Ikki marta yuk - Double burden

Oziqlanishning ikki tomonlama yuki uchun qarang Oziqlanish o'tish § Oziqlanishning ikki tomonlama yuki.

Qismi bir qator kuni
Feminizm
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En kvinna arbetar i ko'ket, en annan kvinna antecknar va klockar tiden (Rålambsvägen 8 och 10 i Stokholm)
Bir ayol o'qituvchi tomonidan boshqariladigan ovqat pishiradi ichki iqtisodiyot instituti yilda Stokgolm, Shvetsiya. (1950)

A ikki tomonlama yuk (shuningdek, deyiladi ikki kun, ikkinchi smenava ikki tomonlama boj[1]) - bu pul ishlash uchun ishlaydigan, ammo katta miqdordagi to'lanmaganligi uchun ham javobgar bo'lgan odamlarning ish yuki ichki ish kuchi.[2] Ushbu hodisa shuningdek Ikkinchi siljish kabi Arli Xochshild "s shu nomdagi kitob. Ikkala sheriklari ham pullik ish bilan ta'minlangan juftliklarda ayollar ko'pincha erkaklarnikiga qaraganda ancha ko'proq vaqt sarflashadi Uy ishlari kabi g'amxo'rlik ishi farzand tarbiyasi yoki kasal oila a'zolariga g'amxo'rlik qilish. Ushbu natija ko'p jihatdan an'anaviy tomonidan belgilanadi jinsdagi rollar vaqt o'tishi bilan jamiyat tomonidan qabul qilingan. Mehnat bozoridagi cheklovlar ham kimning katta qismini bajarishini aniqlashda muhim rol o'ynaydi to'lanmagan ish.

Bunday vaziyatga tushib qolgan er-xotinlarga ushbu ikki tomonlama yukning ta'sirini hujjatlashtirishga harakat qilindi.[3] Ko'pgina tadqiqotlar jinsdagi mehnat taqsimotining ta'sirini aniqladi va aksariyat hollarda erkaklar va ayollarning haq to'lanmaydigan mehnatga qo'shgan vaqtlari orasida sezilarli farq bor edi.

Dunyo bo'ylab teng bo'lmagan ish yuklari

Sanoati rivojlangan dunyoda

Ikkinchi jahon urushidan oldin

An'anaviy uy bekasi - erkakning boquvchisi modeli ilgari ayollarning ish bilan ta'minlanishini tavsiflaydi Ikkinchi jahon urushi. 20-asrning boshlarida Qo'shma Shtatlarning kontinental qismida 15 yoshdan oshgan ayollarning atigi 18 foizi qishloq xo'jaligida bo'lmagan ish bilan ta'minlanganligini xabar qilishdi.[4] Bu ayollar odatda yosh, yolg'iz, oq tanli va mahalliy tug'ilgan. Aksincha, qishloq xo'jaligi bo'lmagan ishchi kuchidagi turmush qurgan ayollar "asosan qora tanlilar yoki muhojirlar va juda kambag'al" bo'lganlar.[5] Ishlayotgan onalar, ko'pincha bolalari pul ishlashga qodir bo'lganida, ishchi kuchidan chiqib ketishadi.

Kabi 1920-yillarning boshlarida kasb-hunar imkoniyatlarining tarqalishi "oshxonalar, pitomniklar, kirxonalar va boshqa jihozlar ayollarni uy ishlaridan ozod qilgandek va ularni ishlab chiqarish sohasida to'laqonli ishtirok etishlari uchun ozod qilganga o'xshardi. "[6]

Ayollarning ishchi kuchiga ko'chishi an'anaviy gender mafkurasini larzaga keltirdi, ammo eng muhimi, bu ikki tomonlama yukning sezilarli bo'lishiga katalizator bo'ldi.[6] 30-yillar "ayollarni nimani bajarishga undagan Stalin ularga "tabiat bergan buyuk va sharafli burch" deb nom berdi.[6] Sovet Ittifoqida aniq ", rasmiy ravishda homiylik qilingan kult onalik "Abortga qarshi qonunchilik" "turmush darajasining tushkunligi" bilan birga olib borilganligi, sanoatning ayollarni ishlab chiqarishga jalb qilgan ishchilarga bo'lgan ulkan talabiga olib keldi. ishchi kuchi misli ko'rilmagan raqamlarda ".[6] Shahar ayollari shu tariqa o'zlarini uydan tashqarida olib boriladigan ish haqining "ikki barobar yukini" ("ikki marta almashtirish" deb ham atashadi) va uning ichida to'lanmagan mehnatning sher ulushini o'z zimmalariga oldilar. "[6] Ikkinchi Jahon urushi odatda ayollar bandligini oshirish uchun katalizator sifatida qaraladi. Eng yaxshi misol Rozi Riveter samarali, vatanparvar, ayol ishchilarni targ'ib qilish, Ikkinchi Jahon urushi "Qurolli Kuchlar safida xizmat qilish uchun safarbar qilingan 16 million erkak" ning o'rniga ayollar mehnatiga bo'lgan talabni kuchaytirdi.[4] Ayollarning katta qismi urush fabrikalarida ishlagan bo'lsa, ish joylarining aksariyati xizmat ko'rsatish sohasiga to'g'ri keladi. Bu kelgusi o'n yilliklar davomida o'sha vaqtdagi jinsi umidlarni o'zgartirishga va rollarni sinovdan o'tkazishga va qayta tayinlashga olib keldi.[6]

Ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyin

Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan keyingi davr, ayniqsa, sanoati rivojlangan mamlakatlarda ayollarning ishchi kuchidagi ishtiroki nisbatan yuqori bo'lganligi bilan ajralib turadi. Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan keyin ayollarning katta qismi ishchi kuchidan chiqib ketgan bo'lishiga qaramay, ishchi sinf ayollari g'oyasi ildiz otib, normallashdi. "2001 yilda AQSh ishchilarining 47 foizini ayollar tashkil etdi va 15 yoshdan oshgan ayollarning 61 foizini ishchi kuchi tashkil etdi". Ayollar mehnatiga bo'lgan talabning oshishi bilan bir qatorda, ularning ishtiroki o'sishiga boshqa omillar ham yordam berdi, masalan, ko'proq ta'lim olish imkoniyatlari va keyinchalik nikoh va tug'ish yoshi.

