Ming xazina sayohatlari - Ming treasure voyages
| Ming xazina sayohatlari | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Zheng He kemalarining bir nechtasi, 17-asr boshlarida yog'ochdan yasalgan bosma rasmda tasvirlangan | |||||||||||
| An'anaviy xitoy | 鄭 和 下 西洋 | ||||||||||
| Soddalashtirilgan xitoy tili | 郑 和 下 西洋 | ||||||||||
| To'g'ridan-to'g'ri ma'no | G'arbiy okean bo'ylab Zheng Xening sayohatlari | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
The Ming xazina sayohatlari tomonidan amalga oshirilgan ettita dengiz ekspeditsiyasi edi Min Xitoy "s xazina parki 1405 yildan 1433 yilgacha Yongle imperatori xazina parkini qurishni 1403 yilda boshlagan. Katta loyiha natijasida qirg'oq hududlari va atrofidagi orollarga ettita uzoq okean safari olib borildi. Janubiy Xitoy dengizi, Hind okeani va undan tashqarida. Admiral Chjen Xe ekspeditsiyalar uchun xazina parkini boshqarish uchun topshirildi. Oltita sayohat Yongl hukmronligi davrida (1402–24-yillarda), ettinchi safar esa Syuande hukmronligi (1425–1435 y.). Dastlabki uchta safarga qadar etib bordi Kalikut Hindistonda Malabar qirg'og'i, to'rtinchi safar esa qadar davom etdi Hormuz ichida Fors ko'rfazi. Keyinchalik, flot dengizga sayohat qildi Arabiston yarim oroli va Sharqiy Afrika.
Xitoy ekspeditsiya parki og'ir harbiylashtirilgan va juda ko'p xazinalarni olib yurgan, bu Xitoy kuchi va boyligini taniqli dunyoga etkazish uchun xizmat qilgan. Ular shohlari va hukmdorlari o'zlarini Xitoyning irmoqlari deb e'lon qilishga tayyor bo'lgan ko'plab xorijiy elchilarni qaytarib oldilar. Sayohatlar davomida ular Chen Zuyi qaroqchilar parkini yo'q qildi Palembangda, Sinhalese Kotte qirolligini qo'lga kiritdi shoh Alekeshvara va qo'shinlarini mag'lub etdi Semudera shimoldagi go'yoki Sekandar Sumatra. Xitoy dengiz ekspluatatsiyasi ko'plab xorijiy mamlakatlarni millat tarkibiga kiritdi irmoq tizimi Harbiy va siyosiy ustunlik orqali ta'sir doirasi va shu tariqa davlatlarni Ming boshchiligidagi Xitoyning eng katta dunyo tartibiga qo'shish suzerainty. Bundan tashqari, xitoyliklar qayta qurishdi va keng doiradagi nazoratni o'rnatdilar dengiz tarmog'i mintaqa bo'lib o'tdi birlashtirilgan va uning mamlakatlari iqtisodiy va siyosiy darajada o'zaro bog'liq bo'lib qoldi.
Ming xazina sayohatlari buyrug'i va nazorati ostida bo'lgan eunuch tashkil etish uning siyosiy ta'siri imperator foydasiga juda bog'liq edi. Ming Xitoyning imperatorlik davlati tizimida fuqarolik amaldorlari evroning va ekspeditsiyalarga qarshi bo'lgan qarama-qarshi guruhning asosiy siyosiy raqiblari bo'lgan. Dengiz safarlari tugashi bilanoq, fuqarolik hukumati davlat byurokratiyasida ustunlikni qo'lga kiritdi, Yongle imperatori vafotidan keyin esa evroniklar asta-sekin o'z foydalariga tushib qolishdi va ushbu keng ko'lamli ishlarni olib borish vakolatidan mahrum bo'lishdi. Ekspeditsiyalarning qulashi, elitalar tomonidan boshqariladigan iqtisodiy manfaatlar tufayli tijoratning markaziy davlat nazoratiga qarshi olib borildi, chunki dengiz korxonasi mahalliylashtirilgan xususiy savdoning aksariyat qismini muvozanatlashda muhim ahamiyatga ega edi, bu esa bundan foyda ko'rgan hokimiyatning adovatini tortdi. savdo.
15-asr boshlarida dengiz sayohatlari davomida Min Xitoy birinchi o'rinni egalladi dengiz kuchi dengiz kuchini janubga va g'arbga yo'naltirish orqali. Safarlarning haqiqiy maqsadi, kemalarning kattaligi, flot kattaligi, bosib o'tgan marshrutlari, foydalanilgan dengiz xaritalari, tashrif buyurgan mamlakatlar va tashilgan yuk kabi masalalar bo'yicha hali ko'p bahslar mavjud.[1]
Fon
The Yongle imperatori salafiysidan kuchli dengiz flotini meros qilib oldi Xongvu imperatori.[2][3] U Ming dengiz flotini chet elda olib boriladigan siyosat uchun vosita sifatida yanada mustahkamladi va kengaytirdi.[2][3] The Taizong Shilu kema qurish uchun imperatorlik buyurtmalari uchun 24 ta qisqa yozuvlarni o'z ichiga oladi, ularning raqamlari 1403 dan 1419 gacha kamida 2868 kemani ko'rsatmoqda.[4] 1403 yil davomida, Fujian, Tszansi, Chjetszyan va Huguang shuningdek, viloyat hukumatlari Nankin, Suzhou va boshqa shaharlarning harbiy garnizonlariga kemalar qurishni boshlash buyurilgan.[5]
Filo yaratish
Yongle imperatori davrida Min Xitoy boshidan kechirdi militaristik ekspansionizm xazina sayohatlari kabi korxonalar bilan.[6][7] 1403 yilda Yongle imperatori imperatorning buyuk qurilish loyihasini boshlash to'g'risida buyruq chiqardi xazina parki.[8] Chjen Xe parkini qurishni boshlashga buyruq berildi.[9] Xazina parki asl nomi bilan tanilgan Xiafan Guanjun (下 番 官軍; lit. "Xorijiy ekspeditsiya armada") xitoy manbalarida.[10] U ko'plab savdo kemalari, harbiy kemalar va qo'llab-quvvatlovchi kemalardan iborat edi.[8] Longjiang tersanesi ko'plab flot kemalari uchun qurilish maydoni bo'lgan,[11][12] barcha xazina kemalari, shu jumladan.[11][13] Bu joylashgan edi Qinxuay daryosi Ninzin yaqinida, u erda Qinxuaylar quyiladi Yangtze daryosi.[11][14] Bo'ylab ko'plab daraxtlar kesilgan Min daryosi va flot qurilishi uchun zarur resurslarni etkazib berish uchun Yantszining yuqori oqimi.[5] Yongle imperatori katta ishonch bildirdi Chjen Xe va uni xazina parkiga qo'mondonlik qilishga tayinladi.[5][15] Imperator hatto imperator buyrug'ini dengizga chiqarish uchun unga imperator muhri tushirilgan bo'sh varaqalarni ham bergan.[15]
Kurs
Birinchi safar
1405 yilning uchinchi qamariy oyida (30 martdan 28 aprelgacha) Admiralga dastlabki buyruq berildi Chjen Xe va boshqalar G'arbiy Okeanga 27000 qo'shinni boshqarish.[16] Ekspeditsiya uchun buyruqni o'z ichiga olgan 1405 yil 11-iyuldagi imperator farmoni chiqarildi.[17][18][19] Unga murojaat qilingan Chjen Xe, Vang Jinxong va boshqalar.[17]
Yongle imperatori flot oldidan kechqurun ekipaj uchun ziyofat berdi birinchi safar.[20] Zobitlarga va oddiy ekipajga darajalariga qarab sovg'alar topshirildi.[20] Qurbonliklar va ibodatlar qilindi Tianfey, muvaffaqiyatli sayohat va sayohat paytida xavfsiz o'tishni ta'minlash umidida, dengizchilarning homiysi ma'buda.[20] 1405 yilning kuzida xazina parki yig'ilgan edi Nankin va shahardan ketishga tayyor edi.[21] Ga ko'ra Taizong Shilu Filo jo'natilganligi to'g'risida 1405 yil 11-iyulda Chjen va "boshqalar" G'arbiy Okean mamlakatlariga imperatorlik maktublari va oltin shohlariga sovg'alar bilan "birinchi ekspeditsiyaga jo'nadilar. brokar, naqshli ipaklar, va maqomiga ko'ra rangli ipak doka ".[22] Xazina parki to'xtadi Liujiagang.[23][24] U erda flot ekipaj tarkibida tashkil qilingan, park ekipaji esa sharafga muyassar bo'lgan Tianfey ibodatlar va qurbonliklar bilan.[23] Keyinchalik, flot qirg'oq bo'ylab og'ziga qarab suzib ketdi Min daryosi,[24][25] u erda Tayping ankrajida shimoli-sharqiy mussonni kutgan edi Changle tumani.[25] Mussonni kutib turganda ekipaj tomonidan Tianfei uchun ko'proq ibodatlar va qurbonliklar o'tkazildi.[25] Keyinchalik, flot Fujian shahridagi Vuxumen ("beshta yo'lbars o'tish joyi") orqali jo'nab ketdi.[25][26]
Xazina parki suzib ketdi Champa,[24][25][27] Java,[24][27][28] Malakka,[24][27] Aru,[27][28] Semudera,[24][27][28] Lambri,[27][28] Seylon,[24][27][28] Quilon,[24][27] va Kalikut.[24][27][29] Lambridan xazina parki quyidagilarga amal qilish o'rniga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Hind okeani bo'ylab suzib ketdi Bengal ko'rfazi Seylonga qadar qirg'oq chizig'i.[28] Lambridan uch kun o'tgach, kema ajralib chiqib, Andaman va Nikobar orollariga yo'l oldi.[28] Olti kundan keyin xazina parki Seylon tog'larini ko'rdi va ikki kundan keyin Seylonning g'arbiy sohiliga etib keldi.[28] Ular tomonidan dushmanlik bilan kutib olindi Alagakkonara, shuning uchun ular ketishdi.[30] Dreyer (2007) ta'kidlashicha, Zheng portni amalga oshirgan bo'lishi mumkin Quilon - buni tasdiqlovchi hisob yo'q bo'lsa ham - chunki Shoh Quilon 1407 yilda flot bilan Xitoyga sayohat qilgan.[31] Mills (1970) ning ta'kidlashicha, flot Kalikutda to'rt oy davomida 1407 yil dekabrdan aprelgacha bo'lgan bo'lishi mumkin.[32] Atrofda Komorin buruni ning janubiy uchida Hindiston qit'asi, xazina parki yo'nalishini o'zgartirdi va Xitoyga qaytish safarini boshladi.[31] Qaytish paytida flot yana Malakkada to'xtadi.[33]
1407 yilda qaytish safari chog'ida Chjen va uning sheriklari jangda Chen Zuyi va uning qaroqchi flotini jalb qildi Palembangda.[27][24][33][34] Chen Zuyi Palembangni egallab olgan va Malakkan bo'g'ozining dengiz yo'lida hukmronlik qilgan pirat rahbar edi.[24][33] Jang Chenning qaroqchilar parkini mag'lub etish bilan yakunlandi.[24][34] U va uning leytenantlari 1407 yil 2 oktyabrda flot Nankinga qaytib kelganida qatl etilgan.[35] Ming sudi tayinladi Shi Tszining Palembangning tinchlantirish bo'yicha qo'mondoni sifatida, Palembangda ittifoqdosh tashkil qildi va uning portiga kirishni ta'minladi.[36]
Filo 1407 yil 2 oktyabrda Nankinga qaytib keldi.[18][37][38] Qaytish safari davomida xazina parkiga hamrohlik qilgandan so'ng, chet el elchilari (Kalikut, Kvilon, Semudera, Aru, Malakka va boshqa aniqlanmagan millatlardan) Ming saroyiga tashrif buyurib, o'zlarining mahalliy mahsulotlari bilan hurmat ko'rsatishdi.[17][35][39] Yongle imperatori o'z vazifalariga chet el elchilari to'g'risidagi protokol kiritilgan marosimlar vazirligiga sudga o'z elchilarini yuborgan chet el shohlari uchun sovg'alar tayyorlashni buyurdi.[35]
Ikkinchi safar
Ikkinchi safarga imperatorlik buyrug'i 1407 yil oktyabrda chiqarilgan.[a][24][40] Farmon Zheng, Van va Xou Sianga (侯 顯) yuborilgan.[40] Lang Yingniki Qixiuleigao (七 修 類 稿 稿) Chjen, Vang va Xou 1407 yilda jo'natilganligini qayd etadi.[41] The Taizong Shilu Chjen va boshqalarning Kalikut, Malakka, Semudera, Aru, Jiayile, Java, Siam, Champa, Cochin, Abobadan, Quilon, Lambri va Ganbali.[42]
1407 yil 30-oktabrda Zheng U flotning asosiy qismiga ergashmasdan oldin katta rejissyor eskadron bilan Champaga jo'natildi.[43] Filo Yongle hukmronligining beshinchi yilida (1407 yil oxiri yoki ehtimol 1408 yil boshida) jo'nab ketdi.[18] Filo Nankindan Liujiaganggacha Changle tomon yo'l oldi.[44] Keyin u Champaga suzib ketdi; Siam; Java; Malakka; Sumatrada Semudera, Aru va Lambri; Jiayile, Abobadan, Ganbali, Hindistondagi Quilon, Cochin va Calicut.[44] Dreyer (2007) ta'kidlashicha, Siam va Java-ga Malakada qayta to'planishdan oldin asosiy flot yoki alohida otryadlar tashrif buyurgan.[44] Ushbu sayohat paytida Chjen va uning floti Seylonga tushmagan.[44] Filo oldida Mana Vikraanning rasmiy investitsiyasini amalga oshirish vazifasi qo'yilgan edi Kalikut qiroli.[29][40][45] Kalikutda Xitoy va Hindiston o'rtasidagi munosabatlarni yodga olish uchun planshet joylashtirildi.[29][40]
Ushbu sayohatda xitoyliklar Min Xitoy va Yava o'rtasidagi dushmanlikni majburan hal qildilar.[42] A 1401 yildan 1406 yilgacha Yavada fuqarolar urushi, G'arbiy Yava qiroli Sharqiy Yavadagi raqibining hududiga qirg'oqqa kelgan Xitoy elchixonasining 170 a'zosini o'ldirdi.[b][42] 1407 yil 23 oktyabrda yozilgan Ming Shilu G'arbiy Yava qiroli savdo qilish uchun qirg'oqqa ketgan 170 Ming qo'shinini xato bilan o'ldirganligi uchun aybini tan olish uchun Ming sudiga o'z elchisini yuborgan.[46] Bundan tashqari, Ming sudi bunga javoban 60 ming talab qilishni talab qilgan liang tovon va kafforat uchun oltin, agar ular Yava hukmdorini agar u bajarmasa jinoyati uchun jazolash uchun qo'shin yuborishlarini ogohlantiradi va Annamdagi vaziyat (Ming Xitoyning Vetnamga muvaffaqiyatli bostirib kirishini nazarda tutadi) misol bo'la oladi.[46][42] Xitoyliklar to'lov va kechirim so'rashni qabul qilib, diplomatik munosabatlarni tikladilar.[47] Yan Kongjianniki Shuyu Zhouzilu keyinchalik imperator 50 mingni kechirganligini ta'kidlaydi liang G'arbiy hukmdor jinoyati uchun pushaymon bo'lgan ekan, bundan hali ham qarzdor bo'lgan oltin.[48] Tan (2005) Zheng qasd qilish uchun harbiy hujumni amalga oshirishni emas, balki o'ldirish haqidagi ishni imperatorga qaror qabul qilish uchun topshirganligini ta'kidlaydi, chunki bu qotillik qasddan emas edi.[48] Xitoyliklar ushbu safarlardan Java ustidan kuzatuv olib borish uchun foydalanar edilar.[47]
