Sigaret - Cigarette

Ushbu maqola chekish uchun ishlatiladigan kichik qog'ozga o'ralgan silindrsimon buyumlar haqida. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Sigaret (ajratish).
Buni chalkashtirib yubormaslik kerak Sigaret.

Yonmagan, filtrlangan sigaret

A sigaret o'z ichiga olgan tor silindr psixoaktiv odatda, material tamaki, bu ichiga o'ralgan ingichka qog'oz uchun chekish. Ko'pgina sigaretalarda "qayta ishlangan [tamaki] poyalari, poyalari, qoldiqlari, yig'ilgan chang va polni tozalash" dan iborat bo'lgan "choyshab" deb nomlanuvchi "qayta tiklangan tamaki" mahsuloti mavjud bo'lib, ularga elim, kimyoviy moddalar va plomba moddalar qo'shiladi; keyinchalik mahsulot püskürtülür nikotin u tamaki qoldiqlaridan olinib, jingalak shaklga keltirildi.[1] Sigaret bir uchidan tutashib, uning tutashishiga olib keladi; hosil bo'lgan tutun qarshi uchi orqali og'iz orqali nafas oladi. Ko'pgina zamonaviy sigaretalar filtrlangan, garchi bu ularni xavfsizroq qilmasa ham. Sigaret ishlab chiqaruvchilari sigaretalarni nikotinni maqbul va jozibali shaklda etkazib berish uchun dori-darmonlarni boshqarish tizimi deb ta'rifladilar.[2][3][4][5] Sigaretalar o'ziga qaram (nikotin tufayli) va sababdir saraton, surunkali obstruktiv o'pka kasalligi, yurak kasalligi va boshqalar sog'liq muammolari.

Atama sigaret, keng tarqalgan bo'lib, tamaki sigaretasiga ishora qiladi, lekin ba'zan boshqa moddalarga murojaat qilish uchun ishlatiladi, masalan nasha sigaretasi. Sigaret a dan farq qiladi puro odatda kichikroq o'lchamlari, qayta ishlangan bargdan foydalanish va odatda oq rangga ega bo'lgan qog'ozni o'rash. Sigara o'ramlari odatda tamaki bargidan yoki tamaki ekstraktiga botirilgan qog'ozdan iborat.

Odatda chekish darajasi pasaygan rivojlangan dunyo, ammo ba'zilarida o'sishda davom eting rivojlanayotgan xalqlar.[6][7][8] Sigaret chekish kasallik keltirib chiqaradi va deyarli barcha organlarga zarar etkazadi.[9] Nikotin ham yuqori darajada qo'shadi. Tamaki chekuvchilarning qariyb yarmi tamaki bilan bog'liq kasallikdan vafot etadi[10] va o'rtacha 14 yillik hayotni yo'qotadi.[11] Har yili tamaki sigaretalari dunyo bo'ylab 8 milliondan ortiq odamni o'ldiradi; 1,2 million odam sigaret chekmaydiganlar, ta'sir qilish natijasida o'lishadi ikkinchi qo'l tutun.[12] Sigaretadan chiqqan ikkinchi darajali tutun chekish kabi ko'plab sog'liq muammolarini keltirib chiqaradi, shu jumladan saraton kasalligi,[13][14][15][16] bu ko'plab ish joylarida va jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlagan qonunchilik va siyosatga olib keldi. Sigaret tutuni tarkibida 7000 dan ortiq kishi bor kimyoviy birikmalar jumladan mishyak, formaldegid, vodorod siyanid, qo'rg'oshin, nikotin, uglerod oksidi, akrolin va boshqa zaharli moddalar.[17] Ularning 70 dan ortig'i kanserogen.[18] Homilador ayollar tomonidan sigaretadan foydalanish ham sabab bo'lganligi isbotlangan tug'ma nuqsonlar Tug'ilishning past og'irligi, homila anormalliklari va erta tug'ilish, shu jumladan.[19]

Tarix

Shuningdek qarang: Tamaki tarixi
At ibodatxonadan o'ymakorlikning ko'payishi Palenka, Meksika, tasvirlangan Mayya xudosi chekish naychasidan foydalanish

Sigaretaning dastlabki shakllari avvalgisiga, sigaraga o'xshash edi. Sigaretalar 9-asrda Meksika va Markaziy Amerikada ilgari bo'lgan qamish va chekish naychalari shaklida bo'lgan ko'rinadi. The Mayya, va keyinchalik Azteklar, diniy marosimlarda tamaki va boshqa psixoaktiv giyohvand moddalarni chekish va sopol va ma'bad gravyuralarida chekayotgan ruhoniylar va xudolar tez-tez tasvirlangan. Sigaret va puro so'nggi paytlarga qadar Karib dengizi, Meksika va Markaziy va Janubiy Amerikada chekishning eng keng tarqalgan usullari edi.[20]

Shimoliy Amerika, Markaziy Amerika va Janubiy Amerika sigaretalarida turli xil o'simlik o'ramlari ishlatilgan; u Ispaniyaga qaytarib olib kelinganida, makkajo'xori plyonkalari va 17-asrga kelib nozik qog'ozlar paydo bo'ldi. Olingan mahsulot chaqirildi papelat va hujjatlashtirilgan Goya rasmlari La Cometa, La Merienda va el Manzanaresva El juego de la pelota a pala (18-asr).[21]

1830 yilga kelib, sigaret Frantsiyaga o'tib, u erda bu nomni oldi sigaret; va 1845 yilda Frantsiya davlat tamaki monopoliyasi ularni ishlab chiqarishni boshladi.[21] Frantsuzcha so'z 18-asrning 40-yillarida ingliz tomonidan qabul qilingan.[22] Ba'zi amerikalik islohotchilar imlovni targ'ib qildilar sigaret,[23][24] ammo bu hech qachon keng tarqalmagan va endi asosan tark qilingan.[25]

Sigaret ishlab chiqaradigan birinchi patentlangan mashinani 1847 yilda meksikalik Xuan Nepomuceno Adorno ixtiro qilgan.[26] Biroq, 1880-yillarda sigaret ishlab chiqaradigan yana bir mashina ishlab chiqarilganda ishlab chiqarish sezilarli darajada ko'tarildi Jeyms Albert Bonsak Bu sigaret ishlab chiqaradigan kompaniyalarning ish unumdorligini sezilarli darajada oshirdi, bu esa kuniga 40 mingga yaqin qo'lda siqilgan sigaretalarni ishlab chiqarishdan 4 millionga yaqinlashdi.[27]

Ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan dunyoda tamaki tamaki ichish davrida va undan keyin tobora keng tarqalib bordi Qrim urushi, ingliz askarlari o'zlariga taqlid qilishni boshlaganlarida Usmonli turkchasi o'rtoqlar va rus dushmanlari, ular to'g'ri gazlangan varaq yo'qligi sababli eski gazeta lentalarida tamakini siljitish va chekishni boshladilar.[21] Bunga sigaretdan foydalanishga yaroqli tamaki ishlab chiqarilishi va rivojlanishi natijasida yordam berildi Misr sigaretalarini eksport qilish sanoati.

Fransisko Goyya "s La Cometa, erta kvazikigareti chekayotgan (oldingi chapda) erkak tasvirlangan

Sigaretalar dastlab shunga o'xshash usulda ishlatilgan bo'lishi mumkin quvurlar, puro va sigarillos va nafas olmagan; dalillar uchun "Lucky Strike" reklama kampaniyasida iste'molchilarga "Siz nafas olasizmi?" 1930-yillardan boshlab. Sigaret tamaki yumshoqroq va kislotali holga kelganligi sababli, nafas olish yanada maqbul deb qabul qilingan bo'lishi mumkin. Biroq, Moltke 1830-yillarda kuzatilgan (qarang. Unter dem Halbmond) Usmonlilar (va uning o'zi) nafas olishgan Turk tamaki va Latakiya ularning quvurlaridan[28] (ikkalasi ham dastlab quyosh nurlaridan davolanadigan, kislotali barg navlari).

1942 yildagi reklama ayollarni chekishni rag'batlantiradi.

G'arbiy dunyoda keng tarqalgan sigaret chekish asosan 20-asrning hodisasidir. 20-asrning boshlarida Aholi jon boshiga AQShda yillik iste'mol 54 dona sigaretani tashkil etdi (aholining 0,5 foizdan kamrog'ida yiliga 100 dan ortiq sigaret chekadi) va u erda iste'mol 1965 yilda jon boshiga 4,259 darajaga etdi. O'sha paytda erkaklarning taxminan 50% va 33% chekadigan ayollar (yiliga 100 dan ortiq sigaret chekish).[29] 2000 yilga kelib, iste'mol jon boshiga 2092 taga kamaydi, bu yiliga 100 dan ortiq sigaret chekadigan erkaklarning taxminan 30 foiziga va ayollarning 22 foiziga to'g'ri keladi va 2006 yilga kelib aholi jon boshiga iste'mol 1691 gacha kamaydi;[30] aholining taxminan 21% yiliga 100 va undan ortiq sigaret chekishini anglatadi.

