Chekishni taqiqlash - Smoking ban

Xalqaro miqyosda taniqli "Chekish taqiqlanadi" belgisi.

Xalqaro miqyosda taniqli qora "chekishga ruxsat" belgisi

Chekish taqiqlari, yoki tutunsiz qonunlar, shu jumladan davlat siyosati jinoyat qonunlari va mehnat xavfsizligi va xavfsizligi taqiqlovchi qoidalar tamaki chekish ma'lum joylarda, odatda yopiq joylarda ish joylari va boshqalar jamoat joylari. Bunday siyosat odatda odamlarni sog'liqqa salbiy ta'siridan himoya qilish uchun qabul qilinadi passiv chekish yoki ikkinchi darajali tutun (SHS) ta'sir qilish.

Mantiqiy asos

Ba'zida kuyish bilan bog'liq xavfsizlik sababli chekish taqiqlanadi cho'g'lar ishlab chiqarilgan. Yog'li chiqindilar keyin yig'iladi Exxon Valdez neft to'kilishi kichkinagina yonida Chekish mumkin emas imzo.

Chekishni taqiqlash odatda odamlarni ta'siridan himoya qilish maqsadida qabul qilinadi ikkinchi qo'l tutun, bu esa yuqori xavfni o'z ichiga oladi yurak kasalligi, saraton, amfizem va boshqa kasalliklar. Uyda chekishni taqiqlashni amalga oshiradigan qonunlar ko'plab mamlakatlar va boshqa yurisdiktsiyalar tomonidan chekilgan sigaretaning sog'liqqa ta'siri haqida jamoatchilik ma'lumotlari oshgani sayin kiritilgan.^[1][2]

Bundan tashqari, bunday qonunlar kamayishi mumkin Sog'liqni saqlash xarajatlar,^[3] ish unumdorligini oshirish va shu tariqa muhofaza qilinadigan jamiyatdagi ishchi kuchining umumiy narxini pasaytirish, bu ishchi kuchini ish beruvchilar uchun yanada jozibador qilish. AQSh shtatida Indiana, Iqtisodiy rivojlanish agentligi 2006 yilda shaharlarda va qishloqlarda mahalliy chekishni taqiqlashni jamoalarda ish o'rinlarining o'sishiga ko'maklashish vositasi sifatida qabul qilish uchun iqtisodiy o'sishni rag'batlantirishni jadallashtirish rejasiga kiritilgan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Chekishni cheklashning qo'shimcha mantiqiy sabablari orasida portlash xavfi bo'lgan joylarda yong'in xavfi kamayadi; oziq-ovqat, farmatsevtika, yarimo'tkazgichlar yoki aniq asboblar va uskunalar ishlab chiqariladigan joylarda tozalik; yuridik javobgarlikning pasayishi; kamayishi orqali potentsial ravishda energiya sarfini kamaytirish shamollatish ehtiyojlar; kamaytirilgan axlat miqdori; sog'lom muhit; va chekuvchilarga chekishni tashlashni rag'batlantirish.^[4]

The Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti chekishni tobora qiyinlashtiradigan muhitni yaratish va kundalik hayotda chekishni qabul qilishdan ijtimoiy me'yorlarni o'zgartirishga yordam berish orqali chekishni taqiqlash tamakiga bo'lgan talabni kamaytirishga ta'sir qiladi deb hisoblaydi. Sog'liqni saqlash sohasidagi mutaxassislar tomonidan soliq choralari, to'xtatish choralari va ta'lim bilan bir qatorda chekishni taqiqlash chekishni kamaytirish va sog'liqning ijobiy natijalarini ta'minlashning muhim elementi sifatida qaralmoqda. Amalga oshirilganda, ular sog'lom turmush tarzi foydasiga xatti-harakatlarning o'zgarishini qo'llab-quvvatlash siyosatining muhim elementi sifatida qaraladi.^[5]

Qo'shma Shtatlar va Evropaning yangi tadqiqotlariga ko'ra, jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlash erta tug'ilishning 10 foizga qisqarishiga yordam berdi.^[6]

Dalillar asoslari

Tadqiqotlar shuni isbotladi ikkinchi qo'l tutun to'g'ridan-to'g'ri chekish bilan bir xil muammolarni keltirib chiqaradi, shu jumladan o'pka saratoni, yurak-qon tomir kasalliklari va o'pka kasalliklari kabi amfizem, bronxit va Astma.^[7] Xususan, meta-tahlillar uyda chekadigan sheriklari bilan umrbod chekmaydiganlar chekmaydiganlar bilan birga yashaydiganlarga qaraganda 20-30% ko'proq o'pka saratoni xavfi borligini ko'rsating. Ish joyida sigareta tutuniga duchor bo'lmagan chekuvchilar 16-19% gacha o'pka saratoni xavfini oshiradi.^[8]

Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkilotining Xalqaro saraton kasalligini tadqiq qilish bo'yicha xalqaro agentligi tomonidan 2002 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotda, chekuvchilar ham xuddi shunday ta'sirga duchor bo'lishdi kanserogenlar faol chekuvchilar sifatida tamaki tutuni hisobiga.^[9] Ikkinchi oqim tutuni^[10] 69 ta ma'lum bo'lgan kanserogen moddalarni o'z ichiga oladi benzopiren^[11] va boshqa ko'p yadroli aromatik uglevodorodlar va radioaktiv parchalanish mahsulotlari polonyum-210.^[12] Tamaki ishlab chiqaradigan kompaniyalarning o'z tadqiqotlari bilan bir necha yaxshi tasdiqlangan kanserogen moddalar oddiy tutunga qaraganda ikkinchi darajali tutun tarkibida yuqori konsentratsiyalarda ekanligi isbotlangan.^[13]

Ikkinchi qo'l tutun ta'sirini tasdiqlovchi ilmiy tashkilotlarga AQSh kiradi. Milliy saraton instituti,^[14] AQSh Kasalliklarni nazorat qilish va oldini olish markazlari (CDC),^[15] AQSh Milliy sog'liqni saqlash institutlari,^[16] The Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining umumiy jarrohi,^[17] va Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti.^[18]

Bar va restoranlarda havo sifati

Bar va restoranlarda chekishni cheklash bunday muassasalarda havo sifatini sezilarli darajada yaxshilashi mumkin. Masalan, AQSh veb-saytida bitta tadqiqot. Kasalliklarni nazorat qilish va oldini olish markazlari Nyu-Yorkning yopiq ish joylarida va jamoat joylarida chekishni yo'q qilish to'g'risidagi shtat qonuni Nyu-Yorkning g'arbiy Nyu-Yorkdagi mehmonxonalarida RSP (nafas olish mumkin bo'lgan to'xtatilgan zarralar) miqdorini sezilarli darajada kamaytirganligini ta'kidlaydi. RSP darajasi cheklanishga ruxsat berilgan har bir joyda, qonun amalga oshirilgunga qadar, shu jumladan, faqat shu joylarda kamaytirildi ikkinchi qo'l tutun qo'shni xonadan boshlang'ich bosqichda kuzatilgan.^[19] CDC ularning natijalari boshqa tadqiqotlarga o'xshash degan xulosaga keldi, ular chekish taqiqlanganidan keyin ichki havo sifati sezilarli darajada yaxshilanganligini ko'rsatdi.

2004 yildagi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki Nyu-Jersi bar va restoranlarda chekishni taqiqlab qo'ygan qo'shni Nyu-York shahrining ichki havosi ifloslanish darajasidan to'qqiz baravar ko'p edi.^[20]

Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, yaxshilangan havo sifati pasaygan toksin xodimlar o'rtasida ta'sir qilish.^[21] Masalan, chekishga cheklov qo'ygan Norvegiya muassasalari xodimlari orasida testlar pasaygan darajani ko'rsatdi nikotin sigaret chekadigan va chekmaydigan ishchilar siydigida (chekishdan oldin o'lchovlarga nisbatan).^[22]

Sog'liqni saqlash sohasidagi huquqni tadqiq qilish

2009 yilda "Xalq salomatligi to'g'risida" gi qonunni tadqiq qilish dasturi, milliy dastur idorasi Robert Vud Jonson jamg'armasi, ma'lum bir qonun yoki siyosatning aholi sog'lig'iga ta'sirini baholovchi tadqiqotlarni sarhisob qiladigan qisqa ma'lumotni nashr etdi. Ular "chekishni taqiqlash va cheklashni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi kuchli dalillar mavjud, chunki chekish chekishni kamaytirishga qaratilgan samarali sog'liqni saqlash tadbirlari".^[23]

Tarix

Media-ni ijro etish

1973 va 2007 yillar ABC Uyda chekishni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi dastlabki, so'ngra to'liq, cheklovlar to'g'risidagi yangiliklar Viktoriya, Avstraliya.