Fey Sin tomonidan yozilganidek, sayohat paytida flot tashrif buyurdi Pulau Sembilan ichida Malakka bo'g'ozi Yongle hukmronligining ettinchi yilida (1409).[41][44] Dreyer (2007), xazina parki 1410 yil boshigacha Xitoy dengiz qirg'og'idan uchinchi safarga chiqmaganligi sababli, ikkinchi safarga qaytish paytida to'xtadi, degan xulosaga keladi.[44] Fey Sin "Yonglening ettinchi yilida Zhen Xe va uning sheriklari tutatqilarni kesish uchun orolga hukumat qo'shinlarini yuborishdi. Ular har biri sakkiz yoki to'qqiztadan oltita log olishdi. chi[c] diametri va olti yoki etti zhang[c] uzunligi, xushbo'yligi toza va juda keng edi. Naqsh [yog'och] qora rangda, mayda chiziqlar bilan ishlangan. Orol aholisi ko'zlarini katta ochishdi va hayratdan tillarini chiqarib, "Bizlar Samoviy sudning askarlarimiz va bizning hayratga soladigan kuchimiz xudolarga o'xshaydi" deyishdi. "[49] Xazina parki 1409 yil yozida Nankinga qaytib keldi.[24][44]
Zheng ikkinchi safarni amalga oshirganmi yoki yo'qmi, bu Xitoy vakili flotning asosiy qismi bilan jo'nab ketishdan oldin yuborilganligidan kelib chiqadi.[35] Uchinchi safarga oid imperator farmoni ikkinchi safar paytida xazina parki hind okeanida bo'lgan paytda chiqarilgan edi, shuning uchun sud imperator buyrug'ini berganida Zheng yo'q edi yoki u ikkinchi safar paytida flot bilan birga bo'lmagan.[50] 1409 yil 21-yanvarda Tianfei ma'budasi sharafiga katta marosim bo'lib o'tdi va u yangi unvonga sazovor bo'ldi.[51] Duyvendak (1938), Chjen ikkinchi safarga borishi mumkin emas edi, deb o'ylaydi, chunki marosimning ahamiyati Zhengning kelishini talab qiladi.[51] Mills (1970) Duyvendak (1938) ga asoslanib, u ham ushbu sayohat uchun flotga hamroh bo'lmaganligini aytadi.[40] Biroq, Dreyer (2007), Chjening ikkinchi safarga chiqqanligi haqida qat'iyan taxmin qilmoqda, chunki Feyning 1409 yilda Pulau Sembilanga tashrifi haqida u aniq aytgan.[52]
Uchinchi safar
Va butun mamlakatni asirga oldi,
Avgust poytaxtimizga qaytib,
Ularning ayollari, bolalari, oilalari va yollovchilari, bittasini qoldirmaydilar,
Ushbu zararli zararkunandalarni bitta supurgi bilan tozalash, xuddi dondan mo'ylovni yutib yuborganday ...
O'n ming marta o'lishga loyiq bo'lgan, ahamiyatsiz qurtlar, qo'rquvdan titrab ...
Osmonning jazosiga loyiq emas edi.
Shunday qilib avgust imperatori o'z hayotlarini ayamadi,
Va ular kamtarlik bilan kovtowed, qo'pol tovushlar va
Imperator Min hukmdorining donishmandga o'xshash fazilatini maqtash.
— Yang Rong (1515) Seylondagi ziddiyat haqida [53]
Uchinchi safarga imperatorlik buyrug'i Yongle hukmronligining ettinchi yilining birinchi oyida (1409 yil 16 yanvardan 14 fevralgacha) chiqarilgan.[54][55][56] Bu Chjen, Vang va Xouga qaratilgan edi.[54][56]
Chjen 1409 yilda sayohatga chiqdi.[57] Filo jo'nab ketdi Liujiagang to'qqizinchi oyda (1409 yil 9 oktyabrdan 6 noyabrgacha) va keyingi oyda Changlega etib keldi (7 noyabrdan 6 dekabrgacha).[50][56][57] Ular o'n ikkinchi oyda Changleni tark etishdi (1410 yil 5 yanvardan 3 fevralgacha) Vuxumen orqali (Fujian shahridagi Min daryosining kirish qismida) dengizlarga.[50][56][57] Filo Champa, Yava, Malakka, Semudera, Seylon, Kvilon, Kochin va Kalikutda to'xtadi.[24][50][58] Ular 10 kun ichida Champaga sayohat qilishdi.[50][56] Vang va Xou Siam, Malakka, Semudera va Seylonda qisqa yo'llar bilan aylanishdi.[24] Xazina parki tushdi Galle, Seylon, 1410 yilda.[50]
1411 yilda uyga sayohat paytida xazina parki qirol Alakeshvara bilan to'qnashdi (Alagakkonara) Seylon.[d][58][59] Alakeshvara qo'shni mamlakatlar, Seylonning mahalliy suvlari va Hindistonning janubi uchun xavf tug'dirdi.[60] Xitoyliklar Seylonga etib kelganlarida, ular o'zlarini qo'pol, hurmatsizlik va dushmanlik deb bilgan Sinhallarga nisbatan haddan tashqari va xor edilar.[61] Shuningdek, ular Sinhallardan Ming Xitoy bilan diplomatik aloqada bo'lgan qo'shni mamlakatlarga qarshi hujum va qaroqchilik qilganliklari uchun g'azablandilar.[61] Zheng va 2000 qo'shinlari quruqlikdan Kotte shahriga sayohat qilishdi, chunki Alakeshvara ularni o'z hududiga tortib olgan.[61] Podshoh Zheng va uning odamlarini Kolomboda langarga qo'yilgan xazina parkidan ajratib qo'ydi va flotga hujum qilishni rejalashtirdi.[24][60][62] Bunga javoban Chjen va uning qo'shinlari Kottega bostirib kirdi va uning poytaxtini egalladi.[60] Sinhalez armiyasi (50 mingdan ortiq qo'shin borligi qayd etilgan) shoshilinch ravishda qaytib kelib, poytaxtni o'rab oldi, ammo bosqinchi Xitoy qo'shinlariga qarshi jangda bir necha bor mag'lubiyatga uchradi.[60][61] Xitoyliklar Alakeshvarani, uning oilasini va uning asosiy amaldorlarini Xitoyning Nankin shahriga asirga olishdi.[56][59][62]
Zheng 1411 yil 6-iyulda Nankinga qaytib keldi.[56][63] U Sinhal asirlarini Yongle imperatoriga sovg'a qildi,[56] ularni ozod qilishga va o'z mamlakatiga qaytarishga qaror qilganlar.[56][59][60] Xitoyliklar Alakeshvarani o'z ittifoqdoshi foydasiga taxtdan tushirdilar Parakramabahu VI uni qo'llab-quvvatlayotgan Zheng bilan qirol sifatida.[64][65] O'sha paytdan boshlab, xazina parki Seylonga keyingi xazina sayohatlariga tashrif buyurganida jangovar harakatlarni boshdan kechirmadi.[60]
To'rtinchi safar
1412 yil 18-dekabrda Yongle imperatori to'rtinchi safarga buyruq chiqardi.[58][66][67] Zheng va boshqalarga unga rahbarlik qilish buyurilgan.[66][67]
Yongle imperatori kamondan o'q otish musobaqasida qatnashdi Yoz fasli festivali 1413 yil (5-kun, 5-oy, 11-yil) barcha Xitoy amaldorlari va chet el elchilari taklif qilingan.[68] Duyvendak (1939) bu elchilar shunchalik ko'p ediki, ularning tarkibiga, ehtimol, Zheng to'rtinchi safar davomida o'z mamlakatlariga qaytib kelgan ko'plab qo'shnilardan iborat bo'lgan.[68] Ushbu ekspeditsiya xazina parkini musulmon mamlakatlariga olib bordi, shuning uchun xitoyliklar uchun ishonchli tarjimonlarni izlash muhim bo'lishi kerak edi.[69] Tarjimon Ma Xuan safarlarga birinchi marta qo'shildi.[69] Musulmonlar masjididagi 1523 yildagi yozuv Sian 11-yilning 4-oyida Zheng ishonchli tarjimonlarni qidirish uchun u erda bo'lgan va Hasan ismli odamni topganligi haqida yozadi.[69]
Zheng floti 1413 yilda, ehtimol, kuzda Nankinni tark etdi.[67][70][71] Yongle hukmronligining 11-yilining 12-oyida (1413 yil 23-dekabrdan 1414-yil 21-yanvargacha) Fujiandan suzib ketdi.[70][71] Kalikut avvalgi sayohatlar paytida eng g'arbiy yo'nalish bo'lgan, ammo flot bu safar undan tashqarida suzib ketgan.[72] The Taizong Shilu Malakka, Yava, Champa, Semudera, Aru, Kochin, Kalikut, Lambri, Paxang, Kelantan, Jiayile, Ormuz, Bila, Maldiv orollari va Sunla bu safar uchun to'xtaydi.[58]
Filo Champaga suzib ketdi,[70][73] Kelatan,[73] Paxang,[73] Malakka,[70][73] Palembang,[73][74] Java,[72][73] Lambri,[72][73] Lide,[72] Aru,[72] Semudera,[72][73] Seylon,[72][73] Jiayile (Seylon qarshisida),[72] Cochin;[72][73] va Kalikut.[72][73] Ular davom etishdi Liushan (Maldiv orollari va Lakkadiv orollari ),[73][75] Bila (Bitra Atoll ),[75] Sunla (Chetlat Atoll ),[75] va Hormuz.[73][75] Java-da flot Yongle imperatoridan sovg'alar va imtiyozlarni etkazib berdi.[72] Buning evaziga Yava elchisi 1415 yil 29 aprelda Xitoyga etib keldi va minnatdorchilik bildirgan holda "g'arbiy otlar" va mahalliy mahsulotlar ko'rinishidagi o'lponni taqdim etdi.[72]
1415 yilda flot Sekandar bilan shug'ullanadigan Hormuzdan uyga sayohat paytida shimoliy Sumatrada to'xtadi.[73][76] Sekandar Semudera taxtini Zayn al-Obidindan egallab olgan,[67] ammo xitoyliklar rasmiy ravishda Semudera qiroli deb tan olishgan;[76] Sekandar avtonom hukmdor bo'lsa ham, uni xitoyliklar tan olmadilar.[76] Fey Sekandarni Semudera taxtini talagan, o'g'irlagan va egallab olgan soxta podshoh sifatida tasvirlaydi, Ma uni hukmdorni ag'darishga uringan kishi sifatida tasvirlaydi Ming Shilu Sekandarning sobiq podshohning ukasi bo'lganligi va hukmdorni o'ldirishni rejalashtirgani haqida yozilgan.[77] Zhengga sudxo'rga qarshi jazolash hujumini boshlash va Zayn al-Obidinni qonuniy shoh sifatida tiklash haqida buyruq berildi.[67] Qasos sifatida Sekandar o'z kuchlarini Ming kuchlariga hujum qilishga boshladi va mag'lubiyatga uchradi.[76][77] Xabarlarga ko'ra, u "o'n minglab" askarlar bilan hujum qilgan.[77] Ming kuchlari Sekandarning kuchlarini Lambri tomon ta'qib qildilar, u erda Sekandarni, uning rafiqasi va bolasini asirga oldilar.[67] Keyinchalik qirol Zayn al-Obidin minnatdorchiligini bildirish uchun o'lpon topshirig'ini yubordi.[76] Ushbu mojaro Xitoyning tashqi davlatlar ustidan hokimiyatni va dengiz yo'lini savdoni himoya qilgan mahalliy siyosiy hokimiyatni himoya qilish orqali yana bir bor tasdiqladi.[76] Sekandar Yongle imperatoriga saroy darvozasida taqdim etildi va keyinchalik qatl etildi.[67] Ushbu qatl qachon sodir bo'lganligi noma'lum, ammo Ma Sekandar poytaxtda omma oldida qatl qilinganligini aytadi.[78]
1415 yil 12-avgustda Zheng floti ushbu sayohatdan Nankinga qaytib keldi.[58][67][78] Yongle imperatori 1413 yil 16 martdan beri u uchun yo'q edi mo'g'ullarning ikkinchi yurishi va qaytib kelmagan edi.[70] Filo qaytib kelgandan so'ng, Ming sudiga 18 mamlakatdan o'lpon oladigan elchilar yuborilgan.[73]
Beshinchi safar
1416 yil 14-noyabrda Yongle imperatori Nankinga qaytib keldi.[79] 19 noyabr kuni Yongle imperatori shahzodalar, fuqarolik amaldorlari, harbiy ofitserlar va 18 mamlakatning elchilariga sovg'alar topshirgan katta marosim bo'lib o'tdi.[79] 19 dekabr, o'n sakkizinchi[e] elchilar Ming saroyida qabul qilingan.[80] 28 dekabrda ular Ming sudiga ketishlarini e'lon qilish uchun tashrif buyurishdi va ketishidan oldin ularga kiyimlar sovg'a qilindi.[79] O'sha kuni Yongle imperatori beshinchi safarni amalga oshirishni buyurdi,[70][80][81] maqsadi 18 elchini qaytarib berish va ularning shohlarini mukofotlash edi.[80][81]
Zheng va boshqalar elchilarni uylariga kuzatib borish to'g'risida buyruq oldilar.[79] Ular bir nechta shohlarga imperatorlik xatlari va sovg'alarini olib borishgan.[79] Cochin qiroli 1411 yildan beri o'lpon yuborganligi va keyinchalik elchilarni investitsiya patentini va muhrni talab qilish uchun yuborganligi sababli alohida muomala oldi.[79] Yongle imperatori uning ikkala iltimosini ham qondirdi, unga uzun yozuv yozdi (go'yoki imperatorning o'zi yozgan) va Cochindagi tepalikka "Davlatni himoya qiluvchi tog '" unvonini berdi.[79]