Ikki tomonlama yuk g'oyasi har ikkala jinsga va ularning yangi rollariga tegishli bo'lgan vaqtga qarab ko'proq rivojlanadi.[3] Ba'zida ayollardan ta'minotchi va g'amxo'rning roli kutiladi, ammo ishchi kuchiga ko'proq ayollar kirishi bilan "mustaqil" mafkura kuchga kirgandek ko'rinadi va ba'zi ayollarni mansab va oila o'rtasida qaror qabul qilishga majbur qiladi. Ba'zilar qat'iyan birini yoki boshqasini tanlashi mumkin, boshqalari har ikkala turmush tarzining yukini ko'tarishni tanlashi mumkin. Ba'zilar "zamonaviy erkaklar uy mehnatini teng ravishda taqsimlash tamoyiliga ishonishadi, lekin aslida bu ishonchni oqlay olmaydilar".[7] Biror kishining vaqti va qayerda sarflanishi kerakligi to'g'risida doimiy tortishish avvalgilaridan biroz yuqoriroq yangi tezlikni keltirib chiqaradi.[7] Zamonaviy vaqt, ko'p daromadli er-xotinlar, to'lanmagan maishiy ish va pullik ish bilan yarashtirishga harakat qilayotgan muammolarni yoritmoqda.[7] Ikkalasini ham qamrab olish yuki mafkuralar hozirgi jamiyatlarda ikkala jinsga ham zarar etkazadi.[7]

lotin Amerikasi

So'nggi o'ttiz yillik globallashuv tufayli malakasiz ishchining kuchi pasayib ketdi va shu bilan norasmiy iqtisodiyot gullab-yashnagan. Yilda lotin Amerikasi, yordam beradigan ko'plab ishchilar mavjud uy ishi va shuning uchun maishiy xizmat arzon bo'lib, uy ishi bilan bog'liq oiladagi ziddiyatlarni kamaytiradi. Hozirgi vaqtda mehnatga yaroqli aholining qariyb yarmi norasmiy sektorda ishlaydi, bu "ishsizlik, ishsizlik va ijtimoiy chetga chiqish" ga olib keladi.[8][9] Shu sababli, ta'minotda jiddiy kechikish yuz berdi farovonlik bolalar va qariyalarni parvarish qilish uchun, chunki ishlayotgan oilalarga yordam berish uchun bosim minimaldir. Bundan tashqari, uy ishchilari, ularning aksariyati ayollar, o'z oilalarini daromadlarini ko'paytirish uchun shimoliy mamlakatlarda norasmiy sektorda ishlash uchun ko'pincha o'z mamlakatlaridan chiqib ketishadi va shu bilan birga hukumatlarning ushbu oilalarga yordam berishlari uchun bosimni kechiktiradilar. Biroq, 2000-yillardan boshlab, ayollar uchun pullik ish o'rinlari oqimi va uy ishlarini bajarish uchun odamlarning etishmasligi sababli, haq to'lanmaydigan ish haqida o'ylashda o'zgarishlar yuz berdi.[8]

Ayollar uchun ish o'rinlarining ko'payishi, ota-onalari ishlaydigan oilalar uchun siyosatni o'zgartirishlarda foydali bo'lganiga qaramay, ish joylari sharoitlari to'g'risida munozaralar bo'lib o'tdi. Meksikada, ning oqimi mavjud maquila rivojlangan mamlakatlarda sotiladigan mahsulotlar ishlab chiqaradigan sanoat. Ko'pincha ayol ishchi kuchi ko'pincha xavfli mehnat sharoitlari tufayli ekspluatatsiya qilinadi va stress bu ayollarning ko'plab kasalliklarining asosiy sababidir.[10]

Yana bir o'sib borayotgan muammo - bu ko'tarilish shartli pul o'tkazmasi kabi Lotin Amerikasidagi dasturlar Oportunidadalar dastur Meksika. Ushbu dastur kambag'al oilalarni daromadlarini ko'payishini ta'minlashga qaratilgan bo'lsa-da, shartlar shartlarni bajarishga mas'ul bo'lgan oila a'zolari uchun vaqt kambag'alligini keltirib chiqardi, aksariyat hollarda ayol. Bu oila ichidagi ish yukining tengsizligini oshirdi.[11][12]

G'arbiy Evropa

1960 yildan beri, G'arbiy Evropa oshirish uchun bir qator siyosiy bahslarda qatnashmoqda ayollar huquqlari ishchi kuchida. 2000-yillarda onalarning huquqlari bilan bir qatorda homilador ayollarning huquqlariga e'tibor qaratib, ayollar huquqlarini onalik huquqiga qarab o'zgartirishdan o'zgarishlar yuz berdi. Biroq, onalar uchun maxsus qonunlar yaratish bilan bog'liq muammolar mavjud edi. Hali ham mavjud jinsga moyillik bolalarga g'amxo'rlik qilish ayollardir.[13]

G'arbiy Evropaning ba'zi qismlari, ayniqsa Skandinaviya mamlakatlar oilada do'stona siyosat ishlab chiqmoqdalar, bu ularga ishchi kuchida ishtirok etishdagi gender farqini tenglashtirishga yordam berdi.[14] Skandinaviya mamlakatlari dunyodagi ayollarning ishchi kuchidagi ishtiroki darajasi bo'yicha eng yuqori ko'rsatkichga ega va ish haqi farqlari eng past ko'rsatkichlardan hisoblanadi.[15] Keksalar va yoshlarga g'amxo'rlik ko'rsatishda hukumat tomonidan berilgan yordam Skandinaviyadagi ayollarga erkaklarnikiga qaraganda deyarli yuqori darajada ishlaydigan aholining bir qismi bo'lishiga imkon berdi.[14] Hukumat yordami misolida ota-onalarga to'lanadigan ta'til va nafaqalar va tug'ruqdan keyingi qayta kirish dasturlari kiradi. Bunday dasturlar ayollarning ishchi kuchidagi faolligini oshirishga, shuningdek tug'ilishning yuqori darajasiga va barqaror iqtisodiyotga olib keldi.[15]

Sharqiy Evropa

Kommunizm davrida har kimga ish bilan ta'minlash kafolatlangan. Biroq, ayollar to'lanadigan va to'lanmaydigan ishlarning ikki barobar og'irligini boshdan kechirdilar, bu esa tug'ilishning pasayishiga olib keldi. Ijtimoiy tenglikka sodiqlik va tug'ilishning pasayishi masalasi ayollarga bolalarni parvarish qilish va bolalarga nafaqalar kabi ba'zi huquqlarga ega bo'lishiga imkon berdi.[16] Masalan, Sovet Ittifoqida tug'ruq ta'tillari uch yilgacha uzaytirildi va yarim kunlik ish tartibi joriy etildi.[17] Kommunizm qulashi bilan, ushbu huquqlarning aksariyati, asosan o'rnatilgan erkaklar yo'naltirilgan yangi demokratiya tufayli bekor qilindi. Ayol ishchilar ko'paygan bo'lsa-da, ularning bolalarni parvarish qilish kabi ijtimoiy yordamga bo'lgan ehtiyojlari qondirilmadi va e'tiborga olinmadi.[16]

Osiyo

G'arbiy va janubiy Osiyo, ayollar ishchi kuchining atigi uchdan bir qismini tashkil etadi.[18] Ularning aksariyati, hattoki zamonaviyroq modernizatsiya qilingan Osiyo mamlakatlaridagi ayollar ham norasmiy sektorda, ishchilarning tibbiy sug'urtasi yoki pensiya rejalari kabi imtiyozlarisiz ayollar uchun g'amxo'rlik qilish yoki o'qitish kabi an'anaviy ishlarda qatnashadilar.[19]