Sigaretaning sog'liqqa salbiy ta'siri 19 asrning o'rtalarida ular ma'lum bo'lganida ma'lum bo'lgan tobutlar mixlar.[31] Nemis shifokorlari birinchi bo'lib chekish va uning o'rtasidagi bog'liqlikni aniqladilar o'pka saratoni fashistlar Germaniyasida birinchi antitobakka qarshi harakatga olib keldi.[32][33] Birinchi va Ikkinchi Jahon urushi davrida sigaretalar askarlarga tarqatilgan. Vetnam urushi paytida sigaretalar tarkibiga kiritilgan C-ratsion ovqat. 1975 yilda AQSh hukumati sigaretalarni harbiy ratsionga qo'yishni to'xtatdi. 20-asrning ikkinchi yarmida tamaki chekishining sog'liqqa zararli ta'siri keng ommalasha boshladi va sigaret qutilarida faqat sog'liq uchun ogohlantirishlar keng tarqaldi.

Qo'shma Shtatlar sigaretaning chekish xavfini jamoatchilikka etkazishning yanada samarali usuli hisoblangan grafik sigaretani ogohlantiruvchi yorliqlarni joriy qilmagan.[34] Kanada, Meksika, Belgiya, Daniya, Shvetsiya, Tailand, Malayziya, Hindiston, Pokiston, Avstraliya, Argentina, Braziliya, Chili, Peru,[35] Gretsiya, Gollandiya,[iqtibos kerak ] Yangi Zelandiya, Norvegiya, Vengriya, Buyuk Britaniya, Frantsiya, Ruminiya, Singapur, Misr, Iordaniya, Nepal va Turkiyada matnli ogohlantirishlar va grafik tasviriy tasvirlar mavjud, shu qatorda tamaki iste'molining insonga zararli ta'siri. tanasi.

Sigaret kontseptsiyadan beri ancha rivojlandi; masalan, "chekish o'qi" ga o'tuvchi ingichka bantlar (shu tariqa sigaretaning uzunligi bo'ylab doiralar hosil qiladi) chizilganida samarali kuyishni osonlashtiradigan, dam olish paytida esa kuyishni sustlashtiradigan ingichka va qalin qog'ozning muqobil qismlari. Sintetik zarrachalar filtrlari smolani chekuvchiga yetguncha olib tashlashi mumkin.

Sigaret ishlab chiqaradigan kompaniyalar uchun "muqaddas tosh" saraton kasalligi bo'lmagan sigaret bo'lib kelgan. Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, eng yaqin tarixiy urinish olim Jeyms Mold tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan. "TAME" loyihasi ostida u XA sigaretasini ishlab chiqardi. Biroq, 1978 yilda uning loyihasi to'xtatildi.[36][37][38]

1950 yildan boshlab sigaretalarning o'rtacha nikotin va smola miqdori doimiy ravishda pasayib bordi. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, umumiy nikotin miqdorining pasayishi chekuvchilarning har bir pufga ko'proq miqdorda nafas olishiga olib keldi.[39]

Qonunchilik

Chekish cheklovlari

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Chekish taqiqlari ro'yxati

Ko'plab hukumatlar majburlaydi tamaki chekishga cheklovlar, ayniqsa jamoat joylarida. Birlamchi asos sog'liqqa salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda ikkinchi qo'l tutun.[40] Qonunlar mamlakat va hududga qarab farq qiladi. Deyarli barcha mamlakatlarda odamlar jamoat joylarida chekish mumkin bo'lgan joylarni cheklovchi qonunlar mavjud va 40 dan ortiq mamlakatlarda chekishsiz qonunlar mavjud bo'lib, ular deyarli barcha jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlaydi. Butan hozirgi kunda dunyodagi tamaki va tamaki mahsulotlarini etishtirish, yig'ish, ishlab chiqarish va sotishni to'liq qonunga zid bo'lgan yagona mamlakatdir. Butanning tamakiga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi qonuni 2010 yil. Shu bilan birga, egalari import bojlarini to'laganligini isbotlashlari mumkin bo'lgan taqdirda, shaxsiy egalik qilish uchun kichik imtiyozlarga yo'l qo'yiladi.[41] Pitkarn orollari ilgari sigaretalarni sotishni taqiqlagan edi, ammo endi u hukumat tasarrufidagi do'kondan sotishga ruxsat berdi. Tinch okeanidagi Niue oroli tamaki sotishni taqiqlovchi keyingi mamlakat bo'lishga umid qilmoqda.[42] Islandiya, shuningdek, do'konlardan tamaki sotishni taqiqlashni taklif qiladi, uni faqat retsept bo'yicha va shuning uchun faqat dorixonalarda shifokorning buyrug'iga binoan tarqatiladi.[43] Yangi Zelandiya 2025 yilgacha va 2040 yilgacha Finlyandiya tamakisiz bo'lishga umid qilmoqda. Singapur va Avstraliyaning Tasmaniya shtati 2000 yilda va undan keyin tug'ilgan har qanday kishiga barcha tamaki mahsulotlarini sotishni taqiqlab, "tamakisiz ming yillik avlodini yaratish tashabbusi" ni taklif qildi. 2012 yil mart oyida Braziliya barcha xushbo'y tamaki mahsulotlarini, shu jumladan mentollarni taqiqlagan dunyodagi birinchi mamlakat bo'ldi. Shuningdek, u ishlatilgan taxminiy 600 ta qo'shimchalarning aksariyatiga taqiq qo'ydi, faqat sakkiztasiga ruxsat berildi. Ushbu qoidalar mahalliy va import qilingan sigaretalarga nisbatan qo'llaniladi. Tamaki ishlab chiqaruvchilari talablarga javob bermaydigan sigaretalarni olib tashlash uchun 18 oy, boshqa talablarga javob bermaydigan tamakilarni olib tashlash uchun 24 oy vaqt sarfladilar.[44][45] Ostida shariat qonunlari, musulmonlar tomonidan sigaret iste'mol qilish taqiqlanadi.[46]

Chekish yoshi

Asosiy maqola: Chekish yoshi

In Qo'shma Shtatlar, tamaki mahsulotlarini sotib olish yoshi 2020 yilga kelib barcha shtatlarda 21 yoshni tashkil etadi.

Shunga o'xshash qonunlar ko'plab boshqa mamlakatlarda mavjud. Yilda Kanada, viloyatlarning aksariyati chekuvchilarni sigaret sotib olish uchun 19 yoshga to'lishini talab qiladi (bundan mustasno Kvebek va dasht viloyatlari, bu erda 18 yosh). Biroq, eng kam yosh faqat foydalanish tamaki sotib olish bilan bog'liq. Alberta ammo, 18 yoshgacha bo'lgan barcha shaxslar tomonidan tamaki mahsulotlarini saqlash yoki ulardan foydalanishni taqiqlovchi qonun mavjud bo'lib, 100 AQSh dollar miqdorida jarima bilan jazolanadi. Avstraliya, Yangi Zelandiya, Polsha va Pokiston 18 yoshga to'lmagan odamlarga barcha tamaki mahsulotlarini sotishni mamlakat bo'ylab taqiqlash.

Tabak-grafik Venada: 2007 yil 1 yanvardan boshlab barchasi sigareta mashinalari Avstriyada mijozning yoshini tasdiqlash uchun debet kartasini yoki mobil telefonni tasdiqlashni talab qilish kerak.

2007 yil 1 oktabrdan boshlab chakana savdo sub'ektlarining har uchtasida 18 yoshga to'lmagan odamlarga tamaki mahsulotlarini har qanday shaklda sotishlari noqonuniy hisoblanadi Buyuk Britaniya to'rtta tashkil etuvchi mamlakatlar (Angliya, Uels, Shimoliy Irlandiya va Shotlandiya ), 16 dan ko'tarilib, sotish ham noqonuniy hisoblanadi zajigalka, dumaloq qog'ozlar va 18 yoshgacha bo'lganlarga tamaki bilan bog'liq bo'lgan boshqa barcha narsalar, ilgari 16 yoshgacha bo'lganlar kabi, 18 yoshgacha bo'lgan odamlar uchun tamaki sotib olish yoki chekish noqonuniy emas; ushbu chakana sotuvchini buyumni sotishi faqat noqonuniy hisoblanadi. 16 yoshdan 18 yoshgacha o'sish Shimoliy Irlandiyada 2008 yil 1 sentyabrdan kuchga kirdi Irlandiya Respublikasi, tamaki mahsulotlariga o'xshash kichikroq 10 ta qadoqlash va qandolat mahsulotlarini sotishni taqiqlash (konfetli sigaretalar ) 2007 yil 31 mayda voyaga etmagan chekishni kamaytirish maqsadida kuchga kirdi.