Chjen 1417 yilning kuzida Xitoy qirg'og'ini tark etgan bo'lishi mumkin.[80][82] Dastlab u flot yuklarini yuklash uchun Quanzhou portini yaratdi chinni va boshqa tovarlar.[83] Zheng floti tashrif buyurgan Sharqiy Afrika joylarida zamonaviy xitoy chinni buyumlarining arxeologik topilmalari qazib olindi.[84] Quanzhoudagi Ming planshetida 1417 yil 31-mayda safarda ilohiy himoya qilish uchun Zheng tutatqi tutatqilarini yodga olindi.[84][85] Filo Champa, Paxang, Yava, Palembang, Malakka, Semudera, Lambri, Seylon, Kochin, Kalikut, Shalivanni (ehtimol Kannanor ), Liushan (Maladiv va Lakkadiv orollari), Hormuz, Lasa, Adan, Mogadishu, Brava, Jubuva Malindi.[86] Arabiston va Sharqiy Afrika uchun, ehtimol, Hormuz, Lasa, Adan, Mogadishu, Brava, Jubuva keyin Malindi.[87] The Tarix al-Yaman 1419 yil yanvar oyida Xitoy kemalari Aden sohiliga etib borgan va Rasulidlar poytaxtidan chiqmaganligi haqida xabar beradi Taizz 19 martgacha.[88]
1419 yil 8-avgustda flot Xitoyga qaytib keldi.[80][84][89] Yongle imperatori Pekinda bo'lgan, ammo marosimlar vazirligiga flot xodimlariga pul mukofotlari berishni buyurgan.[90] 1419 yilgi sakkizinchi qamariy oyda (21 avgustdan 19 sentyabrgacha) Ming saroyida hamroh bo'lgan elchilar qabul qilindi.[80][89] Ularning o'lponiga sherlar, leoparlar, tuya tuyalar, tuyaqushlar, zebralar, karkidon, antilopalar, jirafalar va boshqa ekzotik hayvonlar,[73] Ming saroyidagi saroy xodimlarini hayratga soladi.[89]
Oltinchi safar
The Taizong Shilu1421 yil 3 martdagi yozuvlarga ko'ra, o'n oltita mamlakatning (Hormuz va boshqa mamlakatlar) elchilariga o'z mamlakatlariga qaytishdan oldin qog'oz, tanga pullari, tantanali kiyimlar va astarlar sovg'alari berilgan.[90] Oltinchi safar uchun imperatorlik buyrug'i 1421 yil 3 martda tuzilgan.[91][92] Zhengga imperatorlik xatlari, ipak brokadasi, ipak ipi, ipak doka va boshqa mamlakatlar hukmdorlari uchun sovg'alar yuborilgan.[90]
Gong Zhen "s Xiyang Fanguo Zhi 1421 yil 10-noyabrda imperator buyrug'i bilan yozilgan Chjen Xe, Kong He (孔 孔), Zhu Buhua (朱 卜 花) va Tang Guanbao ((觀 保) uchun qoidalarni tartibga solish uchun. Xong Bao va boshqalar chet el elchilarini vataniga kuzatib borish uchun jo'natishlari uchun.[92][93] 16 turli davlatlarning elchilarini xazina parki o'z vataniga kuzatib qo'ydi.[94] Ehtimol, birinchi yo'nalishlar Malakka va Sumatraning uchta Lambri, Aru va Semudera shtatlari bo'lgan.[94] Filo Semuderada bir nechta alohida otryadlarga bo'lingan.[91][94][95] Barcha otryadlar Tseylonga yo'l oldilar, keyin ular ajralib chiqishdi Jiayile, Cochin, Ganbaliyoki Hindiston janubidagi Kalikut.[94] Otryadlar u erdan o'z manzillariga qarab sayohat qilishdi Liushan (Maldiv va Lakkadiv orollari), Fors ko'rfazidagi Hormuz, uchta Arab davlati Djofar, Lasa, Adan va Afrikaning ikki shtati - Mogadishu va Brava.[94] Xoja xizmatkori (ehtimol Chjou odam ) alohida otryadni Adanga olib bordi.[91][95][96] Ma Adenning tashrifi munosabati bilan Chjou Man va Li Sinni eslatib o'tadi.[97] Ularning otryadlari ham tashrif buyurgan bo'lishi mumkin Lasa va Djofar.[96] Ga ko'ra Mingshi, Zheng shaxsan o'zi tashrif buyurgan Ganbali[f] 1421 yilda elchi sifatida.[94] Sumatraning g'arbiy qismida joylashgan o'n ikki mamlakatdan bu erga Zhenning o'zi tashrif buyurgani haqida aniq xabar berilgan.[94] Quilonga tashrif buyurilmagan bo'lsa ham, Mogadishu uchun eskadron, ehtimol Quilon yaqinida navigatsiya punkti sifatida ajralib chiqqan, asosiy park esa Kalikutda davom etgan.[96] Kattikutdan Hormuzgacha katta otryad,[96] Lakkadivlar orqali sayohat qilgan bo'lishi mumkin.[96]
Qaytib kelgach, bir nechta otryadlar Kalikutda va butun otryadlar Semuderada yana to'planishdi.[96] Siam, ehtimol, qaytib ketish paytida tashrif buyurgan.[94] 1422 yil 3 sentyabrda flot qaytib keldi.[92][98] Ular o'zlari bilan Siam, Semudera, Aden va boshqa mamlakatlardan mahalliy mahsulotlarga xizmat ko'rsatadigan elchilarni olib kelishdi.[98] Xitoyga flot bilan sayohat qilgan chet el elchilari quruqlikdan yoki orqali o'tib ketishdi Katta kanal 1423 yilda Pekindagi imperatorlik sudiga etib borishdan oldin.[99]
Nankin garnizoni
1421 yil 14-mayda Yongle imperatori safarlarni vaqtincha to'xtatib turishni buyurdi.[g][100] Xazina parki sayohatlari hisobiga imperatorlarning e'tiborlari va mablag'lari yo'naltirildi mo'g'ullarning uchinchi, to'rtinchi va beshinchi yurishlari.[101] 1422-1431 yillarda xazina parki shahar garnizonida xizmat qilish uchun Nankinda qoldi.[102]
1424 yilda Zheng Palembangga diplomatik missiya bilan jo'nab ketdi.[h][103][104] Shu bilan birga, Chju Gaozhi taxtni meros qilib oldi Hongxi imperatori 1424 yil 7-sentyabrda Yongle imperatori vafotidan keyin 1424 yil 12-avgustda.[105][106] O'lgandan keyin Zheng Palembangdan qaytib keldi.[104][107][108]
Hongxi imperatori xazina sayohatlarini qo'llab-quvvatlamadi.[90][109] va 1424 yil 7-sentyabrda u boshqa ishlarni tugatdi.[110][111] U xazina parkini Nankin garnizoni tarkibida saqlagan.[112] Filo ham asl nomini saqlab qoldi Xiafan Guanjun.[112] 1425 yil 24-fevralda u Zhengni Nankinning himoyachisi etib tayinladi va unga shahar mudofaasi uchun xazina parki ustidan qo'mondonligini davom ettirishni buyurdi.[113]
1428 yil 25 martda Syuande imperatori Zheng va boshqalarga qayta qurish va ta'mirlashni nazorat qilishni buyurdi. Buyuk Bao'en ibodatxonasi Nankinda.[114] Ma'bad 1431 yilda qurib bitkazildi,[115] va uni qurish uchun mablag 'xazina sayohatlaridan ajratilgan deb taxmin qilinmoqda.[116]
Ettinchi safar
Gongning ta'kidlashicha, 1430 yil 25-mayda G'arbiy Okean mamlakatlariga Chjen, Vang, Li Xing, Chju Liang, Yang Zhen, Xong Bao va boshqalarni rasmiy ish bilan jo'natish uchun zarur qoidalarni tartibga solish to'g'risida imperatorlik buyrug'i berilgan. .[93] U Yang Tsinga (楊慶), Luo Chjiga (羅 智), Tang Guanboga (唐 觀 保) va Yuan Chengga (袁 誠) murojaat qilgan.[93] 1430 yil 29-iyunda Syuande imperatori ettinchi safarga Chjen va boshqalarga buyruq berdi.[91][99][117] The Xuanzong Shilu Zheng, Vang va boshqalarni ularni hurmat qilish va bo'ysundirish uchun uzoq xorijiy mamlakatlarga jo'natishganligi haqida xabar beradi.[99] Imperator Yongle hukmronligi davrida ilgari surilgan irsiy munosabatlarni tiklashni xohladi.[118] Ettinchi safarga jo'nab ketishdan oldin Zheng va uning sheriklari Liujiagang va Changle yozuvlarini yozib qo'yishgan.[119]
The Xia Xiyang ushbu sayohat uchun sana va marshrut haqida ma'lumot beradi.[men] 1431 yil 19-yanvarda Nankin shahridagi Longvandan (lit. "Ajdaho ko'rfazida") dengiz floti yo'l oldi.[120][121] 23 yanvar kuni flot to'xtadi Xushan, Yantszidagi orol, ekipaj hayvonlarni ovlagan joy.[120][121] 2 fevralda flot Fuzi dovoni (hozirgi Baymaosha kanali) orqali Yangtsi daryosining daryosi tomon suzib o'tib, ertasi kuni (3 fevral) Liujiagangga etib bordi.[120][121] 14 martda u erda Liujiagang yozuvi o'rnatildi.[122] 8 aprelda flot etib keldi va 8 apreldan dekabr oyining o'rtalariga qadar Changlda qoldi.[120][121] Syuande hukmronligining 6-yilining 11-oyiga oid Changle yozuvi ularning yashash muddati tugagandan so'ng o'rnatildi.[122] 1431 yil 16-dekabrda ular Fu Tou Shanga, ehtimol Fujou yaqinida sayohat qilishdi.[121] Xazina parki Vuxumen orqali 1432 yil 12-yanvarda suzib o'tdi.[120][121] 27 yanvarda flot qisqa vaqt ichida poytaxtda to'xtadi Vijaya (hozirgi zamonga yaqin) Qui Nhon ) 12 fevralda jo'nashdan oldin Champa.[121][123] 7 mart kuni flot etib keldi Surabaya, Java.[121][124] Filo 13 iyul kuni jo'nashidan oldin mintaqada qoldi.[121][124] Filo Palembangda 24 - 27 iyul kunlari bo'lgan.[124][125] Palembangdan flot pastga suzib ketdi Musi daryosi, orqali Banka bo'g'ozi va Lingga va Riau arxipelaglaridan o'tib ketdi.[126] Arxipelaglarda qaroqchilar bor edi, ular o'tib ketayotgan kemalarga tahdid qilar edi, ammo ular xazina parkiga hech qanday xavf tug'dirmadi.[126] 3 avgustda xazina parki Malakkaga etib keldi va 2 sentyabrda jo'nab ketdi.[125][126] Filoning navbatdagi yo'nalishi Semudera bo'lib, u erda 12 sentyabrdan 2 noyabrgacha bo'lgan.[125][126] 28 noyabrda flot Seylonda Beruvalaga etib keldi va 2 dekabrda jo'nab ketdi.[125][126][127] Kalikutda 10 - 1432 yil 14-dekabrda to'xtadi,[125][127] 1433 yil 17-yanvarda Hormuzga etib kelgan beforie.[125][128] Xazina parki Hormuzda deyarli ikki oy davomida 1433 yil 9 martda uyga sayohat qilishdan oldin qoldi.[125][128]
— Admiral Chjen Xe va uning sheriklari [129]
Ettinchi sayohatga yozilgan sakkizta yo'nalishdan Xia Xiyang, Hormuz eng g'arbda edi.[128] The Mingshi va boshqa manbalarda jami o'n etti mamlakatga (shu jumladan, yuqorida aytib o'tilgan mamlakatlarni ham o'z ichiga olgan) sayohat tasvirlangan Xia Xiyang).[128][130] Qo'shimcha yo'nalishlar haqida xabar berilgan Mingshi ular Coimbator (Ganbali), Bengal, Lakkadiv va Maldiv orollari zanjirlari, Djofar, Lasa, Adan, Makka, Mogadishu va Brava.[131] Gong jami 20 ta tashrif buyurgan mamlakatlarni yozib oldi.[130] Fey ta'kidlaganidek, sayohat paytida flot Andaman va Nikobar orollari zanjirlarida to'xtadi.[131][132] Uning yozishicha, 1432 yil 14-noyabrda flot etib kelgan Cuilanxu (ehtimol Buyuk Nikobar oroli ) u erda noqulay shamol va to'lqinlar tufayli uch kun davomida langar turgan.[127] Bundan tashqari, u mahalliy erkaklar va ayollar kokos savdosi uchun log qayiqlarida kelishganini yozadi.[127] Dreyer (2007) ma'lumotlariga ko'ra qo'shni Aru, Nagur, Lide va Lambrilarga Sumatraning shimolidagi Semuderaga boradigan yo'lda bir nechta kemalar tashrif buyurgan.[131]
Zheng Mingshi tashriflari munosabati bilan Ganbali (ehtimol Coimatore),[128][133] Lasa,[128][133] Djorfar,[128] Magadishu,[128][133] va Brava.[128][133] Dreyer (2007) ushbu joylarga shaxsan borganligi yoki yo'qligi haqida hisob-kitob aniq emasligini aytadi, ammo Mingshi bu mamlakatlar shohlariga imperatorlik ko'rsatmalarini e'lon qilganligini ko'rsatishi mumkin.[128] Dreyer shuningdek, bunday bo'lmasligi mumkin deb taxmin qilmoqda, chunki flot Kalikutda faqat qisqa to'xtab turar edi (4 kun tashqarida va 9 kunlik uy bekasi), bu quruqlikka sayohat qilish uchun etarli vaqt berolmas edi. Ganbali, agar bu joy Coimatore-ga emas, balki Hindistonning janubidagi boshqa joylarga tegishli bo'lmasa.[134] Quruqlik bo'ylab sayohatni Zhengdan boshqasi amalga oshirgan bo'lishi mumkin.[131] The Mingshining hisoboti Lasa elchilari kelganligini ta'kidlaydilar Lasa, Aden va Brava Zheng bilan Xitoyga sayohat qildilar,[131] demak, agar ularni olib ketayotgan kemalar, agar Zheng ushbu mamlakatlarga shaxsan tashrif buyurgan bo'lsa, ehtimol Kalikutdagi asosiy flot bilan qayta yig'ilgan.[131] Dreyer (2007) alohida otryadlar, ehtimol, Kalikutda uyga sayohat qilish uchun yig'ilgan bo'lishi mumkin, chunki asosiy flot u erda uzoq turmagan.[135]
Xong Ma Bengaliyaga sayohat qilish uchun kelgan bir otryadga buyruq berdi.[131][136] Ular qachon Bengaliya uchun xazina parkidan aniq ajralib chiqqanliklari ma'lum emas.[j] Ular Semuderadan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Bengalga suzib ketishdi.[137] Bengalda ular Chittagong, Sonargaon va nihoyat poytaxt Gaurga sayohat qilishdi.[138] Keyinchalik, ular to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Bengaliyadan Kalikutga suzib ketishdi;[137][138] Chjenning floti Kalikutdan Xormuzga jo'nab ketgan, Xongning otryadlari Kalikutga etib kelganida.[137] Xong Makka uchun mahalliy kemalar tayyorlanayotganini payqadi va u kemani kuzatib borish uchun yetti xitoylikni yubordi[k] Makka tomon yo'l oldi;[139] Ehtimol, etti kishidan biri Ma bo'lgan.[l][140][141] Bir yildan so'ng, etti kishi jirafalar, sherlar va tuyaqushlarni o'z ichiga olgan mol va qimmatbaho buyumlarni olib qaytishdi.[139] Dreyer (2007) Xong Djofar kabi bir qancha boshqa yo'nalishlarga aloqador bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilmoqda. Lasa, Adan, Mogadishu va Brava.[142]