Ikki tomonlama yuk masalasi Osiyo mamlakatlarida ayollar va erkaklar tomonidan parvarishlash ishlarini olib boradigan katta madaniy me'yor tufayli kuchaymoqda. Ko'pgina rivojlangan mamlakatlarda ayollar farzandlari bo'lganida, ularga g'amxo'rlik qilish uchun ko'proq vaqt ajratish uchun ishdan bo'shatiladi.[20]

Ayollar oilasini boqish uchun pullik ishlarni bajarishi kerak bo'lgan mamlakatlarda, norasmiy ishlarning katta miqdori tufayli ayol ishchilarga nisbatan me'yoriy hujjatlar va xavfsizlik standartlari mavjud emas.[19] Masalan, Tailandda 1997 yildagi og'ir iqtisodiy inqiroz tufayli ko'plab ayollar norasmiy sohada ish bilan band bo'lib, ko'pincha o'z uy ishlarini maoshli ish bilan bir vaqtda bajarishlari uchun kasanachilik bilan shug'ullanadilar. Bu esa ish intensivligi bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta ishlarni bajaradigan ayollar tomonidan va ayollarning sog'lig'iga yomon ta'sir ko'rsatishi ko'rsatilgan.[21]

Sabablari

Gender mafkurasi

"Gender mafkurasi erkaklar va ayollar uchun munosib xatti-harakatlar haqidagi e'tiqod bilan bog'liq".[22] Ijtimoiylashuv gender mafkurasini aniqlashda muhim rol o'ynaydi va bir vaqtning o'zida qadrlanadigan narsa va madaniyat, albatta, boshqasiga o'tib ketmasligi mumkin. An'anaviy gender mafkuralari ikki tomonlama yukga sabab bo'ldi, chunki bu ayollarni qo'riqchi, erkaklar ta'minotchi va har bir jins o'z ta'sir doirasini egallaydi. So'nggi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, so'nggi bir necha o'n yilliklar davomida gender rollariga bo'lgan munosabat tenglashdi, ammo "gender munosabatlaridagi bu o'zgarishlar uy ishlarini taqsimlashda tegishli o'zgarishlar bilan birga kelmadi".[22]

Mehnat bozoridagi cheklovlar

Ayollarning ishchi kuchidagi ishtiroki tobora ortib borayotganiga qaramay, mehnatning jinsga bo'linishi davom etmoqda. Mehnat bozorida ikki tomonlama yukni keltirib chiqaradigan bir qator cheklovlar mavjud. "Ayollar norasmiy ishlarda nomutanosib ravishda namoyish etiladi va o'z-o'zini ish bilan ta'minlashda past sifatli ishlarda to'planadi."[23] Norasmiy bozor odatda xavfli bo'lib, ish haqining pastligi, imtiyozlarning kamligi va rasmiy bozorda taqdim etiladigan ijtimoiy himoyaning etishmasligi bilan tavsiflanadi. Hatto rasmiy bozor ichida ham mavjud kasbni ajratish va ish haqi o'rtasidagi farq. Kasbiy ajratish gorizontal yoki vertikal bo'lishi mumkin: gorizontal ajratish ayollarni ma'lum sohalar va kasblar bilan chegaralaydi, vertikal ajratish esa ularni kasbiy ierarxiya doirasidagi ma'lum lavozimlarga cheklaydi. Erkaklar va ayollar hatto kasb ierarxiyasining turli darajalarida uchraydi. "shisha shift "bu institutsional to'siqlar va me'yorlar tufayli katta yoki rahbar lavozimlarda ayollarning nisbiy yo'qligi. Ayollar ustun bo'lgan kasblarda ham erkaklar ko'proq malakali va yaxshi maosh oladigan lavozimlarni egallaydilar.

1980-2009.001 yillarda AQShda ish haqi bo'yicha farq

Jinsiy ish haqining farqi kasbni ajratishning mumkin bo'lgan natijasidir. Jinsiy ish haqining farqi - bu "ayollar va erkaklar ishlab topgan ish haqi o'rtasidagi farq".[23] 2008 yilda dunyo miqyosida erkaklar ayollarga qaraganda 16,5 foiz ko'proq daromad olishlari taxmin qilingan. Jinsiy ish haqi bo'yicha farq kamayib bormoqda, ammo taraqqiyot sustligicha qolmoqda. Bundan tashqari, jinsdagi ish haqidagi farqning qisqarishi ayollarning ish haqi o'sishi o'rniga erkaklar ish haqining pasayishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin. "Mintaqalar bo'yicha ish haqining doimiy farqi bir qator omillarni aks ettirishi mumkin, shu jumladan ayollarning ma'lumot va mahorat jihatidan davomiy ahvolga tushib qolishi; ularning uyushgan ovozi va savdolashish kuchiga ega emasligi; ularning mehnat bozoridagi harakatchanligidagi jinsga xos cheklovlar; va ularning nisbatan yuqori darajasi yarim kunlik yoki vaqtinchalik ishlarga jalb qilish ».[23] Mehnat bozorining ko'plab xususiyatlari ayollarni ish bilan ta'minlash imkoniyatlarini cheklaydi va ularning parvarishlash ishlariga javobgarligini osonlashtiradi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ijtimoiy bosim

Ikkala yukni yaratish uchun birlashadigan turli xil ijtimoiy bosimlar mavjud, shu jumladan ba'zi iqtisodiy fikrlar uy ishi, uy xo'jaligining aniq daromadlari haqidagi fikrlar va ayollar ko'proq so'raydigan taxmin qilingan tushunchalar Homiladorlik va tug'ish ta'tillari erkaklarga qaraganda. Ko'plab klassik iqtisodchilar, bolalarni parvarish qilish hissa qo'shmaydi deb hisoblashadi iqtisodiy o'sish millatning. Kabi farovonlik davlatlari kabi ishonadilar Shvetsiya samarasiz ishni subsidiyalashtirmoqdalar va ko'pincha bolalarni uy hayvonlari kabi tasavvur qilishadi, ular faqat o'sib ulg'aymasdan samarali ishlaydi ishchilar.[24] Shuningdek, ayolning haq to'lanadigan mehnatni amalga oshirish uchun bir soatlik ish haqini to'lamaslik uchun olib qo'yganligi sababli, uyning sof foydasi har doim erkakning pullik mehnatidan bir soatni olib, to'lanmagan mehnatni to'lashdan ko'ra ko'proq ekanligi haqida tushuncha mavjud. Bu ayol ish haqini to'lash kerak bo'lgan ish soatlari kamligini yaratib, uy ishlarini bajarish uchun pul to'laydigan ishdan bo'shatmasdan, ayollar pullik ish bilan shug'ullanishi va maishiy ishlarni bajarishda bir oz vaqt yo'qotishi kerak degan fikrni yaratadi.[25] Bundan tashqari, ayollar erkaklarnikiga qaraganda homiladorlik va tug'ruq ta'tilini so'rab murojaat qilishadi, ya'ni ular uchun yaxshi maoshli ish topish qiyinroq, bu esa salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda ayollarni ish bilan ta'minlash.[8]

