Mingdan Tsinga o'tish - Transition from Ming to Qing
| Ming-Tsing o'tish davri | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Hal qiluvchi Shanxay dovonidagi jang 1644 yilda | ||||||||
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| Urushayotganlar | ||||||||
| Min sulolasi  Tokugawa Shogunate (Yaponiya) Portugaliya qirolligi | Shunlar sulolasi (Li Zicheng) Si sulolasi (Chjan Xianzhong ) Shu qirolligi (U isyon ) Nanay Xurka | ||||||
| Qo'mondonlar va rahbarlar | ||||||||
| Nurhaci (WIA ) Hong Taiji Dayshan Dodo (WIA ) Do'rg'on Ajige Oboy Shunji imperatori Jirgalang (WIA ) Xog Fan Wencheng Manggūltai Abatay Omin Sonin Bolo Ebilun Suksaxa Laimbu Li Shuaytay Yao Qisheng Kansi imperatori Li Yongfang (1618 yilda buzilgan) Geng Zhonming (1633 yilda buzilgan) Kong Youde † (1633 yilda buzilgan) Shang Kexi (nuqsonli) Zu Dashou (1642 yilda buzilgan) Vu Sangui (1644 yilda buzilgan) (WIA ) Hong Chengchou (nuqsonli) Shi Lang (nuqsonli) Zheng Zhilong (nuqsonli)  Men Qiaofang (nuqsonli) Chjan Kunren (nuqsonli) Sun Kewang (nuqsonli) Vang Fuxen (nuqsonli) | Chongjen imperatori Chju Xenjia, Jinszyan shahzodasi Zhu Yuyue, Tang shahzodasi (Shou imperatori) | Li Zicheng Chjan Xianzhong † U Chongming Sosoku[2] | ||||||
| Kuch | ||||||||
Manchu, mo'g'ul, xan Bannermen Xon Yashil standart armiya defektorlar (1644 yildan keyin) 1648 yilga kelib Xan Bannermen Sakkizta bannerning 75 foizini, manjurlar esa atigi 16 foizini tashkil qilgan. | Xan xitoylik askarlar, Hui Muslim askarlar va mo'g'ul otliqlari | Shunlar sulolasi armiyasi 60,000 dan 100,000 gacha bo'lgan erkaklar orasida o'zgarib turadi Chjan Sianzhong armiyasi - 100000 kishi 300,000 Yi jangchilari Nanay Xurka: 6000 | ||||||
| Yo'qotishlar va yo'qotishlar | ||||||||
| Umuman olganda 25,000,000 o'limi, shu jumladan tinch aholi. | ||||||||
The Mingdan Tsinga o'tish, Ming-Tsinga o'tishyoki Xitoyning manjurlik bilan birlashishi 1618 yildan 1683 yilgacha Xitoy tarixidagi ikki yirik sulola o'rtasida o'tish davri sodir bo'ldi. Bu paydo bo'lganlar o'rtasidagi o'nlab yillik ziddiyat edi Tsing sulolasi (清朝), amaldagi prezident Min sulolasi (明朝) va Xitoydagi bir nechta kichik guruhlar (masalan Shunlar sulolasi 顺 朝 va Si sulolasi 西 朝). Bu Tsinning ko'tarilishi, Ming va boshqa guruhlarning qulashi va birlashishi bilan yakunlandi Tashqi Manchuriya, Mo'g'uliston, Shinjon, Tibet va Tayvan Tsin imperiyasi davrida.
Umumiy nuqtai
Mingdan Tsinga o'tish o'n yillik ziddiyatli davr edi:
- Tsing sulolasi tomonidan tashkil etilgan Manchu klan Aisin Gioro zamonaviyda Shimoliy-sharqiy Xitoy;
- The Min sulolasi, Chju oilasi boshchiligidagi amaldagi sulola;
- va qisqa muddatli kabi Xitoydagi turli xil isyonchi kuchlar Si sulolasi boshchiligidagi Chjan Xianzhong va qisqa muddatli Shunlar sulolasi boshchiligidagi Li Zicheng.
1618 yilda Tsinga qadar etakchilik, Aisin Gioro rahbar Nurhaci nomli hujjatni topshirdi Etti shikoyat, ga qarshi shikoyatlarni sanab o'tdi Ming va Shimoliy-Sharqiy Osiyoda (shu jumladan, Manjuriyada) hukmronligiga qarshi isyon ko'tarishni boshladilar. Ko'p shikoyatlar Ming tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan mojarolarga qaratilgan Ha Jurxenlar klani. Nurxacining Mingning etti shikoyatni ko'rib chiqish uchun unga o'lpon to'lashini talab qilishi, aslida urush e'lon qilingan edi, chunki Ming avvalgi irmoqqa pul to'lashga tayyor emas edi. Ko'p o'tmay, Nurxaci Minga qarshi isyon ko'tarishni boshladi Liaoning.
Shu bilan birga, Min sulolasi moliyaviy tartibsizliklarga va dehqonlar isyonlariga qarshi omon qolish uchun kurash olib borgan. Xan xitoylik amaldorlar Nurxaci vorisi Xong Titszini o'zini Xitoy imperatori sifatida toj kiydirishga undashdi, u 1636 yilda yangi Tsing sulolasini e'lon qildi. 1644 yil 24 aprelda, Pekin Mingning sobiq kichik amaldori Li Zicheng boshchiligidagi qo'zg'olonchilar armiyasining qo'liga tushdi, u dehqonlar qo'zg'olonining etakchisiga aylandi, keyinchalik u Shunlar sulolasi. So'nggi Ming imperatori Chongjen imperatori, o'zini osib qo'ydi imperatorlik bog'idagi daraxt tashqarida Taqiqlangan shahar. Li Zicheng unga qarshi harakat qilganida, Min generali Vu Sangui Tsinga sodiqligini o'zgartirdi. Li Zicheng mag'lubiyatga uchradi Shanxay dovonidagi jang Vu Sangui va manchu shahzodasining qo'shma kuchlari tomonidan Do'rg'on. 6-iyun kuni asosan Dorgon va Vu xitoylik xitoylik kuchlar poytaxtga kirishdi.
Biroq, g'alaba hali tugallanmagan edi, chunki butun Xitoy Qing hukmronligi ostida ishonchli birlashmasidan oldin yana 40 yil kerak edi. 1661 yilda Kansi imperatori taxtga o'tirdi va 1662 yilda uning regentslari boshladilar Katta tozalash Janubiy Xitoyda Ming sodiqlarining qarshiligini engish. Keyin u bir nechta isyonlarga qarshi kurashdi, masalan Uch Feudatoriyaning qo'zg'oloni boshchiligidagi Vu Sangui Xitoyning janubida, 1673 yildan boshlab, keyin uning imperiyasini kengaytirgan bir qator kampaniyalarni boshlash bilan qarshi. 1662 yilda, Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) haydab chiqdi va gollandlarni mag'lubiyatga uchratdi Tungning qirolligi yilda Tayvan, Xitoyni birlashtirish maqsadi bilan Mingga sodiq davlat. Biroq, Tungning 1683 yilda mag'lubiyatga uchragan Pengxu jangi Xan admiral tomonidan Shi Lang, Koxinga boshchiligidagi sobiq admiral.
Ming sulolasining qulashiga asosan omillar kombinatsiyasi sabab bo'ldi. Olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, Min sulolasining qulashiga qisman qurg'oqchilik va ochlik sabab bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin. Kichik muzlik davri.[3] Kennet Svop Ming Royalty va The o'rtasidagi munosabatlarning yomonlashuvi asosiy omillardan biri bo'lganligini ta'kidlamoqda Ming imperiyasining harbiy rahbariyati.[4] Boshqa omillarga shimolga takroriy harbiy ekspeditsiyalar, imperator xazinasidan ortiqcha mablag 'sarflash natijasida kelib chiqqan inflyatsion bosim, tabiiy ofatlar va kasallik epidemiyalari kiradi. 1644 yilda butun mamlakat bo'ylab dehqonlar qo'zg'olonlari va zaif imperatorlar qatori betartiblikni yanada kuchaytirdi. Ming hokimiyati hozirgi janubiy Xitoy hududida bir necha yillar davomida saqlanib turardi, ammo oxir-oqibat Qing kuchlari tomonidan bosib olinadi.[5]
Tsinning g'alabasi aksariyat hollarda Min sulolasi tomon burilish natijasidir Liaodong harbiy muassasa va boshqa qochqinlar, manjur harbiylari juda kichik rol o'ynagan (aniq misollar uchun quyida ko'rib chiqing).[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]
Jurxenlarning ko'tarilishi
Ba'zan manjurlar ko'chmanchi xalq deb ta'riflanadi,[18] aslida ular ko'chmanchi bo'lmaganlarida,[19][20] ammo doimiy qishloqlarda yashovchi, ekinlarni dehqonchilik qilgan, ovchilik bilan shug'ullangan va kamondan otishni o'rgangan o'troq dehqon xalqi. Ularning asosiy harbiy tarkibi otliqlar orqa tomonda saqlanib turgan paytda kamon va o'qlar, qilichlar va chavandozlar bilan yuradigan piyoda askarlar edi.[21]
The Tszyanchjou Yurxen boshliq, Nurhaci, retrospektiv ravishda Tsing sulolasining asoschisi sifatida aniqlangan. 1589 yilda Ming sulolasi Nurhaci Yalu mintaqasining birinchi darajali boshlig'i etib tayinladi, chunki uning qabilasi kattaroq Yehe va Xada ustidan gegemonlikni qo'lga kiritish uchun juda zaif edi. 1591 yilda boshqa qabilalar uning qudratini tekshirish uchun unga hujum qilganlarida, u ularni mag'lubiyatga uchratib, ularning ko'p jang otlarini egallab oldi.[22] 1607 yilda u o'zini e'lon qildi Xon. Erdeni, ehtimol, Xitoy transfrontiermanining maslahati bilan, u Jin nomidagi davlatni e'lon qildi Jurxenlar boshchiligidagi Jin sulolasi bir necha asrlar ilgari Shimoliy Xitoy ustidan hukmronlik qilgan.[23] Uning birlashtirgan sa'y-harakatlari Yurxenga o'zlarini Xanning aksariyat defektorlaridan tashkil topgan armiya va Ming tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan o'qotar qurollarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun kuch berdi. 1618 yilda u e'lon qildi Etti shikoyat Mingga qarshi. 1621 yil yoziga kelib, Mingning Liaodong qal'a shaharlari - Fushun, Shenyan va Lyaoyangni hammasi xoinlar va qochqinlar tomonidan Keyingi Jinga topshirildi.[24] Ming general Li Yongfang shahrini kim taslim qildi Fushun hozirda Liaoning viloyat Xitoyning shimoli-sharqi buni Nurhaci unga bergandan keyin qildi Aisin Gioro nikohdagi malika va olijanob unvon.[25] Malika Nurxacining nevaralaridan biri edi. Shenyang ularning yangi tashkil topgan sulolasi poytaxtiga aylandi.
