Qo'shma Shtatlardagi lobbichilik - Lobbying in the United States
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Qo'shma Shtatlardagi lobbichilik pullik faoliyatni tasvirlaydi maxsus qiziqish guruhlari kabi qaror qabul qiluvchi organlarda aniq qonunchilikni muhokama qilish uchun bir-biri bilan yaxshi bog'langan professional advokatlarni, ko'pincha advokatlarni yollang Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kongressi. Bu juda tortishuvli hodisa, ko'pincha jurnalistlar va Amerika jamoatchiligi tomonidan salbiy tomondan ko'riladi,[1] ba'zi tanqidchilar tomonidan uni huquqiy shakli sifatida tavsiflash bilan pora berish yoki tovlamachilik.[2][3] Lobbi keng va ko'pincha murakkab qoidalarga bo'ysunadi, agar ularga rioya qilinmasa, jazo choralari, shu jumladan qamoq jazosiga olib kelishi mumkin, lobbi faoliyati sud qarorlari bilan konstitutsiyaviy muhofaza qilingan deb talqin qilingan so'z erkinligi shikoyatlarni ko'rib chiqish uchun hukumatga murojaat qilishning bir usuli, tomonidan himoyalangan ikkita erkinlik Birinchi o'zgartirish ning Konstitutsiya. 1970-yillardan boshlab lobbi faoliyati AQShda lobbi tarafdorlari soni va lobbi byudjeti hajmi jihatidan nihoyatda o'sib bordi va Amerika boshqaruvining tanqidiga sabab bo'ldi.
Lobbi qoidalari keng oshkor etishni talab qilganligi sababli, bu erda juda ko'p ma'lumot mavjud jamoat sohasi qaysi sub'ektlar, qanday qilib, kimda va qancha miqdorda lobbi o'tkazishi to'g'risida. Amaldagi uslub shuni ko'rsatadiki, lobbi asosan korporatsiyalar tomonidan amalga oshiriladi, biroq turli xil guruhlarni aks ettiruvchi koalitsiyalarning xilma-xilligi ham mavjud. Lobbi hukumatning har bir darajasida, jumladan federal, shtat, okrug, munitsipal va hattoki mahalliy hokimiyatlarda amalga oshiriladi. Yilda Vashington, Kolumbiya, lobbi odatda maqsadlarni Kongress a'zolari, ammo ijro etuvchi agentlik mansabdorlariga ham ta'sir o'tkazishga urinishlar bo'lgan Oliy sud uchrashuvlar. Lobbichilik muhim ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin siyosiy tizim; Masalan, 2014 yildagi bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, maxsus qiziqish lobbisi elita guruhlarining kuchini oshirgan va millatning siyosiy tuzilishini oligarxiya unda o'rtacha fuqarolar "mustaqil ta'sirga ega yoki umuman yo'q".[4]
Vashingtondagi lobbichilar soni o'n ikki mingdan oshgan deb taxmin qilinmoqda, ammo lobbi bilan shug'ullanadiganlarning ko'pi (xarajatlar jihatidan), aylanmasi kam bo'lgan 300 dan kam firma bilan shug'ullanadi.[5] Hisobot Millat 2014 yilda ro'yxatga olingan lobbistlar soni 2013 yilda (12281) 2002 yilga nisbatan kamaygan bo'lsa, lobbi faolligi tobora takomillashib borayotgan strategiyalardan foydalanganligi sababli lobbichilik faoliyati tobora ortib bormoqda va "yashirin yurish" davom etmoqda.[6] Tahlilchi Jeyms A. Turber ishchi lobbichilarning haqiqiy soni 100000 ga yaqin ekanligini va sanoat har yili 9 milliard dollar daromad keltirishini taxmin qildi.[6] Uoll-stritga ta'sir ko'rsatishga rekord darajada 2 milliard dollar sarflandi 2016 yil AQSh prezident saylovi.[7][8]
Lobbichilik huquq, davlat siyosati, iqtisodiyot va hattoki marketing strategiyasi kabi turli sohalarda ilmiy izlanishlar mavzusi bo'ldi.