Dunyoning aksariyat mamlakatlarida qonuniy savdo yoshi 18 da Shimoliy Makedoniya, Italiya, Maltada, Avstriya, Lyuksemburg va Belgiya, qonuniy savdo uchun yoshi 16. 2007 yil 1 yanvardan boshlab barchasi sigareta mashinalari jamoat joylarida Germaniya a qo'shishni talab qilib, mijozning yoshini tekshirishga urinishi kerak debit karta. Aholisi orasida chekuvchilarning eng yuqori foiziga ega bo'lgan Turkiya,[47] qonuniy yoshi 18 ga teng. Yaponiya tamaki iste'mol qiladigan eng yuqori davlatlardan biridir va xaridorlarning 20 yoshga to'lishini talab qiladi (saylov huquqi Yaponiyada 20 yoshda).[48] 2008 yil iyul oyidan boshlab Yaponiya sigareta sotadigan mashinalarda ushbu yosh chegarasini elektron pochta orqali ishlatgan taspo aqlli karta. Misr kabi boshqa mamlakatlarda tamaki mahsulotlaridan yoshidan qat'i nazar foydalanish va sotib olish qonuniydir.[iqtibos kerak ] Germaniya sotib olish yoshini 2007 yil 1 sentyabrda 16 yoshdan 18 yoshgacha oshirdi.

Qo'shma Shtatlardagi ba'zi politsiya bo'limlari vaqti-vaqti bilan voyaga etmagan o'spirinni sigaretalar sotiladigan do'konga yuborishadi va o'spirin o'z shaxsiy guvohnomasi bo'lmagan holda sigaret sotib olishga urinishadi. Agar sotuvchi keyinchalik savdoni yakunlasa, do'konga jarima solinadi.[49] Shu kabi majburiy amaliyot muntazam ravishda tomonidan amalga oshiriladi Savdo standartlari Buyuk Britaniyadagi ofitserlar, Isroil va Irlandiya Respublikasi.[50]

Soliq

Shuningdek qarang: Qo'shma Shtatlarda sigareta soliqlari
2012 va 2014 yillarda sigaretalarning o'rtacha AQSh dollaridagi narxi[51]

Sigaretlardan foydalanishni kamaytirish, ayniqsa yoshlar orasida, shuningdek, daromadni oshirish uchun soliq solinadi. Sigaretlarning yuqori narxi chekishni cheklaydi. Sigaretalar narxining har 10 foizga o'sishi pasayadi yoshlar chekish taxminan 7% ga va umumiy sigaret iste'moli taxminan 4% ga.[52] The Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti (JSST) dunyo miqyosidagi sigaretalarni oldini olish usuli sifatida sigaretalarni sotish narxining to'rtdan uch qismi stavkasi bo'yicha soliqqa tortishni tavsiya qiladi. saraton va sog'liqning boshqa salbiy natijalari.[53]

Sigaret sotish ko'plab joylarda soliq tushumining muhim manbai hisoblanadi. Bu haqiqat tarixda sigaretani chekishni rad etishga qaratilgan sog'liqni saqlash guruhlari uchun to'siq bo'lib kelgan, chunki hukumatlar soliq tushumlarini maksimal darajada oshirishga intilishadi. Bundan tashqari, ayrim mamlakatlar sigaretalarni davlat monopoliyasiga aylantirdilar, bu esa sog'liqni saqlash sohasidan tashqaridagi hukumat amaldorlarining munosabatiga xuddi shunday ta'sir qiladi.[54]

Qo'shma Shtatlarda shtatlar sigaretalar uchun umumiy soliq stavkasini belgilovchi omil hisoblanadi. Odatda, fermer xo'jaligining muhim mahsuloti sifatida tamakiga ishonadigan davlatlar sigaretadan past stavka bilan soliqqa tortishadi.[55] Federal sigareta solig'i bilan har bir paketi uchun 1,01 AQSh dollari miqdorida, umumiy sigaretga tegishli soliqlar har bir paketi uchun 1,18 AQSh dollaridan iborat Missuri bir to'plam uchun $ 8.00 gacha Kumush bay, Nyu York. Oilaviy chekishni oldini olish va tamakiga qarshi kurashish to'g'risidagi qonunning bir qismi sifatida federal hukumat mablag 'yig'ish uchun foydalanuvchi to'lovlarini yig'adi Oziq-ovqat va farmatsevtika idorasi (FDA) tamaki ustidan tartibga solish choralari.

Yong'indan xavfsiz sigareta

Asosiy maqola: Yong'indan xavfsiz sigareta

Sigaretalar xususiy uylarda tez-tez halokatli yong'inlarning kelib chiqishiga sabab bo'lmoqda Yevropa Ittifoqi va Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari chekishni talab qilishadi yong'in standartiga mos keladi.[56][57]

Sidney universiteti sog'liqni saqlash professori Saymon Chapmanning so'zlariga ko'ra, sigaretadagi yonuvchi moddalarni kamaytirish oddiy va samarali vosita bo'lib, bu sigaretaning alangalanishini pasaytiradi.[58] 1980-yillardan beri taniqli sigaret ishlab chiqaruvchilari Filipp Morris va R.J. Reynolds ishlab chiqilgan yong'indan xavfsiz sigaretalar, lekin ularni sotmadi.[59]

Sigareta qog'ozining kuyish darajasi mikrokristalning turli shakllarini qo'llash orqali tartibga solinadi tsellyuloza qog'ozga.[60] Sigareta qog'ozi "yong'inga qarshi" sigaretalarni yaratish uchun har xil g'ovaklik bantlarini yaratish orqali maxsus ishlab chiqilgan. Ushbu sigaretalar bo'shashgan yonish tezligini pasaytirib, o'z-o'zini o'chirishga imkon beradi.[61] Ushbu yong'indan xavfsiz qog'oz qog'oz atala sozlamasini mexanik ravishda o'zgartirish orqali ishlab chiqariladi.[62]

Nyu-York shtat ichida ishlab chiqarilgan yoki sotiladigan barcha sigaretalar yong'indan xavfsiz standartga muvofiq bo'lishini talab qilgan birinchi AQSh shtati edi. Kanada xuddi shu standart asosida shu kabi umummilliy vakolatni topshirdi. AQShning barcha shtatlari asta-sekin yong'indan xavfsiz mandatlarni topshirmoqda.[63]

Evropa Ittifoqi 2011 yilda yong'in xavfsizligi standartlariga javob bermaydigan sigaretalarni taqiqlagan. Evropa Ittifoqi tomonidan Evropaning 16 mamlakatida o'tkazilgan tadqiqotga ko'ra, 2005-2007 yillarda odamlar sigaret bilan ehtiyotsiz muomalada bo'lganliklari sababli 11000 ta yong'in sodir bo'lgan. Bu 520 kishining o'limiga, 1600 kishining jarohatlanishiga sabab bo'lgan.[64]

Sigaret reklama

Asosiy maqola: Tamaki reklama

Ko'pgina mamlakatlarda sigaretani reklama qilish, reklama qilish, homiylik va marketing bo'yicha cheklovlar mavjud. Masalan, Kanada provinsiyalarida Britaniya Kolumbiyasi, Saskaçevan va Alberta, agar iste'mol qilish qonuniy yoshiga etgan shaxslar binolarga kirish huquqiga ega bo'lsa, chakana savdo do'konlarida chilimlarni namoyish qilish butunlay taqiqlanadi.[65] Yilda Ontario, Manitoba, Nyufaundlend va Labrador va Kvebek, Kanada va Avstraliya poytaxti hududi 2010 yildan boshlab har qanday yoshga qaramasdan tamaki namoyishi taqiqlangan. Bu chakana namoyishlarni taqiqlash puro va kabi sigaret chekmaydigan mahsulotlarni o'z ichiga oladi to'mtoq o'rash.[66][67]