Chekishga dunyodagi eng qadimgi taqiqlardan biri bu 1575 yilgi Rim-katolik cherkovining mexikodagi har qanday cherkovda tamaki iste'mol qilishni taqiqlaganligi edi.^[24] 1590 yilda Papa Urban VII cherkov binolarida chekishga qarshi harakat qildi^[25] U tahdid qildi chiqarib yuborish "cherkovning ichkarisida yoki ichkarisida tamaki olgan kishi, xoh uni chaynash bilan, quvur bilan chekish bilan yoki burun orqali chang shaklida hidlash bilan".^[26] U 1624 yilda Urban VIII tomonidan ta'qib qilingan.^[27] 1604 yilda qirol Jeyms VI va men chekishga qarshi risola nashr etdi, Tamakiga qarshi vosita, bu tamaki soliqlarini oshirishga ta'sir qildi. Rossiya 1627 yildan 70 yilga tamakiga taqiq qo'ydi.^[28]Usmonli sultoni Murod IV 1633 yilda o'z imperiyasida chekishni taqiqlagan va chekuvchilar bo'lgan ijro etildi.^[27] Evropada chekishni taqiqlash bo'yicha eng qadimiy shahar taqiqlari ko'p o'tmay amalga oshirildi. Bunday taqiqlar qabul qilingan Bavariya, Kursachsen va 17-asr oxirida Avstriyaning ayrim qismlari. 1723 yilda Berlinda chekish taqiqlangan, yilda Königsberg 1742 yilda va Stettin 1744 yilda. Ushbu taqiqlar bekor qilingan 1848 yilgi inqiloblar.^[29] 1865 yilgacha Rossiyada ko'chalarda chekish taqiqlangan edi.^[30]

Chekishni taqiqlagan dunyodagi birinchi bino bu edi Eski hukumat binosi yilda Vellington, Yangi Zelandiya 1876 yilda. Yong'in xavfi bilan bog'liq taqiq bilan bog'liq taqiq, chunki u dunyodagi ikkinchi yirik yog'och bino.^[31]

Chekishni ko'rishni cheklashga qaratilgan birinchi zamonaviy urinish Natsistlar Germaniyasi chekishni taqiqlaydi 1941 yilda Karl Astelning Tamaki xavfini o'rganish instituti qoshida tashkil etilgan har bir universitetda, pochtada, harbiy kasalxonada va fashistlar partiyasining idoralarida. Adolf Gitler.^[32] Natsistlar 1945 yilda o'z rejimlari barham topgunga qadar tamakiga qarshi yirik kampaniyalar o'tkazdilar.^[33]

20-asrning ikkinchi qismida, ikkinchi darajali tamaki tutunining xavf-xatarlari bo'yicha tadqiqotlar keng ommalashganligi sababli tamaki sanoati "xushmuomalalik bilan xabardorlik" aksiyalarini boshladi. Sotish kamayganidan qo'rqib, sanoat "turar joy" ga qaratilgan ommaviy axborot vositalari va qonunchilik dasturini yaratdi. Bag'rikenglik va xushmuomalalik chekuvchilar va atrofdagilar o'rtasidagi keskinlikni yumshatishning bir usuli sifatida, chekishni taqiqlashdan qochishga chorlandi. AQShda shtatlarga chekishni alohida bo'limlarini nazarda tutuvchi qonunlarni qabul qilish tavsiya etildi.^[34]

1975 yilda AQShning Minnesota shtati Minnesota toza ichki havo qonuni, ko'pchilik jamoat joylarida chekishni cheklaydigan birinchi davlatga aylandi. Dastlab restoranlarda "Chekish taqiqlanadi" bo'limlari bo'lishi kerak edi va barlar ushbu Qonundan ozod qilindi.^[35] 2007 yil 1 oktyabrdan boshlab MINNESOTA shtat bo'ylab joylashgan barcha restoran va barlarda chekishni taqiqlashni boshladi Nafas olish erkinligi to'g'risidagi qonun 2007 yil.^[36]

Kurort shahri Aspen, Kolorado, 1985 yilda restoranlarda chekishni cheklagan AQShdagi birinchi shahar bo'ldi, garchi u alohida shamollatiladigan joylarda chekishga ruxsat berdi.^[37]

1987 yil 3 aprelda shahar Beverli-Xillz, Kaliforniya, aksariyat restoranlarda, chakana savdo do'konlarida va jamoat yig'ilishlarida chekishni cheklash to'g'risida qaror qabul qildi. Mehmonxonalardagi restoranlarni ozod qildi - shahar kengashi a'zolari, mehmonxonalar restoranlari chet eldan ko'plab mehmonlarni qabul qilishadi, bu erda chekish Qo'shma Shtatlarga qaraganda ko'proq qabul qilinadi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

1990 yilda shahar San-Luis Obispo, Kaliforniya, restoranlarda va barlarda yopiq chekishni cheklagan dunyodagi birinchi shahar bo'ldi.^[38] Ushbu taqiq ish joylarini o'z ichiga olmagan, ammo boshqa barcha yopiq jamoat joylarini qamrab olgan^[39] va uning ijrosi biroz cheklangan edi.^[40]

Qo'shma Shtatlarda Kaliforniyaning 1998 yilda chekishni taqiqlashi Nyu-York kabi boshqa shtatlarni ham shunga o'xshash qoidalarni amalga oshirishga undadi. Kaliforniyadagi taqiq 1994 yilda qabul qilingan shtat bo'ylab taqiqni uzaytirib, barlarda chekishni munozarali cheklashni o'z ichiga olgan. 2009 yil aprel oyidan boshlab 37 ta shtat chekishni taqiqlagan.^[41] Kaliforniyadagi ba'zi joylar butun shaharlarda, shu jumladan turar joylardan tashqari hamma joyda chekishni taqiqlashni boshladi. Kaliforniyadagi 20 dan ortiq shaharlarda park va plyajda chekishni cheklashlar amalga oshirildi. So'nggi yillarda Nyu-Yorkda §17-502 va §17-508 ma'muriy kodlari qabul qilindi, xususiy mulk egalari binolari, kooperativlar va kondominyumlar chekishni cheklash siyosatini barcha ijaraga olishga majbur qilishdi. Ushbu kodlar ijarachilarga chekish mumkin yoki chekmasliklari mumkin bo'lgan joylarni aniq ko'rsatadigan qoidalar yaratishga majbur qiladi.^[42][43]

1993 yil dekabrdan boshlab Peru, har qanday jamoat yopiq joylarda va har qanday jamoat transporti vositalarida chekish noqonuniy holga aylandi (1991 yil 27 noyabrda chiqarilgan 25357-sonli qonun va 1993 yil 25 noyabrda D.S. 983-93-PCM farmoni bilan chiqarilgan qoidalarga muvofiq). Shuningdek, oshkoralikni cheklovchi qonunchilik mavjud va shuningdek, voyaga etmaganlarga tamaki sotish yoki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tamaki reklama qilish uchun 500 metrlik maktablarda noqonuniy hisoblanadi (Qonun 26957 yil 1998 yil 21 may) (Qonun 26849 yil 9-iyul).