Siyosiy bosim

Syuzan Ximmelveyt siyosiy bosimlardan biri kimga vakolat berish masalasidir. Siyosat haqida mulohazalar mavjud bo'lganda, siyosatchilar odatda ishni faqat pullik mehnat deb hisoblashadi va ish haqi va pullik ish o'rtasidagi o'zaro bog'liqlikni hisobga olmaydilar. Bundan tashqari, ko'pincha ayollar erkaklar kabi iqtisodiy qarorlar qabul qilishadi, deb o'ylash odatiy holdir. Odatda bunday emas, chunki erkaklar uchun to'lov shunchaki yo'qolganlarning tovonidir bo'sh vaqt. Biroq, ayollar uchun, pullik sohada ishlaganlarida, ular hali ham pul yo'qotmoqdalar, chunki ular o'zlari qila olmaydigan uy mehnati uchun, masalan, bolalarga g'amxo'rlik qilish yoki kechki ovqatni mablag 'etishmasligi sababli noldan tayyorlash kabi sharoitlarni yaratishi kerak. kabi bolalarni parvarish qilish.[14][26] Uning sof moliyaviy daromadi erkakning moddiy daromadidan kam, chunki u o'z daromadlarini ushbu ta'minotni ta'minlashga sarf qilishi kerak.[14] Bundan tashqari, ko'proq pulga ega bo'lish uchun pullik ish vaqtini ko'paytirish ayolga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin, chunki umumiy ish vaqti ko'paygan va bo'sh vaqt kamaygan.[27] Shuning uchun pullik mehnat bilan shug'ullanadigan odamlarga ko'proq kuch beradigan siyosat, masalan, ishdan bo'shatish davlat xarajatlari kamaytirish uchun daromad solig'i larga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatmoqda ayollarni ish bilan ta'minlash va er-xotin yukning ayollarga ta'siri. Bunday siyosat pullik sohada ishlaydiganlarga nisbatan katta kuch va e'tiborni beradi, va ish haqi bo'lmagan sohada ishlaydiganlarga nisbatan kamroq.[14]

Asosiy maqola: kasbni ajratish

Ikki tomonlama yuk atrofidagi yana bir siyosiy masala - bu uy sharoitida ish olib boradiganlarga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki bilvosita ta'sir qiladigan siyosat. Kompaniyalarning ba'zi bir siyosatlari, masalan, yarim kunlik ishchilar uchun ish haqining pasayishi yoki ishchilarni homilador bo'lganlarida ishdan bo'shatish, ayollarni ishdan bo'shatish sifatida qabul qilinishi mumkin. Bu shunday yoki yo'qligi haqida bahslashing jinsni ajratish davom etmoqda.[28] Bir tomondan, faqat ayollar homilador bo'lishadi va ayollarga beriladigan nafaqalar bo'lishi kerakligini ta'kidlab, doimiy ish kunining o'rniga yarim kunlik ish bilan shug'ullanadigan ayollarning nomutanosib soni bor. Shu bilan birga, kompaniya me'yorlarini bajara olmaydigan va o'z shartnomasini bajara olmaydigan erkaklarga o'xshab, ulardan kutilgan natijada ish olib bora olmaydigan ayollarga mutanosib imtiyozlar soni berilishi va istisnolar berilmasligi kerak degan dalillar ham mavjud. erkaklar ustidan.[29]

To'lanadigan ish haqi va to'lanmaydigan ish haqida alohida tushuncha

Ikki tomonlama yuk atamasi shuni ko'rsatishi mumkinki, odamlar pullik ish haqi va ish haqi to'lanmagan ish deb hisoblaganda, ular ko'pincha ularni ikkita alohida shaxs deb bilishadi - erkak yoki ayol bir-birini qilyapti, lekin bir vaqtning o'zida emas. Darhaqiqat, erkaklar va ayniqsa ayollar ko'pincha bir vaqtning o'zida pullik va to'lanmaydigan mehnatni jalb qilishadi, bu esa bu masalani keltirib chiqaradi ish intensivligi, bu erda odam bir vaqtning o'zida ko'p narsalarni bajarish uchun zarur bo'lgan vaqtni qoplash uchun bir vaqtning o'zida ko'plab tadbirlarni amalga oshiradi.[30] Uy xo'jaliklarida o'tkaziladigan so'rovnomalar ko'pincha odamlarga har qanday vaqtda qilgan bir ishlarini yozib qo'yishga imkon beradi va ular ovqat paytida ovqat pishirishi yoki bolalarga g'amxo'rlik qilish paytida tikuvchilik qilishlari mumkinligini hisobga olishmaydi. Shu sababli, vaqt sarflandi bolalarni parvarish qilish va boshqa ichki faoliyatni baholash mumkin emas. Bu engish mexanizmi Bir vaqtning o'zida ikkita yoki undan ortiq vazifani bajarishni rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarning ayollarida ko'rish mumkin.[21] Masalan, ko'pchilik Karib dengizi qishloq ayollari buni bir kunda amalga oshiradigan ishlar sonini ko'paytirish usuli sifatida ishlatishadi.[30]

Oilani yadrolashtirishni kuchayishi

Tug'ilish koeffitsientining pasayishi tendentsiyasi tufayli oilalar zarurat tug'ilganda qarindoshlari kamroq bo'lgan oilani nukleallashtirishni kuchaytirdi. Ushbu hodisa sababli oilalarda qarovchi yoki uy ishlarini bajarish uchun kimdir kerak bo'lganda bog'liq bo'lgan katta oila mavjud emas va ular bozor o'rnini bosuvchi mahsulotlarga yoki uning o'rniga uy sharoitida va pullik ish bilan shug'ullanadigan yaqin oila a'zolariga murojaat qilishlari kerak.[8]

Jinsiy farqlar

Ayollar

Uy xo'jaligi mehnatining er-xotinlar o'rtasida taqsimlanishini, xususan jinsdagi rollar dunyo bo'ylab turli xil odamlar tomonidan ijro etilgan. "Dunyo bolalarining holati-2007" ga ko'ra, ayollar odatda rivojlangan yoki rivojlanayotgan mamlakatda bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, erkaklarnikiga qaraganda ko'proq vaqt ishlaydi.[31] Ko'pgina tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, ikkala ota-ona ham doimiy ish bilan shug'ullanishganda, ayollar erkaklarnikiga qaraganda uy sharoitida ko'proq ish yuki bilan duch kelishadi.[3] Jahon bankining Lotin Amerikasi va Karib dengizi tadqiqotlari ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, ishchi kuchidagi meksikalik ayollar har hafta ham uy vazifalarini bajarish uchun taxminan 33 soat vaqt sarflaydilar. Aksincha, erlar har hafta atigi 6 soat vaqt ajratishadi. Bundan ham ajablantiradigan narsa, "qizlari haftasiga 14 soat o'z onalariga yordam berishadi, o'g'illari esa otalari bilan bir xil vaqtni o'tkazadilar (ya'ni haftasiga 5-6 soat)".[32]Kanadaning Statistika bo'yicha 10000 xonadonning umumiy ijtimoiy tadqiqotlari tomonidan o'tkazilgan tadqiqotda o'rtacha erkak kuniga ikki soatdan kam vaqtni bolalar parvarishi va uyda ishlash bilan shug'ullangan bo'lsa, ayollar o'rtacha uchdan bir oz ko'proq vaqt sarflagan.[7] Ushbu tadqiqot sheriklar o'rtasida mehnatning teng taqsimlanmaganligini ta'kidlaydi.[7] So'rovda qatnashgan odamlarning o'n besh foizidan kamrog'i uyda xuddi shu miqdordagi ishni bajarishga rozi bo'lishdi.[7] Ayollarning taxminan 83 foizi uy tozalash va oziq-ovqat tayyorlashda qatnashgan, so'rovda qatnashgan erkaklarning atigi 51 foizi.[7]