Paketlardagi ogohlantiruvchi xabarlar

Asosiy maqola: Tamaki qadoqlash to'g'risida ogohlantiruvchi xabarlar

Qattiq reklama va marketing taqiqlari natijasida tamaki kompaniyalari paketga boshqacha qarashadi: ular uni tovar obrazlarini namoyish etishda kuchli tarkibiy qism va sotib olish paytida do'konda sezilarli darajada mavjud bo'lish deb bilishadi. Bozor sinovlari shu o'lcham alternativ paketda bir xil mahsulot namoyish etilganda iste'molchining tanlovini o'zgartirishda ushbu o'lchov ta'sirini ko'rsatadi. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, kompaniyalar paketlar dizaynidagi turli xil elementlardan qanday qilib pastroq yoki yumshoqroq sigaretalar taassurotlarini etkazish uchun manipulyatsiya qilishgan, aksincha komponentlar bir xil bo'lgan.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ba'zi mamlakatlar sog'liq uchun xavfli bo'lganligi to'g'risida ogohlantirishni o'z ichiga olgan sigaret qutilarini talab qiladi. Qo'shma Shtatlar birinchi bo'lib,[68] keyinchalik boshqa mamlakatlar, jumladan Kanada, Evropaning aksariyati, Avstraliya,[69] Pokiston,[70] Hindiston, Gonkong va Singapur. 1985 yilda Islandiya sigareta qadoqlarida grafik ogohlantirishlarni amalga oshirgan birinchi mamlakat bo'ldi.[71][72] 2010 yil dekabr oyining oxirida Ottava tomonidan olib borilgan yangi qoidalar Kanadadagi sigaret paketining to'rtdan uch qismini qoplash uchun tamaki ogohlantirishlari hajmini oshirdi.[73] 2010 yil noyabr holatiga ko'ra, 39 mamlakat shu kabi qonun hujjatlarini qabul qildi.[68]

2011 yil fevral oyida Kanada hukumati sigaret qutilarida tashqi panelning 75 foizini qoplash uchun 12 ta yangi rasm va ichki paneldagi sakkizta yangi sog'liqni saqlash xabarlarini to'liq rangda bo'lishini talab qiluvchi qoidalarni qabul qildi.[74]

2011 yil aprel oyidan boshlab, Avstraliya qoidalari barcha paketlardan a dan foydalanishni talab qiladi yumshoq zaytun yashil tadqiqotchilar eng jozibali rang bo'lishini aniqladilar,[75] paketning old qismida 75% qoplama va orqa tomondan sog'liq uchun grafik ogohlantirishlardan iborat. Bitta brendni boshqasidan ajratib turadigan yagona xususiyat bu standart rang, holat, shrift hajmi va uslubidagi mahsulot nomidir.[76] O'shandan beri shunga o'xshash siyosat Frantsiya va Buyuk Britaniyada qabul qilingan.[77][78] Ushbu qoidalarga javoban, Filipp Morris xalqaro, Yaponiya tamaki Inc., British American Tobacco Plc., Va Imperial tamaki Avstraliya hukumatini sudga berishga urindi. 2012 yil 15 avgustda Avstraliya Oliy sudi da'voni rad etdi va Avstraliyani brendsiz joriy etgan birinchi mamlakatga aylantirdi oddiy sigareta qadoqlari 90 va 70% mos ravishda orqa va old o'rashlarni qamrab oladigan sog'liq uchun ogohlantirishlar bilan. Bu 2012 yil 1 dekabrdan kuchga kirdi.[79]

Qurilish

Sigaretaning diagrammasi
1. Asosiy tutun
2. Filtrlash materiallari
3. Yopishtiruvchi moddalar
4. Shamollatish teshiklari
5. siyoh
6. Yopishtiruvchi
7. Ikkinchi oqim tutuni
8. Filtrni
9. Qog'oz uchi
10. Tamaki va uning tarkibiy qismlari
11. Qog'oz
12. Yonish nuqtasi va kul

Tijorat maqsadlarida ishlab chiqarilgan zamonaviy sigaretalar asosan oddiy tamaki aralashmasi, qog'oz, PVA tashqi qog'oz qatlamini yopishtirish uchun yopishtiruvchi va ko'pincha ham tsellyuloza atsetat - asoslangan filtr.[80] Sigaretlarni yig'ish to'g'ri bo'lsa-da, har bir komponentni, xususan tamaki aralashmasini yaratishga katta e'tibor beriladi. Sigaretani o'ziga qaram qilib qo'yadigan asosiy tarkibiy qism - bu qayta tiklangan tamaki tarkibiga kiradi, bu tarkibida sigareta yoqilganda nikotinni yanada o'zgaruvchan qilish uchun qo'shimchalar mavjud.[81]

Qog'oz

Asosiy maqola: Rulo qog'oz
Shuningdek qarang: Rolling qog'ozlari ro'yxati

Tamaki aralashmasini ushlab turish uchun qog'oz, g'ovakliligi bilan har xil bo'lishi mumkin, bu esa yonayotgan o'tning shamollatilishini ta'minlashi yoki tarkibida sigaretaning yonish tezligini va ishlab chiqarilgan kulning barqarorligini boshqaruvchi materiallar bo'lishi mumkin. Sigaretani ag'darishda (og'zini shakllantirishda) va filtrni o'rab olishda ishlatiladigan qog'ozlar og'zini tupurikdan barqarorlashtiradi va sigaretaning o'rtacha darajada yonishini, shuningdek, bir yoki ikki qatorli kichik lazer bilan burg'ulangan havo ishtirokida tutunni etkazib beradi. teshiklar.[82]

Tamaki aralashmasi

Leones Africanos markasining 20-asr o'rtalarida ishlab chiqarilgan sigaretalari, doimiy kolleksiyasining bir qismi Museo del Objeto del Objeto

Aralashtirish jarayoni yakuniy mahsulotga mamlakatning turli hududlarida etishtirilgan tamaki partiyalaridan izchil ta'm beradi, ular atrof-muhitning turli xil sharoitlari tufayli lazzat profilida yildan-yilga o'zgarishi mumkin.[83]

1950-yillardan keyin ishlab chiqarilgan zamonaviy sigaretalar, asosan, maydalangan tamaki barglaridan tashkil topgan bo'lsa-da, aralashmaning tarkibida tamaki mahsulotlarini qayta ishlashning ko'p miqdordagi yon mahsulotlaridan foydalaniladi. Har bir sigaretaning tamaki aralashmasi, asosan, mo'ri tutatilgan porloq barg, burli tamaki va sharqona tamaki barglaridan tayyorlanadi. Ushbu barglar aralashtirish va to'ldirishdan oldin tanlanadi, qayta ishlanadi va qariydi. Brillile va burley tamaki mahsulotlarini tamaki bargi "chiziqlari" uchun qayta ishlash natijasida barglar poyasi, tamaki changlari va tamaki barglari bo'laklari ("mayda laminat") kabi bir nechta yon mahsulotlar ishlab chiqariladi.[83] Sigaretalar ishlab chiqarishning iqtisodiy samaradorligini oshirish uchun ushbu yon mahsulotlar alohida shakllarda qayta ishlanadi, keyinchalik ularni sigaret aralashmasiga qo'shilishi mumkin, bu esa sigaretaning sifatini sezilarli yoki sezilarli darajada o'zgartirmasdan amalga oshiriladi. Tamakining eng keng tarqalgan yon mahsulotlariga quyidagilar kiradi:

  • Aralash barg (BL) choyshab: tamaki po'stidan yig'ilgan tamaki changidan tayyorlangan xamirdan quyilgan ingichka va quruq choyshab; pektin.[84]
  • Qayta tiklangan barg (RL) varag'i: tamaki zarralari, tamaki poyalari va 30 dan kam tamaki zarralaridan tashkil topgan "sinf tamaki" laridan tayyorlangan qog'ozga o'xshash material. mash tamakini qayta ishlashning istalgan bosqichida yig'iladigan o'lchamlari (taxminan 0,6 mm):[85] RL tamaki mahsulotlarida eriydigan kimyoviy moddalarni ajratib olish, ekstraktsiyadan qolgan tamaki tolalarini qog'ozga qayta ishlash va so'ngra olingan materiallarni konsentrlangan shaklda qog'ozga qayta ishlash usuli bilan o'xshash tarzda qog'ozga solish orqali amalga oshiriladi. qog'oz o'lchamlari. Ushbu bosqichda, ammoniy tiklangan tamakini nikotin etkazib berishning samarali tizimiga aylantirish uchun qo'shimchalar qo'llaniladi.[81]
  • Kengaytirilgan (ES) yoki yaxshilangan poya (IS): ES dumalab, tekislanib, maydalab tashlangan barg poyalari bo'lib, ular suvga singib, tez qizdiriladi. Yaxshilangan dastani xuddi shu jarayonga amal qiladi, lekin maydalashdan keyin shunchaki bug'lanadi. Keyin ikkala mahsulot ham quritiladi. Ushbu mahsulotlar tashqi ko'rinishiga o'xshash ko'rinadi, ammo ta'mi jihatidan farq qiladi.[83]

So'nggi yillarda ishlab chiqaruvchilar maksimal foyda olishga intilishlari nafaqat barglardan, balki qayta ishlangan tamaki mahsulotlaridan ham foydalanish amaliyotiga olib keldi.[81] va o'simlik poyasi.[86] Dastlab dastani ezilib kesiladi va kesilgan bargga aralashtirilishidan oldin bargga o'xshash bo'ladi.[87] Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti ma'lumotlariga ko'ra[88] har 1000 sigaretaga to'g'ri keladigan tamaki miqdori 1960 yilda 2,28 funtdan 1999 yilda 0,91 funtgacha tushdi, asosan tamaki, paxmoq va qo'shimchalarni qayta tiklash natijasida.