Umumiy nuqtai
Siyosatshunos Tomas R. Dye bir marta shunday dedi siyosat kam hukumat resurslari bilan kurashish haqida: ularni kim, qaerdan, qachon, nima uchun va qanday qilib oladi.[9] Chunki hukumat bu kabi murakkab iqtisodiyotda qoidalarni amalga oshiradi Qo'shma Shtatlar, ushbu qoidalar ta'sirida bo'lgan turli xil tashkilotlar, korxonalar, jismoniy shaxslar, notijorat tashkilotlar, savdo guruhlari, dinlar, xayriya tashkilotlari va boshqalarning iloji boricha ko'proq ta'sir ko'rsatishi mantiqan to'g'ri. Ta'sir uchun kurash har qanday uyushgan jamiyatda tsivilizatsiya boshlangandan buyon sodir bo'lgan Qadimgi Afina, Davrida Florensiya Medici, Kech imperator Xitoy, yoki hozirgi kun Qo'shma Shtatlar. Zamonaviy lobbistlar bir ma'noda o'xshashdir saroy ahli ning Ancien Regim. Agar ovoz berish jamoatchilik uchun hukumatni nazorat qilishning umumiy usuli, lobbichilik - bu aniqroq, aniq maqsadga qaratilgan harakatlar, tor doiradagi masalalarga yo'naltirilgan.[1]
Atama lobbi Britaniya parlamentining jismoniy tarkibida etimologik ildizlarga ega bo'lib, unda asosiy zal tashqarisida vositachi yopiq xona bo'lgan. Kun tartibini ilgari surayotgan odamlar ushbu xonada parlament a'zolari bilan uchrashishga harakat qilishadi va ular ma'lum bo'lishdi metonimiya, kabi lobbistlar, garchi 1890 yildagi bitta hisobda "lobbi" so'zining qo'llanilishi amerikalik ekanligi va bu atama u qadar ko'p ishlatilmasligi taxmin qilingan Britaniya.[10] 1401-sonli Pensilvaniya prospektidagi Oq uydan 2 blok narida joylashgan Willard mehmonxonasi bu atama shu erda paydo bo'lganligini da'vo qilmoqda: "Ulisd S. Grant" lobbist "atamasini aynan Uilyard qabulxonasida ommalashtirdi. U qabulxonada o'tirganida va tamaki va brendidan zavqlanib, o'zini reklama qiluvchilarni tez-tez bezovta qilar edi, u bu odamlarni "lobbistlar" deb atadi.[11]
Atama lobbichilik kundalik tilda turli xil tadbirlarni tavsiflashi mumkin va umumiy ma'noda targ'ibot, reklama yoki sababni targ'ib qilishni taklif qiladi. Shu ma'noda, har qanday siyosiy mavqega ta'sir o'tkazmoqchi bo'lgan har qanday odamni "lobbichilik" deb hisoblash mumkin, ba'zan esa bu atama shu bo'shashgan ma'noda ishlatiladi. Kongress vakiliga xat yozgan yoki hatto siyosiy yig'ilishda nomzodga savol beradigan odamni lobbist.[1][12]
Biroq, "lobbichilik" atamasi odatda davlat amaldoriga, shu jumladan byurokratlar va saylangan mansabdor shaxslarga - ta'sir o'tkazish yoki chalg'itishga urinish maqsadida pullik faoliyatni anglatadi.[13] Agar advokatlik axborot tarqatmoqda, shu jumladan davlat amaldorlarini, shuningdek jamoatchilikni va ommaviy axborot vositalarini biror narsaning sababini targ'ib qilishga va uni qo'llab-quvvatlashga ishontirishga urinishlar, shu jumladan;[13] keyin ushbu faoliyat qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan yoki qarama-qarshi bo'lgan muayyan qonunchilikka yo'naltirilgan bo'lsa, u chegarani kesib o'tadi advokatlik va bo'ladi lobbichilik.[13] Bu "lobbichilik" atamasining odatiy ma'nosi. Bitta akkaunt ko'pchilik faoliyatni taklif qildi notijorat tashkilotlar emas edi lobbichilik o'z-o'zidan, chunki bu odatda qonunchilikdagi o'zgarishlarni anglatmaydi.[13][shubhali ]
Lobbiist, so'zning qonuniy ma'nosiga ko'ra, professional, ko'pincha advokatdir. Lobbiistlar mijoz tashkilotlari va qonun chiqaruvchilar o'rtasidagi vositachilardir: ular qonun chiqaruvchilarga ularning tashkilotlari nimani xohlashlarini va ular o'z mijozlariga saylangan mansabdor shaxslar qanday to'siqlarga duch kelishini tushuntirishadi. Lobbiistning ta'riflaridan biri bu "qonun chiqaruvchilarni lobbistning ish beruvchisiga yordam beradigan qonunlarni qabul qilishga ishontirish uchun ishlatilgan".[14] Ko'pgina lobbistlar lobbi firmalarida yoki yuridik firmalarda ishlaydi, ularning ba'zilari lobbi ishidan tashqarida mijozlarni saqlab qolishadi. Boshqalar ishlaydi targ'ibot guruhlari, savdo uyushmalari, kompaniyalar va davlat va mahalliy hukumat. Lobbiistlar hukumat amaldorlaridan biri bo'lishi mumkin, masalan, shtat gubernatori, Vashingtonda rasmiylarni aniq qonunchilikni talab qilish uchun bosadi.[15] Lobbiist turli xil tashkilotlar va odamlarning koalitsiyasini, ba'zida qonun chiqaruvchilar va korporatsiyalarni birlashtirishi mumkin, va bu butun harakatni lobbi; masalan, abort masalasida "tanlovni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi lobbi" va "hayotni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi lobbi" mavjud.