Dreyer (2007) ta'kidlashicha, flot o'tib ketganda quyidagi davlatlarga kemalar ham tashrif buyurgan bo'lishi mumkin: Siam; shimoliy Sumatraning Aru, Nagur, Lide va Lambri shtatlari (Semuderaga suzib ketayotganda); and Quilon and Cochin (when sailing to Calicut).[131] Mills (1970) concludes that Zheng's associates—not Zheng himself—had visited Siam, Aru, Nagur, Lide, Lambri, Nicobar Islands, Bengal, Quilon, Cochi, Coimbatore, Maldive Islands, Dhufar, Lasa, Aden, Mecca, Mogadishu, and Brava.[132] Pelliot (1933) suggests that the squadrons detached from the fleet at Hormuz to travel to Aden, the East African ports and perhaps Lasa.[140]
The Xia Xiyang also provided the dates and itinerary, as described hereafter, for the return route of the seventh voyage.[men] The fleet at Hormuz departed on 9 March 1433 and arrived at Calicut on 31 March before leaving on 9 April.[135][143] The fleet stayed at Semudera from 25 April to 1 May.[135][143] On 9 May, the fleet arrived at Malacca.[135][143] The fleet arrived at the Kunlun Ocean[m] 28 may kuni.[n][143] On 13 June, the fleet arrived at Vijaya (present-day Qiu Nhon) and left on 17 June.[143][144] The Xia Xiyang notes several geographical sightings[o] at this point until the fleet entered Taicang on 7 July.[143][144] The Xia Xiyang notes that it did not record the journey from Taicang to the capital.[143] On 22 July 1433, they arrived in Beijing.[143][145] On 27 July, the Xuande Emperor bestowed ceremonial robes and paper money to the fleet's personnel.[143][145]
Dreyer (2007) states that they did not stop at Ceylon or southern India, because they were sailing under favorable conditions and were yugurish before the southwest monsoon.[135] Ma records that the various detached ships reassembled in Malacca to wait for favorable winds before continuing their return.[140]
Zheng returned with envoys from 11 countries, including one from Mecca.[146] On 14 September 1433, as recorded in the Xuanzong Shilu, the following envoys came to court to present tribute: King Zain al-Abidin of Semudera sent his younger brother Halizhi HanShoh Bilima of Calicut sent his ambassador GebumanduluyaShoh Keyili of Cochin sent his ambassador Jiabubilima, King Parakramabahu VI of Ceylon sent his ambassador Mennidenai, King Ali of Djofar sent his ambassador Hajji Hussein, King Al-Malik az-Zahir Yahya b. Isma'il of Aden sent his ambassador Puba, King Devaraja of Coimbatore sent his ambassador Duansilijian, King Sa'if-ud-Din of Hormuz sent the foreigner Malazu, the King of "Old Kayal" (Jiayile) sent his ambassador Abd-ur-Rahman, and the King of Mecca sent the headman (toumu) Shaxian.[145]
Natijada
Situation near the end
During the course of the voyages, Ming China had become the pre-eminent naval power 15-asr boshlarida.[147] The Yongle imperatori had extended imperial control over foreign lands during the span of the voyages.[148] However, in 1433, the voyages ceased and Ming China turned away from the seas.[149]
The trade flourished long after the voyages had ceased.[150] Chinese ships continued to control the east Asian maritime trade and trade with India and East Africa.[146][151][152] However, the imperial irmoq tizimi over the foreign regions and state monopoly over the foreign trade gradually broke down as time progressed as private trade supplanted the centralized tributary trade.[152][153] Foreign commerce shifted to the domain of local authorities, which further undermined the authority of the central government.[153] The Ming treasure voyages had been a means to establish direct links between the Ming court and foreign tribute states, which had effectively outflanked both private channels of trade and local civil officials who were sabotaging the prohibitions against overseas exchange.[148]
The nobility and military were an important part of the ruling elite during the Xongvu and Yongle reigns.[154] Over time, the political power gradually shifted to the civil officials;[154] as a consequence, the eunuch faction was unable to gather enough support to initiate projects opposed by the civil government.[154] Civil officials remained wary of future attempts by the eunuchs to restart the treasure voyages.[154] Moreover, no later emperor would seriously consider undertaking new expeditions.[155] The withdrawal of Ming China's treasure fleet left an enormous void in the dominance over the Indian Ocean.[156]
Causes of cessation
It is not exactly known why the voyages completely ended in 1433.[157] Duyvendak (1939) suggests that the cessation of the expeditions was partly due to the considerable expenses,[158] but Ray (1987), Finlay (1992), and Dreyer (2007) note that the costs for undertaking the voyages had not overburdened the Ming treasury.[159][160][161] Ray (1987) adds that the Ming treasure voyages were a profitable enterprise and rejects the notion that the voyages were terminated because they were wasteful, costly, or uneconomic.[159]
Even though civil officials had ill feelings towards eunuchs for their overbearing nature and interference in state affairs, much of the hostility that came to characterize the relationship between the officials and eunuchs manifested long after the voyages ended, when eunuchs wielded their power to enrich themselves through extortion and persecute their critics.[162][163] According to Lo (1958) and Ray (1987), the hostility between these factions can not explain the cessation of the voyages.[162][163] Lo (1958) also notes that Zheng was on friendly terms with many high officials and was respected by them,[162] while Ray (1987) mentions that eunuchs such as Zheng and Hou were held in high esteem by the court.[163] The voyages were also favorably depicted in contemporary records.[162][163]
Ray (1987) states that the cessation of the Ming treasure voyages primarily happened as traders and bureaucrats, for reasons of economic self-interest and through their connections in Beijing, gradually collapsed the framework supporting both the state-controlled maritime enterprise and the strict regulation of the private commerce that was subjected to prohibitive policies.[164] Similarly, Lo (1958) states that rich and influential individuals used their connections in Beijing to undermine efforts to restore the trade to official channels and possibly revive the voyages, because they tried to safeguard their interests and were antagonistic to the government's monopoly of foreign trade.[152]
Ta'sir
Goals and consequences
The voyages were diplomatic, militaristic, and commercial in nature.[19][165] They were conducted to establish imperial control over the maritime trade,[6][147] to bring the maritime trade into the irmoq tizimi,[166] and to force foreign countries to comply with the tributary system.[147][166][167] The diplomatic aspect comprised the announcement of the Yongle imperatori 's accession to the throne, the establishment of hegemony over the foreign countries, and safe passage to foreign envoys who came bearing tribute.[168]
The Chinese did not seek territorial control, as they were primarily motivated by the political and economic control across space entailing a domination over a vast network with its ports and shipping lanes.[169] Finlay (2008) underscores the goal of controlling maritime commerce in which the Ming treasure voyages are regarded as an attempt to reconcile China's need for maritime commerce with the government's suppression of the private aspects, representing "a deployment of state power to bring into line the reality of seaborne commerce with an expansive conception of Chinese hegemony."[148] The trading centers along the maritime routes were kept open to other foreign people in a joint effort to further promote international trade.[170] Neither the pursuit for exclusive access nor the forceful integration of foreign countries' wealth (through exclusive exploitation by removal of natural or human resources) was a feature of the expeditions.[171]
The voyages changed the organization of a maritime network, utilizing and creating nodes and conduits in its wake, and restructured international and cross-cultural relationships and exchanges.[172] It was especially impactful as no other odob-axloq had exerted naval dominance over all sectors of the Indian Ocean prior to the these voyages.[173] The Ming promoted alternative nodes as a strategy to establish control over the network.[174] For instance, due to crucial Chinese involvement, ports such as Malakka (in Southeast Asia), Cochin (on the Malabar Coast), and Malindi (on the Swahili Coast) grew as key contenders to other important and established ports.[p][175] Through the voyages, Ming China intervened with the local affairs of foreign states and asserted itself in foreign lands.[172] The Chinese had installed or supported friendly local regimes, captured or executed rivals of local authorities, and threatened hostile local rulers into compliance.[176] The appearance of the Ming treasure fleet generated and intensified competition among contending polities and rivals, each seeking an alliance with the Ming.[176]
The voyages brought about the Western Ocean's mintaqaviy integratsiya and the increase in international circulation of people, ideas, and goods.[172] It provided a platform for kosmopolit discourses, which took place in locations such as the ships of the Ming treasure fleet, the Ming capitals of Nanjing as well as Beijing, and the banquet receptions organized by the Ming court for foreign representatives.[172] Diverse groups of people from across the maritime countries congregated, interacted, and traveled together as the Ming treasure fleet sailed from and to Ming China.[172] For the first time in its history, as Sen (2016) emphasizes, the maritime region from China to Africa was under the dominance of a single imperial power and allowed for the creation of a cosmopolitan space.[177]
Another purpose of the Chinese expeditions was the maintenance of political-ideological control across the region.[171] In this regard, foreigners needed to acknowledge that China was the supraordinate power in the region, not cause disturbances towards neighboring territories, and accept the tributary system out of their own interest.[171] Foreign rulers were compelled to acknowledge the inherent moral and cultural superiority of China, an obligation expressed by paying homage and presenting tribute before the Ming court.[178] The Chinese had the intention to civilize the many foreign peoples by bringing them into formal submission within Ming China's greater world order.[178] During the course of the voyages, the Yongle Emperor reasserted the political and cultural hegemony of Ming China over all others.[6] The cultural aspect of the voyages appears in the Liujiagang inscription, stating that "those among the foreigners who were resisting the transforming influence (genghua) of Xitoy madaniyati and were disrespectful, we captured alive, and brigands who indulged in violence and plunder, we ex-terminated [sic ]. Consequently the sea-route was purified and tranquillised [sic ] and the natives were enabled quietly to pursue their avocations."[179]