1975 yil 11-noyabrda Italiya jamoat transportida (chekuvchilarning temir yo'l vagonlaridan tashqari) va ayrim jamoat binolarida (kasalxonalar, kinoteatrlar, teatrlar, muzeylar, universitetlar va kutubxonalar) chekishni taqiqladi.^[44] 1986 yildagi muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishdan so'ng, 2003 yil 16 yanvarda Italiya parlamenti Legge Sirchia 2005 yil 10 yanvardan boshlab barcha yopiq jamoat joylarida, shu jumladan barlarda, restoranlarda, diskotekalarda va ofislarda chekishni taqiqlaydi.^[45][46]

2003 yil 3-dekabrda Yangi Zelandiya 2004 yil dekabrgacha maktablarda, maktab hududlarida va ish joylarida chekishni taqiqlashni bosqichma-bosqich amalga oshirish uchun qonunlar qabul qildi.^[47]2004 yil 29 martda Irlandiya Respublikasi barcha ish joylarida chekishni butun mamlakat bo'ylab taqiqlashni amalga oshirdi. Norvegiyada xuddi shunday qonun shu yilning 1 iyunidan kuchga kirdi.

Shotlandiyada, Endi Kerr, Sog'liqni saqlash va aholini parvarish qilish vaziri 2006 yil 26 martda jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlashni joriy qildi. Chekish butun Buyuk Britaniyaning barcha jamoat joylarida 2007 yilda, Angliya qonunchilikni qabul qilish uchun so'nggi mintaqaga aylanganda taqiqlandi. kuchga kirdi (tamaki sotib olish uchun yosh chegarasi 2007 yil 1 oktyabrda 16 yoshdan 18 yoshgacha o'sdi).

1999 yil 12 iyulda Kerala Oliy sudining Hindistondagi bo'limi "jamoat chekishni butun dunyo tarixida birinchi marta noqonuniy, konstitutsiyaga zid va Konstitutsiyaning 21-moddasini buzgan" deb e'lon qilib, jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqladi. Doktor adliya K. Narayana Kurup boshchiligidagi skameyka jamoat joylarida "tamaki chekish" (sigareta, sigara, beedies yoki boshqacha tarzda "" Hindiston Jinoyat kodeksida keltirilgan jamoat bezovtaligi bilan bog'liq jazo qoidalarining buzilishiga, shuningdek atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish va saqlashga oid nizomda ko'rsatilgan havo ifloslanishining ta'rifi, xususan, havo (Ifloslanishning oldini olish va nazorat qilish), 1981 yilgi qonun. "^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

2003 yilda Hindistonda restoran, jamoat transporti yoki maktab kabi jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlovchi qonun qabul qilindi. Xuddi shu qonun sigareta yoki boshqa tamaki mahsulotlarini reklama qilishni noqonuniy deb topdi.^[48]

2010 yilda Nepal yangi chekishga qarshi qonun loyihasini qabul qilishni rejalashtirdi, unda jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlash va chekishni taqiqlash uchun yosh tamaki chekishni taqiqlash.^[49]

2011 yil 31 mayda Venesuela yopiq jamoat va savdo joylarida chekishni cheklashni joriy etdi.^[50]

1996 yilda Turkiyada maktablar, shifoxonalar, poezdlar, avtobuslar va vokzallarda chekish cheklangan edi. 2008 yilda barcha jamoat yopiq joylarini qamrab olgan chekishni yanada kengroq taqiqlash amalga oshirildi.

Frantsuz plyajida chekish cheklandi - Frantsiyaning La Ciotat shahridagi Plage Lumière Evropadagi birinchi plyajga aylandi^[51]chekishni cheklash uchun 2011 yil avgustidan ko'proq sayyohlarni plyajga tashrif buyurishni rag'batlantirish maqsadida.

2012 yilda, Kosta-Rikada chekish dunyodagi eng cheklovli qoidalarga bo'ysundi, bu amaliyot ko'plab ochiq dam olish va ta'lim joylarida, shuningdek jamoat binolari va transport vositalarida taqiqlandi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Tamaki tamaki taqiqlari

2004 yilda, Butan tamaki mahsulotlarini etishtirish, yig'ish, ishlab chiqarish va sotishni to'liq qonunga zid bo'lgan birinchi mamlakat bo'ldi. Taqiqlashni buzganlik uchun jarimalar "Butanning tamakiga qarshi kurash to'g'risidagi qonuni 2010 yil '. Shu bilan birga, egasi import bojlarini to'laganligini isbotlashi mumkin bo'lgan taqdirda, shaxsiy egalik uchun kichik imtiyozlarga yo'l qo'yiladi.^[52] 2016 yil yanvar oyida, Turkmaniston Prezident Gurbanguli Berdimuhammedov xabarlarga ko'ra, mamlakatda barcha tamaki sotish taqiqlangan.^[53] The Pitkarn orollari ilgari sigareta sotishni taqiqlagan; ammo, endi u hukumat tomonidan boshqariladigan do'kondan sotishga ruxsat beradi. Tinch okeanidagi orol Niue tamaki sotishni taqiqlovchi keyingi mamlakat bo'lishga umid qilmoqda.^[54] Islandiyada taklif qilingan tamaki do'konlardan tamaki savdosini taqiqlab qo'yadi, bu retsept bo'yicha va shu sababli faqat dorixonalarda shifokorning buyrug'i bilan tarqatiladi.^[55] Yangi Zelandiya 2025 yilga qadar va 2040 yilga qadar Finlyandiyadan tamakisiz bo'lishga umid qilmoqda. 2012 yilda chekishga qarshi guruhlar "chekish litsenziyasi" ni taklif qilishdi - agar chekuvchi o'z litsenziyasini tashlab, qaytarib berishga muvaffaq bo'lsa, ular to'lagan pullarini qaytarib olishadi. buning uchun. Tibbiyot talabalari Singapur va Avstraliya shtati Tasmaniya barcha tamaki mahsulotlarini 2000 yilda va undan keyin tug'ilgan har qanday kishiga sotishni taqiqlab, "ming yillik tamakisiz avlodni tashabbusi" ni taklif qildilar.^[56][57]

2012 yil mart oyida Braziliya barcha xushbo'y tamaki mahsulotlarini, shu jumladan mentollarni taqiqlagan dunyodagi birinchi mamlakat bo'ldi. Shuningdek, u ishlatilgan taxminiy 600 ta qo'shimchalarning aksariyatiga taqiq qo'ydi, faqat sakkiztasiga ruxsat berildi. Ushbu reglament mahalliy va xalqaro miqyosda olib kelingan sigaretalarga nisbatan qo'llaniladi. Tamaki ishlab chiqaruvchilari talablarga javob bermaydigan sigaretalarni olib tashlash uchun 18 oy, boshqa talablarga javob bermaydigan tamakilarni olib tashlash uchun 24 oy vaqt sarfladilar.^[58][59]

Jamiyat ko'magi

2007 yilda Gallup tomonidan o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra amerikaliklarning 54 foizi tamaki chekmaydigan restoranlarni, 34 foizi tamaki chekmaydigan mehmonxonalarni va 29 foizi tamaki chekmaydigan barlarni yoqlagan.^[60]

Gallup-ning 2008 yil dekabr oyida o'tkazilgan 26,500 dan ortiq yevropaliklar orasida o'tkazilgan yana bir so'rovida "Evropa Ittifoqi fuqarolarining aksariyati jamoat joylarida, masalan, ofis, restoran va barlarda chekishni taqiqlashni qo'llab-quvvatlamoqda". So'rov natijalariga ko'ra "ish joylarida chekishni cheklashni qo'llab-quvvatlash restoranlarda (84% ga nisbatan 79%) nisbatan cheklovlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashdan biroz yuqoriroq. Uchdan ikki qismi tutunsiz barlar, pablar va klublarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi". Chekish bo'yicha aniq taqiqlarni amalga oshirgan mamlakatlarda qo'llab-quvvatlash eng yuqori ko'rsatkichdir: "Italiyada fuqarolar barlarda, pablarda va klublarda chekishni cheklashga eng moyil (93% - 87%" umuman foydasiga "). Shvetsiya va Irlandiya Italiyaga qo'shilishadi respondentlarning 80 foizga yaqini tutunsiz barlarni, pablarni va klublarni qo'llab-quvvatlashi bilan shkalaning yuqoriroq tomoni (ikkala mamlakatda ham 70 foiz foydasiga). "^[61]