Jon Frederik Konveyning kitobi, Inqirozdagi Kanadalik oila, er-xotin yukning jinsga qarab ta'sirini o'rganadi. Konveyning tadqiqotlarida u Kanadada ikki tomonlama yukga duch kelgan erkaklar va ayollar o'rtasidagi jismoniy, hissiy va psixologik farqlarni aniqladi.[7] Ushbu tadqiqotlarda shuni aniqladiki, bolalarni tarbiyalayotgan va ishchi kuchi bilan shug'ullanadigan ayollar, bu ikki og'irlikdan biriga duch kelgan ayollarga qaraganda ko'proq tashvish va boshqa ko'plab stress ta'siriga ega.[7]

Erkaklar

Farzandlarni tarbiyalash va bir vaqtning o'zida mansabga ega bo'lishning samaralari asosan ko'plab jamiyatlarda ayollarda uchraydi, ammo bunday holatdagi erkaklar ham katta ta'sirga ega.[33] Bu har qanday holatda ham erkaklarda kuzatilmaydi, chunki erkaklarga ta'siri ayollarga ushbu qo'shimcha mas'uliyat ta'sir qilishidan juda farq qiladi.[33] Yilda Inqirozdagi Kanada oilasi, muallif ushbu ta'sirlarning aksariyat tadqiqotlar va so'rovlarda e'tiborga olinmasligi sababini taklif qiladi.[7] Buning sababi shundaki, ayollarning stressini uy yumushlari va kareradan iborat to'g'ridan-to'g'ri mehnat orqali ko'rish mumkin, erkaklarning stressi esa aksariyat hollarda asosan qaror qabul qilish va oiladagi ishdagi nizolar.[7] Bunday holatlar erkak o'z oilasining kelajagi uchun eng yaxshi tanlovni tanlashi kerak bo'lgan joyda paydo bo'ladi.[33] Xususan, bularga ish yuki, ishdan tashqari ish soatlari, smenada qaror qabul qilish va hattoki lavozimdan ko'tarilish yoki transferni qabul qilish kabi narsalar kiradi.[7] Bunday vaziyatlarda erkak butun oilaga ta'sir qiladigan katta tanlov qilishga majbur bo'ladi, bu esa ko'proq stressni keltirib chiqaradi.[7] An'anaga ko'ra, effektlar ham e'tiborga olinmaydi jinsdagi rollar, erkak oilaning tayanchi bo'lishi kerak va ilgari, erkakning his-tuyg'ularini oilaning qolgan qismiga namoyish etishi zaiflik sifatida ko'rilgan bo'lar edi.[7] O'tkazilgan so'rovnomalar va tadqiqotlar davomida ko'pchilik erkaklar o'z vazifalarini bajara olmaydigan bo'lib ko'rishni istamaydilar, chunki ilgari bu oilaning asosiy iqtisodiy yordamchisi va jismoniy shaxslaridan iborat bo'lgan katta yoshli erkakning uydagi roli. . Shuni hisobga olgan holda, ushbu mavzular bo'yicha so'rov o'tkazilganda ba'zilar yolg'on gapirishlari mumkin.[7]

Turlari

Oilaga qarshi ishlash

Ota-onalar o'zi uchun katta vazifadir va agar ota-ona ham martaba egasi bo'lsa, bu ikki tomonlama yukni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin yoki ish - oilaviy mojaro. Ayollar va erkaklar o'zlarining oilalari talablari ularning ish joyidagi talablari bilan ziddiyatli ekanligini aniqlaganda, kuchlanish rivojlana boshlaydi.[3] Bunday ikkilamchi yukga duch kelganda, bu karerada va oilada qanday qarorlar qabul qilinishiga ta'sir qiladi; bu og'irlik, er-xotin farzand ko'rishga qaror qilganida ta'sir qilishi mumkin.[34] Ish bilan band bo'lgan barcha ayollarning 75 foizi farzand ko'rish davrida.[35] Biror kishining oilasi va ishi o'rtasidagi ziddiyat o'zini namoyon qilganda, sog'liq uchun ma'lum bir ta'sir tufayli yoki ish joyidagi katta talablarni qondirish uchun echim sifatida uyda amalga oshiriladigan haq to'lanmaydigan ish qisqartirilishi mumkin.[3] Ijtimoiy chiqishlar va tashriflar, oilaviy kechki ovqat - bu ish / oilaviy ziddiyat tufayli to'xtab qoladigan birinchi narsa.[36] Ari Väänänen tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotda May V. Kevin va boshq. agar erkak o'z oilasiga katta ahamiyat bergan bo'lsa, haddan tashqari oilaviy talablarni qondirish uchun ishdan uyda qolish ehtimoli ko'proq ekanligini aniqladi.[3] Ikki tomonlama yukni kamaytirish usullari uyda yollangan yordam, kunduzgi tibbiyot muassasalari va ayollarning tug'ruq ta'tillarini uzaytirishdir.[34] Masalan, ichida Norvegiya ayollarga 10 oylik tug'ruq ta'tillari, ular ish haqining 100 foizini olishlari mumkin, yoki 12 oylik ta'tilda ishlashlari mumkin, bu erda ular ish haqining faqat 80 foizini to'laydilar.[34] Ba'zi kompaniyalar ishning og'irligi va oila o'z ishchilariga qanday ta'sir qilishini tushunishadi va o'z xodimlariga yordam berish uchun moslashuvchan ish jadvallarini taklif qilishadi.[35] Ushbu moslashuvchan soatlar nafaqat xodimga ularning stressini engishga yordam beradi, balki bu kompaniyaga ham foyda keltiradi, chunki ishchilar baxtliroq, yo'qligi kamroq, samaraliroq va kompaniya uchun tovar ayirboshlash darajasi pastroq.[35] Sofiya Mvani aytganidek: "Ota-onalik bu quvonchdir. Hech qachon bu bizga og'irlik keltirmasin, lekin u keltiradigan quvonchni nishonlaylik. O'sha birinchi qadamlar yoki so'zlar, birinchi maktab o'yinlari, ularning bitiruv kuni, o'sha imtihonlardan muvaffaqiyatli o'tgani va birinchi qo'nish kunini nishonlang. ish, turmush qurish, sizni bobomizga aylantirish. Nima bo'lishidan qat'iy nazar, keling, farzandlarimizni bayram qilaylik. Bu oson emas, lekin jonglyorlik san'ati har doim o'zlashtirilishi mumkin! "[37]