The Xulun qabilalar, Jurchen qabilalarining kuchli konfederatsiyasi bo'lib, 17-asr boshlarida Nurxaci hokimiyatini tan olishni boshladilar. Ba'zi hollarda, masalan, Ulaning Bujantoyi bilan boshliqlar o'z mustaqilligini qayta tiklashga urinishar edi va urush boshlanishi mumkin edi, ammo Tszianchjou Jurxenlar oxir-oqibat barcha qabilalarni mag'lubiyatga uchratib, o'zlashtiradilar (Xada 1601, Hoifa 1607, Ula 1613, Yehe 1619). .[26][27] Ostida kuchli Yehe Jurchens Gintaisi Nurxacining ko'tarilishiga qarshi kurashish uchun Ming sulolasi kuchlari bilan birlashgan, ammo Gintaisi mag'lubiyatga uchragan va 1619 yilda vafot etgan.[28] Tinch okeanining sohillari yaqinida mo'yna tutgan Varka xalqlari 1599 yildan 1641 yilgacha irmoq qabilalari sifatida bo'ysundirilgan.[29][30][31]
Jurxenlar Nurxaci tomonidan Sakkizta Bannerga aylantirilganda, ko'plab manjur uruglari sun'iy ravishda yangi manjur qabilasini topadigan bir-biriga aloqasi bo'lmagan odamlar guruhidan tuzilgan (mukun) geografik kelib chiqish atamasidan foydalanish, masalan, ularning toponimi hala (klan nomi).[32] Jurxen va manchu urug‘idan kelib chiqqan qonunbuzarliklar Tsinning manjur urug‘lari uchun tarixlarni yaratilishini hujjatlashtirish va tizimlashtirishga, shu jumladan shimoliy-sharqdan mifologiyani olib, Aisin Gioro urug‘ining kelib chiqishi atrofida butun bir afsonani ishlab chiqarishga urinishiga olib keldi.[33]
Nurxaci Xitoy romanlarini o'qidi Uch qirollikning romantikasi va Suv chegarasi, Xitoy harbiy va siyosiy strategiyalari haqida bilganlarini ulardan o'rganish.[34][35][36]
Marhum Min sulolasining ahvoli
Kechki Min sulolasida Ming armiyasi bo'linmalarida odatdagi doimiy aylanish amaliyoti o'rniga o'n yoki 12 yil davomida qo'mondonlikda uzoq vaqt xizmat qiladigan zobitlar hukmronlik qildilar va Markaziy harbiy qo'mondonlik mintaqaviy qo'shinlar ustidan nazoratni ancha yo'qotdi. Zongdu Junvuyoki Oliy qo'mondonlar butun imperiya bo'ylab uning yurisdiksiyasidagi fiskal va harbiy ishlarni nazorat qilish uchun tayinlangan. Chegaraviy hududlarda bular tobora avtonomlashdi va ayniqsa Liaodongda harbiy xizmat va qo'mondonlik merosxo'rga aylandi va zobitlar, ularning bo'ysunuvchilari va qo'shinlari o'rtasida shaxsiy sodiqlik rishtalari o'sdi. Ushbu harbiy kasta poytaxtdagi byurokratlarga emas, balki Jurchen qabilalarining boshliqlariga qarab tortdi.[37]
The U isyon orasida Yi odamlar kirib keldi Sichuan bostirishni talab qiladigan Mingga qarshi 1621 yilda, 1629 yilda tugallandi.
The Vuqiao isyoni boshchiligidagi 1631 yilda boshlangan isyon edi Kong Youde va Geng Zhonming. Ta'minlanmagan va kam ish haqi olgan askarlar Ming sulolasiga qarshi bosh ko'tarishdi. Keyinchalik ular suzib o'tishdi Bohai ko'rfazi va ommaviy ravishda Yurxenlar tomoniga o'tib ketishdi.[38]
1640 yillarning boshlarida Xitoyning shimoli-g'arbiy provinsiyalarida turli isyonchilar rahbarlari boshchiligidagi ommaviy isyonlar boshlandi. Shensi va 1640-yillarda butun Xitoy bo'ylab tarqaldi. Katta janglar ishdan bo'shatishni o'z ichiga olgan Fengyang Li Zicheng va Chjan Xianzhong va Kaifeng jangi, bu ataylab ishlab chiqilgan 1642 yil Sariq daryo toshqini Li Tszhengni to'xtatish maqsadida Min gubernatori tomonidan.
Dastlab Yurxen fathlari
Liaoningni Tsinning istilosi (1618–1626)
Keyin Yurxen birlashishi, Jurchen Khan Nurhaci ko'zlarini Xitoyga tikishni boshladi. 1618 yilda u hujjat topshirdi Etti shikoyat unda u Ming hukmronligi bilan bog'liq ettita muammolarni sanab o'tdi va hukmronligiga qarshi isyon qila boshladi Min sulolasi. Shikoyatlarning aksariyati qarama-qarshiliklarga qaratilgan Ha va Yeening Ming favoritizmi.
1618 yil may oyida Nurxaci uni e'lon qildi Etti shikoyat Minga qarshi va uning poytaxti jo'nab ketdi Xetu Ala 20000 kishi bilan. Armiya hujum qildi va qo'lga olindi Fushun, joylashgan Xun daryosi dan 10 km sharqda joylashgan Shenyang.
1621 yil mayga qadar Nurxaci shaharlarni zabt etdi Lyaoyang va Shenyang. 1625 yilda yurxenlar port shahrini egallab olishdi Lyushun, shu bilan butunni boshqarish Liaodong yarimoroli. 1625 yil aprelda Nurxaci 1644 yilda Tsinning Minni zabt etishigacha ushbu maqomga ega bo'lgan Shenyanni yangi poytaxt deb tayinladi.[39]
1626 yil fevralda yurxanlar qamalda bo'lgan Ningyuan ammo Nurhaci o'lik jarohat olgan mag'lubiyatga uchradi.
Birinchi Jozon kampaniyasi
Keyinchalik Jin yutqazdi Ningyuan jangi o'tgan yil va ularning xonlari Nurhaci jarohatidan vafot etgan. Jangdan so'ng Ming bilan tinchlik muzokaralari Jurxen yo'qolishiga qarshi agressiv Min javobini kechiktirdi va Ming generali Yuan Chonghuan chegara garnizonlarini mustahkamlash va yangi mushketyorlarni tayyorlash bilan band edi. Yangi Xon Hong Taiji xonlik mavqeini mustahkamlash uchun tez g'alaba qozonishga intilgan edi. Xoseonga bostirib kirib, u shuningdek, Minga qarshi urushda aziyat chekkan qo'shinlari va bo'ysunuvchilari uchun juda zarur bo'lgan resurslarni olishga umid qildi.[40]
1627 yilda Hong Taiji jo'natdi Omin, Jirgalang, Ajige Goto Xong-Rip va Li Yongfang boshchiligida Yoto va 30000 askarlari bilan Xoseonga. Yurxenlar chegara shaharchalarida keskin qarshilikka duch kelishdi, ammo Chjuson chegara garnizonlari tezda mag'lubiyatga uchradi. Yurxen qo'shini Mao Venlun joylashgan Uijuga etib bordi va Mao tezda odamlari bilan qochib ketdi. Bohay dengizi. Keyinchalik, yurxenlar hujum qilishdi Anju. Mag'lubiyat muqarrar ekanligi aniq bo'lgach, Anju garnizonlari porox omborini portlatish orqali o'z joniga qasd qilishdi. Pxenyan jangsiz yiqilib, Jin armiyasi o'tib ketdi Taedong daryosi.[41]
Bu vaqtga kelib bosqinchilik haqidagi xabar Ming sudiga etib bordi, ular darhol Jozonga yordam kontingentini jo'natib, Yurxening yurishini sekinlashtirdilar. Xvanju. Keyin shoh Injo tinchlik shartnomasi bo'yicha muzokaralar olib borish uchun elchi yubordi, ammo xabarchi qaytib kelguniga qadar Injo Xansongdan qochib ketdi (Seul ) ga Gangxva oroli vahima ichida.[41]
Mo'g'uliston kampaniyasi (1625–1635)
The Xorchin Mo'g'ullar 1626 yilda Nurxaci va Yurxenlar bilan ittifoqlashib, uning hukmronligiga qarshi himoya qilishdi Xalxa Mo'g'ullar va Chahar Mo'g'ullar. Xorchinning ettita zodagonlari 1625 yilda Xalxa va Chaxarlar qo'lida vafot etishdi. Bu Xing bilan ittifoqni Xin bilan boshladi.[42]
Chahar mo'g'ullariga qarshi Dorgon 1628 va 1635 yillarda kurash olib borgan.[43] Qarshi ekspeditsiya Chahar mo'g'ullari 1632 yilda savdo punktini tashkil etishga buyruq berildi Zhangjiakou. Tsinlar Mo'g'ul xoni qo'shinlarini mag'lub etdi Ligdan Xon Shimoliy Yuan ustidan hukmronligiga chek qo'yib, Ming bilan ittifoqdosh bo'lgan. Ligdan Xonning 1634 yildagi mag'lubiyati, Janubiy mo'g'ullar qo'shinlarining sodiqligini yutishdan tashqari, Tsinga juda ko'p miqdordagi otlarni etkazib berdi, shu bilan birga Mingga bo'lgan ta'minotni inkor etdi. Tsin shuningdek, mo'g'ul xonlarining Buyuk muhrini qo'lga kiritdi va ularga o'zlarini merosxo'r sifatida ko'rsatish imkoniyatini berdi. Yuan sulolasi shuningdek.[44]
Hong Taiji va Tsing sulolasining shakllanishi
Hong Taiji sakkizinchi o'g'li edi Nurhaci, u ikkinchi hukmdor sifatida muvaffaqiyatga erishdi Keyinchalik Jin sulola 1626 yilda. U uyushtirgan imperiya imtihonlari xan xitoylaridan olim-mansabdorlarni jalb qilish va xitoylik qonuniy shakllarni qabul qilish. U Xan xitoylik amaldorlar tomonidan boshqariladigan avtonom Xan xitoylik harbiy koloniyalarini tuzdi, bu erda manjurlarga buzish taqiqlangan. Hong Taiji xan xitoylik amaldorlarga tayanib, manjur knyazlari hokimiyatini chekladi. U shaxsan taslim bo'lgan Ming qo'mondonlarini mamnuniyat bilan kutib oldi va ular bilan yonma-yon ovqatlanib, Ming imperatorlari bilan imkonsiz munosabatlarni o'rnatdi. Boshchiligidagi manjurlar Shahzoda Amin, Qian'an va Yongping aholisini qirg'in qilish orqali vaziyatdan noroziligini bildirdi. Hong Taiji bunga javoban keyinchalik qamoqda vafot etgan Aminni hibsga olib, qamoqqa oldi. Keyinchalik Hong Taiji o'zining xitoylik maslahatchilarining taklifiga binoan Xitoy uslubidagi Konfutsiy ta'limini va Min uslubidagi hukumat vazirliklarini amalga oshirdi.[45] Ming qo'mondoni Chjan Chun qo'lga olingan, ammo qusur qilishdan bosh tortganida, Xong Tayji samimiyligini ko'rsatish uchun unga shaxsan ovqat bilan xizmat qilgan (Chjan baribir rad etdi, ammo o'limigacha ma'badda saqlandi).[46] 1631 yilda Dalingxening taslim bo'lishi bilan Minning eng qobiliyatli armiya zobitlari urushning ko'p qismini tayyorlash va rejalashtirishni o'z zimmalariga oladigan yangi sulolaning sodiq izdoshlari bo'lishdi. Ushbu epizoddan boshlab, Ming-Tsinga o'tish xitoylar va manjurlar o'rtasidagi millatlararo ziddiyatga aylandi, aksincha Liaodong va Pekin o'rtasida fuqarolar urushi bo'ldi.[47]
Hong Taiji Xitoy imperatori bo'lishni istamadi. Biroq, xitoylik rasmiylar Ning Vanvo, Fan Wencheng, Ma Guozhu, Zu Kefa, Shen Peirui va Chjan Venxen uni o'zini Xitoy imperatori deb e'lon qilishga undadi. 1636 yil 14-mayda u ushbu maslahatni qabul qildi va o'z rejimining nomini Keyingi Jin (后 后) dan Tsing sulolasiga (清朝) o'zgartirdi va o'zini Xitoy imperatori sifatida taxtga o'tirdi. Konfutsiy marosim.[48]
Hong Taiji Jurchensning nomini Manchuja deb o'zgartirganligi manjurlarning ajdodlari, ya'ni Jianzhou Jurchens, xan xitoylari tomonidan boshqarilgan.[49][50][51][52][53] Tsin sulolasi "kitoblarining ikkita asl nusxasini ehtiyotkorlik bilan yashirgan"Tsing Taizu Vu Xuangdi Shilu"(清 太祖 无 皇帝 实录) va"Manzhou Shilu Tu"(Taizu Shilu Tu 太祖 实录 图) Qing saroyida, ularni jamoatchilik nazaridan man qildi, chunki ular Manchu Aisin Gioro oilasini Ming sulolasi boshqarganligini ko'rsatdilar.[54][55][56][57] Ming davrida koreyslar Xoseon Koreya yarimorolining shimolida, Yalu va Tumen daryolari ustida joylashgan Min Xitoyning bir qismi bo'lgan Jurxenlar yashaydigan erlarni "ustun mamlakat" (sangguk) deb atashgan, ular bu ismni Min Xitoy deb atashgan.[58] Tsinlar yurxenlarni (manjurlarni) Ming sulolasiga bo'ysunuvchi sifatida ko'rsatadigan ma'lumot va ma'lumotlarni ataylab chiqarib tashlagan. Ming tarixi Ming bilan avvalgi itoatkor munosabatlarini yashirish. The Minning haqiqiy yozuvlari manbasini olish uchun ishlatilmadi Ming tarixi shuni dastidan; shu sababdan.[59] Mingshida (明 史) Qing asoschilari Ming Xitoyining sub'ektlari bo'lganligini eslatishdan bosh tortish isyon ayblovidan qochish uchun qilingan.[60]
Xan-manjur nikohlari