2007 yildagi hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra, 15000 dan ortiq federal lobbistlar asoslangan Vashington, DC;[16] 2018 yildagi yana bir hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra, o'sha yili lobbi qilgan ro'yxatdan o'tgan lobbichilar soni 11656 edi.[17] Bu kabi raqamlar lobbichilik keng miqyosli faoliyat ekanligiga ishora qilsa-da, aksariyat akkauntlar Vashington lobbichilik sohasi bir-biri bilan yaxshi aloqada bo'lgan bir nechta firma va o'yinchilar tomonidan boshqariladigan eksklyuziv sohadir, deb ta'kidlamoqda, lobbi biznesiga kirishni istagan firmalar kirish uchun jiddiy to'siqlar bilan, chunki bu ularga "Kongress zallarida yillar va yillar davomida aylanib yurishni" talab qiladi.[5]
Chet ellarning ta'sir qilishi mumkin Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining tashqi siyosati lobbi orqali yoki lobbi tashkilotlarini bevosita yoki bilvosita qo'llab-quvvatlash orqali. Masalan, 2016 yilda, Tayvanliklar rasmiylar amerikalik senatorga aylangan lobbistni yollashdi Bob Dole saylangan prezident o'rtasida ziddiyatli telefon aloqasini o'rnatish uchun Donald Tramp va Tayvan Prezidenti Tsay Ing-Ven.[18][19][20] Ma'lumotlar bor Milliy miltiq uyushmasi, uchun AQShni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi lobbi guruhi qurolga bo'lgan huquqlar, Rossiya prezidentining o'n yillik infiltratsiya harakatining maqsadi bo'lgan Vladimir Putin, Putinning saylovda yordam berish uchun NRA orqali naqd pul tushirdi degan da'volari bilan Donald Tramp.[21][22][23] Bundan tashqari, bu haqida xabarlar mavjud Qatar, Saudiya Arabistoni, Bahrayn va Birlashgan Arab Amirliklari ustidan g'alaba qozonish uchun qizg'in lobbi kampaniyasini olib bordi Tramp ma'muriyati va Kongress.[24][25][26][27]
Lobbichilikning turli xil turlari
Lobbi harakatlari markazida
Odatda, lobbistlar qaror qabul qiluvchilarni ishontirishga harakat qilishadi: Kongress, ijro etuvchi hokimiyat idoralari G'aznachilik boshqarmasi va Qimmatli qog'ozlar va birja komissiyasi,[28] Oliy sud,[29] va shtat hukumatlari (shu jumladan gubernatorlar). Federal agentliklar sohaga oid qoidalarni yozganlaridan beri lobbistlar tomonidan nishonga olinmoqda; shunga ko'ra, manfaatdor guruhlar ularni "o'ymakorlik" deb nomlashga ishontirishga yoki ma'lum qoidalarning qabul qilinishiga to'sqinlik qilishga urinish uchun "katta miqdordagi pullarni" sarflaydilar.[30] Bir hisobotga ko'ra, umumiy lobbichilikning katta qismi faqat bir nechta muammolarga qaratilgan.[31] Hokimiyatning bir darajasi ikkinchi darajani lobbi qilishi mumkin; masalan Kolumbiya okrugi Kongress va Prezidentni katta hokimiyatni, shu jumladan davlatchilikni yoki Kongressda ovoz berish vakolatlarini olish uchun lobbichilik qilmoqda; 2011 yildagi bitta baholash natijalariga ko'ra tuman lobbichilik strategiyasini qayta ko'rib chiqishi kerak, chunki ilgari olib borilgan sa'y-harakatlar faqat "aralash natijalar" ga ega edi.[32] Ko'pchilik ijro etuvchi hokimiyat agentliklar aniq qoidalarni yozish huquqiga ega va lobbichilikning maqsadi hisoblanadi. Kabi federal idoralar Davlat departamenti kabi mamlakatlarga yordam pulini berish kabi qoidalarni amalga oshirish Misr Va bitta misolda, Misrlik amerikalik tadbirkor Kais Menoufy lobbi tashkil qilib, AQShning Misrga yordamini to'xtatishga harakat qildi.[33] Beri Oliy sud kuchiga ega sud nazorati va Kongress to'g'risidagi qonunni konstitutsiyaga zid qilishi mumkin, u Amerika hayotiga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan katta kuchga ega. Masalan, Roe Vadega qarshi qaror, bu qonuniyligi to'g'risida qaror qildi abort. Ushbu qarorni bekor qilish uchun sudga bosim o'tkazish uchun turli kuchlar lobbichilik taktikasini qo'llaydilar.
Lobbiistlar davlat kapitoliylarida o'z mijozlari yoki tashkilotlarining manfaatlarini himoya qiladilar. Masalan, Kaliforniya, Michigan va Nevada shtatlaridagi qonun chiqaruvchilarni o'qituvchilar baholarini qayta tuzish uchun lobbi ishlarini olib borgan va o'qituvchilarni ishga qabul qilish jarayonini "Oxirgi kirish, birinchi chiqish" ni tugatishga harakat qilgan sobiq maktab noziri; bitta xabarga ko'ra, Mishel Ri "siyosiy kuch" ga aylanib bormoqda.[34] Shtat hukumatlarini vakili bo'lgan guruhlar lobbi qilishi mumkin boshqa hukumatlar davlat ichida, masalan, shahar hokimiyati; Masalan, shaharlari Tallaxassi[35] va Sankt-Peterburg[36] lobbi qildi Florida qonun chiqaruvchi shahar manfaatlarini himoya qilish uchun pullik lobbistlardan foydalangan holda. Tumanda lobbi faoliyati mavjud[37] va munitsipal darajalar, ayniqsa katta shaharlarda va gavjum tumanlarda. Masalan, shahar hokimiyatidagi mansabdor shaxslar Chikago shahar etika qoidalarida lobbichilikdan voz kechish uchun talab qilingan bir yillik muddatdan so'ng, aldermenlar shahar hokimiyatida ishlagandan so'ng lobbichilarga aylanishdi.[38]
Bepul lobbichilikka qarshi pullik
Lobbichilikning asosiy qismi pullik mutaxassislarni yollaydigan biznes va kasbiy manfaatlarga bog'liq bo'lsa, ba'zi lobbistlar notijorat tashkilotlarni ifodalaydi. pro-bono ular shaxsan o'zlarini qiziqtirgan masalalar uchun. Pro bono publico mijozlar mablag 'yig'ish va mukofotlash marosimlari kabi tadbirlarda mahalliy qonunchilar bilan uchrashish va muloqot qilish uchun tadbirlarni taklif qilishadi.