Yorqin barg, burley barglari va sharq barglari tamakisining retsept bo'yicha birikmasi uning ta'mini yaxshilash uchun har xil qo'shimchalar bilan aralashtiriladi.

Qo'shimchalar

Pokistondagi eng ko'p iste'mol qilinadigan sigaret markasi - bu Gold Leaf

Turli xil qo'shimchalar maydalangan tamaki mahsulotlarining aralashmalariga birlashtiriladi namlovchi moddalar kabi propilen glikol yoki glitserol kabi lazzat beruvchi mahsulotlar va kuchaytirgichlar kakao qattiq moddalari, qizilmiya, tamaki ekstraktlari va har xil shakarlar, ular birgalikda "qutilar" deb nomlanadi. Keyin barg tamaki ma'lum miqdordagi mayda laminat, kengaytirilgan tamaki, BL, RL, ES va IS bilan birga maydalanadi. Parfyumga o'xshash lazzat / xushbo'y hid, uni "to'ldirish" yoki "qo'shimchalar" deb atashadi, bu ko'pincha formuladan iborat. lazzat beruvchi kompaniyalar, keyin tamaki aralashmasiga aralashtirilgan bo'lib, ma'lum bir sigaretaning ta'mi va ta'mi mustahkamligini yaxshilaydi. brendning nomi.[83] Bundan tashqari, ular tamakini qayta ishlashda ishlatiladigan namlash va quritish tufayli yo'qolgan lazzatlarni almashtiradi. Nihoyat, tamaki aralashmasi sigareta naychalariga to'ldiriladi va qadoqlanadi.

599 ro'yxati sigareta qo'shimchalari, Amerikaning beshta yirik sigaret ishlab chiqaruvchi kompaniyasi tomonidan yaratilgan bo'lib, Sog'liqni saqlash va aholiga xizmat ko'rsatish vazirligi tomonidan 1994 yil aprelda ma'qullangan. Ushbu qo'shimchalarning hech biri sigaret qutilaridagi tarkibiy qismlar ro'yxatiga kiritilmagan. Kimyoviy moddalar qo'shiladi organoleptik maqsadlar va ko'pchilik sigaretaning o'ziga xos xususiyatini kuchaytiradi, ayniqsa kuyganda.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ro'yxatdagi kimyoviy moddalar sinflaridan biri, ammiak tuzlar, tamaki tutunidagi bog'langan nikotin molekulalarini erkin nikotin molekulalariga aylantiradi. Sifatida tanilgan ushbu jarayon erkin asos, nikotinning chekuvchiga ta'sirini kuchaytirishi mumkin, ammo eksperimental ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, emilim amalda ta'sir qilmaydi.[89]

Sigaret kolbasi

Sigareta naychalari odatda asetat yoki qog'ozga ega bo'lgan prerollangan sigaret qog'ozidir filtr oxirida. Ularning tashqi ko'rinishi tugagan sigaretga o'xshaydi, ammo ichkarida tamaki yoki chekish materiallari yo'q. Uzunligi King Size (84 mm) deb nomlanadigan narsadan 100s (100 mm) gacha o'zgarib turadi.[90][o'z-o'zini nashr etgan manba? ]

Sigareta naychasini to'ldirish odatda sigaret injektori (shuningdek, otishma deb ham ataladi) bilan amalga oshiriladi. Konus shaklidagi sigareta naychalari, konus deb nomlanuvchi, shakli tufayli qadoqlash tayoqchasi yoki somon yordamida to'ldirilishi mumkin. Konusdan chekish ommalashgan, chunki sigaret yonishi bilan u tobora kuchayib boraveradi. Konus boshida oxirigacha ko'proq tamaki yoqilishiga imkon beradi, bu esa bir tekis lazzatlanishiga imkon beradi[91]

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining tamaki mahsulotlarini soliqqa tortish byurosi sigareta naychasini "sigaret ishlab chiqarishda foydalanish uchun ichi bo'sh tsilindrga qilingan sigaret qog'ozi" deb ta'riflaydi.[92]

Sigaret filtri

Asosiy maqola: Sigaret filtri

Sigaret filtri yoki filtr uchi sigaretaning tarkibiy qismidir. Filtrlar odatda ishlab chiqariladi tsellyuloza atsetat tola. Ko'pgina fabrikada ishlab chiqarilgan sigaretalar filtr bilan jihozlangan; o'zlarini o'ralganlar ularni alohida sotib olishlari mumkin. Filtrlar tutun tarkibidagi ba'zi moddalarni kamaytirishi mumkin, ammo sigaretalarni chekish xavfsizroq qilmaydi.

Sigaret qutisi

Kirlangan qor ustida yotgan tashlangan sigaret qutisi
Shuningdek qarang: Kuldon va Sigaret qutisi § xususiyatlari

Chekishdan keyingi sigareta qoldiqlarining umumiy nomi - bu sigareta. Odatda dumba sigaretaning asl uzunligining taxminan 30% ni tashkil qiladi. U a ushlab turadigan to'qima naychasidan iborat filtr va kul bilan aralashtirilgan tamaki qoldiqlari. Ular soni bo'yicha eng tez-tez uchraydi axlat dunyoda.[93] Sigaret qoldiqlari binolarning tashqarisida, to'xtash joylarida va ko'chalarda to'planib, ularni bo'ronli drenajlar orqali soylarga, daryolarga va plyajlarga etkazish mumkin.[94] Bundan tashqari, u fag-end yoki it-end deb nomlanadi.[95]

2013 yilgi sud jarayonida shahar Vankuver, Britaniya Kolumbiyasi bilan hamkorlik qilgan TerraCycle sigaret qoldiqlarini qayta ishlash tizimini yaratish. Depozit tizimining ichimlik konteynerlariga o'xshash samaradorligini aniqlash uchun har bir yig'ilgan ko't uchun 1 of mukofot taqdim etildi.[96][97]

Atrof muhitga ta'siri

Tsellyuloza asetatning tsellyuloza umurtqa pog'onasidagi atsetat guruhlaridan biri bilan oddiy molekulyar tasviri qizil doira

Sigaret filtrlari minglab polimer zanjirlaridan iborat tsellyuloza atsetat, o'ng tomonida ko'rsatilgan kimyoviy tuzilishga ega. Atrof-muhitga tashlanganidan so'ng, filtrlar katta hosil qiladi chiqindilar muammo. Sigaret filtrlari eng keng tarqalgan shaklidir axlat dunyoda har yili taxminan 5,6 trillion sigaret chekiladi.[98] Ulardan taxminan 4,5 trillion sigaret filtri har yili axlatga aylanadi.[99] Bir yilda ishlab chiqarilgan chiqindilar miqdori bo'yicha g'oyani rivojlantirish uchun quyidagi jadval tuzildi.

Filtrlardan ishlab chiqarilgan taxminiy chiqindilar
Filtrlar sonivazn
1 to'plam (20)3,4 gramm (0,12 oz)
har kuni sotiladi (15 milliard)2,551,000 kilogramm (5,625,000 funt)
yiliga sotiladi (5,6 trillion)950,000,000 kilogramm (2,100,000,000 funt)
taxminiy axlat (4,5 trillion)765,400,000 kilogramm (1,687,500,000 funt)

Chiqib ketgan sigaret filtrlari odatda suv tizimi drenaj zovurlari orqali va daryolar va boshqa suv yo'llari orqali okean.