Xan xitoylik generallar ko'pincha manjur tomonga o'tib ketishgan Imperial Aisin Gioro oilasidan ayollarga nikohda berilgan. Manchu Aisin Gioro malika ham xan xitoylik amaldorning o'g'illariga uylangan.[61] Manjurlarning etakchisi Nurxaci nevaralaridan birini Min generaliga uylantirgan Li Yongfang u taslim bo'lganidan keyin Fushun yilda Liaoning 1618 yilda manjurlarga. Nurxacining o'g'li Abatay qizi Li Yongfangga uylangan.[62][63][64] Li avlodlari "Uchinchi darajali baron" ni oldilar (三等 子爵; sān děng zǐjué) sarlavha.[65] Li Yongfang Li Shiyaoning buyuk buyuk bobosi edi (李侍堯 ).[66] Kansining to'rtinchi qizi (和 硕 悫 靖 公主 ) Sun Chengenga (孫承恩 ), xitoylik xitoylik Sun Sike o'g'li (孫 思克 ).[67] Aysin Gioroning boshqa ayollari Xan xitoylik generallarning o'g'illariga uylandilar Geng Jimao, Shang Kexi va Vu Sangui.[67] Bu orada qochib ketgan oddiy askarlarga ko'pincha qirol bo'lmagan manchur ayollarini xotin qilib berishgan va xitoylik ofitserlar va amaldorlarning manjur ayollariga ming juftlikdan iborat ommaviy nikohi shahzoda Yoto tomonidan tashkil etilgan. 岳托 (Shahzoda Keqin ) va Hongtaiji 1632 yilda ikki etnik guruh o'rtasidagi totuvlikni targ'ib qilish.[68][25]
1644 yilgi bosqindan oldin boshlangan ushbu siyosat undan keyin ham davom ettirildi. Shunchzining 1648 yildagi farmoni bilan xan xitoylik fuqarolar, agar ular rasmiylar yoki oddiy odamlarning ro'yxatdan o'tgan qizlari bo'lsa yoki ularning banner kompaniyasi kapitanining ruxsati bo'lsa, daromadlar kengashining ruxsati bilan bannerlardan manchur ayollariga uylanishlariga ruxsat berildi, agar ular ro'yxatdan o'tmagan oddiy odamlar bo'lsa, faqat keyinchalik sulolada o'zaro nikohga yo'l qo'yadigan ushbu siyosat bekor qilindi.[69][70] Farmon Dorgon tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan.[71] Tsing sulolasining boshlarida Tsin hukumati manjur qizlariga to'ylarni xan xitoyliklarni qo'llab-quvvatladi.[72][73] Xan xitoylik Bannermenlar manjurlarga uylandilar va bunga qarshi qonun yo'q edi.[74]
D 碩 額 和 "Dolo efu" darajasi Qing malikalarining erlariga berilgan. Geng Zhonming, Xanlarning banneriga, shahzoda Jingnan va uning o'g'li unvoni berildi Geng Jingmao ikkala o'g'lini ham olishga muvaffaq bo'ldi Geng Jingzhon va Geng Zhaozhong (耿昭忠) ostida sud xizmatchilari bo'lish Shunji imperatori va Ayzin Gioro ayollariga uylandilar Abatay nabirasi Geng Zhaozhong marry va Xoge (Hong Taiji o'g'li) ning qizi Geng Tszhongga uylanadi.[75] Qizi 和 硕 柔嘉 公主 Manchu Aisin Gioro shahzodasi Yolo 岳樂 (Shahzoda An ) Geng Juzhongga uylangan 耿聚忠 Geng Jingmaoning yana bir o'g'li bo'lgan.[76] Ayzin Gioro ayollari manjurlarga o'tib ketgan mo'g'ullarga taklif qilindi.[77] Manjur shahzodasi Regent Dorgon manjurlik ayolni Xan xitoylik amaldor Feng Quanga xotin qilib bergan,[78] Mingdan Tsinga o'tib ketgan. Feng Quan, Xan aholisiga tatbiq etilgunga qadar va Feng manjur tilini o'rganmasdan oldin, manjur navbati soch turmagini xohlagancha qabul qildi.[79]
Aralash harbiy xizmatni qurish
Manjurlar Mingni Qing bosib olishidan ancha oldin devorlari qishloqlar bilan o'ralgan va Xan uslubidagi qishloq xo'jaligini o'zlashtirgan shaharlarda yashar edilar,[80] 1644 yilgacha Xan-Manchjurni aralashtirish an'anasi mavjud edi. Liaodong chegarasidagi Xan xitoylik askarlar ko'pincha xan bo'lmagan qabilalar bilan aralashib, asosan o'z yo'llariga moslashgan edilar.[81] Yurxen manjurlari o'zlariga o'tgan xan askarlarini qabul qildilar va o'zlashtirdilar,[82] va Liaodongdan kelgan xitoylik xitoylik askarlar ko'pincha manjur ismlarini qabul qilishgan va ishlatishgan. Darhaqiqat, Nurxacining kotibi Daxay shunday shaxslardan biri bo'lishi mumkin edi.[83]
Li Yongfang taslim bo'lganida, unga Ming davrida bo'lganidan ancha yuqori maqom berildi va hattoki o'z qo'shinlarini asir sifatida saqlashga ruxsat berildi. Kong Youde, Shang Kexi va Geng Zhongminga ham shaxsiy qo'shinlarini saqlashga ruxsat berildi.[84] Vafot etgan amakisi Shen Shikui qo'shinlarini o'z shaxsiy armiyasi sifatida boshqarishni noqonuniy ravishda o'z zimmasiga olgan urush boshlig'i Shen Szixiang Ming sudidan tan olinmadi. Keyin u Qingga sodiqlikni o'zgartirish uchun o'z kuchlarini boshqarishga kirishdi va ular Tsinga muhim boylik bo'ldi.[85]
Xitoyni boshqarish uchun etnik manjurlar juda oz edi, ammo ular mag'lubiyatga uchragan mo'g'ullarni o'zlashtirdilar va eng muhimi, Xanni Sakkizta Bannerga qo'shdilar.[8] Xan xitoylik askarlarning sakkizta bayroqqa singib ketishi va qochishi bilan singib ketganligi sababli, manjurlar butun "Jiu Xun jun" ni (旧 漢軍 eski xan armiyasi) yaratishi kerak edi. Qing shuni ko'rsatdiki, manjurlar Ming harbiylariga qarshi qaratilgan tashviqot ishlarida harbiy qobiliyatlarni qadrlashadi, chunki ularni Qingga o'tishga majbur qilishdi, chunki Ming fuqarolik siyosiy tizimi harbiylarni kamsitdi.[86] 1618–1631 yillarda manjurlar xitoylik qochqinlarni qabul qildilar va ularning avlodlari Xan Bannermenga aylandilar va jangda halok bo'lganlar biografiyada shahid sifatida yodga olindilar.[87]
Hong Taiji, Mingni yengish uchun Ming defektorlari kerakligini anglab, boshqa manjurlarga nima uchun Ming defektori general Xong Chenchjouga yumshoq munosabatda bo'lish kerakligini tushuntirib berdi.[9] Xong Tayji Ming osonlikcha mag'lub etilmasligini tushundi, agar armiyaga mushuk va zambarak ko'targan xan xitoy qo'shinlari kiritilmasa.[10] Darhaqiqat, Bannerlar orasida mushuk va artilleriya kabi porox qurollari Xan xitoy bannerlari tomonidan maxsus ishlatilgan.[88] Manjurlar 1641 yilda xan xitoylik askarlardan yasalgan artilleriya korpusini tashkil qildilar.[89] Xan Bannermen tomonidan artilleriyadan foydalanish ularni "og'ir" askarlar (ujen cooha) deb atashlariga sabab bo'lishi mumkin.[90] "qizil palto to'pi "Tsinga xizmat qilayotgan Xan armiyasining (Liaodong Xan xitoylari) qismi edi.[91]
Qingga o'tgan Ming zobitlariga avvalgi harbiy unvonlarini saqlab qolish uchun ruxsat berildi.[92] Tsin 1638 yilda Shen Tszixiangni rad etdi.[93] Qingga o'tgan boshqa Xan zobitlari orasida Ma Guangyuan, Vu Rujie, Zu Dashou, Quan Jie, Geng Zhongming, Zu Zehong, Zu Zepu, Zu Zerun, Deng Changchun, Van Shixian, Hong Chengchhou, Shang Kexi, Lyu Vuyuan, Zu Kefa, Zhang Cunren, Men Qiaofang, Kong Youde, Sun Dingliao.[94] Aristokratik va harbiy unvonlar, kumush, otlar va rasmiy lavozimlar han xitoylik kabi qochqinlarga berilgan Chjan Kunren, Sun Dingliao, Liu Vu, Lyu Liangchen, Zu Zehong, Zu Zepu, Zu Kufa va Zu Zerun. Xan xitoylik qochqinlar birinchi navbatda 1631 yildan keyin harbiy strategiya uchun javobgardilar.[95]
Shuncha ko'p Xan Tsinga o'tib, Sakkizta Banner qatorini ko'paytirdiki, etnik manjurlar Bannerlar tarkibida ozchilikka aylanib, 1648 yilda atigi 16 foizni tashkil qildi, Han Bannermen 75 foizni egallab, qolgan qismini Mo'g'ul Bannermen tashkil etdi.[11][12][13] Aynan manjurlar ozchilik bo'lgan bu ko'p millatli kuch Xitoyni Tsin uchun birlashtirgan.[14] Tsinni egallab olish ko'p millatli Xan bannerlari, Mo'g'ul bannerlari va Tsing harbiy qismini tashkil etgan manchu bannerlari tomonidan amalga oshirildi.[96] 1644 yilda Mingga manjurlarning ozgina qismiga ega bo'lgan armiya bostirib kirdi, bosqinchi armiya ko'p millatli bo'lib, Xan bannerlari, Mo'g'ullar Bannerlari va Manchu Bannerlari mavjud edi. Siyosiy to'siq banner bo'lmagan xan xitoylardan tashkil topgan oddiy aholi va xitoy xitoy bannerlari, zodagonlari va mo'g'ullar va manjurlardan tashkil topgan "fath etuvchi elita" o'rtasida edi. Bunga omil bo'lgan millat emas edi.[97] Xan (Nikan) bannerlari qora rangdagi bannerlardan foydalangan va Nurxacini Xan askarlari qo'riqlagan.[98] Boshqa bannerlar Nurxaci davrida Xan Nikan qora bannerli otryadlari bilan taqqoslaganda ozchilikka aylandi.[15]
Buyuk devorga olib boring
Ikkinchi Chison kampaniyasi (1636–1637)
Keyinchalik Jin Jozoni chegaralar yaqinida bozorlar ochishga majbur qildi, chunki Ming bilan ziddiyatlar Jin sub'ektlariga iqtisodiy qiyinchilik va ochlikni keltirib chiqardi. Juzon, shuningdek, Varka qabilasining suzerinitetini Djinga o'tkazishga majbur bo'ldi. Bundan tashqari, 100 ta ot, 100 ta yo'lbars va leopard terisi, 400 bolt paxta va 15000 dona matolardan o'lpon olinib, Jin Xonga sovg'a qilinishi kerak edi. Ushbu o'lponni etkazish uchun Injoning akasi yuborilgan. Biroq, keyinchalik Chjuson qiroliga yozgan xatlarida Xong Tayji koreyslar o'zini yo'qotib qo'ygandek tutmagani va kelishuv shartlariga rioya qilmayotganidan shikoyat qilar edi. Chison savdogarlari va bozorlari Ming bilan savdoni davom ettirdilar va Min sub'ektlariga don va ratsion bilan ta'minlash orqali faol ravishda yordam berdilar. Xong Tayji ularni tanbeh berib, Jussonning taomlari faqat Chjuson subyektlariga berilishi kerakligini aytdi.[41]
Bosqindan oldin, Hong Taiji yubordi Abatay, Jirgalang va Ajige Koreyaga qirg'oqqa yaqinlashishni ta'minlash uchun, Ming qo'shimcha kuchlarini yuborolmasligi uchun.[99] 1636 yil 9-dekabrda, Hong Taiji manjur, mo'g'ul va xan bannerlarini Jozonga qarshi olib bordi. Xitoyning qo'llab-quvvatlashi, ayniqsa, armiya artilleriyasi va dengiz kontingentlarida yaqqol namoyon bo'ldi. Yo'qotilgan Ming mutineer Kong Youde, Qing shahzodasi Gongshun kabi hujumlarga qo'shilgan Gangxva va Ka ("Pidao"). Defektorlar Geng Zhonming va Shang Kexi shuningdek, Koreya istilosida taniqli rollarni o'ynagan.[99]
Koreyaga ikkinchi manjur bosqindan so'ng, Xoseon Koreya o'zlarining bir necha qirollik malikalarini kan manjinlari sifatida Tsin Manchjur regent shahzodasiga berishga majbur bo'ldi Do'rg'on.[100][101][102][103][104][105] 1650 yilda Dorgon koreysga uylandi Malika Uysun.[106] Koreys tilida malika ismi Uysun edi va u shahzoda Y Kaeyunning (Kumrimgoon) qizi edi.[107] Dorgon Lianshanda ikki koreys malikasiga uylandi.[108]
Amur qabilalariga qarshi yurishlar
Tsin mag'lubiyatga uchradi Evenk -Daur federatsiya Evenki boshlig'i Bombogor va 1640 yilda Bombogorning boshini kesgan, Qing qo'shinlari Evenkilarni qirg'in qilgan va deportatsiya qilgan va tirik qolganlarni Bannerlarga singdirgan.[1] Nanaylar dastlab o'zlarining Nanay Xurka boshlig'i Sosoku boshchiligidagi Nurxaci va manjurlarga qarshi kurashdilar. Hongtaiji 1631 yilda. Tsin tomonidan bosib olingan Amur xalqlariga barcha erkaklarning boshlarini majburiy ravishda soqol qilish majbur qilindi. Nanay xalqi. Amur xalqlari allaqachon navbatni boshlari orqasida kiyib yurishgan, ammo Qing ularga bo'ysundirmaguncha va sochlarini oldirishga buyruq bermaguncha oldilarini oldirmaganlar.[2] Tsinlar o'zlarining hukmronligiga bo'ysungan Amur boshliqlariga manjur malikalarini uylantirdilar.[109] Amur mintaqasidagi Daur va Tungus Amur Evenklari, Nanai va boshqa etniklar Qing Sakkizta Banner tizimiga singib ketgan.