Oila va maktab

Oilani boqish oson ish emas va oilani ko'tarib maktabga qaytishga qaror qilish oila uchun yodgorlik qaror bo'lishi mumkin, deydi yahudiy ish beruvchisi va kasb-hunar xizmati xodimi Kerol Jakobs. Maktabga qaytishni o'ylaydiganlarga uning maslahati: "Ta'lim bo'yicha maslahatchi va siz bo'lishni istagan sohadagi odamlar bilan suhbatlashing".[38] U qo'shimcha qiladi: "Bu majburiyat va qaror sizning oilangizni jalb qilishi kerak. Farzandingizning voleybol o'yiniga borishingiz yoki kechki ovqatni tayyorlashga vaqtingiz bormi?"[38] Kimdir bolalarini ulg'ayguncha maktabga qo'yib yuborishi uchun juda ko'p sabablar bor, masalan, bunday yoshligida ularni doimiy ravishda chaqaloq o'tirgan qo'liga topshirishni istamaslik.[39] Biroq, bolalar o'sib ulg'ayganlaridan so'ng, ota-onasi ta'lim olish uchun odatdagidek qatnashadigan maktab tadbirlarini o'tkazib yuborishi mumkin.[39] Ta'lim masalalarida qatnashayotganda bolani tashlab ketish aybdorligi, agar bola ota-onasi qaerdaligi haqida savollar berib, javobni tushunishga qodir bo'lgan yoshga to'lganida kamroq bo'ladi.[40] Garchi oilani tarbiyalash bilan birga ta'lim olishning o'zi uchun xarajatlar kelib chiqsa ham, afzalliklari yuqori maoshli ish topish, ko'proq bilim olish va moddiy jihatdan barqaror bo'lishdir.[40] Ko'pincha bu yuk oilasiga va maktabga o'qish bilan bir qatorda ishni muvozanatlashtirmoqchi bo'lgan kishini o'z ichiga oladi, chunki hozirgi paytda ular o'z oilalarini ta'minlash uchun hali ham ishlashlari kerak. Darslarni o'zlarining oilaviy ehtiyojlari atrofida rejalashtirishga qiynaladigan odamlar uchun, ular uchun barcha ishlarni bajarishni talab qiladigan variantlar mavjud, ammo barchasi onlayn tarzda amalga oshiriladi.[40] Masalan, Delaver universiteti va Feniks universiteti Internetda ikkalasi ham bor Hamshiralik ishi bo'yicha bakalavr va Hamshiralik ishi bo'yicha magistr odamlar uchun onlayn dasturlarni bajarish uchun dasturlar.[40]

Turmush qurmagan va turmush qurgan ota-onalar

Yolg'iz ota-onalarning ikki kishilik yuklari

"Bo'ydoq ota-onalar odatda uydagi ikkita kattalar o'rtasida vazifalarni bo'lishish hashamatiga ega emaslar."[41] "Oila qurgan oiladagi ota-onalar o'z vazifalarini taqsimlashlari mumkin, shunda ota-onalardan biri ko'proq ish bilan bog'liq va daromad keltiradigan ishlarga, ikkinchisi esa uy sharoitida, daromadsiz ishlab chiqarishga ko'proq ixtisoslashadi."[41] Turmush qurgan ota-onalar ish hajmini ajratish uchun bunday imkoniyatga ega, garchi odatda bunday bo'lmaydi, lekin yolg'iz ota-onalar hech kim bilan ish hajmini bo'lishish imkoniyatiga ega emaslar.

Ikki tomonlama yuk odatda yolg'iz ayollar yoki turmush qurgan ayollar uchun asosiy muammo sifatida qaraladi. Ammo, ko'pincha erkaklar ota-onaning ishi va oilasini muvozanatlashtirishga harakat qilgani kabi, o'sha sinov va og'ir kunlarni boshdan kechirishi mumkinligi va ko'pincha boshdan kechirishi kamroq tan olinadi.[7] Kitob ichida Inqirozdagi Kanada oilasi, Konvey bu masalani Eyxlerning argumenti bilan hal qiladi. Eyxler "Ijtimoiy fanlar "erkaklar uchun ish va uy o'rtasidagi yuzaga kelishi mumkin bo'lgan mojaroni kamsitishga yoki e'tiborsiz qoldirishga" "moyil bo'lib" erkaklarni tushunmaydi.[7] Turmush qurgan erkaklar ikki tomonlama yukning ta'siridan xalos bo'lishlari mumkin, ammo yolg'iz otalar oila va ishning ikki tomonlama yukidan xalos bo'lishga qodir emaslar.[7] Garchi yolg'iz otalar yolg'iz onalar duch keladigan bir xil muammolarga duch kelishsa-da, ularning foydasiga o'ynaydigan ikkita afzalligi bor.[7] Erkaklar odatda ko'proq daromadga ega va ayollarga qaraganda yolg'iz qolish muddati qisqa.[7] Biroq, ular qayta turmushga chiqqunga qadar yoki uy atrofida yordam beradigan ayol bo'lmaguncha, erkaklar hali ham ular bilan shug'ullanishlari kerak jinsiy va hissiy ayol kabi umidsizlik.[7] Ular ish, bolalarni parvarish qilish va uy vazifalarini muvozanatlashtirishi bilan shug'ullanishlari kerak.[7] Yolg'iz otalar, odatda, ota-ona bo'lish qobiliyatiga shubha bilan qarashadi va ularga psixologik qarshilik ko'rsatiladi.[7] "Ishlayotgan yolg'iz ota duch keladigan muammolar faqatgina ishlaydigan barcha ota-onalar tomonidan ta'minlanadigan moddiy-texnik muammolardan iborat. U o'ziga nisbatan odamga bo'lgan munosabatini o'zgartirishi kerak."[7] Erkak kishi yolg'iz ota-ona bo'lib, er-xotin yukning ta'sirini his qiladi, xuddi mansabga ega bo'lgan yolg'iz onada bo'lgani kabi, uning martabasiga xalaqit berishi mumkin va bo'ladi.[7] Tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, yolg'iz otalarning besh foizi ikki tomonlama yuk tufayli ishdan bo'shatildi va yana sakkiz foizi ishdan bo'shatildi, chunki er-xotin yuk ular uchun ham ish, ham oilani muvozanatlashtirib yuborish uchun juda katta og'irlik bo'ldi.[7] Aytish joizki, yolg'iz ota-onalar ikki barobar yukning ta'sirini ayollar kabi his qilishadi, aks holda.