Effektlar

Sog'likka ta'siri

Bir nechta tadqiqotlar chekishni taqiqlash bilan bog'liq sog'liq va iqtisodiy foydalarni hujjatlashtirdi. Tomonidan 2009 yilgi hisobot Tibbiyot instituti chekishni taqiqlash yurak tomirlari kasalligi va yurak xurujlari xavfini kamaytiradi degan xulosaga keldi, ammo hisobot mualliflari ushbu kamayish hajmini aniqlay olmadilar.^[62][63] Shuningdek, 2009 yilda muntazam ravishda ko'rib chiqilgan va meta-tahlil natijasida jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlash yurak xurujlari sonining sezilarli darajada pasayishi bilan bog'liqligi aniqlandi.^[64] Ushbu meta-tahlilning etakchi muallifi Devid Meyersning ta'kidlashicha, ushbu sharhda jamoat joylarida chekishni mamlakat bo'ylab taqiqlash har yili Qo'shma Shtatlarda 100000 dan 225000 gacha yurak xurujlarini oldini olish mumkin.^[65]

Jamoat joylarida tamaki chekish to'g'risidagi qonunchilik kattalar orasida yurak xastaligi sababini kamaytirdi. Bunday qonunchilikka restoranlarda, avtobuslarda, mehmonxonalarda va ish joylarida chekishni taqiqlash kiradi. Kasalliklarni nazorat qilish markazi (CDC) tomonidan chaqirilgan Tibbiyot Instituti (XMK) tashqi tutun ta'sirida yurak-qon tomir ta'siri borligini aniqladi. Epidemiologiya hisobotida aytilishicha, ikkinchi darajali tutunga duchor bo'lganida, yurak tomirlari kasalligi xavfi 25-30% gacha ko'tariladi. Ma'lumotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, tutunning past darajasida ham xavf mavjud va xavf ko'proq xavf ostida ortadi.^[66]

2012 yilgi meta-tahlil natijalariga ko'ra, tutunsiz qonunchilik yurak, miya qon tomirlari va nafas olish yo'llari kasalliklari kasalxonalariga yotqizilish darajasi pastligi bilan bog'liq va "Keng qamrovli qonunlar xavfning kattaroq o'zgarishi bilan bog'liq edi".^[67] Ushbu meta-tahlilning katta muallifi, Stanton Glantz aytdi USA Today "Chekishni taqiqlashdan ayrim ob'ektlarni ozod qilish to'g'risida", ushbu imtiyozlarni qo'ygan siyosatchilar odamlarni shoshilinch yordam xonasiga yotqizilishini qoralashmoqda.^[68] 2013 yilgi tekshiruvda chekishni taqiqlash "o'tkir MI [miokard infarkti] xavfining sezilarli darajada pasayishi" bilan bog'liqligi aniqlandi, ammo "Qo'shma Shtatlarda aholisi kamroq bo'lgan tadqiqotlar odatda kamayishlar haqida xabar berildi, katta tadqiqotlar nisbatan kam kamaytirilganligi haqida xabar berdi".^[69]

2014 yildagi muntazam tekshiruv va meta-tahlillar shuni ko'rsatdiki, tutunsiz qonunchilik taxminan 10% kamayishi bilan bog'liq erta tug'ilish va astma kasalxonasida davolanish, ammo pasayish bilan emas kam vazn.^[70][71] 2016 yilgi Cochrane tekshiruvi shuni ko'rsatdiki, ushbu sharhning avvalgi versiyasi 2010 yilda nashr etilganligi sababli, chekishni taqiqlash sog'liqni saqlash natijalarini yaxshilaganligi haqidagi dalillar, ayniqsa, o'tkir koronar sindrom kirish.^[72][73]

Shu bilan birga, boshqa tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, chekishni taqiqlash miyokard infarkti darajalariga va boshqa kasalliklarga qisqa vaqt ichida ta'sir qilmaydi yoki umuman ta'sir qilmaydi. AQSh tomonidan olib borilgan 2010 yilgi tadqiqotda chekish cheklangan hududlarni nazorat zonalari bilan taqqoslash uchun ulkan milliy vakili ma'lumotlar bazalari ishlatilgan va chekishni taqiqlash bilan yurak xuruji tezligining qisqa muddatli pasayishi o'rtasida birlashma aniqlanmagan. Mualliflar, shuningdek, quyi namunalar yordamida kichikroq tadqiqotlarni tahlil qildilar va chekishni taqiqlagandan so'ng miyokard infarkti bilan kasallanishning qisqa muddatli o'sishi katta pasayish kabi keng tarqalganligini aniqladilar.^[74]

Tamaki iste'moliga ta'siri

Chekishni taqiqlash odatda chekishni kamaytirish uchun tan olinadi; tutunsiz ish joylari ishchilar orasida chekishni kamaytiradi,^[75] va jamoat joylarida chekishga cheklovlar chekish va chekishni ijtimoiy belgilarini kamaytirish kombinatsiyasi orqali umumiy chekish stavkalarini pasaytiradi.^[76] Shu bilan birga, chekishni taqiqlaganidan keyin ommabop matbuotda tarqalgan xabarlarda samaradorlikni anglash borasida ko'pincha qarama-qarshi ma'lumotlar mavjud.

Hisobotlarning birida Irlandiya va Shotlandiyada chekishni taqiqlashni amalga oshirgandan so'ng sigaret sotish hajmi oshgani aytilgan.^[77] Aksincha, boshqa hisobotda aytilishicha, Irlandiyada chekish amalga oshirilganidan keyin olti oy ichida sigaret sotish 16 foizga kamaygan.^[78] Buyuk Britaniyada sigaret sotish 2006 yil iyul oyiga nisbatan mamlakat bo'ylab chekishni taqiqlashning birinchi oyi bo'lgan 2007 yil iyul oyida 11 foizga kamaydi.^[79]

1992 yildagi hujjat Filipp Morris tamaki sanoatining chekishni taqiqlash oqibatlaridan xavotirini sarhisob qildi: "Ish joyida chekishni butunlay taqiqlash kuchli ta'sirga ega [sic ] tamaki sanoati hajmi. Ushbu cheklovlarga duch kelgan chekuvchilar o'rtacha ko'rsatkichdan 11% dan 15% gacha kamroq iste'mol qilishadi va o'rtacha ko'rsatkichdan 84% ko'proq stavka bilan chiqishadi. "^[80]

Qo'shma Shtatlarda, CDC so'nggi yillarda chekishni taqiqlash va soliqlarning katta miqdordagi o'sishiga qaramay chekish stavkalari tenglashtirilganligini xabar qildi. Bundan tashqari, qattiq chekuvchilarning "orqasiga qaytish" ga erishilganligi taxmin qilinmoqda: g'ayratga ega bo'lmaganlar va qo'shimcha qonunlar oldida tobora ko'proq qarshilik ko'rsatadiganlar.^[81] Nyu-York shahridagi chekishni taqiqlash kattalardagi chekish stavkalari mamlakatdagi kabi deyarli ikki baravarga kamayganligi bilan izohlandi va "umr ko'rish davomiyligi o'n yil ichida uch yilga ko'tarildi".^[82]

Shvetsiyada snus, chekishga alternativa sifatida, ushbu mamlakat chekishni taqiqlagandan beri tobora o'sib bormoqda.^[83]

Chekish cheklovlari chekuvchilarga chekishni tashlashni osonlashtirishi mumkin. So'rov shuni ko'rsatadiki, Buyuk Britaniyadagi chekuvchilarning 22% ushbu mamlakatning chekishni taqiqlashiga javoban chekishni tashlash haqida o'ylashgan bo'lishi mumkin.^[84]

Restoranlarning chekish cheklovlari yoshlarni odatdagidek chekuvchilar bo'lishiga yordam berishi mumkin. Massachusets shtati yoshlari o'rtasida o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, chekish taqiqlangan shaharlarda chekuvchilar odatdagidek 35 foizga kamroq chekishadi.^[85][86]

Korxonalarga ta'siri

Yaponiyaning ba'zi ko'chalarida chekish taqiqlangan. Sigaret chekuvchilar Tokiodagi kabi chekish zallaridan foydalanadilar.