Bitta sonli versiya va ko'p sonli lobbichilik
Bitta masalani ilgari suradigan lobbilar so'nggi yigirma yil ichida, bir manbaga ko'ra, ahamiyati oshdi.[12] Odatda korporatsiyalar quyidagicha ko'rib chiqiladi bitta son lobbilar. Agar korporatsiya davlat siyosatini o'zgartirishni yoki uning muvaffaqiyatli faoliyatiga ta'sir qiladigan qonunchilikka ta'sir o'tkazishni xohlasa, u bu maqsadda lobbichilikni "asosiy yo'l" sifatida ishlatishi mumkin.[39] Bir tadqiqot natijasi shuni ko'rsatdiki bitta son lobbilar ko'pincha har xil institutsional joylarda ishlaydi, ba'zida bir xil xabarni turli guruhlarga etkazadi.[40] Kabi guruhlarni ifodalaydigan lobbilar mehnat jamoalari, biznes tashkilotlari, savdo uyushmalari va boshqalar ba'zan shunday deb hisoblanadi ko'p sonli lobbiva muvaffaqiyatga erishish uchun ular siyosiy jihatdan ancha moslashuvchan va murosaga kelishga tayyor bo'lishlari kerak.[12]
Tashqi lobbichilikka qarshi
- Qabulxona ichida, yoki ba'zan chaqiriladi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri lobbi, lobbistlarning qonunchilikka ta'sir ko'rsatishga yoki qonun chiqaruvchilarga va ba'zan ularning xodimlari yoki yordamchilari deb nomlangan yordamchilariga murojaat qilish orqali qonunchilikka ta'sir ko'rsatishi yoki qoidalarni ishlab chiqishni tasvirlaydi.
- Lobbi tashqarisidayoki ba'zan bilvosita lobbichilik, manfaatdorlik guruhlari rahbarlari tomonidan fuqarolarni siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchilar doirasidan tashqariga safarbar qilishga urinishlarni, ehtimol jamoat bilan aloqa usullari yoki reklama, ularni siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchilar doirasidagi davlat amaldorlariga bosim o'tkazishga undash.[41] Tashqi lobbichilik harakatlarining bir misoli - bu film Adolat, sud islohotlarini targ'ib qiluvchi guruh tomonidan tuzilgan.[42] Hozirgi kunda ba'zi lobbistlar an'anaviy kampaniyalar narxini pasaytirish, aniqrog'i davlat xizmatchilarini siyosiy xabarlar bilan nishonga olish uchun ijtimoiy tarmoqlardan foydalanmoqdalar.[43]
Soliq to'lovchilar tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan lobbi
Soliq to'lovchilar tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan lobbichilik - bu soliq to'lovchilar tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan boshqa bir tashkilotning boshqa soliq to'lovchilar tomonidan moliyalashtirilgan lobbi, odatda ko'proq soliq to'lovchilar mablag'lari uchun. Qo'shma Shtatlarda bu odatda byudjetning bir qismini shtat hukumatiga katta byudjetni jalb qilish uchun ajratadigan davlat darajasidagi idoralar yoki munitsipalitetlar shaklida amalga oshiriladi.[44][45][46]
Lobbichilik tarixi
The Konstitutsiya qisman maxsus manfaatlar muammosini hal qilish uchun yaratilgan bo'lib, bugungi kunda odatda lobbilar tomonidan taqdim etilgan fraksiyalar raqobatlashmoq. Jeyms Medison fraktsiyani "ozchilikni yoki umuman ko'pchilikni tashkil etadigan, boshqa fuqarolarning huquqlariga yoki doimiy va doimiy ehtiros yoki qiziqish turtki bilan birlashtirilgan va harakatga keltiradigan bir qator fuqarolar" deb aniqladi. jamiyatning umumiy manfaatlari ",[1] va Medison bahslashdi 10-sonli federalist agar boshqa fraksiyalar tomonidan salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatilsa, katta respublikada tor yo'naltirilgan fraksiya tomonidan jarohat olish xavfi kam bo'lganligi.[2][3] Bundan tashqari, Konstitutsiya himoyalangan so'z erkinligi shu jumladan hukumatga ariza berish huquqi,[12][47] va ushbu huquqlardan butun xalq tarixi davomida lobbichilik manfaatlari foydalanilgan. Hukumatning har bir darajasida, xususan shtat hukumatlarida lobbichilik bor edi[48] o'n to'qqizinchi asrda, lekin tobora yigirmanchi asrda federal hukumat tomon yo'naltirilgan. So'nggi bir necha o'n yilliklar lobbichilik faoliyati va xarajatlarining keskin o'sishi bilan ajralib turdi.[49]
Lobbi biznes sifatida
Asosiy o'yinchilar
Lobbistlar
Ro'yxatdan o'tgan Vashington lobbistlari soni juda katta. 2009 yilda, Vashington Post 13700 lobbist ro'yxatdan o'tganligini taxmin qilib, mamlakat Kapitoliyini "lobbistlar bilan to'lib toshgan" deb ta'riflagan.[5] 2011 yilda, Guardian Vashingtonda ro'yxatdan o'tgan taxminan 13000 lobbistlardan tashqari yana minglab ro'yxatdan o'tmagan lobbistlar mavjud bo'lishi mumkin.[50] Har bir saylangan siyosatchi bilan taqqoslaganda sog'liqni saqlash sohasida ishlaydigan lobbichilarning nisbati oltitadan bittaga teng edi.[50] Shunga qaramay, lobbichilik bilan faol shug'ullanadigan lobbichilar soni ancha kam, doimiy ravishda lobbi ishi bilan shug'ullanadiganlar va katta miqdordagi pul ishlash bilan shug'ullanadiganlar soni ham kam.