Yolg'iz onalar boshidan kechirayotgan ikki tomonlama yuk tarixiy tajribaga ega va hozir ham mavjud. Yolg'iz onalar, odatda, ish bilan bandlik darajasi va uy sharoitida bolalarga nisbatan yuqori darajaga ega bo'lib, umumiy yukning eng yuqori ko'rsatkichlariga ega. Ayollar odatda erkaklarnikiga qaraganda kamroq iqtisodiy resurslarga ega va ular bilan ish hajmini bo'lishadigan sherigi yo'q.[41] Yolg'iz onalar iqtisodiy jihatdan juda zaif. Ular ish joyidagi kamsitishlarga duch kelishlari va unchalik ko'p maosh olishlari mumkin emas, shuning uchun ikki tomonlama yukni saqlashda qo'shimcha qiyinchiliklar yuzaga keladi. Yolg'iz onali oilalar yaqin atrofda turishadi qashshoqlik chegarasi, qashshoqlik darajasi erkaklarnikidan ikki baravar yuqori.[41]

Turmush qurgan ota-onaning ikki barobar og'irligi

Ikkala yuk, ota-onasi turmush qurgan oilalarda ham o'zini namoyon qiladi. Ikkita ota-onasi bo'lgan uy xo'jaliklarida faqat bitta ishlaydigan ota-onaga ega bo'lishi mumkin.[iqtibos kerak ]

Ayollarning ishchi kuchidagi rollari kengayganligi sababli, umuman olganda, ularning oilaviy va maishiy faoliyati uchun kutishlarning yumshashi kuzatilmadi, bugungi kunda ko'plab ayollar uy va ish mas'uliyatini ikki barobar ko'tarishmoqda.[42] Ko'p ayollar, hatto to'liq ish kunlarida ishlayotgan bo'lsa ham, uyning ichki majburiyatlarining eng katta qismini o'z zimmalariga oladilar.[42] Bu g'azab va xafagarchilikni keltirib chiqaradi, chunki bu ayollar o'zlarining uy ishlarining aksariyat qismini o'zlarining martabalari ustiga bajarishini bilishadi.[42] Undan tashqari ko'proq sabablar borligi aytilgan jinsdagi rollar, nima uchun erkaklar va ayollar bajaradigan uy ishlarida farq borligi haqida.[42] Ba'zi nazariyalar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ayollarning uy tozaligini talab qilishi erkaklarnikidan yuqori.[42] Ayollar o'zlarini uy ahvoli uchun erkaklar javobgar bo'lmagan tarzda javobgar bo'lishlari kerakligini his qilishadi.[42] Erkaklar o'zlarining ko'p vaqtlarini o'zlarining martabalariga sarflaydilar, ammo ayollar bu vaqtni ikki baravariga bolalar, uy ahvoli va uy vazifalarini bajarishga sarflaydilar.[42] Dan olingan grafikada AQSh Mehnat statistikasi byurosi 2004 yilda 25-54 yoshdagi turmush qurgan erkaklar va ayollarning ish yukini taqqoslaydigan bo'lsak, ayollar erkaklarnikiga qaraganda yuz foiz ko'proq uy ishlarini bajaradilar, erkaklar esa ayollarga qaraganda ko'proq bo'sh vaqt o'tkazadilar.[42] 1980 yilda ikki barobar og'irlik oshgani sayin, ayollar o'zlarining nikohlarini erkaklarnikiga qaraganda ko'proq tanqid qila boshladilar va "ikkinchi smena" yukini engillashtirish uchun erkaklar uy atrofida ko'proq ish qilishlarini istashdi. Uyda ish bilan shug'ullanadigan va uy ishlarining aksariyat qismini haligacha o'z zimmasiga olgan ayollarning ikki tomonlama yuki ayollarning ajrashishlariga yoki boshlanishiga olib keladi.[43]

Er-xotinlar bilan ikki tomonlama yuk tushunchasi butun dunyo bo'ylab hodisa. Dunyoning turli madaniyatlarida ayollar erkaklarnikiga qaraganda ko'proq ish vaqtini ko'proq sarflaydilar. Bir vaqtlar turmush qurgan Yaponiyada, ular hali ham butun kunlik ishdan keyin ham o'zlarining barcha kuchlarini uyga sarflaydigan sadoqatli xotinlar va onalar bo'lishlari kutilmoqda.[42] Lotin Amerikasi ayollari, endi ko'p sonli ishchi kuchiga kirib kelmoqdalar, baribir ular nima deyishlariga duch kelishmoqda doble jornadayoki ikki kunlik sayohat.[42] Garchi Lotin Amerikasi madaniyat, erkaklar bolalar bilan ko'proq muloqot qilishni boshlaydilar va uyda ko'proq yordam berishadi, asosiy uy vazifalari hali ham uy ayollari zimmasiga tushadi.[42] Ba'zida asosiy ish haqi oladigan ayollar hali ham uy ishlarining ko'p qismida ishdan bo'shatilgan.[42] Evropalik erkaklar ko'proq o'ynashlari va bolalari bilan muloqot qilishlari mumkin, ammo ularning kundalik parvarishida to'liq ishtirok etmasliklari mumkin.[42] Ular o'z xotinlariga uyda ko'proq yordam berishadi, ammo kamdan-kam hollarda ular barcha uy vazifalarini bir xilda hal qilishadi.[42] Erkaklar odatda teng baham ko'rishga bo'lgan ishonchlarini oqlay olmaydilar ichki ish kuchi: ular uydagi teng ish hajmiga ishonishlari mumkin, ammo xotinlari tomonidan bajarilgan ishlarni bajarish noqulayligi ko'pchilikning ishini to'xtatadi.[7]

Also, domestic labor ("housework") has been traditionally defined as "welfare" related activities, such as cooking and cleaning. However, married men generally contribute more to household and material maintenance, construction, and repair activities that are not usually captured under domestic obligations.[iqtibos kerak ]

Middle-class vs. poor families

Middle-class families

Middle-class families often use substitutes for domestic work to make up for the lost time while working in the paid sector. They buy time taking care of children by using hired help and kunduzgi tibbiyot markazlari. They also decrease the burden of paid work and unpaid work by using household appliances such as mikroto'lqinli pechlar, laundry machines va idishlarni yuvish mashinalari, as well as buying pre-made food, eating out and using laundry services.[30]

Poor families

Poor families are much more constrained in their economic ability to "buy back" lost time through the market. Instead of buying market substitutes, they try to meet their needs without spending money by taking care of children instead of hiring help, taking care of the sick instead of taking them to the hospital, and making food from scratch instead of buying pre-made food. The way that poor families deal with the time debt is for the main qarovchi to intensify the time that they spend working, by doing multiple jobs at once instead of doing one job at a time. When people increase the intensity of their work to compensate for their lack of time to finish everything that needs to get done, called work intensity, many health problems occur.[30]

Effektlar

Sog'likka ta'siri

Stress

When faced with the double burden of having to deal with the responsibilities of both a career as well as domestic duties, sometimes a person's health is affected. Many people faced with these circumstances have a higher chance of being sick since health and stress seem to be correlated, as stress has been implicated in up to eighty percent of all illnesses, as found by a report done by the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women.[7] In an article that was written by a team of researchers it was found that both men and women faced with a "spillover" of work and family issues were 1.5-1.6 times more likely to have an absence due to sickness than others.[3] Men and women in these situations have also been proven to be more likely to be faced with psixologik stress and even see themselves as unhealthier than their colleagues who are not in their situation.[3]