"Iltimos, yurish paytida chekmang" degan yozuv Tayto, Tokio

Sog'liqni saqlash sohasidagi adabiyotlarda chekishni taqiqlashning iqtisodiy samarasi to'g'risida ko'plab tadqiqotlar nashr etilgan. Ushbu hukumat va akademik tadqiqotlarning aksariyati chekishni cheklash bilan bog'liq salbiy iqtisodiy ta'sir yo'qligini va mahalliy korxonalarga ijobiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin bo'lgan ko'plab xulosalarni topdilar.^[87] Chekishni taqiqlashning mehmondo'stlik sanoatiga iqtisodiy ta'sirini o'rganish bo'yicha 2003 yilda o'tkazilgan 97 ta bunday tadqiqotlar natijasida "eng yaxshi ishlab chiqilgan" tadqiqotlar xulosasiga ko'ra chekishni taqiqlash korxonalarga zarar etkazmaydi.^[88] Xuddi shunday, 2014 yilgi meta-tahlil natijasida chekish taqiqlangan restoranlarda va barlarda daromadlarda sezilarli daromad yoki yo'qotish yo'qligi aniqlandi.^[89]

Barlar va restoranlarning birlashmalari tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan tadqiqotlar ba'zida chekishni taqiqlash restoran va barlarning foydasiga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda. Bunday uyushmalar, shuningdek, bunday qonunlarning hech qanday ta'siri bo'lmaganligini aniqlagan tadqiqotlarni tanqid qildilar.^[90] Ko'pgina bar va restoran uyushmalari tamaki sanoati bilan aloqada bo'lib, ular tomonidan homiylik qilinadi.^[91]

Avstraliya

Sidneyda o'tkazilgan hukumat tomonidan o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra, pablar va klublarda chekish taqiqlangandan keyin aholining ulushi ko'paygan.^[92] Biroq, 2008 yil avgust oyida ClubsNSW hisobotida Nyu-Janubiy Uels klublari chekishni taqiqlash ayblovi 385 million dollarga kamayib ketgan daromadni eng yomon pasayishiga olib keldi. Yangi Janubiy Uelsda klublar daromadi 11 foizga kamaydi. Sidney CBD klubi daromadi 21,7% ga, g'arbiy Sidney klublari esa 15,5% ga kamaydi.^[93]

Germaniya

Chekish bo'yicha ba'zi cheklovlar 2008 yil va 2009 yil boshlarida Germaniya mehmonxonalarida, restoranlarida va barlarida joriy qilingan. Restoran sanoati 2007 yil oxirida chekishni cheklagan shtatlarning ayrim korxonalari (Quyi Saksoniya, Baden-Vyurtemberg va Gessen ) kamaytirilgan daromadni boshdan kechirdi. Germaniya mehmonxonalar va restoranlari assotsiatsiyasi (DEHOGA) chekishni taqiqlash odamlarni ichimlik yoki ovqatga chiqishga to'sqinlik qilmoqda, deb ta'kidlab, 2007 yilda taqiqni qabul qilgan korxonalarning 15 foizida tovar aylanmasi 50 foizga kamayganini ta'kidladi.^[94] Biroq, Gamburg universiteti tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlar (Ahlfeldt va Maennig 2010), juda qisqa vaqt ichida, agar mavjud bo'lsa, daromadlarga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda. O'rta va uzoq muddatli istiqbolda daromadlarni tiklash amalga oshirildi. Ushbu natijalar shuni ko'rsatadiki, barlarda va restoranlarda iste'mol qilish uzoq vaqt davomida chekishni taqiqlashdan ta'sirlanmaydi yoki chekuvchilar tomonidan tushumga salbiy ta'sirlar chekuvchilar bo'lmagan daromadlarning ko'payishi bilan qoplanadi.^[95] Chekish uchun aniq ko'rsatilgan joylar bundan mustasno, har qanday jamoat transportida yoki temir yo'l stantsiyalari atrofida chekishga yo'l qo'yilmaydi. Poezdlarda chekish butunlay taqiqlangan Deutsche Bahn AG 2007 yilda.^[96] Aeroportlarda va barchasida chekish taqiqlangan Lufthansa 1990-yillarning oxiridan boshlab samolyotlar.^[97]

The 2006 FIFA Jahon kubogi mamlakat mezbonlik qilgan dunyodagi aksariyat mamlakatlarda kafe, bar va restoranlarda chekishni taqiqlashdan oldin oxirgi bo'lgan.

2008 yilda, Bavariya barlarda va restoranlarda chekishni butunlay taqiqlagan Germaniyaning birinchi federal shtati bo'ldi. Ushbu cheklovdan so'ng, boshqaruv partiyasining ba'zi a'zolari tomonidan "juda qattiq" deb tanqid qilindi CSU, bir yildan keyin tinchlandi. Keyinchalik chekishni taqiqlash tarafdorlari ushbu masala bo'yicha ommaviy referendum o'tkazdilar, bu esa dastlabki taqiqdan ham qat'iy cheklovlarga olib keldi. Keyinchalik 2010 yilda yanada keng qamrovli taqiq joriy etildi.^[98]

Shuningdek, 2010 yilda Saarland barlarda va restoranlarda to'liq taqiq qo'yilgan ikkinchi federal davlatga aylandi.

2013 yilda, Shimoliy Reyn-Vestfaliya Germaniyaning aholisi eng ko'p bo'lgan federal shtati bar va restoranlarda qat'iy taqiq qo'yilgan uchinchi shtat bo'ldi.^[99]

Davlat tomonidan chekishni taqiqlash

	Ma'muriy organlar, sudlar	Qamoqxonalar	Klinikalar	Boshpana	Maktablar, yoshlar uylar, bolalar bog'chalari	Yuqori maktablar	Gimnaziyalar, yopiq hovuzlar	Muzeylar, teatrlar, kinoteatrlar va boshqalar.	Diskotekalar	Restoran va barlar	Savdo markazlari	Aeroportlar	Temir yo'l stantsiyalar
Baden- Vyurtemberg		1 7	6		4			5	9	1 12
Bavariya			6 10	7 10		10						10
Berlin										1 12
Brandenburg	1	1 7	6	7				6	1	1 12
Bremen		7							9	1
Gamburg		7								12
Xesse	1	1 7	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1 12		1
Meklenburg - Vorpommern										1		3
Quyi Saksoniya				6 10	7			10				10
Shimoliy Reyn Vestfaliya		2	6								13	14
Reynland-Pfalz		1 2		1 7					9	1 11
Saarland		2	6 7	7			8
Saksoniya										1 11 12
Saksoniya-Anhalt	1	7	7	1	1	1	1	1		1
Shlezvig - Golshteyn				7	7				1	1
Turingiya	1			7					9	1

Irlandiya

The Irlandiya Respublikasi To'liq tutunsiz ish joylarini joriy etgan birinchi mamlakat edi (2004 yil mart). Irlandiyaning ish joyidagi tutunsiz qonuni ishchilarni himoya qilish maqsadida kiritilgan ikkinchi qo'l tutun va chekuvchilar soni yuqori bo'lgan mamlakatda chekishni to'xtatish. Irlandiyada taqiqqa qarshi asosiy qarama-qarshiliklar jamoatchilik tarafidan bo'ldi. Ko'plab pablar "tashqi makon" tartibini joriy qilishdi (odatda boshpana bilan isitiladigan joylar). Muxoliflarning fikriga ko'ra, tutunsiz ish joylari to'g'risidagi qonun uydagi ichkilik va chekishni ko'paytiradi, ammo so'nggi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, bunday emas.^[100]

Irlandiyaning Tamaki mahsulotlarini nazorat qilish idorasi veb-saytida "Mehmondo'stlik sohasidagi rasmiy ma'lumotlarning baholanishi ushbu tadbirni amalga oshirilishidan hech qanday salbiy iqtisodiy samara bo'lmaganligini ko'rsatmoqda (2004 yil mart oyida milliy barlarda, restoranlarda va boshqa joylarda chekishsiz). "tutunsiz qonun" yuzlab kichik qishloq pablarining yopilishiga muhim hissa qo'shgan, 2006 yilda 2005 yildagiga qaraganda deyarli 440 ta litsenziyaning yangilanishi bilan da'vo qilingan. "^[101]

Men oroli

Tutunsiz cheklovlar kuchga kirdi Men oroli 2008 yil 30 martda.