Suvdagi hayot sog'lig'i bilan bog'liq muammolar

2006 yildagi Xalqaro qirg'oqlarni tozalashda sigareta va sigareta qoldiqlari yig'ilgan axlatning 24,7 foizini tashkil etdi, bu boshqa toifalarga qaraganda ikki baravar ko'pdir, bu har yili ishlab chiqarilgan chiqindilarning yuqoridagi jadvalidagi sonlarni ko'rish ajablanarli emas.[100]Sigaret filtrlarida sigaretadan filtrlangan kimyoviy moddalar mavjud va ular suv yo'llariga kirib ketishi mumkin suv ta'minoti.[101] Ishlatilgan sigaret filtrlarining toksikligi sigaret ishlab chiqaradigan kompaniyalar tomonidan ishlatiladigan o'ziga xos tamaki aralashmasi va qo'shimchalariga bog'liq. Sigareta chekilganidan keyin filtr kimyoviy moddalarning bir qismini saqlab qoladi, ba'zilari esa hisobga olinadi kanserogen.[93] Sigaret filtrlarining atrof muhitga ta'sirini o'rganayotganda, sigareta filtrlarida mavjud bo'lgan turli xil kimyoviy moddalar murakkabligi sababli alohida o'rganilmaydi. Tadqiqotchilar buning o'rniga butun sigaret filtri va uning LD-ga e'tibor berishadi50. LD50 namunaviy populyatsiyaning 50% ni o'ldiradigan o'ldiradigan doz sifatida aniqlanadi. Bu sigaret filtrlarining toksikligini oddiyroq o'rganishga imkon beradi. Yaqinda o'tkazilgan bir tadqiqotda chekilgan sigaret filtrlari (tutunli filtr + tamaki), tutunli sigaret filtrlari (tamaki yo'q) va chekilmagan sigaret filtrlarining (tamaki yo'qligi) toksikligi ko'rib chiqildi. Tadqiqot natijalari shuni ko'rsatdiki, LD uchun50ikkala dengiz cho'qqisi (Atherinops affinis ) va chuchuk suv semiz mayin (Pimephales promelas), füme sigaret filtrlari + tamaki füme sigaret filtrlariga qaraganda toksikroq, ammo ikkalasi ham chekilmagan sigaret filtrlariga qaraganda ancha zaharli.[102]

LD50 dengiz hayotiga sigareta filtrlari (litr sigareta)
Sigaret turiDengiz cho'qqisiFathead minnow
Dudlangan sigaret filtri (dudlangan filtr + tamaki)1.01.0
Sigaret chekadigan filtrlar (tamaki yo'q)1.84.3
Sigaret chekmaydigan sigaret filtrlari (tamaki yo'q)5.113.5

Boshqa sog'liq muammolari

Zaharli kimyoviy moddalar inson salomatligini hisobga oladigan yagona muammo emas; boshqalari - chekish paytida nafas oladigan tsellyuloza asetat va uglerod zarralari. Ushbu zarrachalar o'pkaga zarar etkazishda gumon qilinmoqda.[103] Sog'liqni saqlashning keyingi tashvishi o'simliklardir. Muayyan o'sish sharoitida o'simliklar o'rtacha sigareta filtrlari bilan tuproqqa qaraganda balandroq va uzunroq o'sadi. Tuproqqa kiritilgan sigaret filtrlari va ma'lum bir vaqt ichida tuproqdagi ozuqaviy moddalarning yo'q bo'lib ketishi o'rtasida bog'liqlik mavjud bo'lib, atrof-muhit uchun boshqa sog'liq uchun tashvish nafaqat yovvoyi hayot uchun zararli bo'lgan kanserogen moddalar, balki filtrlarning o'zi ham yutish xavfini keltirib chiqaradi. filtr axlatini oziq-ovqat sifatida qabul qilishi mumkin bo'lgan yovvoyi tabiat.[104]Dengiz hayotiga e'tibor berish kerak bo'lgan so'nggi muhim sog'liqni saqlash muammosi - chuqur dengiz cho'qqisi va semiz mayinlarning yirtqichlarga etkazadigan toksikligi. Bu toksinlarning ko'payishiga olib kelishi mumkin (bioakkumulyatsiya Oziq-ovqat zanjirida va uzoq vaqtdan beri salbiy ta'sirga ega bo'lib, sigareta filtrlarini eritishi ham turar joylardan yong'in chiqishiga sabab bo'lgan[105] mayorga o'rmon yong'inlari va buta yong'inlari bu katta moddiy zarar etkazishga, shuningdek o'limga olib keldi[106][107][108] signalizatsiya va ogohlantirish tizimlarini ishga tushirish orqali xizmatlarning uzilishi.[109]

Degradatsiya

Atrof muhitga kirib, tsellyuloza asetat o'tishi mumkin biologik parchalanish va fotodegradatsiya.[110][111][112] Ikkala degradatsiya jarayonining tezligini aniqlashga bir necha omillar kiradi. Tezlikning bu xilma-xilligi va ko'p sharoitlarda biodegradatsiyaga chidamliligi axlatni tashlash omilidir[113] va ekologik zarar.[114]

Olneyvildagi (Rod-Aylendda) topilgan Newport sigaret qutilari - 2008 yil

Biologik parchalanish

Tsellyuloza asetatning kimyoviy gidrolizi

Tsellyuloza asetat biologik parchalanishidagi birinchi qadam asetatning polimer zanjiridan deaktillanishi (qarama-qarshi bo'lgan atsetilatsiya ). Atsetat - bu C ning kimyoviy formulasi bo'lgan salbiy ion2H3O2−. Deatsetilatsiya kimyoviy gidroliz yoki atsetesterin. Kimyoviy gidroliz - bu suv qo'shilishi bilan kimyoviy bog'lanishning parchalanishi. Reaksiyada suv (H2O) bilan reaksiyaga kirishadi sirka efiri funktsional guruh tsellyuloza polimer zanjirini biriktirib, an hosil qiladi spirtli ichimliklar va atsetat. Spirt shunchaki tsellyuloza polimer zanjiri bo'lib, atsetat alkogol guruhiga almashtiriladi. Ikkinchi reaksiya kimyoviy gidroliz bilan aynan bir xil bo'ladi atsetesterin ferment. Ko'pgina o'simliklarda mavjud bo'lgan ferment, kataliz qiladi The kimyoviy reaktsiya quyida ko'rsatilgan.[115]

sirka efiri + H2O ⇌ alkogol + atsetat

Fermentatik reaksiya holatida yana ikkita substrat (reaktiv moddalar) bo'ladi sirka efiri va H2O, ikkalasi mahsulotlar reaktsiyasi spirtli ichimliklar va atsetat. Ushbu reaktsiya kimyoviy gidroliz bilan to'liq bir xil. Both of these products are perfectly fine in the environment. Once the acetate group is removed from the cellulose chain, the polymer can be readily degraded by tsellyuloza, which is another enzyme found in qo'ziqorinlar, bakteriyalar va protozoyanlar. Cellulases break down the cellulose molecule into monosaccharides ("simple sugars") such as beta-glyukoza, or shorter polisakkaridlar va oligosakkaridlar.

The chemical structure change of cellulose into glucose

These simple sugars are not harmful to the environment and are in fact are a useful product for many plants and animals. The breakdown of cellulose is of interest in the field of biofuel.[116] Due to the conditions that affect the process, large variation in the degradation time of cellulose acetate occurs.

Factors in biodegradation

The duration of the biodegradation process is cited as taking as little as one month[110] to as long as 15 years or more, depending on the environmental conditions. The major factor that affects the biodegradation duration is the availability of acetylesterase and cellulase enzymes. Without these enzymes, biodegradation only occurs through chemical hydrolysis and stops there. Temperature is another major factor, if the organisms that contain the enzymes are too cold to grow, then biodegradation is severely hindered. Availability of oxygen in the environment also affects the degradation. Cellulose acetate is degraded within 2–3 weeks under aerob assay systems of in vitro enrichment cultivation techniques and an activated sludge wastewater treatment system.[117] It is degraded within 14 weeks under anaerob conditions of incubation with special cultures of fungi.[118] Ideal conditions were used for the degradation (i.e. right temperature, and available organisms to provide the enzymes). Thus, filters last longer in places with low oxygen concentration (ex. swamps and bogs). Overall, the biodegraditon process of cellulose acetate is not an instantaneous process.

