis scheme was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his "devnag" Devanāgarī font, designed for the TeX terish tizimi. This system of representing Pali diacritical marks has been used in some websites and discussion lists. However, as the Web itself and email software slowly evolve towards the Unicode encoding standard, this system has become almost unnecessary and obsolete.

The following table compares various conventional renderings and shortcut key assignments:

Shuningdek qarang

• Buddist gibrid sanskritcha

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Iqtiboslar

Umumiy manbalar

• "Pali" yozuvlarini ko'ring (muallif tomonidan K. R. Norman Pali Matn Jamiyati) va "Hindiston - Buddizm" Til va dinning qisqacha ensiklopediyasi (Sawyer tahr.), ISBN  0-08-043167-4
• Myuller, Edvard (1995) [Birinchi marta 1884 yilda nashr etilgan]. Pali tilining soddalashtirilgan grammatikasi. Osiyo ta'lim xizmatlari. ISBN  81-206-1103-9.
• Silva, Lily de (1994). Pali astar (birinchi nashr). Vipassana tadqiqot instituti nashrlari. ISBN  81-7414-014-X.
• Warder, A. K. (1991). Pali tiliga kirish (uchinchi tahr.). Pali Matn Jamiyati. ISBN  0-86013-197-1.

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• Amerika milliy standartlari instituti. (1979). Lao, kxmer va pali tillarini romanizatsiyalash bo'yicha Amerika milliy standarti tizimi. Nyu-York: institut.
• Andersen, Dines (1907). Pali kitobxon. Kopengagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag. p. 310. Olingan 29 sentyabr 2016.
• Perniola, V. (1997). Pali grammatikasi, Oksford, Pali Matn Jamiyati.
• Kollinz, Stiven (2006). Talabalar uchun pali grammatikasi. Silkworm Press.
• Gupta, K. M. (2006). Pali tilidagi ma'noga lingvistik yondashuv. Nyu-Dehli: Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN  81-7574-170-8
• Hazra, K. L. (1994). Pali tili va adabiyoti: muntazam tadqiqotlar va tarixiy tadqiqotlar. Buddist tadqiqotlarda paydo bo'layotgan hislar, yo'q. 4-5. Nyu-Dehli: D.K. Printworld. ISBN  81-246-0004-X
• Myuller, E. (2003). Pali tili: soddalashtirilgan grammatika. Trubner soddalashtirilgan grammatikalar to'plami. London: Trubner. ISBN  1-84453-001-9
• Rassel Uebb (tahrir) Pali kanonining tahlili, Buddist nashrlari jamiyati, Kendi; 1975, 1991 (qarang http://www.bps.lk/reference.asp )
• Soothill, W. E., & Hodous, L. (1937). Xitoy buddistlik atamalarining lug'ati: sanskrit va ingliz tilidagi ekvivalentlari va sanskrit-pali indekslari bilan. London: K. Pol, Trench, Trubner & Co.
• Bxikxu Nanamoli. Buddistlarning texnik atamalarining pali-inglizcha lug'ati. ISBN  9552400864
• Mahathera Buddhadatta (1998). Qisqacha Pali-Ingliz Lug'ati. Batafsil grammatik va kontekstli tahlilisiz so'zning ma'nosini tezda toping. ISBN  8120806050
• Wallis, Glenn (2011). Pali tilidagi o'quvchi Buddhavakana (PDF elektron kitobi). ISBN  192870686X.
• Lynn Martineau (1998). Pali ish daftarchasi S. N. Goenkaning 10 kunlik Vipassana kursidan pali so'zlari.. ISBN  1928706045.

Tashqi havolalar

• Qadimgi hind tovush klasterlarini pali tovushlari asosida tiklash (Axim Faxning "Grammatik des Pali" asariga ko'ra)
• Buddhadatta Mahatera, A. P. (1958). Qisqacha Pali-Ingliz Lug'ati.