Hindiston

Chandigarh 2007 yil iyul oyida Hindistonning birinchi tutunsiz davlatiga aylandi. Ijtimoiy faol Hemant Gosvami Chandigarhni tutunsiz qilish uchun kashshoflik ishlarini olib bordi. Chandigarh muvaffaqiyatidan ilhomlanib, o'sha paytdagi Ittifoq sog'liqni saqlash vaziri doktor Ambumani Ramadoss 2008 yilda yangi tutunsiz tartibga solingan edi. Hindiston jamoat joylarida chekishni 2008 yil 2 oktyabrda taqiqladi. Taxminan o'n yil oldin, 1999 yil 12 iyulda, Division Bench Hindistonning Kerala Oliy sudi jamoat chekishni noqonuniy (dunyoda birinchi marta), konstitutsiyaga zid va konstitutsiyaning 21-moddasini buzgan deb e'lon qilish orqali jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqladi. Doktor adliya K. Narayana Kurup boshchiligidagi skameyk jamoat joylarida tamaki chekishni (sigareta, sigara, beediya yoki boshqa shaklda) Hindiston jazosida keltirilgan jamoat bezovtaligi bilan bog'liq jazo qoidalarining buzilishiga tegishli deb hisoblaydi. Kodeks va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish va saqlash, xususan 1981 yilda ifloslanishning oldini olish va nazorat qilish to'g'risidagi qonunda ko'rsatilgan havo ifloslanishining ta'rifi doirasida 1981. Murli S Deora Oliy sudi Hindiston va Ors Ittifoqiga qarshi. jamoat joylarida chekishning zararli ta'siri, shuningdek passiv chekuvchilarga ta'siri va o'sha paytda qonuniy qoidalar bo'lmagan taqdirda jamoat joylarida chekish taqiqlanishi taqiqlangan, masalan: auditoriyalar, kasalxonalar binolari, 3. sog'liqni saqlash muassasalari, 4. ta'lim muassasalar, 5. kutubxonalar, 6. sud binolari, 7. jamoat idorasi, 8. jamoat transporti vositalari, shu jumladan temir yo'llar.^[102]

Tamaki umuminsoniy sog'liq uchun eng xavfli xatarlardan biri sifatida qaraladi va mamlakatda har yili taxminiy sakkiz million o'lim uchun to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki bilvosita javobgardir. Shuningdek, tamaki bilan bog'liq kasalliklarni davolash va unumdorlikni yo'qotish mamlakatga deyarli 100 million funtga tushgani aniqlandi. Yiliga 13500 kros., Bu esa tamaki sanoati tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan daromad va ish bilan ta'minlash shaklidagi barcha imtiyozlarni qoplaydi.

— Hindiston Oliy sudi, Murli S. Deora va 2001 yil 2-noyabrda Hindiston va Ors ittifoqi

Filippinlar

Filippinda chekishni taqiqlash ikki qonun qoidalariga muvofiq amalga oshiriladi: 1999 yildagi "Toza havo to'g'risida" gi qonun va 2003 yilgi "Tamaki mahsulotlarini tartibga solish to'g'risida" gi qonun.

1999 yildagi Filippin toza havo to'g'risidagi qonuni jamoat binolari yoki yopiq jamoat joylari, shu jumladan jamoat transporti vositalari va boshqa transport vositalarining ichkarisida yoki shaxsiy yashash joyi, shaxsiy ish joyi yoki tegishli ravishda belgilangan chekish joyidan tashqaridagi har qanday yopiq joyda chekishni taqiqlaydi.^[103]

Shuningdek, tamaki mahsulotlarini tartibga solish to'g'risidagi qonunda jamoat joylarida, masalan, maktablar, jamoat transporti terminallari, savdo markazlari va boshqa joylarda chekishni taqiqlaydi. yong'in xavfi, yoqilg'i quyish shoxobchalari kabi.

Saraton kasalligidan omon qolganlar mahalliy hokimiyat idoralari 2003 yilgi tamaki mahsulotlarini tartibga solish to'g'risidagi qonunda belgilangan qoidalarni qat'iy bajarishlari uchun chekishni taqiqlashni taqiqlashni qo'llab-quvvatlaydilar.^[104] 2017 yil 16 mayda Prezident Rodrigo Duterte imzolangan ijro buyrug'i mamlakat bo'ylab chekishni taqiqlashni amalga oshiradigan ochiq va chekka joylarda chekish joylarini yo'q qilish uchun.^[105]

Polsha

Polshada 2010 yil 15 noyabrda "Tamaki va tamaki mahsulotlaridan foydalanish natijalariga qarshi sog'liqni saqlashni himoya qilish to'g'risida" gi parlament aktiga binoan jamoat joylarida chekish taqiqlandi (Ustawa o ochronie zdrowia przed następstwami używania tytoniu i wyrobów tytoniowych).^[106] Tutunni taqiqlash mulkchilik shaklidan qat'i nazar, barcha jamoat joylarini, ya'ni restoranlar, pablar, ish joylari, kasalxonalar, universitetlar, jamoat transporti to'xtash joylari va stantsiyalarni va sport inshootlarini o'z ichiga oladi (1996 yilda allaqachon boshlang'ich va o'rta ta'lim muassasalari tutunsiz deb e'lon qilingan).^[106] Taqiqni buzganlik uchun jarima miqdori 500 gacha Polsha złoty.^[106] Chekish belgilarini qo'ymagan korxonalar egalari 2000 złoty miqdorida jarima bilan jazolanishi mumkin, o'z mahsulotlarini "zararli bo'lmagan" yoki "sog'lom" deb reklama qilgan tamaki ishlab chiqaruvchilar 200000 zlotiygacha jarimaga tortilishi mumkin.^[106]

Biroq, amal qilgan ikki yildan so'ng taqiq Polshadagi faol chekuvchilar soniga ta'sir ko'rsatmadi. 2012 yil o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra CBOS, taqiqlanishdan oldin ham, 2 yildan keyin ham polyaklarning chekish foizi aynan bir xil bo'lgan: 31.^[107]

Rossiya

Rossiya dunyoda chekishga qarshi qonunchilikka ega bo'lmagan so'nggi mamlakatlardan biri edi. Biroq, 2012 yil oktyabr oyida, Bosh Vazir Dmitriy Medvedev tomonidan takliflarga sabab bo'lgan tamakiga qarshi strategiya boshlandi Rossiya Sog'liqni saqlash vazirligi reklamani to'xtatish, sigaret sotish uchun soliqni oshirish va jamoat joylarida chekishni taqiqlash.^[108] The Prime Minister lamented the smoking death rate in the country with 400,000 citizens dying every year of smoking-related causes and this is also compounded by the fact that a pack of cigarettes in Russia typically costs around the £1 mark.^[108]

A strict law aimed to protect people’s health from tobacco smoke and the consequences of smoking that introduced a ban on smoking in all closed public areas in compliance with the WHO Tamaki nazorati to'g'risidagi ramka konventsiyasi took effect on 1 June 2013. At first smoking ban abusers were not fined - the mechanism was still under consideration. The law prohibits smoking at schools and universities, cultural and sporting organizations, beaches, stadiums, on playgrounds and in hospitals, in sanatoriums and at health resorts, inside the offices of public organizations and at filling stations. Smoking is banned aboard aircraft, on the metro and all kinds of public transport. From 15 November 2013 on, smoking at working places, near and within the educational, cultural, sporting and healthcare organizations, in houses' hallways, at railway stations and airports is to be punished with a fine from 500 to 1,500 roubles ($15 – 45.5). The management of organizations where the ban is violated will face tougher fines. From 1 June 2014 the list will be complemented with restaurants and bars, yotoqxonalar, mehmonxonalar, long-haul trains, and the boarding platforms of suburban temir yo'l stantsiyalari.^[109]

Birlashgan Qirollik

No-smoking regulations came into effect in Scotland on 26 March 2006,^[110] in Wales on 2 April 2007, in Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007 and in England on 1 July 2007.^[111] The legislation was cited as an example of good regulation which has had a favourable impact on the UK economy by the Biznes, innovatsiya va ko'nikmalar bo'limi^[112] and a review of the impact of smoke-free legislation carried out for the Sog'liqni saqlash boshqarmasi concluded that there was no clear adverse impact on the hospitality industry^[113] despite initial criticism from some voices within the pub trade.