Fotodegradatsiya

The other process of degradation is photodegradation, which is when a molecular bond is broken by the absorption of photon radiation (i.e. light). Due to cellulose acetate carbonyl groups, the molecule naturally absorbs light at 260 nm,[119] but it contains some impurities which can absorb light. These impurities are known to absorb light in the far UV light region (< 280 nm).[120] The atmosphere filters radiation from the sun and allows radiation of > 300 nm only to reach the surface. Thus, the primary photodegradation of cellulose acetate is considered insignificant to the total degradation process, since cellulose acetate and its impurities absorb light at shorter wavelengths. Research is focused on the secondary mechanisms of photodegradation of cellulose acetate to help make up for some of the limitations of biodegradation. The secondary mechanisms would be the addition of a compound to the filters that would be able to absorb natural light and use it to start the degradation process. The main two areas of research are in photocatalytic oxidation[121] and photosensitized degradation.[122] Photocatalytic oxidation uses a species that absorbs radiation and creates hydroxyl radicals that react with the filters and start the breakdown. Photosensitized degradation, though, uses a species that absorbs radiation and transfers the energy to the cellulose acetate to start the degradation process. Both processes use other species that absorbed light > 300 nm to start the degradation of cellulose acetate.[iqtibos kerak ]

Solution and remediation projects

A cigarette disposal canister, encouraging the public to dispose of their cigarettes properly

Several options are available to help reduce the environmental impact of cigarette butts. Proper disposal into receptacles leads to decreased numbers found in the environment and their effect on the environment. Another method is making fines and penalties for littering filters; many governments have sanctioned stiff penalties for littering of cigarette filters; masalan, Vashington imposes a penalty of $1,025 for littering cigarette filters.[123] Another option is developing better biodegradable filters; much of this work relies heavily on the research in the secondary mechanism for photodegradation as stated above, but a new research group has developed an acid tablet that goes inside the filters, and once wet enough, releases acid that speeds up the degradation to around two weeks.[124] The research is still only in test phase and the hope is soon it will go into production. The next option is using cigarette packs with a compartment in which to discard cigarette butts, implementing monetary deposits on filters, increasing the availability of butt receptacles, and expanding public education. It may even be possible to ban the sale of filtered cigarettes altogether on the basis of their adverse environmental impact.[125] Recent research has been put into finding ways to use the filter waste to develop a desired product. One research group in South Korea has developed a simple one-step process that converts the cellulose acetate in discarded cigarette filters into a high-performing material that could be integrated into computers, handheld devices, electrical vehicles, and wind turbines to store energy. These materials have demonstrated superior performance as compared to commercially available carbon, grapheme, and carbon nanotubes. The product is showing high promise as a green alternative for the waste problem.[126]


Iste'mol

A Woolworths supermarket cigarette counter in Yangi Janubiy Uels, Australia: In January 2011, Australia prohibited the display of cigarettes in retail outlets countrywide.[127]
Cigarette salespeople in Jakarta, Indoneziya

Smoking has become less popular, but is still a large public health problem globally. Worldwide, smoking rates fell from 41% in 1980 to 31% in 2012, although the actual number of smokers increased because of population growth.[128] In 2017, 5.4 trillion cigarettes were produced globally, and were smoked by almost 1 billion people.[129] Smoking rates have leveled off or declined in most countries but is increasing in some low- and middle-income countries. The significant reductions in smoking rates in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Brazil, and other countries that implemented strong tobacco control programs[kimga ko'ra? ] have been offset by the increasing consumption in low income countries, especially China. The Chinese market now consumes more cigarettes than all other low- and middle-income countries combined.

Other regions are increasingly playing larger roles in the growing global smoking epidemic. The WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMRO) now has the highest growth rate in the cigarette market, with more than a one-third increase in cigarette consumption since 2000. Due to its recent dynamic economic development and continued population growth, Africa presents the greatest risk in terms of future growth in tobacco use.

Within countries, patterns of cigarette consumption also can vary widely. For example, in many of the countries where few women smoke, smoking rates are often high in males (e.g., in Asia). By contrast, in most developed countries, female smoking rates are typically only a few percentage points below those of males. In many high and middle income countries lower socioeconomic status is a strong predictor of smoking.

Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by more than half from 1965 to 2016, falling from 42% to 15.5% of US adults.[130] Australia is cutting their overall smoking consumption faster than most of the developed world, in part due to landmark Plain Packaging Act, which standardized the appearance of cigarette packs. Other countries have considered similar measures. In New Zealand, a bill has been presented to parliament in which the government's associate health minister said "takes away the last means of promoting tobacco as a desirable product."[131]

Smoking prevalence by sex (ages 15 or older, 2016)[132]
Percent smoking
MintaqaErkaklarAyollar
Afrika18%2%
Amerika21%12%
Sharqiy O'rta er dengizi34%2%
Evropa38%21%
Janubi-sharqiy Osiyo32%2%
G'arbiy Tinch okeani46%3%
Leading consumers of cigarettes (2016)[133]
MamlakatAholisi
(million)		Cigarettes consumed
(milliard)		Cigarettes consumed
(per capita)
Xitoy1,3862,3512,043
Indoneziya2643161,675
Rossiya1452782,295
Qo'shma Shtatlar3272661,017
Yaponiya1271741,583

Chiroqlar

Asosiy maqola: Chiroqlar (sigaret turi)

Some cigarettes are marketed as “Lights”, “Milds”, or “Low-tar.”[134] These cigarettes were historically marketed as being less harmful, but there is no research showing that they are any less harmful. The filter design is one of the main differences between light and regular cigarettes, although not all cigarettes contain perforated holes in the filter. In some light cigarettes, the filter is perforated with small holes that theoretically diffuse the tamaki smoke with clean air. In regular cigarettes, the filter does not include these perforations. In ultralight cigarettes, the filter's perforations are larger. The majority of major cigarette manufacturers offer a light, low-tar, and/or mild cigarette brand. Due to recent U.S. legislation prohibiting the use of these descriptors, tobacco manufacturers are turning to color-coding to allow consumers to differentiate between regular and light brands.[135]

Research shows that smoking "light" or "low-tar" cigarettes is just as harmful as smoking other cigarettes.[136][137][138]

Notable cigarette brands

Asosiy maqola: List of cigarette brands
Marlboro, one of the most well-known cigarette brands.

Gateway theory

A very strong argument can be made about the association between adolescent exposure to nicotine by smoking conventional cigarettes and the subsequent onset of using other dependence-producing substances.[139] Strong, temporal, and dose-dependent associations have been reported, and a plausible biological mechanism (via rodent and human modeling) suggests that long-term changes in the neural reward system take place as a result of adolescent smoking.[139] Adolescent smokers of conventional cigarettes have disproportionately high rates of comorbid substance abuse, and longitudinal studies have suggested that early adolescent smoking may be a starting point or "shlyuz " for substance abuse later in life, with this effect more likely for persons with diqqat etishmasligi giperaktivlik buzilishi (ADHD).[139] Although factors such as genetic comorbidity, innate propensity for risk taking, and social influences may underlie these findings, both human neuroimaging and animal studies suggest a neurobiological mechanism also plays a role.[139] In addition, behavioral studies in adolescent and young adult smokers have revealed an increased propensity for risk taking, both generally and in the presence of peers, and neuroimaging studies have shown altered frontal neural activation during a risk-taking task as compared with nonsmokers.[139] In 2011, Rubinstein and colleagues used neuroimaging to show decreased brain response to a natural reinforcer (pleasurable food cues) in adolescent light smokers (1–5 cigarettes per day), with their results highlighting the possibility of neural alterations consistent with nicotine dependence and altered brain response to reward even in adolescent low-level smokers.[139]

Sog'likka ta'siri

Chekuvchilar

Asosiy maqola: Tamaki sog'lig'iga ta'siri
Artistas brand cigarette package of Mexico from the Museo del Objeto del Objeto to'plam

The harm from smoking comes from the many toxic chemicals in the natural tobacco leaf and those formed in smoke from burning tobacco. People keep smoking because the nikotin, the primary psychoactive chemical in cigarettes, is highly addictive.[140] Cigarettes, like narcotics, have been described as "strategically addictive," with the addictive properties being a core component of the business strategy.[141] About half of smokers die from a smoking-related cause. Smoking harms nearly every organ of the body. Smoking leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart, liver, and lungs, being a major risk factor for yurak xurujlari, zarbalar, surunkali obstruktiv o'pka kasalligi (COPD) (including amfizem va surunkali bronxit ) va saraton (xususan o'pka saratoni, cancers of the larynx and mouth va oshqozon osti bezi saratoni ). It also causes peripheral vascular disease and gipertoniya. Children born to women who smoke during pregnancy are at higher risk of congenital disorders, cancer, respiratory disease, and sudden death. On average, each cigarette smoked is estimated to shorten life by 11 minutes.[11][142][143] Starting smoking earlier in life and smoking cigarettes higher in smola increases the risk of these diseases. The Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti estimates that tobacco kills 8 million people each year as of 2019[144] and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.[145] Cigarettes produce an aerosol containing over 4,000 chemical compounds, including nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and oxidant substances.[17] Over 70 of these are kanserogenlar.[18]

The most important chemical compounds causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer.[146] Cunningham et al.[147] combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most kanserogen compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause.