Liaoxi kampaniyasi (1638-1642)
1638 yilda Tsin qo'shinlari Xitoyning ichki qismiga qadar chuqur kirib bordi Jinan Shandun viloyatida va darhol orqaga chekinishdi Buyuk devor. Ming imperatori buning o'rniga barcha kuchlarni isyonchilar qo'shinlariga qarshi kurashga yo'naltirishni talab qilib, Qingni shunchaki "teri toshmasi" ga o'xshatdi, isyonchilar esa "ichki organ kasalligi" edi.[110] 1641 yilda Jinchjou Manchu shahzodasi boshchiligidagi 30 dan ortiq xan xitoy bannerli artilleriya kuchlari tomonidan qamal qilingan. Jirgalang, Yu Im qo'mondonligida Koreya artilleriyasini qo'llab-quvvatlash bilan. Koreyslar esa kasallik avj olishi tufayli qobiliyatsiz edilar.[111] Minshan qo'mondoni Sya Chengdening xiyonati va xiyonati tufayli Songshan qal'asi katta jangdan so'ng qulab tushdi.[112] Imperator bunga javoban Ningyuan garnizoni qo'mondoni Vu Sangiga hujumga o'tishni buyurdi, ammo u tezda qaytarib olindi. Keyin manjur knyazi Abatay Xitoyning ichki qismiga yana bir reydni boshlab, Shimoliy tomonga etib bordi Tszansu viloyat va 12000 ta oltin va 2200000 ta kumush taellarni talon-taroj qilishdi. Ming buyuk kotibi Chjou Yanru jangda qatnashishdan bosh tortdi, shu bilan birga g'alaba haqidagi xabarlarni to'qib chiqardi va mag'lubiyatlarni qoplash uchun pora talab qildi. Keyinchalik knyaz-Regent Dorgon o'z amaldorlariga Ming harbiy asarlaridagi harbiy hisobotlarni o'qish qanday "juda kulgili" bo'lganligini aytdi, chunki ularning aksariyati g'alaba haqidagi uydirma hikoyalar edi. Ayni paytda, qo'zg'olonchi "qaroqchilar" ilgarilashda davom etishdi.[113] Songshan qulaganidan so'ng, uning ukasi va o'g'illari (ilgari Ming generallari) ularni Tsinga o'tishga da'vat etayotgan bir paytda, Tszinchjou qo'mondoni Zu Dashou ham 1642 yil 8 aprelda shaharni ularga topshirdi.[114] Songshan va Tszinchjuning qulashi bilan Liaoksi shahridagi Ming mudofaa tizimi qulab tushdi Vu Sangui yaqinidagi kuchlar Shanxay dovoni Qing qo'shinlarining Pekinga yo'lidagi so'nggi to'siq sifatida.
Pekin va shimol (1644)
Keyingi yillarda Ming ko'plab ocharchilik va toshqinlarga, shuningdek, iqtisodiy tartibsizliklarga va isyonlarga duch keldi. Li Zicheng ning 1630 yillarida isyon ko'targan Shensi boshchiligidagi g'alayon paytida shimolda Chjan Xianzhong kirib keldi Sichuan 1640-yillarda. Tarixchilarning ta'kidlashicha, bu o'zini imperator deb e'lon qilgan terror davrida bir milliongacha odam o'lgan.[115]
Xuddi Dorgon va uning maslahatchilari hujumga qanday hujum qilish haqida o'ylayotgandek Ming, Shimoliy Xitoyni vayron qilgan dehqonlar qo'zg'olonlari Ming poytaxti Pekinga xavfli ravishda yaqinlashayotgan edi. 1644 yil fevralda isyonchilar etakchisi Li Zicheng asos solgan Shunlar sulolasi yilda Sian va o'zini shoh deb e'lon qildi. Mart oyida uning qo'shinlari muhim shaharni egallab olishdi Taiyuan yilda Shanxi. Isyonchilarning rivojlanishini ko'rib, 5 aprelda Ming Chongjen imperatori imperiyadagi har qanday harbiy komendantdan shoshilinch yordam so'radi.[116] 24 aprel kuni Li Zicheng Pekin devorlarini buzdi va imperator ertasi kuni tepadagi tepada o'zini osdi. Taqiqlangan shahar.[117] U Pekinda hukmronlik qilgan so'nggi Min imperatori edi.
Tsin 1644 yil 6 martda Li Tszhengning Shun qo'shinlariga ittifoq qilib, Shimoliy Xitoyni Shun va Tszin o'rtasida bo'lishini taklif qilib, Markaziy tekisliklarni egallab olish uchun Minga birgalikda hujum qilishni taklif qilish uchun o'z delegatsiyasini yubordi. Shun xatni oldi.[118]
Li Zicheng va uning armiyasi Pekinga etib borganida, u Min sulolasi Du Xun orqali Min sulolasining Chonchjen imperatoriga Li Zicheng Tsing sulolasiga qarshi kurash olib boradi va agar Ming nomidan boshqa barcha isyonchilarni yo'q qilsa, degan taklif bilan chiqqan edi. Ming sulolasi Li Zichengning Shaanxi-Shanxi fiefi ustidan nazoratini tan oladi, unga 1 million tael to'laydi va Li Zichengning knyazlik maqomini tasdiqlaydi. Li Zicheng Ming imperatorini ag'darish yoki uni o'ldirish niyatida bo'lmagan. Ming imperatori, bunday siyosiy maqsadga muvofiqlikni qabul qilish uning obro'siga putur etkazishidan qo'rqib, Bosh kotib Vey Zaodeni (魏 魏 德) qaror bilan rozi bo'lishiga va qarorning javobgarligini olishga majbur qildi. Vey Zaode javob berishdan bosh tortdi, shuning uchun Chongjen imperatori Li Tszhengning shartlarini rad etdi. Ming amaldorlari taslim bo'lgan va qochib ketgan paytda Li Zicheng poytaxtga yurish qildi. Li Tszheng hali ham Chongzhen imperatori va Min valiahd shahzodasini o'ldirishni niyat qilmagan, ularni yangi Shun sulolasining zodagonlari sifatida tan olish niyatida edi. Li Tszheng Chonchjen imperatori o'z joniga qasd qilganini aniqlagandan so'ng uning o'limidan afsuslanib, u hokimiyatni bo'lishish va u bilan birga hukmronlik qilish uchun kelganini aytdi. Li Tszheng Min qulab tushganda yon tomonga o'tib ketgan Ming amaldorlariga ishonmadi, ularni Mingning yo'q qilinishiga sabab deb bildi.[119][120][121][122] Pekindagi Shunlar sulolasini e'lon qilgandan so'ng, Li Tszheng Buyuk devordagi qudratli Min generali Vu Sangiga yuqori zodagon unvon va unvon evaziga o'z tomoniga o'tishni taklif qildi. Vu Sangui Li Zichengga mansab va qusurni qabul qilishga qaror qilguniga qadar bir necha kun yurdi. Vu Sangui rasman kapitulyatsiya qilish va Li Zichengga yo'l olish uchun ketayotgan edi, ammo o'sha paytgacha Li Tszheng Vu Sangning jim turishi bu taklifni rad etgan degani edi va Vu Sanguining otasini boshini kesishni buyurdi. Bu Wu Sanguining Qingga o'tishiga olib keldi.[123]
Imperator yordamga chaqirgandan ko'p o'tmay Ming general Vu Sangui uning qal'asini tark etgan edi Ningyuan shimoliy Buyuk devor va poytaxt tomon yurishni boshladi. 26-aprel kuni uning qo'shinlari Shanxay dovoni (Buyuk Devorning sharqiy uchi) va Pekin tomon yurishganida, shahar qulaganini eshitib,[124] keyin u Shanxay dovoniga qaytib keldi. Li Zicheng dovonga hujum qilish uchun ikkita qo'shin yubordi, ammo Vuning jangovar kuchlari 5 may va 10 may kunlari ularni osonlikcha mag'lub etdi.[125] 18 may kuni Li Zicheng shaxsan o'zi Vuga hujum qilish uchun Pekindan o'zining 60 ming qo'shinini olib chiqdi.[125] Shu bilan birga, Vu Sangui Dorgonga xat yozib, qaroqchilarni quvib chiqarishda va Min sulolasini tiklashda Tsindan yordam so'raydi.