- Yuridik firmalar: Bir nechta yuridik firmalar, shu jumladan Patton Boggs, Akin Gump va Holland va ritsar, "hukumat aloqalari" deb nomlangan katta bo'limlarga ega edi.[51] Hisobotlardan birida ushbu yuridik firmalarning lobbi qurollari alohida sho'ba korxonalar sifatida saqlanmasligi, ammo hukumat lobbi faoliyati bilan bog'liq yuridik amaliyotlar yuridik firma faoliyatining umumiy doirasiga kiritilganligi taklif qilingan.[51] Integratsiyalashgan kelishuvning foydasi shundaki, yuridik firma va lobbi xizmati "mijozlarni oldinga va orqaga baham ko'rishi va yo'naltirishi" mumkin.[51] Holland & Knight 2011 yilda lobbi xizmatidan 13,9 million dollar ishlab topdi.[52] Bitta yuridik firma "kuch vositachilari" deb nomlanadi, jumladan Marti Tomas kabi G'aznachilik departamentining mansabdorlari va Daniel Meyer kabi prezidentning sobiq maslahatchilari.[53] Ikki yuridik firma o'z lobbi guruhlarini alohida biznes bo'linmalari sifatida ko'rib, advokat bo'lmagan lobbistlarga kapital ulushi firmada.[51]
- Lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan firmalar: Ushbu firmalar odatda ba'zi advokatlarga ega va ko'pincha Kongressning sobiq xodimlari, qonun chiqaruvchilari yoki boshqa siyosatchilar tomonidan tashkil etiladi.[iqtibos kerak ] Ba'zi lobbi guruhlari yirik reklama konglomeratlari tomonidan sotib olingan.[49]
Korporatsiyalar
Faoliyati lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan korporatsiyalar son jihatdan kam sonli, yirik va ko'pincha hukumatga sotadigan tendentsiyalarga ega. Aksariyat korporatsiyalar lobbistlarni yollamaydilar.[5] Bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, doimiy ravishda lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan firmalarning soni 300 dan kam, va lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan firmalarning foizlari 1998 yildan 2006 yilgacha 10 foizni tashkil etgan.[39] va ular "asosan yirik, boy firmalar o'yin-kulgiga kirishgan".[5] Ushbu firmalar yil sayin lobbichilarni yollashdi va boshqa yirik firmalarning lobbichilikka katta qiziqish ko'rsatganliklari to'g'risida dalillar mavjud emas edi.[5] Lobbichilikni ko'rib chiqayotgan korporatsiyalar kirish uchun katta to'siqlarga duch kelmoqdalar: korporatsiyalar lobbichilik to'g'risida tegishli qonunlarni o'rganishi, lobbichilik firmalarini yollashi va nufuzli odamlarni o'stirishi va aloqalarni o'rnatishi kerak.[5][54][55][56] Immigratsiya siyosatining o'zgarishi bilan bog'liq muammo yuzaga kelganda, hozirgi vaqtda lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan yirik korporatsiyalar yangi tartibga soluvchi dunyoni hisobga olish uchun bir oz e'tiborni o'zgartirdilar, ammo yangi korporatsiyalar, hattoki immigratsiya haqidagi har qanday qarorlar ta'sir qilishi mumkin bo'lganlar ham lobbichilik kurashidan chetda qolishdi. , tadqiqotga ko'ra.[39]
Shunga qaramay, Vashingtonda lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan barcha tashkilotlar orasida eng katta mablag 'sarflaydiganlar aslida korporatsiyalardir. 2000-yillarning birinchi o'n yilligida eng ko'p daromad keltiradigan mijozlar Jerald Kessidi Lobbi tashkiloti korporatsiyalar bo'lib, mablag 'ajratish biznesidagi to'lovlarni bekor qildi.[49] Uoll-strit lobbistlar va moliya sohasi "sud nazorati organlari va qonunchilar" ga bir yil ichida 100 million dollardan yuqori mablag 'sarfladilar, xususan, ular "kredit berish, savdo va debet kartalari uchun to'lovlarni amalga oshirish bo'yicha yangi qoidalarni ishlab chiqmoqdalar".[57] 1987 yilda o'tkazilgan bitta akademik tahlil shuni ko'rsatdiki, firmalar lobbi ishlariga katta mablag 'sarflasa va agar ular lobbi qilmasa, "moliyaviy hisobotning salbiy oqibatlari" haqida tashvishlanadilar.