The treasure fleet was, as Mills (1970) characterizes, "an instrument of aggression and political dominance."[6] It brought forth the manifestation of China's power and wealth to awe foreign lands under Chinese hegemony.[180][181] This was actualized by showing the Ming flag and establishing a military presence along the maritime trade routes.[182] Diplomatic relationships were based on a mutually beneficial maritime commerce and a visible presence of a Chinese militaristic naval force in foreign waters.[183] The Ming Chinese naval superiority was a crucial factor in this interaction, namely because it was inadvisable to risk punitive action from the Chinese fleet.[169] In addition, the worthwhile and profitable nature of the Ming treasure voyages for foreign countries was a persuading factor to comply.[183]
There is a theory, considered very unlikely, suggesting that the voyages were initiated to search for the dethroned Tszianven imperatori.[9][19][184] This search is mentioned as a reason for the voyages in the later Mingshi.[19][185] As the Yongle Emperor usurped the throne, he may have actually sought to legitimize his reign by forcing the foreign countries to recognize their tributary status within Ming China's greater world order.[183][186][187] To this end, according to Wang (1998), the Yongle Emperor announced his intent to find the deposed Jianwen Emperor may have served no more than a public justification for the voyages in face of the prohibitive policies for military actions overseas from the Hongwu reign.[183] Another theory, also considered very unlikely, explains that the voyages were a response to another power across Asia: the Timurid state ning Tamerlan, an enemy of Ming China.[9] However, Ming China was left unchallenged by the Timurid after Tamerlane's death in 1405, because the new Timurid ruler Shohruh (r. 1405–1447) normalized diplomatic relations with China and was preoccupied with holding his state together.[9] There is no evidence for both theories in contemporary historical sources, so they lack the support and conformation to be accepted.[9]
Siyosat va boshqaruv
Chjen Xe served as the Grand Director in the Directorate of Palace Servants, a eunuch-dominated department, before his appointment to command the expeditions.[188] Construction projects were usually the domain of eunuchs, who were often assigned to supervise them.[188] The treasure fleet's construction was not different in that eunuchs were assigned to supervise it, while the military was assigned to carry it out.[5] Civil officials criticized the state expenses brought by the fleet's construction, but the emperor was set to continue his grand plans.[5]
In the Ming court, the civil officials were the faction who opposed the voyages.[160][186][189] In contrast, the eunuch establishment stood at the head of the fleet and the expeditions.[149][157][186][189] The civil officials condemned the expeditions as extravagant and wasteful,[189][190] but the Yongle Emperor was unconcerned about the costs of the voyages and was determined to complete them.[191] Traditionally, the civil officials were not only political opponents to the eunuch faction,[149][186][189] but also to the military who crewed the fleet.[186] This political and institutional disadvantage within the state system contributed to the inherent opposition of civil officials against the voyages.[186][189][192] On cultural grounds, the civil officials were hostile to the voyages, because the trade and acquisition of strange foreign goods conflicted with their Confucian ideologies.[189][190][193][194] The undertaking of these expeditions only remained possible as long as the eunuchs maintained imperial favor.[157][195]
The Xongvu imperatori was wary of the political and social consequences that maritime commerce could bring,[196][197] so he sought to restrain it by outlawing private maritime trade.[198][199] This policy continued well into the Yongle Emperor's reign.[198][199] In addition, the Yongle Emperor aimed at consolidating imperial control over maritime commerce, stopping the coastal criminality and disorder, providing employment for mariners and entrepreneurs, exporting Chinese products to foreign markets, importing desired goods for Chinese consumers, extending the tributary system, and displaying imperial majesty to the seas.[200] The voyages functioned as trade commissions in the government's attempts to regulate maritime commerce by establishing an imperial monopoly over it and incorporating it into the tributary system.[148] There was supposedly an idea about a foreign policy comprising an extended foreign trade supported by a heavy military naval presence and a cultivation of shared interests with local allies.[180]
The emperor's interest in the voyages was the highest during the period spanning the first three voyages, but he became more occupied with his offensive military campaigns against the Mongols after establishing the capital at Pekin.[201] By the fourth voyage, the emperor showed interest in the expansion of trade and diplomatic activity to West Asia.[202] Therefore, the Chinese sought and employed Persian and Arabic interpreters, such as Ma Huan and Guo Chongli, to accompany the fleet.[202] After the capital was transferred from Nankin to Beijing, the south and the seas were given less and less attention from emperors and officials alike.[70] The Hongxi Emperor wished to revert his predecessor's relocation of the capital, but he died on 29 May 1425 before he could do so;[113][203] unga muvaffaqiyat qozondi Syuande imperatori who remained in Beijing.[204] In contrast to the Hongxi Emperor who relied on civil officials during his reign, the Xuande Emperor relied on eunuchs.[205] Dreyer (2007) states that the prospects for the voyages would have been better if the capital was relocated back to Nanjing, because the court would have been near the Longjiang shipyards where most of the ships were built and where the voyages started.[154]
Moliya vaziri Xia Yuanji (夏原吉) was a vocal opponent to the treasure voyages.[106][206][207] The Hongxi Emperor was also fiercely against the treasure voyages throughout his reign.[90] After taking Xia's advice, the emperor ordered the cessation of the treasure voyages on 7 September 1424, the day of his accession to the throne.[106] Qachon Syuande imperatori ordered the seventh voyage, he went against the general court opinion.[118]
After 1433, the civil officials succeeded in halting subsequent maritime expeditions.[192] The ships were left to rot and their lumber was sold for fuel in Nanjing.[192] The mariners were reassigned to load grain on barges of the Katta kanal and to build the emperor's mausoleum.[192] After the voyages, subsequent Ming emperors would reject the Yongle Emperor's policy of bringing the maritime trade into the structure of the tributary system.[149]
Personnel and organization
The Chinese fleet comprised an array of ships, each of which fulfilled specialized functions.[208][209] Har biri xazina kemasi was crewed by about 500 men according to Mills (1970)[210] or at least 600 men according to Finlay (1992).[211] The high-ranking officers—Admiral Zheng He and his associates—were from the eunuch faction.[212] The crew was predominantly from the Ming military[212] and was primarily recruited from Fujian.[184][213]
There were seven Grand Directors (taijian) who served as the ambassadors and commanders of the fleet, and were followed by 10 Junior Directors (shaojian): they were all eunuchs.[214][215] Zheng was one of the Grand Directors.[214] In total, there were 70 eunuchs in command of the treasure fleet.[214] They oversaw 2 brigadiers (du zhihuishi), 93 captains (zhihuishi), 104 lieutenants (qianhu), and 103 sub-lieutenants (bohu).[q][214][215] There were also 180 medical personnel, a Ministry of Finance bureau director,[r] two secretaries, two Court of State Ceremonial protocol officers,[lar] an astrological officer, and four astrologers.[215][216] The personnel also had guard judges (wei zhenfu) and battalion judges (suo zhenfu).[214] The remaining personnel included petty officers (qixiao yoki quanxiao), brave corps (yongshi), power corps (lishi),[t] military soldiers (referred as guanjun, "official soldiers", or qijun, "flag soldiers"), supernumeraries (yuding), boatsman (minshao), buyers (maiban), and clerks (shushou).[216][217]
Zhu Yunming's Xia Xiyang records the following personnel: officers and petty officers (guanxiao), askarlar (qijun), mess leaders (huozhang), helmsman (tuogong), anchormen (bandingshou), interpreters (tongshi), business managers (banshi), accountants (susuanshi), doctors (yishi), anchor mechanics (tiemiao), caulkers (munian), sailmakers (dacai), sailors (shuishou), and boatmen (minshaoren).[216][217]
The Liujiagang inscriptions record Zheng He (鄭和) and Wang Jinghong (王景弘) as the principal envoys.[218] It also records Zhu Liang (朱良), Zhou Man (周滿), Hong Bao (洪保), Yang Zhen (楊真), and Zhang Da (張達) as deputy envoys.[218] The Changle inscription repeats this, but adds Li Xing (李興) and Wu Zhong (吳忠) as deputy envoys.[218] All envoys are recorded to have carried the rank of Grand Director in both inscriptions, except Zhang Da who was reported with the rank of Senior Assistant Director in the Liujiagang inscription and the rank of Grand Director in the Changle inscription.[218] Additionally, the Changle inscription mentions Zhu Zhen (朱真) and Wang Heng (王衡) as the brigadiers.[213][218] These people and unnamed "others" are mentioned on the respective inscriptions as those who have composed it.[218] The Changle inscription also mentions that the Daoist priest Yang Yichu (楊一初) begged to erect the respective stele.[218]
For the first voyage, the fleet had a personnel of 27,800[22] or 27,870 men[17][24] and 317 ships.[15][17][24] The Mingshi states that there was a crew of 27,800 men and that 62 of the ships were treasure ships, though Dreyer (2007) suggests the possibility of an extra treasure ship.[32] Tan Qian's (談遷) Guoque (國確) records 63 treasure ships and a crew of 27,870 for the first voyage.[32] The Zuiweilu records a personnel of 37,000, but this is probably an error.[32] Yan Congjian's (嚴從簡) Shuyu Zhouzilu records an imperial order for the construction of 250 ships specifically for the voyages to the Western Ocean:[32] it is actually two separate imperial orders—as recorded in the Taizong Shilu—both of which were issued to the Nanjing's capital guards for 200 ships (海運船 haiyunchuan; yoqilgan "seagoing transport ships") on 4 September 1403 and for 50 ships (海船 haichuan; yoqilgan "seagoing ships") on 1 March 1404.[219] Biroq, Taizong Shilu did not record the purpose of these 250 ships.[220] It also records an imperial order issued on 2 March 1404 for Fujian to construct five ships (haichuan) to be used in the voyages to the Western Ocean.[32] These 255 ships plus the 62 treasure ships add up to 317 ships.[u][32]
For the second voyage, it is thought that the treasure fleet comprised 249 ships.[40][198] On 5 October 1407, as the Taizong Shilu records, Wang Hao was ordered to supervise the conversion of 249 ships in preparation for embassies to the countries at the Western Ocean.[221] This was close to the date when the second voyage was ordered, thus the fleet likely comprised these 249 ships for the second voyage.[220] The number of treasure ships[42] or personnel[40][42] ma'lum emas.