Shu bilan birga, Wu Sangui ning ketishi Ningyuan qal'asi Buyuk Devordan tashqaridagi barcha hududlarni Tsinning nazorati ostida qoldirgan edi.[126] Dorgonning eng taniqli ikki xitoylik maslahatchisi, Hong Chengchou[127] va Fan Wencheng (范文 程), manjur knyazini Pekin qulashi imkoniyatidan foydalanib, o'zlarini halok bo'lgan Mingning qasoskorlari sifatida ko'rsatishga va Osmon mandati Qing uchun.[126][128] Shuning uchun, Dorgon Vuning xatini olganida, u allaqachon Shimoliy Xitoyga hujum qilish uchun ekspeditsiyani boshqarmoqchi edi va Mingni tiklash niyati yo'q edi. Dorgon Vudan Tsinning o'rniga ishlashni so'raganda, Vuning qabul qilishdan boshqa imkoniyati yo'q edi.[129]
Vu 27 may kuni ertalab Tsinga rasmiy ravishda taslim bo'lganidan so'ng, uning elita qo'shinlari isyonchilar qo'shiniga bir necha bor zo'r berdilar, ammo dushman saflarini buzolmadilar.[130] Dorgon, uning otliqlariga Vuning o'ng qanoti atrofida piyoda yurib, Li chap qanotini zaryad qilish uchun buyruq berishidan oldin ikkala tomon ham kuchsizlanguncha kutib turdi.[131] Li Zichengning qo'shinlari tezda zudlik bilan yo'q qilindi va Pekin tomon orqaga qochib ketishdi.[132] Mag'lubiyatidan so'ng Shanxay dovonidagi jang, the Shun troops looted Beijing for several days until Li Zicheng left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry, one day after he had defiantly proclaimed himself Imperator of the Great Shun.[133][134]
Qing Prince of Yu, Dodo berated the Southern Ming Prince of Fu, Chju Yunon over his battle strategy in 1645, telling him that the Southern Ming would have defeated the Qing if only the southern Ming assaulted the Qing military before they forded the Yellow river instead of tarrying. The Prince of Fu could find no words to respond when he tried to defend himself.[135]
Ethnic situation
The [unification of the empire], after the Manchus had securely seated themselves in Pekin, had to be undertaken largely with [Han Chinese] troops, [with a little] Manchu regiment here and there.
— E.H. Parker, The Financial Capacity of China; Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society[6]
The easy transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties has been ascribed to the Chongjen imperatori 's refusal to move southward when his capital had been under rebel threat. This allowed the Qing dynasty to capture an entire corps of qualified civil servants to administer the country, and also ensured that the Janubiy Ming pretenders would suffer from infighting due to their weak claims on the throne. A large emigre elite of northerners in the south would also have increased the probability of an aggressive policy of reconquest to regain their northern homelands.[136]
Imperiya imtihonlari started being organised almost immediately upon the Qing capture of Beijing. The early Qing government was dominated by scholars from North China, and a strong factional rivalry between Northern and Southern scholars ensued. Ming dynasty officials in the finance, appointments and military departments largely joined the new dynasty and formed the core of the Qing civil service, but not the staff of rites, music and literature (the Qing may not have prioritised these either). These defectors were responsible for easing the transition of government without major setbacks. A large proportion of military officials and civilian officials in the Board of War were given promotions after defecting. The top positions were mainly in the hands of Han Bannermen from Liaodong.[137]
When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han Chinese bannermen. Later, some exceptions were made, allowing Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs to also reside in the inner city.[71] The civilian government was flooded by Han Chinese Bannermen.[138] The Six Boards President and other major positions were filled with Han Bannermen chosen by the Qing.[139]
It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing takeover. They made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China, stabilizing Qing rule.[16] Han Bannermen dominated governor-general posts in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, as well as governor posts, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians.[140] Three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a major role in southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhonming va Kong Youde. They governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing.[141] The Qing deliberately avoided placing Manchus or Mongols as provincial governors and governors-general, with not a single Manchu governor until 1658, and not a single governor-general until 1668.[142]
In addition to Han Banners, the Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, composed of Han (Ming) military forces who defected to the Qing, in order to help rule northern China.[144] It was these troops who provided day-to-day military governance in China,[145] and supplied the forces used in the front-line fighting. Han Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen were only deployed to respond to emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.[17]
It was such a Qing army composed mostly of Han Bannermen which attacked Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Nanjing.[146] The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian.[147] The Qing carried out a massive depopulation policy and bo'shliqlar, forcing people to evacuate the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources: this led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In fact, in Guangdong and Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproves the claim that "fear of water" on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation to move inland and declare the sea ban.[148] Most of the coastal population of Fujian fled to the hills or to Taiwan to avoid the war; Fuzhou was an empty city when the Qing forces entered it.[149]
Chinese military science and military texts
On the orders of Nurhaci[83] in 1629,[150] a number of Chinese works considered to be of critical importance were translated into Manchu by Dahai.[151] The first works translated were all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic.[152] Ular edi Liutao, Su Shu (素書 ) va Sanlüe followed by the military text Vuzi va Urush san'ati.[153][154]
Other texts translated into Manchu by Dahai included the Ming penal code.[155] The Manchus placed great significance on Chinese texts relating to military affairs and governance, and further Chinese texts of history, law and military theory were translated into Manchu during the rule of Hong Taiji in Mukden.[156] A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novel Uch qirollikning romantikasi.[157][158][159] As well as the translations by Dahai, other Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by Erdeni.[160]
Under the reign of Dorgon, whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest"[161] and "the principal architect of the great Manchu enterprise",[162] the Qing subdued the capital area, received the capitulation of Shandun local elites and officials, and took Shanxi va Shensi. They then turned their eyes to the rich commercial and agricultural region of Tszyannan south of the lower Yangtsi daryosi. They also wiped out the last remnants of rival regimes established by Li Zicheng (killed in 1645) and Chjan Xianzhong (Chengdu taken in early 1647). Finally, they managed to kill claimants to the throne of the Janubiy Ming yilda Nankin (1645) va Fuzhou (1646) and chased Chju Youlang, the last Southern Ming emperor, out of Guanchjou (1647) and into the far southwestern reaches of China.
Consolidation in the north and Sichuan
Soon after entering Beijing in June 1644, Dorgon despatched Vu Sangui and his troops to pursue Li Zicheng, the rebel leader who had driven oxirgi Ming imperatori to suicide, but had been defeated by the Qing in late May at the Shanxay dovonidagi jang.[163] Wu managed to engage Li's rearguard many times, but Li still managed to cross the Gu Pass (故關) into Shanxi, and Wu returned to Beijing.[164] Li Zicheng reestablished his power base in Sian (Shensi province), where he had declared the foundation of his Shunlar sulolasi back in February 1644.[165] In October of that year Dorgon sent several armies to root out Li Zicheng from his Shaanxi stronghold,[166] after repressing revolts against Qing rule in Xebey va Shandun in the Summer and Fall of 1644. Qing armies led by Ajige, Dodo va Shi Tingzhu (石廷柱) won consecutive engagements against Shun forces in Shanxi and Shaanxi, forcing Li Zicheng to leave his Xi'an headquarters in February 1645.[167] Li retreated through several provinces until he was killed in September 1645, either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry.[168]
Between Beijing and Datong and in Shanxi province Millenarianist groups of martial artist acolytes calling themselves the "Supreme Heaven's Clear and Pure Good Friends" and the "Society of Good Friends" respectively rose up in rebellion in 1645 against the new regime. These were suppressed by slaughtering anyone suspected of membership in such popular sects.[169]
The northwest (1644–1650)
The Monguors, kim edi tusi appointed by the Ming emperor, supported the Ming against a Tibetan revolt and against Li Zicheng's rebels in 1642. They were unable to resist Li Zicheng and many tusi chiefs were massacred. When the Qing forces under Ajige and Meng Qiaofang fought against Li's forces after 1644 they quickly joined the Qing side. Meanwhile, Ming loyalist forces numbering 70,000 well-equipped troops were coalescing in the mountains south of Xi'an, under former Ming commanders Sun Shoufa, He Zhen and Wu Dading, capturing the city of Fengxiang. As they advanced toward Xi'an they were flanked by recent Ming defectors under Meng Qiaofang, and overrun with Bannermen.[170] He Zhen's rebels were mainly bandits, and they continued operating out of small stockades in the forested, mountainous regions with ten to 15 rebel families in every stockade, usually centered around a temple. They generally enjoyed popular support, and would retreat to the higher mountain safehouses upon receiving locals' notice of any military movements in the area. Groups of stockades congregated around a "King", who would grant commissions of Colonel or Major to other stockade leaders. They were finally pacified by forces led by Ren Zhen.[171]
Late in 1646, forces assembled by a Musulmon leader known in Chinese sources as Milayin (米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in Ganzhou (Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named Ding Guodong (丁國棟).[172] Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the fallen Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital Lanzhou.[172] These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion, and were not aiming to create an Islom davlati.[172] To pacify the rebels, the Qing government quickly despatched Meng Qiaofang (孟喬芳 ), governor of Shensi, a former Ming official who had surrendered to the Qing in 1631.[173] Both Milayin and Ding Guodong were captured and killed in 1648,[173] and by 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties.[174] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by the Muslim Chagatid Kumul xonligi va Turfon xonligi and after their defeat, Kumul submitted to the Qing. Another Muslim rebel, Ma Shouying, was allied to Li Zicheng and the Shun dynasty.