[58] Katta banklar lobbichilikda "serhosil mablag 'sarflaganlar" edi; JPMorgan Chase 2010 yilda 3,3 million dollar sarflagan lobbistlarning ichki jamoasi mavjud;[57] The Amerika bankirlar assotsiatsiyasi lobbi ishlariga 4,6 million dollar sarfladi;[57] mamlakatning 100 ta eng yirik moliyaviy firmalarining vakili bo'lgan tashkilot Moliyaviy xizmatlar davra suhbati juda ko'p mablag 'sarfladi.[57] Hedge Funds vakili bo'lgan savdo guruhi, chorakda hukumatga moliyaviy reglamentga ta'sir o'tkazishga $ 1 milliondan ko'proq mablag 'sarfladi, shu jumladan mablag'larni oshkor qilish talablarini talab qilishi mumkin bo'lgan qoidalarni o'zgartirishga urinish.[28] Amazon.com chorakda Internetda sotilishi mumkin bo'lgan soliq, shuningdek ma'lumotlarni himoya qilish va maxfiylik to'g'risidagi qoidalar to'g'risida lobbichilik qilishda 450 ming dollar sarfladi.[59] Hukumatga sezilarli darajada sotadigan korporatsiyalar faol lobbi tarafdorlari bo'lishadi. Masalan, samolyot ishlab chiqaruvchisi Boeing mudofaa shartnomalari katta bo'lgan "millionlarni lobbichilikka" to'kadi:[60]
Boeing Co. aviakompaniyalarni ishlab chiqarishda eng nufuzli kompaniyalardan biri bo'lib, doimiy ravishda Kongressni lobbi qilishda o'z ta'sirini ko'rsatib kelmoqda ... Yanvar-sentyabr oylari orasida Boeing Responsive Politics Center tadqiqotlari natijalariga ko'ra jami 12 million dollarlik lobbi ishlarini o'tkazdi. Bundan tashqari, Boing o'zining siyosiy harakatlar qo'mitasiga ega, u 2010 yilgi saylov davrida federal nomzodlarga 2,2 million dollardan ko'proq mablag 'ajratdi. Ushbu mablag'ning 53 foizi demokratlarga tegishli. ... Sentyabr oyigacha Boingning PAC federal siyosatchilarga 748 ming dollar xayriya qildi.
2017 yilning bahorida shiddatli lobbichilik harakatlari sodir bo'ldi Internet-provayderlar Comcast va AT&T kabi (Internet-provayderlar) va Google va Facebook kabi texnologik kompaniyalar iste'molchilarning shaxsiy hayotini himoya qiluvchi qoidalarni bekor qilish uchun.[62] Tomonidan qabul qilingan qoidalar Obama ma'muriyati 2016 yilda Internet-provayderlarni ko'rib chiqish tarixi, tashrif buyurgan korxonalar joylashgan manzillari va ishlatilgan dasturlarni to'plashdan oldin iste'molchilardan "aniq rozilik" olishlarini talab qilishgan, ammo savdo guruhlari ushbu ma'lumotni foyda uchun o'zlarining roziligisiz sotish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lishni xohlashgan.[62] Respublikachilar senatori bilan bog'liq lobbistlar Jeff Fleyk va respublika vakili Marsha Blekbern Internet-maxfiylik qoidalarini bekor qilish to'g'risidagi qonunchilikka homiylik qilish; Fleyk ushbu savdo guruhlaridan 22 700 dollar, Blackburn esa 20 500 dollar xayriya mablag'lari olgan.[62] 2017 yil 23 martda shaxsiy hayotga oid cheklovlarni bekor qilish tor partiyaviy ovoz berishga o'tdi va lobbichilik harakati o'z natijasiga erishdi.[62] 2017 yilda kredit bo'yicha hisobot agentligi Ekvaks 2016 yilda 1,1 million dollar va 2017 yilda 500 ming dollar sarflab, sud jarayonidan kelib chiqadigan zararni cheklash qoidalarini izlash va kamroq tartibga solish nazorati bilan Kongressni keng lobbi qildi; 2017 yil avgust oyida Equifax-ning ma'lumotlar bazalari buzilgan va millionlab amerikaliklarning maxfiy ma'lumotlari xakerlar va shaxs o'g'rilari tomonidan o'g'irlangan, bu firmani ko'pchilikka ochishi mumkin edi. sud harakatlari.[61]
Amerikaning yirik korporatsiyalari 2006-2008 yillarda immigratsiyani qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun atigi uchta qonun loyihasini qabul qilish uchun 345 million dollar sarfladilar.[63]
Qo'shma Shtatlardagi Internet-provayderlar 1998 yildan beri lobbi xizmatiga 1,2 milliard dollardan ko'proq mablag 'sarfladilar va 2018 yilga qadar eng katta yil bo'lib, umumiy xarajatlari 80 million dollardan oshdi.[64]
Kasaba uyushmalari