Eng genotoxic cancer causing chemicals in cigarette smoke
MurakkabMicrograms per cigaretteEffect on DNARef.
Akrolein122.4Reacts with deoxyguanine and forms DNA crosslinks, DNA-protein crosslinks and DNA adducts[148]
Formaldegid60.5DNA-protein crosslinks causing chromosome deletions and re-arrangements[149]
Akrilonitril29.3Oxidative stress causing increased 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine[150]
1,3-butadien105.0Global loss of DNA methylation (an epigenetik effect) as well as DNA adducts[151]
Asetaldegid1448.0Reacts with deoxyguanine to form DNA adducts[152]
Etilen oksidi7.0Hydroxyethyl DNA adducts with adenine and guanine[153]
Isoprene952.0Single and double strand breaks in DNA[154]

"Ülseratif kolit is a condition of nonsmokers in which nicotine is of therapeutic benefit."[155] A recent review of the available scientific literature concluded that the apparent decrease in Alzheimer disease risk may be simply because smokers tend to die before reaching the age at which it normally occurs. "Differential mortality is always likely to be a problem where there is a need to investigate the effects of smoking in a disorder with very low incidence rates before age 75 years, which is the case of Alzheimer's disease", it stated, noting that smokers are only half as likely as nonsmokers to survive to the age of 80.[156]

Second-hand smoke

Second-hand smoke is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air for hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and can cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer, respiratory infections va Astma.[157] Nonsmokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in nonsmokers.[158] Sudden infant death syndrome, ear infections, respiratory infections, and asthma attacks can occur in children who are exposed to second-hand smoke.[159][160][161] Scientific evidence shows that no level of exposure to second-hand smoke is safe.[159][160]

Chekishni tashlash

Asosiy maqola: Chekishni tashlash

Smoking cessation (quitting smoking) is the process of discontinuing the practice of inhaling a chekilgan substance.[162]

Smoking cessation can be achieved with or without assistance from healthcare professionals or the use of medications.[163] Methods that have been found to be effective include interventions directed at or through health care providers and health care systems; medications including nikotinni almashtirish terapiyasi (NRT) and varenicline; individual and group counselling; and web-based or stand-alone computer programs. Although stopping smoking can cause short-term side effects such as reversible weight gain, smoking cessation services and activities are cost-effective because of the positive health benefits.

At the University of Buffalo, researchers found out that fruit and vegetable consumption can help a smoker cut down or even quit smoking[164]

  • A growing number of countries have more ex-smokers than smokers.[165]
  • Early "failure" is a normal part of trying to stop, and more than one attempt at stopping smoking prior to longer-term success is common.[163]
  • NRT, other prescribed pharmaceuticals, and professional counselling or support also help many smokers.[163]
  • However, up to three-quarters of ex-smokers report having quit without assistance ("cold turkey" or cut down then quit), and cessation without professional support or medication may be the most common method used by ex-smokers.[163]

Tobacco contains nicotine. Smoking cigarettes can lead to nikotinga qaramlik.[166]:2300–2301 The addiction begins when nicotine acts on nikotinik atsetilxolin retseptorlari ozod qilmoq neyrotransmitterlar kabi dopamin, glutamat va gamma-aminobutyric acid.[166]:2296 Cessation of smoking leads to symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as anxiety and irritability.[166]:2298 Professional smoking cessation support methods generally endeavour to address both nicotine addiction and nicotine withdrawal symptoms.

The number of nicotinic receptors in the brain returns to the level of a nonsmoker between 6 and 12 weeks after quitting.[167] 2019 yilda FDA authorized the selling of low-nikotin cigarettes in hopes of lowering the number of people addicted to nicotine.[168]

Elektron sigaret

Asosiy maqola: Elektron sigaret
Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Elektron sigaretlarning xavfsizligi va Elektron sigareta aerozolining tarkibi
Elektron sigaretlarning har xil turlari.
Elektron sigaretlarning har xil turlari.

Elektron sigaret - bu qo'l batareya - kuchga ega bug'lashtiruvchi that simulates chekish chekishning ba'zi xulq-atvor jihatlarini, shu jumladan chekishning og'zaki harakatlarini ta'minlash orqali, ammo chekmasdan yonish tamaki.[169] Elektron sigaretdan foydalanish "vaping" deb nomlanadi va foydalanuvchi "vaper" deb nomlanadi.[170] O'rniga sigaret tutuni, foydalanuvchi an nafas oladi aerozol, odatda chaqiriladi bug '.[171] Elektron sigaretlarda odatda a mavjud isitish elementi atomlashtiradigan a suyuq eritma deb nomlangan elektron suyuqlik.[172] Elektron sigaretalar puflab avtomatik ravishda faollashadi;[173] boshqalar tugmani bosib qo'lda yoqishadi.[170] Some e-cigarettes look like traditional cigarettes,[174] ammo ular juda ko'p farqlarga ega.[170] Ko'pgina versiyalar qayta ishlatilishi mumkin, ammo ba'zilari bir martalik.[175] Birinchi avlod bor,[176] ikkinchi avlod,[177] uchinchi avlod,[178] va to'rtinchi avlod qurilmalari.[179] Elektron suyuqliklar odatda o'z ichiga oladi propilen glikol, glitserin, nikotin, atirlar, qo'shimchalar va har xil miqdordagi ifloslantiruvchi moddalar.[180] Elektron suyuqliklar propilen glikolsiz ham sotiladi,[181] nikotin,[182] yoki lazzatlar.[183]

Foyda va elektron sigaretaning sog'liq uchun xavfliligi noaniq.[184][185][186] Odamlarga chekishni tashlashga yordam beradigan taxminiy dalillar mavjud,[187] garchi ular samaraliroq ekanligi isbotlanmagan bo'lsa ham chekishni tashlash Dori.[188] Chekmaydiganlar va bolalar elektron sigaretalar bilan nikotindan foydalanishni ular hech qachon yaratilgandan ko'ra kutilganidan yuqori darajada boshlashlari mumkinligi xavotirga solmoqda.[189] Imkoniyatdan keyin nikotinga qaramlik elektron sigaretdan foydalanish, bolalar sigareta chekishni boshlashi mumkin degan xavotirda.[189] Elektron sigaretdan foydalanadigan yoshlar ko'proq sigaret chekishga kirishadilar.[190][191] Ularning qismi tamaki zararini kamaytirish tushunarsiz,[192] boshqa tekshiruvda ular tamaki bilan bog'liq o'lim va kasalliklarni kamaytirish imkoniyatiga ega ekanligi aniqlandi.[193] AQSh tomonidan tartibga solinadi Oziq-ovqat va dori-darmonlarni boshqarish nikotin o'rnini bosuvchi mahsulotlar elektron sigaretadan xavfsizroq bo'lishi mumkin,[192] ammo elektron sigaretalar odatda yoqilgandan ko'ra xavfsizroq hisoblanadi tamaki mahsulotlari.[194][195] Hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra ularning foydalanuvchilar uchun xavfsizlik xavfi o'xshashdir tutunsiz tamaki.[196] Elektron sigaretdan foydalanishning uzoq muddatli ta'siri noma'lum.[197][198][199] Xavf jiddiy noxush hodisalar 2016 yilda past bo'lganligi haqida xabar berilgan edi.[200] Kamroq jiddiy salbiy ta'sir qorin og'rig'i, bosh og'rig'i, loyqa ko'rish,[201] tomoq va og'iz tirnash xususiyati, qusish, ko'ngil aynish va yo'tal.[202] Nikotinning o'zi sog'likka zarar etkazishi bilan bog'liq.[203] 2019 va 2020 yillarda, an outbreak of severe lung illness throughout the US was linked to the use of vaping products[204]

E-cigarettes create vapor made of fine and ultrafine particles ning zarrachalar,[202] which have been found to contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavors, small amounts of toxicants,[202] kanserogenlar,[205] va og'ir metallar, as well as metal nanozarralar va boshqa moddalar.[202] Uning exact composition varies across and within manufacturers, and depends on the contents of the liquid, the physical and electrical design of the device, and user behavior, among other factors.[171] E-cigarette vapor potentially contains harmful chemicals not found in tobacco smoke.[206] E-cigarette vapor contains fewer toxic chemicals,[202] and lower concentrations of potential toxic chemicals than cigarette smoke.[207] The vapor is probably much less harmful to users and bystanders than cigarette smoke,[205] although concern exists that the exhaled vapor may be inhaled by non-users, particularly indoors.[208]

Shuningdek qarang

Bibliografiya

  • Uaylder, Natali; Deyli, Kler; Sugarman, Jeyn; Partridge, Jeyms (2016 yil aprel). "Tutunsiz nikotin: Tamakiga zararni kamaytirish". Buyuk Britaniya: Qirollik shifokorlar kolleji. 1-191 betlar.
  • "E-Cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General" (PDF). Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Sog'liqni saqlash va aholiga xizmat ko'rsatish vazirligi. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining umumiy jarrohi. 2016. pp. 1–298. Ushbu maqola ushbu manbadagi matnni o'z ichiga oladi jamoat mulki.
  • "Elektron nikotin etkazib berish tizimlari" (PDF). Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti. 21 iyul 2014. 1-13 betlar.

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