Six months after implementation in Wales, the Licensed Victuallers Association (LVA), which represents pub operators across Wales, claimed that pubs had lost up to 20% of their trade. The LVA said some businesses were on the brink of closure, others had already closed down, and there was little optimism trade would eventually return to previous levels.^[114]

The Britaniya pivo va pab assotsiatsiyasi (BBPA), which represents some pubs and breweries across the UK claimed that beer sales were at their lowest level since the 1930s, ascribing a fall in sales of 7% during 2007 to the smoke-free regulations.^[115]

According to a survey conducted by pub and bar trade magazine Publican, the anticipated increase in sales of food following introduction of smoke-free workplaces did not immediately occur. The trade magazine's survey of 303 pubs in the United Kingdom found the average customer spent £14.86 on food and drink at dinner in 2007, virtually identical to 2006.^[116]

Tomonidan o'tkazilgan so'rovnoma BII (formerly British Institute of Innkeeping) and the Federation of Licensed Victuallers' Associations (FLVA) concluded that sales had decreased by 7.3% in the 5 months since the introduction of smoke-free workplaces on 1 July 2007. Of the 2,708 responses to the survey, 58% of licensees said they had seen smokers visiting less regularly, while 73% had seen their smoking customers spending less time at the pub.^[117]

Qo'shma Shtatlar

In the US, smokers and hospitality businesses initially argued that businesses would suffer from no-smoking laws. However, a 2006 review by the AQShning umumiy jarrohi found that smoking restrictions were unlikely to harm businesses in practice, and that many restaurants and bars might see increased business.^[118][119]

In 2003, New York City amended its smoke-free law to include virtually all restaurants and bars, including those in private clubs, making it, along with the California smoke-free law, one of the toughest in the United States. The city's Department of Health found in a 2004 study that air pollution levels had decreased sixfold in bars and restaurants after the restrictions went into effect, and that New Yorkers had reported less second-hand smoke in the workplace. The study also found the city's restaurants and bars prospered despite the smoke-free law, with increases in jobs, liquor licenses, and business tax payments. The president of the New York Nightlife Association remarked that the study was not wholly representative, as by not differentiating between restaurants and nightclubs, the reform may have caused businesses like nightclubs and bars to suffer instead.^[120] A 2006 study by the New York State Department of Health found that "the CIAA has not had any significant negative financial effect on restaurants and bars in either the short or the long term".^[121] In May 2011 New York City expanded the previously implemented smoking ban by banning smoking in parks, beaches and boardwalks, public golf courses and other areas controlled by the New York City Parks Department.^[122][123]

Using sales and tobacco tax data from 216 cities and counties over 11 years, the researchers projected that seven of the states would have no economic impact, and West Virginia would see a 1 percent boost in restaurant jobs if a statewide smoking ban was adopted. Other benefits of smoking bans in bars and restaurants include improved lung function and a decrease in smoking rates among staff. Some data came from the Missouri Department of Revenue after smoking bans were passed in Lake Saint Louis, Kirkwood, Clayton and Ballwin.^[124]

Effects upon musical instruments

Bellows-driven instruments – such as the akkordeon, kontsertina, melodeon and (Irish) Uilleann bagpipes – reportedly need less frequent cleaning and maintenance as a result of the Irish smoke-free law.^[125] "Third-hand smoke", solid particulates from secondhand smoke that are adsorbed onto surfaces and later re-emitted as gases or transferred through touch, are a particular problem for musicians. After playing in smoky bars, instruments can emit nicotine, 3-ethenylpyridine (3-EP), phenol, cresols, naphthalene, formaldehyde, and tobacco-specific nitrosamines (including some not found in freshly emitted tobacco smoke), which can enter musicians' bodies through the skin, or be re-emitted as gases after they have left the smoky environment. Concern about third-hand smoke on instruments is one of the reasons many musicians, represented by the New Orleans Musicians' Clinic, supported the smoking ban there.^[126]

Effects of prison smoking restrictions

Qamoqxonalar are increasingly restricting tobacco smoking.^[127] In the United States, 24 states prohibit indoor smoking whereas California, Nebraska, Arkansas, and Kentucky prohibit smoking on the entire prison grounds.^[128] In July 2004 the Federal qamoqxonalar byurosi adopted a smoke-free policy for its facilities.^[129] 1993 yil AQSh Oliy sudi ruling acknowledged that a prisoner's exposure to ikkinchi qo'l tutun could be regarded as shafqatsiz va g'ayrioddiy jazo (which would be in violation of the Sakkizinchi o'zgartirish ).^[130] A 1997 ruling in Massachusets shtati established that prison smoking bans do not constitute cruel and unusual punishment.^[131] Many officials view prison smoking bans as a means of reducing health-care costs.^[132]

With the exception of Quebec, all Canadian provinces have banned smoking indoors and outdoors in all their prison facilities. Prison officials and guards are sometimes worried due to previous events in other prisons concerning riots, fostering a cigarette black market within the prison, and other problems resulting from total prison smoking restrictions. Prisons have experienced riots when placing smoking restrictions into effect resulting in prisoners setting fires, destroying prison property, persons being assaulted, injured, and stabbed. One prison in Canada had some guards reporting breathing difficulties from the fumes of prisoners smoking artificial cigarettes made from nicotine patches lit by creating sparks from inserting metal objects into electrical outlets.^[133][134] For example in 2008, the Orsainville Detention Centre near Quebec City, withdrew its smoke-free provision following a riot. But the feared increase in tension and violence expected in association with smoking restrictions has generally not been experienced in practice.^[131]

Prison smoking bans are also in force in New Zealand, the Isle of Man and the Australian states of Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, Northern Territory and New South Wales. The New Zealand ban was subsequently successfully challenged in court on two occasions, resulting in a law change to maintain it.^[135][136]

Some prisoners are getting around the prison smoking bans by creating and smoking "teabacco", which is nicotine patches or lozenges mixed with tea leaves, and rolled up in Bible paper.^[137] Nikotinli pastillardan tayyorlangan choyshabni sud-tibbiy ekspertizasi natijasida toksik bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan ba'zi birikmalar aniqlandi, ammo nikotinli pastillalardan tayyorlangan teabakkaning an'anaviy tamaki sigaretalariga qaraganda zararli bo'lmaganligi to'g'risida xulosa qilindi.^[138]

Muvofiqlik

The introduction of smoking restrictions occasionally generates protests^[139] and predictions of widespread non-compliance, along with the rise of smokeasies, including in New York City,^[140] Germaniya,^[141] Illinoys,^[142] Buyuk Britaniya,^{[143][144][145]} Yuta,^[146] va Vashington, Kolumbiya^[147]

Ko'pgina yurisdiktsiyalarda, shu jumladan Nyu-Yorkda tutunsiz qonunlarga yuqori darajada rioya qilinganligi haqida xabar berilgan,^[148] Irlandiya,^[149] Italiya^[150] va Shotlandiya.^[151] Yomon muvofiqlik haqida xabar berilgan Kalkutta.^[152]

Tanqid

Smoke-free regulations and ordinances have been criticised on a number of grounds.

Government interference with personal lifestyle

Critics of smoke-free provisions, including musician Jou Jekson,^[153] va siyosiy esseist Kristofer Xitchens,^[154][155] have claimed that regulation efforts are misguided. Typically, such arguments are based upon an interpretation of John Stuart Mill "s zarar etkazish printsipi which perceives smoke-free laws as an obstacle to tobacco consumption per se, rather than a bar upon harming other people.