Bitta ma'ruzada Birlashgan oziq-ovqat va tijorat ishchilari xalqaro ittifoqi "soliq kodeksi, oziq-ovqat xavfsizligi, immigratsiya islohoti va boshqa masalalar" bilan bog'liq masalalarda federal hukumatni lobbi qilishga 80 ming dollar sarfladi.[65]
Boshqa futbolchilar
Lobbi maydonida boshqa mumkin bo'lgan o'yinchilar qonunchilikka ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin: uy va senatdagi hamkasblar, okrugdagi jamoatchilik fikri, Oq uy, partiyalar rahbarlari, kasaba uyushma rahbarlari va boshqa nufuzli shaxslar va guruhlar.[41] Qiziqish guruhlari ko'pincha hukumat qarorlarini qabul qilishni o'zgartirishga yoki ta'sir ko'rsatishga harakat qiladigan "partiyasiz tashkilotlar" deb qaraladi.[41]
Lobbi qilish usullari va usullari
Lobbi odamlarni ko'p talab qiladigan biznes bilan ko'p o'xshashliklarga ega boshqaruv bo'yicha konsalting va jamoat bilan aloqa, lekin siyosiy va huquqiy sezgirlik bilan. Qonun chiqaruvchilar singari, ko'plab lobbistlar advokatdir va ular ta'sir o'tkazmoqchi bo'lgan shaxslar qonun yozish majburiyatiga ega. Huquq va lobbichilik intizomlari bir-biriga bog'langanligini, adolatsiz ravishda qamalgan mijozi uchun tovon puli talab qilgan Texas advokati misolida ko'rish mumkin; qamoqdan chiqarilgan qamoqdagi mijozi sud xarajatlarini to'lashda muammolarga duch kelganligi sababli, advokat Texas shtati qonun chiqaruvchisini nohaq qamalgan mahbuslar uchun davlatning to'lovini yiliga 50 000 dollardan yiliga 80 000 dollarga ko'tarish uchun lobbichilik qildi; bu muvaffaqiyatga erishdi va yangi ozod qilingan mijoziga advokatlik to'lovlarini to'lash imkoniyatini yaratdi.[66]
Yaxshi aloqador lobbistlar Vashingtonda yillar davomida ishlaydi, muammolarni biladi, yuqori malakali advokatlardir,[67] Kongress a'zolari, nazorat organlari, mutaxassislar va boshqalar bilan yaqin aloqalarni rivojlantirdilar. Ular strategiyani tushunishadi va mukammal muloqot qobiliyatlariga ega; ko'pchilik qaysi mijozlarni namoyish qilishni xohlashlarini tanlashga qodir.[67] Lobbiistlar ko'p yillar davomida ishonchni kuchaytirish va ishonch va do'stlikni saqlashga intilib, qudratli odamlarning tarmoqlarini rivojlantiradilar. Mijoz ularni muayyan masalani yoki kun tartibini surish uchun yollaganida, ular odatda siyosiy bosim o'tkazish uchun koalitsiyalar tuzadilar.[12] Lobbi, natijada, yangi imkoniyatlarga moslashuvchan bo'lishga, shu bilan birga mijoz uchun agent sifatida harakat qilishga bog'liq. Bir lobbist aytganidek:
Uyushma yoki mijozim manfaatlarini ilgari surish mening vazifam. Davr. - lobbist tomonidan izoh[67]
Kirish juda muhim va ko'pincha qonun chiqaruvchi bilan yakkama-yakka uchrashuvni anglatadi.[68] Ba'zan kirish qiyin bo'lishi mumkin, ammo turli xil yo'llar mavjud: elektron pochta xabarlari, shaxsiy maktublar, telefon qo'ng'iroqlari, yuzma-yuz uchrashuvlar, ovqatlanish, uchrashuvlar va hattoki Kapitoliy binosida kongressmenlarni ta'qib qilish:
Mening lobbichilik uslubim katta rasmiy uchrashuvlar o'tkazish emas, balki uy va ofis binolari o'rtasida yurish paytida a'zolarni tezda ushlashdir. - kirish huquqini sharhlovchi lobbist[67]
Kirish qiyin bo'lganda, qonun chiqaruvchini o'rab turgan devorlarni yiqitish usullari mavjud. Jek Abramoff tushuntirdi:
Lobbichilikda kirish juda muhimdir. Agar eshigingizga kira olmasangiz, o'zingizning ishingizni qilolmaysiz. Bu erda bizda dushman bo'lgan senator bor edi, uning xodimlari dushman edi va biz unga kirishimiz kerak edi. Demak, lobbi xavfsiz-kraker usuli: mablag 'yig'ish, pul yig'ish va katta donor bo'lish. - lobbist Jek Abramoff 2011 yilda[69]