For the third voyage, Fei Xin's Xingcha Shenglan records that the fleet had 48 haibo (海舶; lit. "ocean traders") and a crew of over 27,000.[222] Dreyer (2007) states that Fei was probably referring to the treasure ships as haibo.[223] Yan's Shuyu Zhouzilu and Lu Rong's Shuyuan Zaji use the term "treasure ship" instead when they mention the 48 ships for this voyage.[222] Coincidently, the Taizong Shilu records the imperial order issued on 14 February 1408 for the construction of 48 treasure ships to the Ministry of Works at Nanjing;[222] these were possibly the 48 treasure ships for the third voyage.[222] Dreyer (2007) states that the treasure fleet likely had an undisclosed array of support ships besides the 48 treasure ships.[222]
Ma's Yingya Shenglan records 63 treasure ships for the fourth voyage,[224] which were probably accompanied by support ships.[224] The fleet was crewed by 28,560[67][70] or 27,670 men.[73] Fei records a personnel of 27,670 for this voyage, but another source records 28,560.[224]
There is no record for the number of ships or personnel for the fifth voyage.[80][224]
On 2 October 1419, an order was issued for the construction of 41 treasure ships from an undisclosed shipbuilder.[225] It is possible that Zheng used these ships for the sixth voyage.[94] Most scholars conclude that these were likely used for the sixth voyage,[224] but many other treasure ships had already been constructed or were in construction by that time.[226] There is no specific figure for the ships or personnel of the sixth voyage.[224] The treasure fleet probably made use of several dozen of the treasure ships each accompanied by half a dozen support vessels.[94]
For the seventh voyage, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions speak of over a hundred large ships (巨舶 jubo; yoqilgan "giant ships").[224] Dreyer (2007) suggests that this probably included most of the remaining treasure ships,[224] which were likely accompanied by support ships.[224] In Xia Xiyang, Zhu Yunming gives the names of several ships—Qinghe (清和; "pure harmony"), Huikang (惠康; "kind repose"), O'zgarish (長寧; "lasting tranquility"), Anji (安濟; "peaceful crossing"), and Tsinyuan (清遠; "pure distance")—and notes that there were also ships designated by a series number.[130] The fleet had 27,550 men as personnel for the voyage.[121][224]
Harbiy ishlar
Before the voyages, there was turmoil around the seas near the Chinese coast and distant Southeast Asian maritime regions, characterized by piracy, banditry, slave trade, or other illicit activities.[227] The treasure fleet had a large number of warships to protect their precious cargo and to secure the maritime routes.[227] They established a substantial Chinese military presence around the Janubiy Xitoy dengizi and trading cities in southern India.[44] The early stages of the voyages were especially characterized by highly militaristic objectives, as the Chinese stabilized the sea passages from hostile entities as well as strengthened their own position and maintained their status in the region.[228] Even though Zheng sailed through the oceans with a military force larger and stronger than any local power, there is no written evidence in historical sources that there was any attempt that they forcibly tried to control the maritime trade in the regions of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.[54] Dreyer (2007) adds that foreign nations must have seen a "terrifying apparition" when the large Chinese fleet came within visible reach before their coastlines, bringing any state into submission by the sole sight of it alone.[229] From the fourth voyage onwards, the treasure fleet ventured further than their usual end-destination of Calicut to lands beyond where there would be less direct hostilities.[230]
The fleet engaged and defeated Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet in Palembang, Alakeshvara's forces in Ceylon, and Sekandar's forces in Semudera, bringing security and stability of the maritime routes via Chinese control.[231] These actors were viewed as hostile threats in their regions and the battles served as a reminder of the tremendous power of Ming China to the countries along the maritime routes.[182]
Malabar qirg'og'ida, Kalikut va Cochin kuchli raqobatda edilar, shuning uchun Min Cochin va uning hukmdoriga maxsus maqom berib, aralashishga qaror qildi. Keyili (可 亦 里).[232] Beshinchi safarda Zheng Hega muhr berishni buyurdilar Keyili Cochin va uning shohligida tog'ni eng Zhenguo Zhi Shan (鎮 國 之 山, mamlakatni himoya qiladigan tog ').[232] U Yongle imperatori tomonidan yozilgan tosh lavhani Cochin-ga etkazib berdi.[232] As long as Cochin remained under the protection of Ming China, the Kalikutdan Zamorin could not invade Cochin and a military conflict was averted.[232] When the Ming treasure voyages ceased Cochin was eventually invaded by Calicut.[232]
Yilda Malakka, xitoyliklar faol ravishda tijorat markazini va ichiga sayohatlar uchun operatsiya bazasini rivojlantirishga intildilar Hind okeani.[174] Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to both Ma and Fei, and was a vassal region of Siam.[174] 1405 yilda Ming sudi Zheng Xeni Malakaning G'arbiy tog'ini o'rab turgan tosh lavhani va shuningdek, portning maqomini bir mamlakatga ko'targan imperator buyrug'ini yubordi.[174] Xitoyliklar o'z askarlari uchun mustahkam kanton sifatida hukumat omborini (官 官) tashkil etishdi.[174] Filo dengiz mintaqasidagi boshqa yo'nalishlardan sayohat qilgan va yig'ilganligi sababli u omborxona vazifasini bajargan.[170] Ma Xuanning xabar berishicha, Siam bundan keyin Malakkani bosib olishga jur'at etmagan.[174] Malakka hukmdorlari, masalan qirol Paramesvara 1411 yilda Xitoy imperatoriga shaxsan o'lpon to'laydi.[174] 1431 yilda Malakka vakili Siam Ming sudiga o'lpon topshirish ishlariga xalaqit berayotgani to'g'risida shikoyat qilganida, Syuande imperatori Zheng Xeni siyam qiroliga tahdid soluvchi xabar yuborgan: "Sen, qirol mening buyruqlarimni hurmat qil, qo'shnilaring bilan yaxshi munosabatlarni rivojlantir. bo'ysunuvchilaringizni tekshiring va ularga ko'rsatma bering va ehtiyotsizlik va tajovuzkorlik qilmang. "[174]
Diplomacy and commerce
The treasure ships had an enormous cargo comprising various products.[233] The commodities that the fleet's ships carried included three major categories: gifts to be offered to rulers, money for exchange of goods or payment of goods with fixed prices at low rates (e.g. gold, silver, copper coins, and paper money), and luxury items that China monopolized (e.g. musks, ceramics, and silks).[234] It was said that there were sometimes so many Chinese goods unloaded into an Indian port that it could take months to price everything.[13][235] In turn, Zheng returned to China with many kinds of tribute goods, such as kumush, spices, sandal daraxti, qimmatbaho toshlar, fil suyagi, qora daraxt, kofur, qalay, deer hides, mercan, qirg'oqchi feathers, tortoise shells, milklar va qatron, rhinoceros horn, sapanwood and safflower (for dyes and drugs), Indian cotton cloth, and ambergris (for perfume).[233] The ships even brought back exotic animals, such as ostriches, elephants, and giraffes.[233] The imports from the voyages provided large quantities of economic goods that fueled China's own industries.[235] For example, there was so much cobalt oxide from Persia that the chinni industry at Jingdejen Safarlardan keyin o'nlab yillar davomida mo'l-ko'l ta'minot mavjud edi.[233] The fleet also returned with a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity in Chinese society.[233][236]
The treasure voyages resulted in a flourishing Ming economy and significantly boosted the lucrative maritime commerce.[237][238][239] The expeditions developed into a maritime trade enterprise where the Chinese began trading and supplying the commodities that were non-Chinese in origin.[234] This highlighted the commercial character of the voyages in which the Chinese expanded upon the already large profits from their trade.[234] The impact of the expeditions on commerce was on multiple levels: it established imperial control over local private commercial networks, expanded tributary relations and thereby brought commerce under state supervision, established court-supervised transactions at foreign ports and thereby generate substantial revenue for both parties, and increased production and circulation of commodities across the region.[240] The voyages induced a sudden supply shock in the Eurasian market, where the Chinese maritime exploits in Asia led to disruptions of European imports with sudden price spikes in the early 15th century.[241]
Imperial proclamations were issued to foreign kings, meaning that they could either submit and be bestowed with rewards or refuse and be pacified under the threat of an overwhelming military force.[141][242] Chet el shohlari o'lpon taqdim etish orqali Xitoy imperatorining yuqori maqomini tan olishlarini tasdiqlashlari kerak edi.[243] Taqdim etgan hukmdorlar siyosiy himoya va moddiy mukofotlar oldilar.[210][244] Ko'pgina mamlakatlar irmoq sifatida ro'yxatga olingan.[157] Xazina parki ko'plab xorijiy elchilarni Xitoyga va orqaga tashishni amalga oshirdi, ammo ba'zi elchilar mustaqil ravishda sayohat qildilar.[245]
Geografiya va jamiyat
During the onset of their voyages, the treasure fleet would embark from the Longjiang shipyard, north-west of Nankin.[246] They would then sail down the Yangtze daryosi ga Liujiagang.[246] Once there, Zheng would organize his fleet and make sacrifices to the goddess Tianfei.[246] Over the course of the following four to eight weeks, the fleet would gradually proceed to Taiping anchorage in O'zgarish, Fujian,[246] and wait there for the favorable shimoliy-sharqiy qishgi musson[v] before leaving the Fujian coast.[26][246][247] They would reach the sea through the Wuhumen and mostly sailed through established trade routes to other regions.[26][150] Porti Qui Nhon yilda Champa was always the first foreign destination that the fleet visited.[25]
During the first three voyages from 1405 to 1411, the fleet followed the same basic maritime route: from Fujian to the first call in Champa, bo'ylab Janubiy Xitoy dengizi ga Java va Sumatra, yuqoriga Malakka bo'g'ozi shimoliy tomonga Sumatra for assembly of the fleet, across the Hind okeani ga Seylon, keyin Malabar qirg'og'i ga Kalikut.[248] At the time, the fleet sailed no further than Calicut.[230][208] During the fourth voyage, the route was extended to Hormuz.[249][208] During the fifth, sixth, and seventh voyages, the fleet traveled further to destinations in the Arabiston yarim oroli va Sharqiy Afrika.[249][208] For the sixth voyage, the treasure fleet sailed up to Calicut, where several detached squadrons proceeded to further destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[249] For the seventh voyage, the treasure fleet followed the route up to Hormuz, while detached squadrons traveled to the other far-lying destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[249]
The treasure fleet sailed the equatorial and subtropical waters of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, where they were dependent on the circumstances of the annual cycle of monsoon winds.[250][251] Therefore, the fleet's navigators precisely organized the voyages under careful considerations of the periodical patterns of the tropical and subtropical monsoon.[251] For the southward route from Changle in China to Surabaya in Java, the fleet followed the northeast wind, crossed the Ekvator (where the northeast wind changes into the northwest wind due to the Koriolis kuchi ), and then followed the northwest wind.[252] At Java, the fleet waited for the arrival of the tropical southeast wind in the Janubiy yarim shar and used it to sail towards Sumatra.[252] At Sumatra, the fleet was halted due to the change of the southeast wind into a strong southwest wind at a northern latitude close to the equator and waited until next winter for the northeast wind.[252] For the northwestward route towards Calicut and Hormuz, the Chinese took advantage of the northeastern wind.[252] The return journey was set during the late summer and early autumn because favorable monsoon winds were present at that time.[253] The fleet left Hormuz before the southwestern monsoon arrived over the Indian Ocean.[252] They made use of the northern wind for the southward journey from Hormuz to Calicut.[252] For the eastward journey from Sumatra, the fleet used the newly-arrived southwestern monsoon over the eastern parts of the Indian Ocean.[252] After the fleet passed through the Strait of Malacca, the fleet caught up with the southwest wind over the South China Sea to sail back to China.[252] As maritime conditions were limited by the monsoon winds, squadrons were detached from the main fleet to diverge to specific destinations.[252] The first point of divergence was Sumatra from where a squadron would travel to Bengal.[252] The second point of divergence was Calicut, from where ships sailed to Hormuz as well as other destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[252] Malacca was the rendezvous point where the squadrons would reassemble for the final leg of the return journey.[252]
During all the voyages, the fleet departed from Sumatra to sail westward across the Indian Ocean.[254] Northern Sumatra was an important region for the fleet's anchorage and assembly before they proceeded through the Indian Ocean to Ceylon and southern India.[72] Its location was more important to the fleet than its wealth or products.[126] Ma wrote that Semudera was the main route to the Western Ocean and characterized it as the most important port of assembly for the Western Ocean.[72][255] The journey from Sumatra to Ceylon took about two to four weeks without seeing land.[247] The first part of Ceylon that became visible after departure from Sumatra was Namanakuli (or Parrot's Beak Mountain), the easternmost mountain (6680 ft in elevation and 45 miles away from the coast).[254] Two or three days after its sighting, the treasure fleet adjusted their course to sail south of Dondra Xed at Ceylon.[254] After a considerable long time at sea since leaving Sumatra, the fleet arrived at a port in Ceylon, usually at Beruvala and sometimes at Galle.[256] Even though it stopped at both locations, it preferred Beruwala over Galle.[51] Ma characterized Beruwala as "the wharf of the country of Ceylon."[51]