Sichuan campaign (1644–1647)
In early 1646 Dorgon sent two expeditions to Sichuan to try to destroy Chjan Xianzhong Zo'r Si sulolasi regime: the first expedition did not reach Sichuan because it was caught up against remnants;[tushuntirish kerak ] the second one, under the direction of Xog (o'g'li Hong Taiji who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan in October 1646.[175] Hearing that a Qing army led by a major general was approaching, Zhang Xianzhong fled toward Shensi, splitting his troops into four divisions that were ordered to act independently if something were to happen to him.[175] Before leaving, he ordered a massacre of the population of his capital Chengdu.[175] Zhang Xianzhong was killed in a battle against Qing forces near Xichong in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647.[176] In one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers, Liu Jinzhong, who pointed him out to be shot by an archer.[177][178] Hooge then easily took Chengdu, but found it in a state of desolation he had not expected. Unable to find food in the countryside, his soldiers looted the area, killing resisters, and even resorted to cannibalism as food shortages grew acute.[179]
Jiangnan (1645–1650)
A few weeks after the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide in Beijing in April 1644, some descendants of the Ming imperial house started arriving in Nankin, which had been the auxiliary capital of the Ming dynasty.[116] Agreeing that the Ming needed an imperial figure to rally support in the south, the Nanjing Minister of War Shi Kefa and the Fengyang Governor-general Ma Shiying (馬士英) agreed to form a loyalist Ming government around the Fu shahzodasi, Zhu Yousong, a first cousin of the Chongzhen Emperor who had been next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons, whose fates were still unknown.[180] The Prince was toj kiygan kabi imperator on 19 June 1644 under the protection of Ma Shiying and his large war fleet.[181][182] He would reign under the davr nomi "Hongguang" (弘光). The Hongguang regime was ridden with factional bickering that facilitated the Qing conquest of Jiangnan, which was launched from Sian in April 1645.[a] He set out from Xi'an on that very day.[184] For examples of the factional struggles that weakened the Hongguang court, see Vakeman 1985 yil, pp. 523–543. Greatly aided by the surrender of Southern Ming commanders Li Chengdong (李成東) and Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐), the Qing army took the key city of Syuzhou shimoliy Xuay daryosi in early May 1645, leaving Shi Kefa in Yangzhou as the main defender of the Southern Ming's northern frontiers. The betrayal of these commanders handed over the entire northwestern zone of the Southern Ming, helping the Qing forces to link up.[185] Ma Shiying had under his command in Nanjing indigenous ethnic minority warriors who came all the way from Sichuan.[186]
In Jiangnan, the Qing implemented peaceful surrender for districts and cities who defected without any violent resistance, leaving the local Ming officials who defected in charge and the Qing Han-Manchu army would not attack them nor kill or do any violence against peaceful defectors.[187]
Several contingents of Qing forces converged on Yangzhou on 13 May 1645.[184] The majority of the Qing army which marched on the city were Ming defectors and they far outnumbered the Manchus and Bannermen.[188] Shi Kefa's small force refused to surrender, but could not resist Dodo's artillery: on 20 May Qing cannon wielded by the Han Bannermen (Ujen Coohai) breached the city wall and Dodo ordered the "brutal slaughter"[189] of Yangzhou's entire population[145] to terrorize other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing.[184] On 1 June Qing armies crossed the Yangzi daryosi and easily took the garrison city of Chjetszyan, which protected access to Nanjing.[190] The Qing arrived at the gates of Nanjing a week later, but the Hongguang Emperor had already fled.[190] The city surrendered without a fight on 16 June after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population.[191] Within less than a month, the Qing had captured the fleeing Ming emperor (he died in Beijing the following year) and seized Jiangnan's main cities, including Suzhou va Xanchjou.[191] By then the frontier between the Qing and the Southern Ming had been pushed south to the Qiantang daryosi.[192] Nieuhof observed that the city of Nanjing was unharmed by Qing soldiers.[193]
Manchu soldiers ransomed women captured from Yangzhou back to their original husbands and fathers in Nanjing after Nanjing peacefully surrendered, corralling the women into the city and whipping them hard with their hair containing a tag showing the price of the ransom, which was cheap at only 3 to 4 taels for the best and 10 taels at most for those wearing good clothing.[194]
Queue order
On 21 July 1645, after the Jiangnan region had been superficially pacified, Do'rg'on issued "the most untimely promulgation of his career":[195] he ordered all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a navbat xuddi shunga o'xshash Manjurlar.[196][197] The punishment for non-compliance was death.[198] In the queue order edict, Dorgon specifically emphasized the fact that Manchus and the Qing emperor himself all wore the queue and shaved their foreheads so that by following the queue order and shaving, Han Chinese would look like Manchus and the Qing Emperor and invoked the Confucian notion that the people were like the sons of the emperor who was like the father, so the father and sons could not look different and to decrease differences in physical appearance between Manchu and Han.[199][200][201]
The queue order was proposed by a number of Han Chinese officials in order to curry favour with Dorgon.[202] This policy of symbolic submission to the new dynasty helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe.[b] However, for Han officials and literati, the new hairstyle was "a humiliating act of degradation" (because it breached a common Konfutsiy directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair "was tantamount to the loss of their manhood."[c] Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair-cutting command "broke the momentum of the Qing [expansion]."[204][205][d]
The defiant population of Jiading va Songjiang was massacred by former Ming northern Chinese general Li Chengdong (李成東), respectively on August 24 and September 22.[207] Tszyanyin also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by northern Chinese Ming defector Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐), who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people.[208] Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance. Although Manchu Bannermen were often associated with the Jiangyin Massacre which targeted the Ming loyalists, the majority of those who had participated in Jiangyin Massacre were Chinese Bannermen.[209]
When the Qing imposed the Queue Order in China, many Han defectors were appointed in the massacre of dissidents. Li Chengdong, a former Ming general who had defected to the Qing faction,[210] oversaw three massacres in Jiading that occurred within the same month; together which resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and left cities depopulated.[211]
Yilda Fuzhou, although former-Ming subjects were initially compensated with silver for complying to the Queue Order, the defected southern Chinese general Hong Chengchou had enforced the policy thoroughly on the residents of Tszyannan by 1645.[212][213] The Han banners were repeatedly assigned to enforce the Queue Order, often resulting in massacres such as the Yangzhou Massacre,[214] during which local residents were seen harassed by troops.[215]
Ming defector Li Chengdong's Han Chinese soldiers who were mostly former revolted refugees, peasants and bandits from the north called the Han Chinese anti-queue resisters and Ming loyalists in Jiading "southern barbarians" (manzi ) threatening them, telling them "southern barbarian, hand over your valuables", raping, torturing and massacring.[216]
Yilda Guanchjou, massacres of Ming loyalists and civilians in 1650 were carried out by Qing forces under the command of northern Han Chinese Banner Generals Shang Kexi va Geng Jimao.[217][218]
The southeast (1646–1650)
Meanwhile, the Southern Ming had not been eliminated. When Hangzhou fell to the Qing on 6 July 1645,[191] the Prince of Tang Chju Yujian, a ninth-generation descendant of Ming founder Chju Yuanjang, managed to escape by land to the southeastern province of Fujian.[219] Crowned as the Longwu Emperor in the coastal city of Fuzhou on 18 August, he depended on the protection of talented seafarer Zheng Zhilong (also known as "Nicholas Iquan").[220] The childless emperor adopted Zheng's eldest son and granted him the imperial surname.[221] "Koxinga ", as this son is known to Westerners, is a distortion of the title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺).[221] In the meantime, another Ming claimant, the Lu shahzodasi Zhu Yihai, had named himself regent in Chjetszyan, but the two loyalist regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were.[222]
In February 1646, Qing armies seized land west of the Qiantang daryosi Lu rejimidan kelib chiqib, Tszyansining shimoli-sharqida Longvu imperatori vakili bo'lgan ragtag kuchini mag'lub etdi.[223] In May, they besieged Ganzhou, Tszansidagi so'nggi Min qal'asi.[224] In July, a new Southern Campaign led by Shahzoda Bolo sent Prince of Lu's Zhejiang regime into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian.[225] On the pretext of relieving the siege of Ganzhou, the Longwu court left their Fujian base in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them.[226] Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in Tingzhou (western Fujian) on 6 October.[227] After the fall of Fuzhou on 17 October, Zheng Zhilong surrendered to the Qing and his son Koxinga fled to the island of Tayvan parki bilan.[227]
The Prince-Regent of Lu, with the aid of the sea-lord Zhang Mingzhen, continued resistance at sea on the island of Shacheng, between Zhejiang and Fujian. By July 1649 their base of operations shifted northward to Jiantiaosuo. After killing a rival naval commander Huang Binqing, the base was moved to Zhoushan noyabrda. From there he attempted to raise a rebellion in Jiangnan, but Zhoushan fell to the Qing after being betrayed by Huang Binqing's former officers. Zhang Mingzhen, his family all slain, fled to join Zheng Chenggong in Xiamen.[228]
The Longwu Emperor's younger brother Zhu Yuyue, who had fled Fuzhou by sea, soon founded another Ming regime in Guanchjou, poytaxti Guandun province, taking the reign title Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646.[229] Rasmiy kostyumlarning etishmasligi tufayli sud mahalliy teatr qo'shinlaridan xalat sotib olishga majbur bo'ldi.[229] 24 dekabrda, Gui shahzodasi Zhu Youlang xuddi shu joyda Yongli (永曆) rejimini o'rnatdi.[229] The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by former Southern Ming commander Li Chengdong (李成東) captured Guangzhou, killing the Shaowu Emperor and sending the Yongli Emperor fleeing to Nanning yilda Guansi.[230]
In May 1648, however, Li Chengdong, disappointed at being made a mere regional commander, mutinied against the Qing and rejoined the Ming, and the concurrent reversion of another dissatisfied ex-Ming general, Jin Shenghuan, in Jiangxi helped the Yongli regime to retake most of southern China.[231] This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day Xubey va Xunan ), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650.[232] The Yongli Emperor fled to Nanning and from there to Guychjou.[232] Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured Guangzhou with the aid of Dutch gunners and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people.[233]
Ming loyalist revolts in the North (1647–1649)
A major revolt around Zouping, Shandong broke out in March 1647. Shandong had been plagued by brigandage before the collapse of the Ming, and most Ming officials and their gentry-organised militia welcomed the new Qing regime, cooperating with them against the bandits who now grew into sizeable rebel armies complete with guns and cannons, and who leaders had declared themselves "kings". These were held off by the local gentry, who organised the local population into a defence force.[234]
In March 1648, a bandit chief, Yang Sihai, and a woman by the surname of Zhang, claimed to be the Crown Prince of the Tianqi imperatori, and his consort, respectively. With the aid of another bandit chief called Zhang Tianbao, they rebelled under the Ming flag in Tsinyun, janubda Tyantszin. The Qing was forced to send in "heavy troops" (artillery), as well as extra reinforcements. The Qing succeeded in subduing the rebellion in 1649, but with heavy losses. Further south, in the forests between Shandun, Xebey va Xenan provinces, 20 Ming loyalist brigades of 1,000 men each were amassing. This force was known as the "Elm Garden Army", equipped with Western cannons. Commander Li Huajing had declared a distant relative of the Ming imperial family as the "Tianzheng Emperor", and besieged and captured the cities of Caozhou, Dingtao okrugi, Chengvu okrugi va Dongming tumani, Lanyang and Fengqiu. Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Qing. Defected Ming general Gao Di led elite multi-ethnic Banner forces to crush the insurrection by November 18.[235]
In January 1649, Jiang Xiang, the military governor in Datong, Shanxi, felt threatened that Dorgon might be attempting to restrict his authority and rebelled, switching allegiance back to the Ming. Dorgon travelled to personally intervene against the rebels. The generals Liu Denglou, commander of Yulin, Shensi, and Wang Yongqiang, top commander in Yan'an, Shaanxi, rebelled and switched back to the Ming. and The revolt was defeated by the end of the year by a Banner force commanded by Prince Bolo, and Wu Sangui. The Ming loyalist-held city of Puzhou was subject to a massacre. Simultaneously, Zhu Senfu, a man who claimed to be related to the Ming Imperial family, declared himself Prince of Qin in Jiezhou, Shensi, yaqin Sichuan, backed by a local outlaw Zhao Ronggui with an army of 10,000 men. The rebels were crushed by Wu Sangui's forces.[236] In the chaos, many bandit groups expanded their raids. A local outlaw by the name of Zhang Wugui rose up in Shanxi and began handing out Ming ranks and documents, assembling an army. He attacked Wutai in 1649, but was driven off. He continued marauding the province until he was killed in February 1655.[237]
The southeastern region of Shaanxi, a rural, untamed area, was beset by Ming Colonel Tang Zhongzheng, accompanied by two Ming princes Zhu Changying and Zhu Youdu and a Ming Mongol commander, Shibulai. Other rebels, given the ready access to the Ming loyalists in neighbouring Sichuan, were able to continue resistance. Sun Shoujin, who called himself the Earl of Xing'an, with the aid of General Tan Qi, led an alliance of mountain fortresses around Mount Banchang. They resisted an intense Banner assault with their long rifles, but Tan Qi abandoned Sun in July 1652, leading to Sun's defeat and death. A bandit gang, the "Pole bandits", who were plundering the local population were also defeated shortly afterward by the betrayal of one of their two chiefs.[238]
The southwest (1652–1661)
After the elimination of Zhang Xianzhong's Xi dynasty, his generals retreated southward to Guychjou province, where they encountered the Southern Ming forces retreating from Guansi viloyat. The Ming emperor, in urgent need of reinforcements, requested the aid of the Xi dynasty's followers. Zhang Xianzhong's former deputy, Sun Kewang, exterminated all his opponents in the Southern Ming court and kept the Ming emperor under amalda imprisonment, all the while continuing to refer to Zhang Xianzhong as a deceased Emperor.[239]
Though the Qing under Dorgon's leadership had successfully pushed the Janubiy Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652, Li Dingguo, who had served as general in Sichuan under Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting the Yongli imperatori of the Southern Ming, retook Guilin (Guansi province) from the Qing.[240] Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side.[241] Despite occasionally successful military campaigns in Huguang va Guandun in the next two years, Li failed to retake important cities.[240] In 1653, the Qing court put Hong Chengchou in charge of retaking the southwest.[242] Bosh qarorgohi Changsha (hozirda Xunan province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take Guizhou and Yunnan.[242] Infighting broke out between the forces of Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang. The Ming emperor, fearful that Sun intended to make himself emperor, asked Li Dingguo to liberate him. After Sun's forces were routed, he and his surviving troops defected to Hong Chengchou's Qing armies, giving the Qing their opening to strike.[243]
In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu prince Doni took the capital of Yunnan, sending the Yongli Emperor fleeing into nearby Birma, which was then ruled by King Pindeyl Min ning Toungoo sulolasi.[242] The last sovereign of the Southern Ming stayed there until 1662, when he was captured and executed by Vu Sangui, whose surrender to the Manchus in April 1644 had allowed Dorgon to start the Qing expansion.[244]
Zheng Chenggong ("Koxinga"), who had been adopted by the Longvu imperatori in 1646 and ennobled by Yongli in 1655, also continued to defend the cause of the Southern Ming.[245] In 1659, just as Shunzhi was preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up the Yangtsi daryosi with a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threaten Nankin.[246] Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in Nanjing ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the Dutch at the Liaoluo ko'rfazidagi jang, throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the Grand Canal leading to possible starvation in Beijing caused such fear that the Manchus (Tartares) considered returning to Manchuria (Tartary) and abandoning China according to a 1671 account by a French missionary.[247] The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing.[248] When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger.[246] But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province of Fujian.[249] Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on August 24. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements—though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and "slipped back" (Wakeman's phrase) to the ships which had brought them.[250] Pressured by Qing fleets, Zheng fled to Taiwan in April 1661 and defeated the Dutch in the Zelandiya Fortini qamal qilish, expelling them from Taiwan and setting up the Tungning qirolligi.[251] Zheng died in 1662. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when his grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Taiwan to the Kansi imperatori keyin Pengxu jangi.[252] The Ming dynasty Princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were the Prince of Ningjing Chju Shugui and Prince Zhu Hónghuán (朱弘桓), son of Chju Yixay.