Such arguments, which usually refer to the notion of personal liberty, have themselves been criticised by Nobel mukofoti - yutuqli iqtisodchi Amartya Sen who defended smoke-free regulations on several grounds.^[156] Among other things, Sen argued that while a person may be free to acquire the habit of smoking, they thereby restrict their own freedom in the future given that the habit of smoking is hard to break.^[156] Sen also pointed out the heavy costs that smoking inevitably imposes on every society which grants smokers unrestricted access to public services (which, Sen noted, every society that is not "monstrously unforgiving" would do).^[156] Arguments which invoke the notion of personal liberty against smoke-free laws are thus incomplete and inadequate, according to Sen.^[156]

In New Zealand, two psychiatrist patients and a nurse took their local district health board to court, arguing a smoking ban at intensive care units violated "human dignity" as they were there for mental health reasons, not smoking-related illness.^[157] They argued it was "cruel" to deny patients cigarettes.^[158]

Mulk huquqi

Some critics of smoke-free laws emphasise the property rights of business owners, drawing a distinction between nominally public places (such as government buildings) and privately owned establishments (such as bars and restaurants). Citing economic efficiency, some economists suggest that the basic institutions of private property rights and contractual freedom are capable of resolving conflicts between the preferences of smokers and those who seek a smoke-free environment, without government intrusion.^[159]

Effects on existing smoke-free businesses

Many critics, including a substantial number of those who oppose smoking bans on property-rights grounds,^{[JSSV? ]} note that where no private-establishment smoking bans are in place, a subset of establishments are able to set themselves apart by catering to the bozor joyi of patrons who prefer smoke-free establishments. Prohibiting smoking in all areas, these critics argue, would eliminate the competitive advantage of these establishments.

Legality of smoke-free regulations

Businesses affected by smoke-free regulations have filed lawsuits claiming that these are unconstitutional or otherwise illegal. In the United States, some cite unequal protection under the law while others cite loss of business without compensation, as well as other types of challenges. Some localities where hospitality businesses filed lawsuits against the state or local government include Nevada, Montana, Ayova, Kolorado, Kentukki, Nyu York, Janubiy Karolina, and Hawaii,^{[160][161][162][163][164][165][166][167]} though none have succeeded.

Smoke-free laws may move smoking elsewhere

Restrictions upon smoking in offices and other enclosed public places often result in smokers going outside to smoke, frequently congregating outside doorways. This can result in non-smokers passing through these doorways getting exposed to more secondhand smoke rather than less.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Many jurisdictions that have restricted smoking in enclosed public places have extended provisions to cover areas within a fixed distance of entrances to buildings.^[168]

The former UK Secretary of State for Health Jon Rid claimed that restrictions upon smoking in public places may lead to more people smoking at home.^[169] Biroq, ikkalasi ham Jamiyat palatasi Health Committee and the Qirollik shifokorlar kolleji disagreed, with the former finding no evidence to support Reid's claim after studying Ireland,^[169] and the latter finding that smoke-free households increased from 22% to 37% between 1996-2003.^[170]

In January 2010, the mayor of Boston, Massachusetts, Tomas Menino, proposed a restriction upon smoking inside public housing apartments under the jurisdiction of the Boston Housing Authority.^[171]

Ulanish DUI o'lim

In May 2008, research published by Adams and Cotti in the Jamiyat iqtisodiyoti jurnali examined statistics of drunken-driving fatalities and accidents in areas where smoke-free laws have been implemented in bars and found that fatal drunken-driving accidents increased by about 13%, or about 2.5 such accidents per year for a typical county of 680,000. They speculate this could be caused by smokers driving farther away to jurisdictions without smoke-free laws or where enforcement is lax.^[172]

Effects of funding on research literature

As in other areas of research, the effect of funding on research literature has been discussed with respect to smoke-free laws. Most commonly, studies which found few or no positive and/or negative effects of smoke-free laws and which were funded by tobacco companies have been delegitimised because they were seen as biased in favor of their funders.^[173]

Professor of Economics at the California State Polytechnic University-San Luis Obispo, Michael L. Marlow, defended "tobacco-sponsored" studies arguing that all studies merited "scrutiny and a degree of skepticism", irrespective of their funding. He wished for the basic assumption that every author were "fair minded and trustworthy, and deserves being heard out" and for less attention to research funding when evaluating the results of a study. Marlow suggests that studies funded by tobacco companies are viewed and dismissed as "deceitful",^[174] i.e. as being driven by (conscious) bad niyat.

Shu bilan bir qatorda

Incentives for voluntarily smoke-free establishments

During the debates over the Washington, DC, smoke-free law, city council member Kerol Shvarts proposed legislation that would have enacted either a substantial tax credit for businesses that chose to voluntarily restrict smoking or a quadrupling of the annual business license fee for bars, restaurants and clubs that wished to allow smoking. Additionally, locations allowing smoking would have been required to install specified high-performance ventilation systems.^[175]

Shamollatish

Critics of smoke-free laws have suggested that ventilation is a means of reducing the harmful effects of ikkinchi qo'l tutun. A tobacco industry-funded study conducted by the School of Technology of the Glamorgan universiteti in Wales, published in the Building Services Journal suggested that "ventilation is effective in controlling the level of contamination", although "ventilation can only dilute or partially displace contaminants and occupational exposure limits are based on the 'as low as reasonably practicable' principle".^[176][177]

Some hospitality organisations have claimed that ventilation systems could bring venues into line with smoke-free restaurant ordinances. Tomonidan nashr etilgan tadqiqot Amerika isitish, sovutish va konditsioner muhandislari jamiyati va tomonidan moliyalashtiriladi Robert Vud Jonson jamg'armasi found one establishment with lower air quality in the non-smoking section, due to improperly installed ventilation systems. They also determined that even properly functioning systems "are not substitutes for smoking bans in controlling environmental smoke exposure".^[178]

The tobacco industry has focused on proposing ventilation as an alternative to smoke-free laws, though this approach has not been widely adopted in the U.S. because "in the end, it is simpler, cheaper, and healthier to end smoking".^[179] The Italian smoke-free law ban permits dedicated smoking rooms with automatic doors and smoke extractors. Nevertheless, few Italian establishments are creating smoking rooms due to the additional cost.^[180]

A landmark report from the AQShning umumiy jarrohi found that even the use of elaborate ventilation systems and smoking rooms fail to provide protection from the health hazards of ikkinchi qo'l tutun, since there is "no safe level of second-hand smoke".^[181]

Oldindan olish

A number of states in the United States have "preemption clauses" within state law which block local communities from passing smoke-free ordinances more strict than the state laws on the books. The rationale is to prevent local communities from passing smoke-free ordinances which are viewed as excessive by that state's legislature. Other states have "anti-preemption clauses" that allow local communities to pass smoking ban ordinances that their legislature found unacceptable.^[182]

Hardship exemptions

Yilda Vauvatosa, Viskonsin, three restaurants received short-term exemptions from a local smoke-free ordinance in restaurants when they managed to demonstrate financial suffering because of it.^[183]

Shuningdek qarang

Umumiy

• Chekish taqiqlari ro'yxati (butun dunyo bo'ylab)
• Qo'shma Shtatlarda chekishni taqiqlash ro'yxati
• Xususiy transport vositalarida chekishni taqiqlash
• Tutunsiz kollej va universitetlarning ro'yxati
• Tutun
• Tamaki nazorati
• Tamaki fatvosi
• Tamakiga qarshi vosita
• Moviy qonun
• Uy ichidagi havo sifati

Tashkilotlar

• Chekish va sog'liq bo'yicha harakatlar
• Chekish va sog'liqqa qarshi havo maydonidagi harakatlar
• Anti-Cigarette League of America
• O'RMAN (A UK pro-tobacco group)

Odamlar

• Douglas Eads Foster, Los Angeles, California, City Council member, 1927–29, proposed prohibition of smoking near schools
• Evan Lyuis, Los Angeles City Council member, 1925–41, opposed smoking on balconies of theaters
• Adolf Gitler, 1889–1945, often considered to be the first national leader to advocate non-smoking
• Patrisiya Xewitt introduced bans in UK
• Nikola Rokson introduced plain packaging in Australia

Adabiyotlar

Tashqi havolalar

• Tamaki nazorati bo'yicha Kanada kengashi
• Air Shotlandni tozalash Shotlandiyaning Ijroiya sayti Shotlandiyaning chekishsiz qonunchiligi to'g'risida ma'lumot berish uchun tashkil etilgan
• Gonkong tamaki nazorati idorasi
• AQShda chekishni taqiqlash tarixi
• Irlandiya hukumatining tamaki nazorati idorasi
• Davlat tamaki to'g'risidagi qonunlar Amerika saraton kasalligi jamiyatidan
• Eski tamaki hujjatlari kutubxonasi dan Kaliforniya universiteti, San-Frantsisko
• Filipp Morris AQSh Hujjatlar arxivi
• Interaktiv dunyo xaritasida chekishning tarqalishi va chekishni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi ma'lumotlar