Ming China had cordial relations with Calicut, which was valuable as they tried to extend the tributary system to the states around the Indian Ocean.[180] Ma described Calicut as the "great country of the Western Ocean" and had a positive response to the Calicut authorities' regulation of trade and attention to weights and measurements.[31][72] Fei described Calicut as the "great harbor" of the Western Ocean countries.[128]
During the voyages, the fleet acquired and collected a large amount of navigational data:[257] these were specifically recorded by the astrological officer and his four astrologers.[258] The navigational data were processed into different types of charts by a cartographic office,which included an astrological officer, four astrologers, and their clerks.[257][258] It provided the expeditionary commanders with the necessary navigational charts for their voyages.[257] Many copies of the expeditionary charts were housed in the Harbiy vazirlik.[257] Additional navigational data were probably also supplied by local maritime pilots, Arab records, Indian records, and earlier Chinese records.[258]
The Mao Kun xaritasi is associated with the voyages' routes.[259] The map is collected in the Wubei Zhi, compiled by Mao Yuanyi.[260] It depicts various geographic locations, from Nanjing to Hormuz as well as the East African coast, with routes illustrated by dotted lines.[260] The directions are expressed by kompas points and distances, with references to navigational techniques (such as chuqurlik ovozi to avoid shallow waters) and astronomy (particularly along the north–south route of Africa where the latitude is determined by the height of constellations relative to the horizon).[260] The distances are expressed by time according to a watch system (two hour periods).[260] The Mao Kun map is appended by four stellar diagrams that are used to determine the position of the ship in relation to the stars and constellations on specific sections of the maritime route.[260]
Faith and ceremony
— Admiral Zheng He and his associates about witnessing Tianfei 's divine lantern, which represented the natural phenomena Avliyo Elmo olovi [129]
The faith of the treasure fleet's crew centered around Tianfei, the "Heavenly Princess" who was the goddess of sailors and seafarers.[261] The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions suggest that Zheng's life was mostly defined by the treasure voyages and that his devotion to Tianfei was the dominant faith that he adhered to.[262] The two inscriptions honored and commemorated the goddess Tianfei.[263] Zheng and his associates established these inscriptions at the temples of Tianfei at Liujiagang on 14 March 1431 and Changle between 5 December 1431 and 3 January 1432.[264] These inscriptions make reference to the crew witnessing Avliyo Elmo olovi during dangerous storms and interpreting it as a sign of divine protection by Tianfei.[265] Liujiagang va Changl yozuvlari Min xazinasi sayohatlarining epitafiyalari hisoblanadi.[119]
Yilda Galle, Tseylon, Zheng a tashkil etdi uch tilli yozuv 1409 yil 15-fevralda.[w][50][266] Yozuv uch tilda bo'lib, ularda Xitoy bo'limi maqtagan Budda, Tamil bo'limida mahalliy xudo Tenavaray Nayanarni maqtashdi (mujassam bo'lgan Vishnu ) va forscha bo'lim maqtovga sazovor bo'ldi Alloh.[266] Har bir bo'limda 1000 dona oltin, 5000 dona kumush, 100 dona ipak, 2500 katy parfyum moyi va turli xil bronza bezaklar kabi qurbonliklar ro'yxati mavjud.[51][267] Ushbu yozuvdan ko'rinib turibdiki, xitoyliklar Seylonda uchta hukmron dinlarga hurmat bilan qarashgan.[261][266]
1414 yil 20 sentyabrda Bengaliya elchilari qirol nomiga jirafani o'lpon sifatida taqdim etishdi Sayfiddin Hamza Shoh Bengal (1410–1412 yy.) Yingle imperatori Xitoyga.[268] Jirafa sifatida taqdim etildi qilinmoqda, ammo Yongle imperatori ushbu uyushmani bekor qildi va uning rasmiylarini maqtovli jo'natishlarini istamadi yodgorliklar uning hukmronligi davrida uning muvaffaqiyatli ko'rinishi nomidan.[269]
Yozuvlar va adabiyotlar
Bir qancha zamonaviy hisoblar, shu jumladan Ma Xuan "s Yingya Shenglan [瀛 涯 勝 覽],[x] Fey Sin "s Xingcha Shenglan [星槎 勝 覽], va Gong Zhen "s Xiyang Fanguo Zhi [西洋 番 國 志].[270][271] Ma to'rtinchi, oltinchi va ettinchi safarlarda tarjimon bo'lib xizmat qildi;[138][272] Guo Chongli Ma ning hamkori edi Yingya Shenglan va ekspeditsiyalarning uchtasida qatnashdi;[273] Fey uchinchi, beshinchi va ettinchi ekspeditsiyada askar bo'lib xizmat qilgan;[272][274] va Gong ettinchi safarda Zhengning shaxsiy kotibi bo'lib ishlagan.[272][275] Ushbu uchta manba butun sayohatlar davomida tashrif buyurgan mamlakatlarning siyosiy, iqtisodiy, ijtimoiy, madaniy va diniy sharoitlarini kuzatish imkonini beradi.[276] Bundan tashqari, Liujiagang va Changle yozuvlari Chjen va uning sheriklari tomonidan qimmatli yozuvlar hisoblanadi.[277]
The Ming Shilu xazina sayohatlari bilan bog'liq ko'plab ma'lumotlarni taqdim etadi,[278][276] ayniqsa, elchilar almashinuvi.[276] Asar Min imperatorlari hukmronligi haqida alohida bo'limlarga bo'lingan.[278] Zheng beshta Ming imperatori davrida yashagan,[278] ammo u to'g'ridan-to'g'ri uchta imperatorga xizmat qildi.[279] U haqida Taizong Shilu Yongle hukmronligining Renzong Shilu Hongxi hukmronligi va Xuanzong Shilu Syuande hukmronligi.[278] The Taizong Shilu ikkinchi va uchinchi sayohatlarni bitta ekspeditsiyaga birlashtirdi,[280][281] 1424 yildan 1425 yilgacha bo'lgan Zhengning Palembang safarini noto'g'ri tuzgan[y] uning ettinchi safari o'rniga oltinchi safar sifatida.[108][280][281] Biroq, Liujiagang va Changle yozuvlari ikkinchi va uchinchi sayohatlarni aniq ajratib turadi, chunki ular ikkinchi safarni 1407 yildan 1409 yilgacha va uchinchi safarni 1409 dan 1411 yilgacha belgilashgan.[280][282][283] The Taizong Shilu ortidan Ming tarixi.[281][284]
Keyingi qator asarlar saqlanib qolgan. Ming tarixi (1739) va Xuang Sinzengning qaydlari Xiyang Chaogong Dianlu [西洋 朝貢 典 錄] (1520) ga ishonadi Yingya Shenglan.[285] Zheng Siaoning Wuxuebian [吾 學 編] (taxminan 1522) Chjan Shengnikiga tayanadi rifacimento ning Yingya Shenglan.[z][285] Chju Yunmingniki Qianwen Ji ("Bir marta eshitilgan narsalar haqida yozuv") (taxminan 1526) uning Xia Xiyang (下 西洋; lit. "G'arbiy okean bo'ylab"), bu ettinchi sayohatning marshrutini batafsil taqdim etadi.[262][286] Lu Rongniklari ham bor Shuyuan Zaji (菽 園 雜記; lit. "Bean Garden Miscellany") (1475),[287] Yan Gongjian "s Shuyu Zhouzilu (殊 域 周 咨 錄; "Turli mamlakatlarga tegishli jo'natmalarning yozuvi") (1520),[287] va Gu Qiyuan "s Kezuo Zhuiyu (客座 贅 語); "Mening mehmonlarim uchun zerikarli suhbatlar") (taxminan 1628).[287] Mao Yuanyi "s Wubei Zhi (武 備 志) (1628) asosan xazina sayohatlari materiallariga asoslangan Mao Kun xaritasini [茅 坤 圖] saqlaydi.[287]
Luo Maodengniki Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi (三寶 太監 下 西洋 記 記 通俗 演義 演義) (1597) - Admiral Chjen Xe va uning flotining ekspluatlari haqida roman.[272][288] Muqaddimada Luo Xitoy dengiz kuchi dunyo tartibini saqlash uchun juda zarur ekanligini ta'kidlagan.[289] Luoning asarida Zheng okeanlarda suzib, O'rta Qirollikda hamjihatlikni tiklaydigan muqaddas imperator muhrini izladi.[288] U hech qachon bu muhrni hikoyada topmaydi, chunki Finlay (1992) ga binoan dunyo tartibini harbiy kuchdan boshqa yo'l bilan tiklash mumkin emas.[290] Luoning romani turli xil kemalar sinflarining o'lchamlari bilan tavsifini o'z ichiga oladi: 36 to'qqizta ustunli xazina kemalari (baochuan) 18 ga 44,4 edi zhang, 700 sakkizta mastli kema (machuan) 37 dan 15 gacha bo'lgan zhang, 240 dona etti dona donli kemalar yoki ta'minot kemalari (liangchuan) 28 dan 12 gacha edi zhang, 300 ta oltita ustunli kema yoki qo'shin transporti (zuochuan) 24 tadan 9,4 gacha bo'lgan zhangva 180 ta beshta ustunli jangovar kemalar yoki harbiy kemalar tegishli (zxanchuan) 18 ga 6,8 ga teng edi zhang.[291] Dreyer (2007) ushbu asar tarixiy manba sifatida hech qanday daliliy ahamiyatga ega emasligini ta'kidlaydi, shuningdek, Duyvendak bu ba'zi bir haqiqatga asoslangan bo'lishi mumkin deb o'ylaydi.[292]
The Kezuo Zhuiyu va Shuyu Zhouzilu ekspeditsiyalar to'g'risida rasmiy arxiv bilan sodir bo'lgan quyidagi holatlarni tasvirlab bering.[293] The Chenghua imperatori G'arbiy Okeanga ekspeditsiyalarga oid hujjatlarni Harbiy vazirlik arxividan olish to'g'risida buyruq chiqardi, ammo rasmiy Lyu Daksiya (劉 大 夏) hujjatlarni yashirgan va yoqib yuborgan.[293][294] Lyu bu yozuvlarni "odamlarning quloqlari va ko'zlari guvohligidan uzoqroq bo'lgan g'alati narsalarni aldab o'ta oshirib yuborish" deb rad etdi.[293][294][276]
The Shuyu Zhouzilu hikoyaga quyidagilarni qo'shadi:[293] Urush vaziri Syang Zhong (項 忠; ish joyi 1474–1477) hujjatlarni olish uchun xizmatchini yuborgan, ammo kotib bir necha kunlik qidiruvdan so'ng ularni topa olmagan.[293][294] Lyu oxir-oqibat Sianga qilgan xatti-harakatlarini "Sanbaoning G'arbiy Okeanga qilgan ekspeditsiyalari o'nlab pullar va donlarni behuda sarf qilgani va bundan tashqari [ushbu ekspeditsiyalarda) o'z o'limini kutib olgan odamlarni son-sanoqsiz hisoblashi mumkinligi to'g'risida bayonot bergan. Garchi u ajoyib narsalar bilan qaytib kelgan bo'lsa-da, bu davlatga qanday foyda keltirdi? Bu shunchaki yomon hukumatning harakati, vazirlar buni qat'iyan rad qilishi kerak edi, hatto eski arxivlar saqlanib qolgan bo'lsa ham, ularni bostirish uchun yo'q qilish kerak edi [takrorlash bu narsalar] ildizda. "[293][294] Syang Zhong bu tushuntirishdan ta'sirlangani qayd etilgan.[293][294]
The Mingshi, Xuanzong Shilu, va Mingshi Jishi Benmo (明 史 紀事 本紀事) arxivdagi yozuvlarning bostirilishi va yo'q qilinishining sababini evronx Vang Chji (汪直) ning Vetnamga bostirib kirishi uchun u bilan maslahatlashishini oldini oladi.[295] Dreyer (2007) Lyu yozuvlarga kirish huquqiga ega bo'lolmasligini ta'kidlaydi va uning taxmin qilingan ishtirokiga shubha qiladi.[294] Duyvendak (1939), Urush vazirligi rasmiylari hujjatlarni olishni to'xtatish uchun etarlicha nufuzga ega emasligini ta'kidlamoqda va Lyu ularni harbiy vazirning roziligi bilan yo'q qilgan bo'lishi mumkin.[296]
Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo manbalarida Ming xazinasi sayohatlari haqida ham ma'lumot mavjud, ammo Suryadinata (2005) ularning ishonchliligini sinchiklab o'rganish kerak, chunki bu mahalliy tarixlar afsonalar bilan chambarchas bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin, ammo shunga qaramay, tegishli odamlarning jamoaviy xotiralarida o'z ahamiyatini yo'qotmaydi.[297] Masalan, u Yava va Malakkani islomlashtirishdagi Xitoy sayohatlarining roli bo'yicha tadqiqotlar olib borish qiyinligini ta'kidlab o'tdi, chunki bu xitoy xronikalarida qayd etilmagan va mahalliy ma'lumotlarda tarixga qaraganda ko'proq afsonalar bo'lishi mumkin.[298]
Meros
— Girolamo Sernigi (1499) o'sha paytda noma'lum bo'lgan xitoylik mehmonlar haqida [299]
1499 yilda, biroz oldin Vasko da Gama Hindistondan Portugaliyaga qaytish, Girolamo Sernigi da Gama ekspeditsiyasidagi portugalcha hisobotlarda "oq tanli nasroniylarning ba'zi kemalari" Malabar qirg'og'idagi Kalikut portini o'zlarining kelishidan oldin avlodlari tomonidan yaratganligi haqida xabar berishgan.[300] U bu noma'lum dengizchilar nemislar yoki ruslar bo'lishi mumkin edi, deb taxmin qildilar, ammo ular da Gama kelganida bu odamlar kimligini bilib olishlari mumkin degan xulosaga kelishdi.[301] Kalikutga kelganidan keyin da Gama Calikut avlodlarining mahalliy qirg'oq suvlari bo'ylab ulkan kemalari bilan suzib yurgan, soqollari ochilgan odamlar haqida ertaklarni eshitishni boshladi:[302] portugallar Zhengning sayohatlari xotirasini saqlab qolgan Malabar an'analariga duch kelishgan,[303] ammo ular bu ertaklar uning parki haqida ekanligini bilishmagan.[302] Oxir oqibat ular bu noma'lum dengizchilar aslida xitoyliklar ekanligini bilib olishdi.[300] Da Gama odamlari, ehtimol, dastlab xitoyliklar bilan adashgan edilar Sharqiy Afrika qirg'oq, chunki xitoyliklar Sharqiy Afrika xalqlari xotiralarida katta yog'och kemalarda kelgan rangpar teri bilan kelgan so'nggi musofirlar edi.[300]
XVI asr oxirida, Xuan Gonsales de Mendoza yozishicha, "bu [xitoylar] Hindistonga jo'natish bilan kelgani aniq, chunki u Xitoydan bo'lgan alni bosib olib, uning eng chekkasiga qadar kelgan ... Shunday qilib, bugungi kunda ularning xotirasi katta. ... juda ko'p daraxtlar va mevalar bo'lgan Kalikut qirolligida ... Chinoslar o'sha graflikning lordlari va gubernatorlari bo'lgan vaqtga u erga olib kelishgan. "[304]
1997 yil noyabr oyida a Garvard universiteti nutq, Prezident Tszyan Tsemin Xitoy madaniyatini chet ellarga tarqatgani uchun Zhengni maqtadi.[305] Ko'pgina hozirgi xitoyliklar ushbu ekspeditsiyalar Konfutsiylik g'oyalariga muvofiq ravishda o'tkazilgan deb hisoblashadi.[305] 2005 yildan beri, Min xazina sayohatlarini yodga olib, Xitoy har yili o'z nishonlamoqda Milliy dengiz kuni 11 iyulda.[306] O'sha yili Zhengning birinchi safarining 600 yilligi ham nishonlandi.[306][307]
Garchi hozirgi mashhur rivoyat dengiz sayohatlarining tinchligini, ayniqsa, hududiy istilo va mustamlaka bo'ysunishining yo'qligi nuqtai nazaridan ta'kidlashi mumkin bo'lsa-da, ammo bu og'ir harbiylashtirish mashq qilish uchun Ming xazina parki quvvat proektsiyasi va shu bilan uning manfaatlarini ilgari surish.[308] Hozirgi Xitoy siyosiy nutqida, Xitoyning dengiz imkoniyatlari va ambitsiyalarining o'sishi bilan, Ming xazinasi sayohatlari ta'kidlangan zamonaviy Xitoyning tinch yo'l bilan paydo bo'lishi.[309][310] Ushbu siyosiy jarayon zamonaviy Xitoy va ushbu sayohatlar tomonidan taqdim etilgan tarixiy rivoyat o'rtasida o'xshashliklarni yaratib, Xitoy uchun bir nechta funktsiyalarni taqdim etadi: milliy g'ururni kuchaytiradi, milliy o'ziga xoslikni shakllantiradi, dengiz kimligini tasdiqlaydi, dengiz kuchlarining rivojlanishini qonuniylashtiradi. , uyg'un va tinch rivojlanish obrazini taqdim etadi, keng dunyo bilan o'zaro bog'liqlikni ta'kidlaydi va g'arbiy mustamlakachilikning zo'ravon tabiatiga zid keladi.[310] Shunday qilib, Ming xazinasi sayohatlari Xitoyning strategik paradigmasini dengiz kuchlariga o'zgartirish istagida muhim hikoya rolini o'ynaydi.[310]
Shuningdek qarang
Izohlar
- ^ In Taizong Shilu, imperatorlik buyrug'i 1408 yil 17 oktyabrga belgilangan (Dreyer 2007 yil, 62; Duyvendak 1939 yil, 361). In Mingshi, bu sana 1408 yil 7-oktabr (Duyvendak 1939 yil, 361). Biroq, imperatorlik buyrug'i Chjen Xe yozuvlari va Ma Xuanning kitobida (1407) yozilgan (Dreyer 2007 yil, 62). Oldingi ikkita asarda yil tuzatilgandan so'ng, buyurtma sanasi 1407 yil 23 oktyabrda bo'ladi Taizong Shilu (Dreyer 2007 yil, 62; Duyvendak 1939 yil, 364) yoki 13 oktyabr 1407 yildan olingan Mingshi (Duyvendak 1939 yil, 364).