Gollandiyaliklar 1665 yilda Zheng Chenggongning o'g'li Chjen Tsinga qarshi urush paytida Chjusan orollaridagi Putuoshan shahridagi buddistlar majmuasiga hujum qilib, qoldiqlarni talon-taroj qildilar va rohiblarni o'ldirdilar.[253]
Zheng Jing 's navy executed 34 Dutch sailors and drowned eight Dutch sailors after looting, ambushing and sinking the Dutch fluyt ship Cuylenburg in 1672 on northeastern Taiwan. Only 21 Dutch sailors escaped to Japan. Kema Nagasakidan Bataviya tomon savdo vazifasi bilan ketayotgan edi.[254]
Koxinga executed Shi Lang 's family causing him to defect to the Qing after Shi Lang disobeyed orders. Koxinga implemented extremely strict harsh discipline on his soldiers which caused many of them to defect to the Qing.[255] Failure to listen to orders and failing in battle could bring death sentences with no leniency from Koxinga.[256] The Qing implemented a lenient policy towards defectors who defected to the southern Ming, Koxinga, and the Three Feudatories, inviting and allowing them back into Qing ranks without punishment even after they initially betrayed the Qing and defected and was able to secure mass defections.[257]
The Three Feudatories (1674–1681)
1673 yilda, Vu Sangui, Shang Kexi va Geng Jimao, the "Three Feudatories", rebelled against the Kansi imperatori. They dominated southern China, and Wu declared the "Zhou dynasty". However, their disunity destroyed them. Shanxzin and Geng surrendered in 1681 after a massive Qing counteroffensive, in which the Han Yashil standart armiya Bannermenning orqa o'rindiqqa o'tirishi bilan katta rol o'ynadi.
Qo'zg'olon asosan Han xitoylik qo'mondonlarning ko'pchiligining Tsing sulolasiga qarshi chiqishdan bosh tortishi tufayli mag'lubiyatga uchradi. Ko'pchilik uchun, ayniqsa, bir umrda ikkita sulolaga xiyonat qilgan Vu Sanguining ochiqchasiga opportunistikligi jirkanch edi: hatto Ming sodiqlari ham uning ishini masxara qildilar.[258]
Fan Chengmening o'g'li Fan Chengmo qamoqqa va oxir-oqibat o'limga qaramay Qingga sodiq qoldi va Liaodongning etakchi harbiy oilalaridan biri sifatida uning misoli boshqa Liaodong generallarini sodiq qolishga ilhomlantirdi.[259]
Tsin kuchlari 1673–1674 yillarda Vu tomonidan tor-mor etildi.[260] Tsin Xu xitoylik askarlarning ko'pchiligini va Xu elitasini uchta feodatoriyaga qarshi qo'llab-quvvatladi, chunki ular Vu Sangning qo'zg'oloniga qo'shilishdan bosh tortdilar, Sakkizta banner va manchu zobitlari Vu Sangiga qarshi yomon munosabatda bo'lishdi, shuning uchun Tsin ularga javoban javob berdi. Sakkizta Banner o'rniga 90000 dan ortiq Xan (Banner bo'lmagan) dan iborat katta qo'shin, Uch Feudatoriyani jang qilish va ezish uchun.[261] Vu Sangui qo'shinlari Ming askarlari safidan tuzilgan Yashil standart armiyasi tomonidan tor-mor etildi.[262] Uch Feudatoriya qo'zg'olonida Qing tarafida qolib, jangda halok bo'lgan Xan bannerlari shahidlar toifasiga kiritilgan.[263]
Tayvan (1683)
Bir necha Ming sulolasi knyazlari Koxinga Tayvanga, shu jumladan shahzodaga hamroh bo'lishdi Chju Shugui Ningjing va shahzoda Chju Xongxuan (w: zh: 朱弘桓 ), o'g'li Chju Yixay. The Kansi imperatori, Uch Feudatoriya qo'zg'olonini bostirgan kishi, o'z imperiyasini kengaytirish uchun o'z kampaniyalarini boshladi.
Tsin bilan ittifoq tuzishga rozi bo'ldi Dutch East India kompaniyasi qolgan Ming sodiqlariga qarshi Fujian va Tayvan. Gollandlar Tayvanda mustamlaka forpostini egallashni niyat qilgan. 1663 yil oktyabrda qo'shma flot egallashga muvaffaq bo'ldi Xiamen va Qarindoshlar (Quemoy) Janubiy Mingdan. Biroq, Qing Gollandiyaning Tayvanda mustamlakasini saqlab qolish va savdo imtiyozlariga intilish niyatlaridan shubhalana boshladi, shu sababli ittifoq quladi. Admiral Shi Lang, Tayvanning gollandlarga bo'ysunishiga qat'iyan qarshi bo'lgan, uning o'rniga o'z ekspeditsiyasini boshlashni taklif qilgan.[264][265]
1683 yilda Kangsi imperatori yuborildi Shi Lang Ming sadoqatini olish uchun 300 kema kemasi bilan Tungning qirolligi 1683 yilda Tayvanda Zheng oilasidan. O'shanda Tayvan Qing hukmronligi ostida edi.
Yo'qotish Pengxu jangi, Koxinga nabirasi Zheng Keshuang taslim bo'ldi va Kanxi imperatori tomonidan "Xaychhen gersogi" unvoni bilan mukofotlandi (海澄 公). U va uning askarlari Sakkizta Bannerga qo'shilishdi. Uning rattan qalqoni qo'shinlari (藤牌 营 tengpaiying) xizmat qilgan Albazindagi rus kazaklariga qarshi.
Tsin hali ham Tayvanda yashovchi 17 ta Ming shahzodalarining aksariyatini materik Xitoyga jo'natdi va ular umrining qolgan qismini shu erda o'tkazdilar.[266] Ningjing shahzodasi va uning beshta kanizagi qo'lga olish uchun bo'ysunishdan ko'ra o'z joniga qasd qildilar. Ularning saroyi 1683 yilda Shi Langning bosh qarorgohi sifatida ishlatilgan, ammo u yodlangan uni aylantirish uchun imperator Mazu ibodatxonasi Tayvanda qolgan qarshilikni tinchlantirishda targ'ibot chorasi sifatida. Imperator o'zining bag'ishlanishini shunday deb tasdiqladi Grand Matsu ibodatxonasi keyingi yil va ma'buda sharafiga Mazu Tsinning kengayishi paytida uning yordami uchun uni "Osmon imperatori" darajasiga ko'targan (Tyanxou) uning samoviy sherik sifatida oldingi maqomidan (tianfei).[267][268]
Mo'g'uliston, Tibet va Shinjon (taxminan 1620–1750)
Quyidagi sahifalarni ko'ring:
- Mingning Qingni bosib olishi
- Qing Tibetni bosib olishi
- Tibet Qing hukmronligi ostida
- Ichki Osiyodagi Tsin sulolasi (Shinjon va Markaziy Osiyoning ayrim qismlari)
- Jungar-Tsing urushlari
Adabiyot va fikr
Ming sulolasining mag'lubiyati, ayniqsa, amaliy va axloqiy muammolarni keltirib chiqardi savodxonlar va rasmiylar. Konfutsiylik ta'limoti ta'kidlangan sadoqat (忠 zhōng), ammo Konfutsiylar yiqilgan Minga yoki yangi kuch - Tsinga sodiq bo'lishlari kerakmi degan savol tug'ildi. Ba'zilar, rassom kabi Bada Shanren, Ming hukmron oilasining avlodi, recluses bo'ldi. Boshqalar, shunga o'xshash Kong Shangren, kimning avlodi deb da'vo qilgan Konfutsiy, yangi rejimni qo'llab-quvvatladi. Kong achchiq drama yozdi, Shaftoli gulining muxlisi Minning qulashini tushuntirish uchun uning axloqiy tanazzulini o'rgangan. Hayotlari o'rtasida o'tishni ko'prik qilgan shoirlar Ming she'riyati va Qing she'riyati zamonaviy ilmiy qiziqishni jalb qilmoqda.[e] Qing mutafakkirlarining eng muhim birinchi avlodlaridan ba'zilari, hech bo'lmaganda qalblarida, shu jumladan Ming sadoqatchilari edi Gu Yanvu, Xuang Zongxi va Fang Yizhi. Qisman reaksiya va kechikkan Mingning sustligi va ortiqcha narsalariga norozilik bildirish uchun ular murojaat qilishdi daliliy o'rganish, bu matnni sinchkovlik bilan o'rganish va tanqidiy fikrlashni ta'kidladi.[270] Ushbu o'tish davridagi yana bir muhim guruh "Jiangdongning uchta ustasi "—Gong Dingzi, Vu Vey va Qian Qianyi - bu boshqa narsalar qatorida kimning uyg'onishiga hissa qo'shgan ci she'riyat shakli.[271]
Imperatorlar o'zlarining hukmronligini qonuniylashtirish uchun Qing amaldorlari va adabiyotshunoslarini antologiyalar va tanqidiy asarlar yaratib, Xitoy adabiyoti merosini tartibga solish va moslashtirishga da'vat etdilar. Ular, shuningdek, rivojlanishni qo'llab-quvvatladilar Manchu adabiyoti va xitoy mumtoz asarlarini manjur tiliga tarjima qilish. Shunga qaramay, "Tsinni mag'lub eting va Mingni tiklang" iborasi ko'pchilik uchun so'z bo'lib qoldi.