Although women faced with double burden usually have more stress than most women in today's society, it was proven that in most cases they are psychologically healthier than women who are not faced with these circumstances, for either being a stay at home mother or for being a working woman without children to take care of.[7]

O'lim darajasi

In a study done by Rosamund Weatherall, Heather Joshi and Susan Macran of the London gigiena va tropik tibbiyot maktabi in 1994, the research presented suggests that women presented with the double burden have a lower mortality rate than women who are simply housewives.[44] The women who were observed that had part-time jobs had a mortality rate lower than the women with full-time jobs and children.[44] The same study also suggests that women who have young children are less likely to die than women who have no children or have older children.[44] Although this evidence can not be strictly attributed to the double burden of having children and a career field, it can give a good indication of a trend in society. Also, this study was conducted in multiple countries including England, Wales, and the United States which gives the information presented from the study a more global perspective on the double burden.[iqtibos kerak ]

Absences due to sickness

In several Western countries it has been seen that absences due to sickness for women are far greater than men.[34] When investigating the reasons behind this, a study done in Sweden published in 1996 found that half of the difference between genders can be dismissed if you take out the days missed by pregnant women.[34] When taking into account the health effects of double burden, child birth is always a possibility for mothers who already are faced with taking care of children and having a career and effects them and their health. In many studies people have tried to relate the difference in sickness absences directly to the double burden effect. It has been somewhat successful as women who are faced with work and child care have been known to request more sick days than men in the same situation.[34] Additionally, working wives with children have twice the absence rate as men who are placed in the same position in work family conflicts.[7]

Loss of sleep

The stress of maintaining a career and a household can also lead to a loss of uxlash.[3] In traditional gender roles it is usually the mother who is the one to get the family going in the morning as she fixes breakfast and takes the children to school before she goes to her own job.[7] At night the mother cooks and does various other activities around the house that cause her to be the last person to retire for the night as well. Although this is merely just a few gender roles that are not set in stone, they may hold to be true. It was found that working women sleep twenty-five minutes less a night due solely to their responsibility for domestic work.[7] Applying this statistic in larger scale leads to the assumption that women on average lose up to thirteen hours of sleep per month due to domestic duties. It can be assumed that it is possible for an average woman to lose up to one hundred and fifty-six hours of sleep during a year because of domestic work and motherly duties.[iqtibos kerak ]

Woman working while taking care of her child

Work intensity

Asosiy maqola: work intensity

For many poor women and men whose work hours have reached the point where they cannot cut back on leisure time anymore to make time for domestic and paid work, work intensity is an issue because they often intensify their work time by doing two or more activities at once, such as taking care of children while cooking. Work intensity can lead to many negative health consequences, such as lack of uxlash, stress va etishmasligi dam olish.[30]

Iqtisodiy ta'sir

There are many economic effects to the person who has to shoulder the double burden. Oftentimes, this tends to be the woman in the relationship, and so there has been analysis done on the economic effect of the double burden on women. According to Himmelweit (2002), because women often earn less than men, there is the thought that the woman should be the one to fit her paid job around household activities such as taking care of children. Because of this, and because they have many domestic duties, women often take part-time jobs and jobs in the informal sector in order to balance paid work with domestic work.[30] Part-time jobs and jobs in the informal sector do earn less than full-time jobs, so men have to increase their paid work hours in order to compensate for the lacking family income. This will "weaken her earning power and strengthen his", leading to an unequal distribution of power in the uy xo'jaligi, and allow the man to exploit the woman's unpaid work.[14][45] This situation could have negative consequences especially for the woman because she is perceived to have less contribution to the household, due to domestic work being seen as less of a contribution than paid work. Such negative consequences include the lack of a ajralish threat, where the woman does not have the economic means to ask for a divorce because she does not have a full-time job, and she has less money that she personally receives, decreasing her perceived contributions to the household.[14]

Yechimlar

Madaniy evolyutsiya

As discussed in the previous section on Causes, the double burden is a product of patriarchal power structures and capitalist models of labor and value which still persist. Although fraught with the potential for chaos and doom, it has been suggested that overthrowing patriarchal and capitalist power structures could address the double burden.[iqtibos kerak ]

Family-friendly initiatives

Family-friendly initiatives are a possible solution to redistributing the load of unpaid work and alleviating the double burden. Possible initiatives include flexible ish vaqti; to'liqsiz ish kuni and job-sharing options; parental leave; child care subsidies; and on-site daycare options. There are two primary approaches to assisting working families: "One stresses the importance of action from within, with emphasis on private, internal, local initiatives within firms and organizations to alter workplace norms, conventions, and practices. The other approach calls for government interventions designed to facilitate proper care for children with less sacrifice of parents' job opportunities, advancement, and compensation".[14]

Hukumat tashabbuslari

The Shimoliy shimoliy mamlakatlar exemplify the use of family-friendly initiatives. For example, a nine-month parental leave is divided into thirds in Islandiya. Three months are for the mother. Three non-transferable months are for the father, and there are three months that both parents can share. "The reimbursement is 80 per cent of the salary. From 2001 to October 2003, the average number of days taken by men increased from 39 to 83, and 13 per cent of Icelandic fathers used more than their non-transferable part."[23] Dual-income families are becoming the norm, especially in industrialized countries, so it is not uncommon for large corporations to practice some form of family-friendly initiative.[iqtibos kerak ]

Child care facility

Government family-friendly initiatives such as child subsidies and cheaper child care facilities can also greatly decrease the gender difference in the workplace, due to the woman being able to work longer hours outside the home.[24] In addition, when developing policies related to paid work, it is important to do gender impact assessments in order to assess the impact of a policy on both the paid and unpaid sector.[14]

Workplace initiatives

Whenever there is talk about new siyosatlar regarding new work time policies, there is often the argument for longer ish vaqti in exchange for a shorter work week. For example, many are in favor of longer work hours such as "three ten-hour days or four eight-hour days".[25] However, this is often not the best work hours for people who take care of children, because children go to maktab for perhaps six hours a day, not eight or ten. Qarovchilar would prefer the opposite - shorter hours and longer weeks, such as six hour work days for six times a week, with limits on evening work and vaqt o'tishi bilan, as well as flexible schedules. In order to lessen the burden of taking care of children and domestic duties as well as working in the paid sector, workplaces should consider policies that take into account the preferred work hours of caretakers. In addition, it is often the case now that many workers juggle domestic work and paid work. In order to get the most effective workers, companies should consider changing their policies in order to attract the best people in the field.[25]

Tanqid

A paper rejecting statistics of the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions as "the main source oftendentious polemics on women’s unfair burden and gender inequality", states that the idea of a double burden is a myth and concludes instead that "on average, women and men across Europe do the same total number of productive work hours, once paid jobs and unpaid household work are added together – roughly eight hours a day."[46]

Shuningdek qarang

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Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Barbara Engel (2004). "Russia and the Soviet Union". In Bonnie G. Smith (ed.). Women's History in Global Perspective. Illinoys universiteti matbuoti. p. 171. ISBN  9780252029905.