- ^ Chan (1998 yil, 271–272) boshqacha ma'lumot berib, 1408-1409 yillar oralig'idagi ikkinchi sayohat paytida G'arbiy Yava qiroli Sharqiy Yavada raqibining hududiga qirg'oqqa kelgan Chjen Xening shaxsiy tarkibining 170 a'zosini o'ldirdi, shuning uchun Zheng He edi harbiy imkoniyatga aralashishga majbur bo'ldi.
- ^ a b A zhang o'n edi chi va a chi 10,5-12 dyuym (Dreyer 2007 yil, 65).
- ^ Dreyer (2007 y.), 66 & 72-73) buni 1410 yilda tashqi sayohat paytida sodir bo'lgan deb o'ylaydi, ammo aksariyat rasmiylar buni 1411 yilda uyga sayohat paytida sodir bo'lgan deb o'ylashadi. Dreyer (2007 y.), 72-73), shuningdek, Xitoy manbalarida qarama-qarshilik uchinchi safar davomida aniq sodir bo'lganligi haqida hech qanday ma'lumot bermaganligini ta'kidlaydi.
- ^ Hammasi bo'lib 19 ta davlat ro'yxatga olingan, ammo Lambri ikki marta ro'yxatga olingan, ya'ni Nanvuli va Nanpoli (Dreyer 2007 yil, 82–83; Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 13). 18 mamlakat Champa, Paxang, Yava, Palembang, Malakka, Semudera, Lambri, Seylon, Maldiv orollari, Kochin, Kalikut, Shalivanni (ehtimol Kannanore), Hormuz, Lasa, Adan, Mogadishu, Brava va Malindi (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 13).
- ^ The Mingshi ta'kidlaydi Ganbali G'arbiy Okeandagi kichik bir mamlakat edi. Bu an'anaviy ravishda Coimbatore deb aniqlangan, ammo Gujaratdagi Kambay yoki Komor burnida ham bo'lishi mumkin. (Dreyer 2007 yil, 46 & 93–94)
- ^ 1421 yil 9-mayda imperatorning Pekindagi yangi saroyiga chaqmoq urilib, Fengtian, Xuagay va Jinshen zallari yong'inda yo'q qilindi (Rey 1987b, 161-162). Hind okeanidagi ekspeditsiyalarni to'xtatish to'g'risidagi qarori uchun Yongle imperatoriga ushbu falokat yomon alomat va sayohatlarga qarshi belgi bo'lgan degan qarashlar ta'sir ko'rsatdi (Sen 2016 yil, 612).
- ^ The Taizong Shilu 27 fevral 1424 yilda Zheng He Palembangga jo'natilganligi haqida xabar berilgan. The Xuanzong Shilu 17 sentyabr 1425 yilda Chjan Funama Palembangga jo'natilganligi haqida xabar berilgan. Keyinchalik Mingshi kompilyatorlar ushbu ikkita hisobni bitta sayohatga birlashtirganga o'xshaydi. (Dreyer 2007 yil, 96)
- ^ a b Qarang Dreyer (2007 y.), 150–163) va Mills (1970), 14–18).
- ^ Pelliot (1933, keltirilgan Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 19) asosiy flot bilan Java-ga sayohat qilmaganliklarini ta'kidlaydilar. Boshqa vakolat (ko'rsatilgan.) Dreyer 2007 yil, 156-157) Vijayadan keyin bo'linish haqida bahs yuritadi. Garchi, Dreyer (2007 y.), 157) Semuderadan oldin otryad sodir bo'lganiga ishonish uchun hech qanday asos yo'q deb ta'kidlaydi.
- ^ Ma Xuanning hisob-kitobi xitoyliklar xorijiy kemada yoki o'zlarining Xitoy kemalarida chet el kemasi bilan sayohat qilgani to'g'risida noaniq. Xitoyliklar, ehtimol, o'z kemalari bilan sayohat qilishgan, chunki bu arab tilidagi yozuvlardan kelib chiqishi mumkin Kitob as-Suluk al-Maqriziy va Inba 'al Gumr al-Asqallani tomonidan, shuningdek, xitoylik ulkan xazina kemalari (hind yoki arab kemalari emas) juda uzoq vaqt davomida yirik hayvonlarni tashishga qodir bo'lganligi. (Jost 2019, 86–87)
- ^ Quyidagi faktlar buni tasdiqlaydi: (1) Ma Xuan Makka haqida juda batafsil yozuv yozgan (Dreyer 2007 yil, 158–159; Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 36), (2) imperator xizmatchisi Gu Po so'zining keyingi so'zida yozgan Yingya Shenglan Ma Xuan va Guo Chongli Makkaga tashrif buyurgan (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 35-36 va 41-42), (3) Ma Xuan o'zining muqaddimasida u o'z kitobida aks etgan shaxsiy kuzatuvlar haqida gapirganligini yozgan (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 35 va 41) va (4) u o'zi musulmon bo'lgani uchun u erga borishni xohladi (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 36).
- ^ Bu Poulo Condore va Kon Son orollari atrofidagi suvlar (Dreyer 2007 yil, 160; Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 17).
- ^ The Xia Xiyang yozuvlar: "beshinchi oy, o'ninchi kun [1433 yil 28-may]: qaytib, [flot] Kunlun okeaniga etib keldi." Dreyer (2007), ehtimol 28-may kuni Malakadan ketishni nazarda tutadi. U Kunlun okeaniga kelish sanasi matnda olib tashlangan bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilmoqda, chunki "qaytish" so'zi, ehtimol joydan chiqib ketishni bildirgan (Hormuz uchun qaydnomaga o'xshash). Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, agar matn qanday bo'lsa, shunday qabul qilinsa, Filo bir necha kun ichida Malakkadan jo'nab ketgan va Champa qirg'og'i bo'ylab 16 kun ichida juda sekin sur'atda sayohat qilgan bo'lar edi. (Dreyer 2007 yil, 160–161)
- ^ 19 iyun kuni Culao Re tog'lari, 25 iyun kuni Nan'ao Island orollari, Dongding oroli 26 iyun kuni kechqurun (Chapel Island) tog'lari, 30 iyun kuni Qitou Yang (Fodu kanali), Van Tie [ehtimol Damao orolining tog'lari] 1 iyulda, Daji oroli (Gutzlaff oroli) va Xiaoji oroli (tovuq va jo'jalar) tog'lari 6 iyulda (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 17–18).
- ^ O'zlarining mintaqalaridagi yirik portlarga Malakkan bo'g'ozidagi Palembang, Malabar qirg'og'idagi Kalikut va Suahili qirg'og'idagi Mombasa kiradi (qarang. Sen 2016 yil ).
- ^ Ushbu harbiy unvonlarning aniq tarjimalari yo'q. Bunday holda, maqola matni keladi Mills (1970).
- ^ Ehtimol, u parkning asosiy ta'qibchisi bo'lgan (Dreyer 2007 yil, 128).
- ^ Ular Xitoy poytaxtiga xorijiy elchilarni qabul qilish uchun mas'ul edilar (Dreyer 2007 yil, 128).
- ^ Ular og'ir (urush) uskunalarini ishlatishgan (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 32).
- ^ Dreyer (2007 y.), 123) parkda xazina kemalari bilan birga jami 255 ta kema bor edi, deb o'ylaydi, lekin u shuningdek, 317 ta kemaning bu ko'rsatkichi ishonchli ekanligini va ko'pchilik olimlarning umumiy kelishuvini eslatib o'tadi.
- ^ Taxminan yanvar va dekabr (Dreyer 2007 yil, 30; Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 9)
- ^ 1409 yil 15-fevraldagi ushbu sana, ehtimol Galledagi uch tilli yozuv qachon o'rnatilishini nazarda tutadi, bu uning ikkinchi safarning uyga sayohati paytida qo'yilganligini bildiradi (Dreyer 2007 yil, 66). Agar yo'q bo'lsa, yozuv Xitoyda tayyorlanib, 1410 yil orasida flot Gallega 1411 yilgacha uchinchi safar paytida kelganida o'rnatilishi mumkin edi (Dreyer 2007 yil, 72). Duyvendak (1939), 369) yozuv Xitoyda 1409 yil 15-fevralda tayyorlangan va uchinchi ekspeditsiya paytida (1409-1411) o'rnatilgan bo'lishi kerak, deb aytadi, chunki u 1409 yil 15-fevral sanasi sharaflar konferentsiyasi sanalari bilan bog'liq deb o'ylaydi. xudolar, 1409 yil 21 yanvarda Tianfei (January) va 1409 yil 15 fevralda Nanhaishen (南海 神).
- ^ Asl asar yo'qolgan. Keyinchalik Ma asarining nusxalari saqlanib qoldi, ammo keyinchalik muharrirlari tufayli farqlar mavjud. Ular orasida Jilu Xuybiyan [紀錄 彙編] versiyasi (1617), Guochao Diangu [國 朝 典故] versiyasi (1451 va 1644 yillar orasida), Shengchao Yishi [勝 朝 遺事] versiyasi (1824) va Chjan Shengning "rifacimento" (1522). (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 37–40)
- ^ Duyvendak (1939), 387) va Mills (1970), 8-9) yozib olingan Palembang sayohati hech qachon bo'lmagan degan xulosaga keldi. Biroq, Dreyer (2007 y.), 96) buni amalga oshirganligini yoki sodir bo'lmaganligini isbotlash mumkin emasligini ta'kidlaydi.
- ^ Chjan Sheng to'liq qayta yozdi Yingya Shenglan kompozitsiyani adabiy uslubiga aylantirgan bo'lsa, Ma Xuan dastlab uni so'zlashuv uslubida yozgan edi (Tegirmonlar 1970 yil, 38).
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