Natijada
Dulimbai Gurun - Xitoyning manchurcha nomi (中國 Zhongguo; "O'rta Qirollik").[272][273][274] Mingni o'chirgandan so'ng, Tsinlar o'zlarining davlatlarini "Xitoy" (Chjonguo) deb aniqladilar va uni manjurda "Dulimbai Gurun" deb atashdi. Tsinlar Tsin davlati erlarini (shu jumladan hozirgi Manjuriya, Shinjon, Mo'g'uliston, Tibet va boshqa hududlarni) ham Xitoy, ham manjur tillarida "Xitoy" deb tenglashtirgan, Xitoyni ko'p millatli davlat deb belgilagan, Xitoy degan fikrni rad etgan. faqat Xan hududlarini nazarda tutgan, xan va xan bo'lmagan xalqlar ham "Xitoy" tarkibiga kirganligini e'lon qilib, "Xitoy" dan rasmiy hujjatlar, xalqaro shartnomalar va tashqi ishlar va "xitoy tili" da Tsinga murojaat qilish uchun foydalangan (Dulimbay gurun) men tishladim) xitoylik xitoy, manchu va mo'g'ul tillariga murojaat qildi va "xitoy xalqi" atamasi (zhong zhonguo ren; manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) Qingning barcha xan, manjur va mo'g'ul fuqarolariga ishora qildi.[275]
Tsin davrida ko'pchilik Xan xitoylari keyinchalik Manchu ma'muriyatida hokimiyat va ta'sir mavqelariga ega bo'lishdi va hatto o'zlariga ham ega bo'lishdi qullar.[276]
Qing qachon 1759 yilda jungar mo'g'ullarini mag'lub etdi, deb e'lon qildilar Oyratlar hududiy erlar "Xitoy" (Dulimbay Gurun) hududiga manjur tilidagi yodgorlikda singib ketgan.[277][278][279] Ular hanularga o'xshamaydigan "tashqi" hanlarni birlashtirgan mafkurani ochib berishdi Xalxa mo'g'ullari, Ichki mo'g'ullar, Oyratlar (jumladan, o'sha paytda O'yrat xonliklari hukmronligi ostida bo'lgan Tibetliklar ham) "ichki" xan xitoylari bilan birgalikda Tsing davlati ostida birlashgan "bitta oilaga". Tsingning turli xil sub'ektlari bir oilaning bir qismi bo'lganligini ko'rsatish uchun, Tsing "Zhongwai yijia" (中外 一家, "markaziy joylar va tashqi joylar bitta hudud sifatida") yoki "neiwei yijia" (yi 一家, ichki devor va tashqi devorlarni bir oila sifatida "), turli xalqlarning ushbu" birlashishi "g'oyasini etkazish.[280] Rossiya imperiyasi bilan banditlar ustidan jinoiy yurisdiksiyaga oid shartnomaning manjur tilidagi versiyasi Qing sub'ektlari "Markaziy Qirollik odamlari (Dulimbay Gurun)" deb nomlangan.[281][282][283][284] Manchu rasmiyida Tulisen manchu tili uning uchrashuvi haqida hisobot bilan Torghut rahbari Ayuka Xon, Torg'utlar ruslardan farqli o'laroq, "Markaziy Qirollik xalqi" (dulimba-i gurun 中國 Zhongguo) Torg'utlarga o'xshab, "Markaziy Qirollik xalqi" esa manjurlarga murojaat qilgani eslatib o'tildi.[285]
Li Zicheng, Zhang Sianzhong boshchiligidagi qo'zg'olonlar va keyinchalik Tsinning kengayishi Xitoy tarixidagi eng dahshatli urushlardan biri bo'ldi. Vayronagarchilik misollariga quyidagilar kiradi Yangzhou qirg'ini, unda 800000 kishi (garchi bu raqam mubolag'a deb hisoblansa ham)[286] shu jumladan ayollar va bolalar qirg'in qilindi.[287] Qing Yangzhou va Guanchjou kabi qarshilik ko'rsatgan shaharlarda qirg'inlarni amalga oshirdi, ammo Pekin va Nankin singari Qing hukmronligiga taslim bo'lgan va taslim bo'lgan shaharlarda zo'ravonlik qilmadi. Nanjing Qingga zo'ravonliksiz taslim bo'ldi, chunki barcha amaldorlar taslim bo'lishdi va qochib ketishdi.[288] Kabi butun viloyatlar Sichuan, isyonchi tomonidan vayron qilingan va yo'q qilingan Chjan Xianzhong. Chjan Sianzhong 600-6 million tinch aholini o'ldirgan.[289] Shaansidagi katta ochlik Chjan Sianzhong va Li Tszhengni qo'zg'olonga undadi va isyonchilar tomonidan shafqatsizlik shimol bo'ylab keng tarqaldi.[290] Sharqiy Xitoy Qing qirg'oqlarini evakuatsiya qilish buyrug'i bilan vayron bo'ldi. Taxminiy 25 million kishi vafot etdi butun urushda.[291][292] Ba'zi olimlarning fikriga ko'ra, Xitoy iqtisodiyoti Tsing sulolasi tashkil etilganidan bir asr o'tgach, 1750 yilgacha Ming oxirida erishilgan darajani tiklamadi.[293] Iqtisodiy tarixchi Robert Allenning so'zlariga ko'ra, oilaviy daromad Yangtsi delta, Xitoyning eng boy viloyati, 1820 yilda aslida Ming darajasidan past bo'lgan (ammo hozirgi Britaniyaga teng).[294][to'liq iqtibos kerak ]
Ming sulolasi Li Tszheng tomonidan ag'darilmasdan va Tsin Shanxay dovoniga kirishdan oldin, xitoyliklar aholini xastalik, ocharchilik, ocharchilik va qaroqchilar talon-taroj qildi. 1640–1642 yillarda Xitoy bo'ylab shaharlardagi kasallik aholining yarmini o'ldirgan va Xuzjou shahridagi o'n kishidan uchtasi vabo va ochlikdan vafot etgan. Qishloq joylari ocharchilikka duchor bo'lganligi sababli, dehqonlar millionlab uylarini tashlab ketishdi, qaroqchilar Guguanni egallab olishdi, qishloqning butun qismlarini Xitoy o'rtasida dehqonlar tashlab ketishdi va shaharlarda oziq-ovqat izlayotgan va o'g'irlik va tilanchilik keng tarqalgan edi. odamxo'rlik butun ochlik bo'ylab tarqaldi Xenan.[295] 1641 yilda shimoliy Xitoy kasalliklarga chalindi va o'lat Xuangpiga tarqaldi va o'lat bilan kasallangan jasadlar omon qolganlar uchun yagona oziq-ovqat edi. 1636 yildagi katta qurg'oqchilik Xuangpini bir qator tabiiy ofatlar orasida urdi. Vabo, chigirtka va ocharchilik keng tarqaldi. Dashtlar va qishloqlar qaroqchilar va isyonchilar tomonidan och qochoqlar, ota-onalarini kasallik tufayli yo'qotgan va pochta kuryerlari va ish haqi kesilgan askarlarni ishdan bo'shatgan etimlar butun Xitoy bo'ylab 1642 yilda isyonchilarga aylangani sababli urildi.[296]
Xitoy aholisining o'sishi sovuq ob-havo, qurg'oqchilik va suv toshqini tufayli ocharchilik tufayli halokatli o'limga olib keldi. Tuproq va iste'mol qilinadigan har qanday narsani odamlar 1637 yilda Tszansi shahrida katta ocharchilikda eydilar. Kuchli kasallik epidemiyasi Janubiy Chjilini (Tszyannan) 1641–1642 yillarda mintaqani ikki marta urib yuborgan va butun Jilida kasallikdan jasadlarni qoldirgan va Shimoliy Zhejiang bo'ylab Buyuk Kanaldan Xitoyning shimoliy g'arbiy qismiga tarqalgandan keyin 10 dan 9tasini o'ldirgan. Odamlarda yo'qotish tufayli ekinlar ocharchilikni yanada kuchaytiradigan dehqonchilik qilinmadi.[297] Yangtze daryosi deltasining shahar mintaqalari, qirg'oq janubi-sharqiy va shimoli-g'arbiy qismida hammasi ochlikdan aziyat chekdi, chunki g'alla ishlab chiqaradigan hududlar mahsuldorligini yo'qotdi. Katta miqdordagi deflyatsiya yuz berdi, chunki kumush quyma Fujianda qoldi va ochlik qurbonlariga etib boradigan don va ochlikdan qutulish uchun to'lovlarni to'xtatdi. Ushbu ocharchilik tufayli isyonlar boshlandi.[298] 1640–1642 yillarda Xanchjouda ocharchilik boshlanib, aholining 50 foizini o'ldirdi, qashshoqlarni pilla va ipak qurtlarini iste'mol qilishga majbur qildi, boylarni esa guruchni iste'mol qilishga majbur qildi.[299] Xenan 1641 yil vabo epidemiyasiga chalinganida, o'nlab hududlardan faqat uchtasi omon qolgan.[300][301]
Xan bannerlarining tanlangan guruhlari Qing tomonidan ommaviy ravishda manchu bannerlariga ko'chirilib, o'zlarining millatlarini Xandan Manchuga o'zgartirdilar. Xan bannermenlar Tai Nikan 台 尼堪 (qo'riqchi post Xitoy) va Fusi Nikan 抚顺 尼堪 (Fushun Xitoy)[302] 1740 yilda Tsinning buyrug'iga binoan manjur bannerlarida Qianlong imperatori.[303] 1618–1629 yillarda Liaodongdan kelgan xitoyliklar, keyinchalik Fushun Nikan va Tai Nikanga aylanganlar Jurxenlar (manjurlar) tomon o'tib ketishgan.[304] Xanlardan kelib chiqqan manchu urug'lari asl xan familiyalaridan foydalanishda davom etmoqdalar va kelib chiqishi Xanga tegishli Manchu urug‘larining Qing ro‘yxatlari.[305][306][307][308]
Mingdan Tsinga o'tish paytida vahshiyliklar to'g'risidagi hisobotlar inqilobchilar tomonidan Tsinga qarshi Sinxay inqilobida manjurlarga qarshi qirg'inlarni yoqish uchun ishlatilgan. Manchu bannerlari va ularning oilalari inqilob paytida Xitoy bo'ylab bir nechta banner garnizonlarida qatl etildi, bu Sianda sodir bo'lgan qirg'inlardan biri. Hui musulmonlari jamoasi 1911 yilni qo'llab-quvvatlashda ikkiga bo'lindi Sinxay inqilobi. Shensi shahridagi xuiy musulmonlari inqilobchilarni va Gansu xuiy musulmonlari Tsinni qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Mahalliy Hui musulmonlari (Muhammadlar) Sian (Shensi viloyati ) Xanning inqilobchilariga qo'shilib, Sianning 20 ming manjur aholisini qirg'in qildilar.[309][310] Gansu provinsiyasining mahalliy Hui musulmonlari general boshchiligida Ma Anliang Tsin tomoniga o'tdi va Tsianga qarshi inqilobchilarga qarshi hujum qilishga tayyor edi. Faqat fidye va manchur ayollari bo'lgan ba'zi boy manjurlar omon qoldi. Boy xan xitoylari manjur qizlarini o'zlariga qul bo'lish uchun tortib oldilar[311] va xitoylik xitoy qo'shinlari manchurlik yosh ayollarni o'zlariga xotin qilib olishdi.[312] Yosh go'zal manchu qizlari ham qirg'in paytida Sian shahridagi xuiy musulmonlari tomonidan musodara qilingan va musulmon sifatida tarbiyalangan.[313]
Shuningdek qarang
- Ming hukmronligi ostidagi Manjuriya
- Mo'g'ullarning Xitoyga bosqini
- Jungar-Tsin urushi
- Ichki Osiyodagi Tsin sulolasi
Izohlar
- ^ Dorgonning Tsing armiyasini boshqargan ukasi Dodo "janubiy ekspeditsiyani o'tkazish uchun imperator buyrug'ini" oldi (nan zheng 南征) o'sha yilning 1 aprelida.[183]
- ^ "Manjurlar nuqtai nazaridan, sochingizni qirqish yoki boshingizni yo'qotish buyrug'i nafaqat hukmdorlar va bo'ysunuvchilarni yagona jismoniy o'xshashlikka olib keldi, balki ularga mukammal sodiqlik sinovini taqdim etdi."[196]
- ^ In Filial taqvodorlikning klassikasi, Konfutsiy "insonning tanasi va sochlari, ota-onasining sovg'asi bo'lib, zarar ko'rmaslik kerak: bu farzandlik taqvodorligining boshlanishi", degan so'zlar keltirilgan (yu髮nh髮ngh膚ngh filialngh，ng). Tsin sulolasidan oldin, kattaroq xitoylik xitoylik erkaklar, odatda, sochlarini oldirmaydilar, aksincha ularni yuqori tugun shaklida kiyib yurar edilar.[203]
- ^ "Soch kesish tartibi, boshqa har qanday harakatlarga qaraganda, 1645 yildagi Kiangnan [Tszyannan] qarshiligini keltirib chiqardi. Hukmdorlarning Manchus va Xanni yagona" tanaga "aylantirishga urinishlari dastlab yuqori va quyi sinf aholisini birlashtirdi. Markaziy va janubiy Xitoyda interloperlarga qarshi. "[206]
- ^ Masalan, qarang Fong 2001 yil, 2001 yil o'zgarishi, Yu 2002 yilva Jang 2002 yil, passim.
Adabiyotlar
Iqtiboslar
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- ^ Patricia Buckley Ebrey va boshq., Sharqiy Osiyo: madaniy, ijtimoiy va siyosiy tarix, 3-nashr, p. 271
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