Lobbiistlar ko'pincha kongress vakillariga yordam berishadi kampaniyani moliyalashtirish[67] mablag 'yig'ish, PAClarni yig'ish orqali,[39][49] va boshqa mijozlardan xayriya mablag'larini qidirish. Ko'pgina lobbistlar kampaniya xazinachisi va kongressmenlar uchun mablag 'yig'uvchilarga aylanishadi. Bu amaldagi a'zolarga qayta tanlov takliflari uchun mablag 'yig'ish uchun zarur bo'lgan katta vaqtni engishga yordam beradi; taxminlarga ko'ra, kongressmenlar ish vaqtining uchdan bir qismini mablag 'yig'ish ishlariga sarflashlari kerak edi.[49] PAC-larni o'rnatish juda oson; bunga advokat va taxminan 300 dollar kerak.[12] Xayriyat evaziga ishlatilishi mumkin bo'lgan yanada balandroq mukofot lobbist sifatida yuqori maoshli ishning jozibasi; Jek Abramoffning so'zlariga ko'ra, "xohlagan narsasiga erishish" ning eng yaxshi usullaridan biri, kongressning yuqori lavozimli yordamchisiga, ular davlat lavozimidan ketishga qaror qilganlaridan keyin yuqori maoshli ish taklif qilish edi.[70] Kelajakda ishga joylashish haqidagi bunday va'da qabul qilinganda, Abramoffning so'zlariga ko'ra, "biz ularga egalik qildik".[70] Bu lobbichilik firmasiga xodim yoki yordamchidan o'tib, ushbu kongress vakiliga ta'sir ko'rsatishga yordam berdi. Shu bilan birga, tashqi kuzatuvchilar uchun ma'lum bir qaror, masalan, sobiq xodimni lobbichilik lavozimiga yollash kabi, o'tgan ba'zi siyosiy qarorlar uchun mukofot sifatida qabul qilinganligi haqida bahslashish qiyin, chunki xodimlar ko'pincha qimmatbaho aloqalar va zarur bo'lgan siyosiy tajribaga ega firmalarning lobbi faoliyati bilan.[71] Tadqiqotchi iqtisodchi Mirko Drakaning ta'kidlashicha, xodimlarni yollash lobbichilik firmasi uchun kelajakda eski xo'jayinlari - kongress vakillarini chalg'itishga urinish uchun ideal usuldir.[71]
Lobbiistlar, bir nechta manbalarga ko'ra, aniq, to'g'ri va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aloqalarga intilishadi.[67] Lobbist bilan yakkama-yakka uchrashuvda, bu qanday maqsad istalganini aniq tushunishga yordam beradi.[12] Lobbiist qonun loyihasi bo'yicha harakat qilishni xohlaydi; qonun chiqaruvchi qayta saylanishni xohlaydi.[68] Maqsad qonun chiqaruvchini lobbiist xohlagan narsa yaxshi davlat siyosati ekanligiga ishontirishdir.[41] Lobbiistlar ko'pincha qonunchilarni boshqa qonunchilarni qonun loyihasini ma'qullashga ishontirishga urinishlarini talab qilishadi.[68]
Hali ham ishontirish - bu nozik biznes, mohirona teginishni talab qiladi va beparvolik bumerangga olib kelishi mumkin.[41] Jamiyat bilan aloqalarni tiklashning bir misolida, Kassidi firmasining senatorga qaratilgan lobbichilik tashabbusi Robert C. Berd Kassidi-Berd aloqasi nashr etilganida portladi Vashington Post; buning natijasida g'azablangan Berd o'zining Kassidiy tarafdori bo'lgan pozitsiyasini qaytarib olib, 18 million dollarlik inshootga nisbatan "teatr teatrida g'azab" uyushtirdi.[72] Byrd "loyihalarni yaratish uchun juda katta pul yig'adigan va ularni o'zlarining mijozlari manfaati uchun ... ajratish qonun hujjatlarida belgilab qo'yadigan lobbistlarni" qoraladi.[72]
Lobbi sohasidagi aloqalar tarmog'ini yaratish ko'pincha ko'p vaqt talab etishi sababli, axloqiy shaxslararo muomalalar muhim ahamiyatga ega. Lobbiistlar ishontirmoqchi bo'lgan odamlar bilan rostgo'y bo'lishlari bu sohadagi eng yuqori darajadir; lobbistlardan biri buni quyidagicha ta'riflagan: "sizda asosan sizning so'zingiz va obro'ingiz bor".[67] Haqiqiy bo'lmagan, yolg'on uzoq muddatli munosabatlarning muvaffaqiyatli rivojlanishi uchun juda xavflidir va potentsial daromad xavfga loyiq emas.[67] Hisobotlarning birida kamar ostidagi taktikalar umuman ishlamasligi tavsiya qilingan.[12] Bitta ma'lumotga ko'ra, raqiblarga qarshi "shaxsiy axloqsizlik" bilan kurashish samarasiz bo'lgan, chunki bu lobbist va ularning mijozlariga bo'lgan hurmatni susaytiradi.[12] Va teskari mantiq bo'yicha, agar rost yoki raqib yoki qarshi lobbi tomonidan yolg'on gapirilsa, uni e'lon qilish mantiqan.[12] Ammo lobbistlar orasida umumiy kod shundaki, asossiz da'volar yomon ishdir.[12] Bundan ham yomoni, raqibning lageriga informatorni ekishdir, chunki agar bu hiyla-nayrang aniqlansa, u yuz jihatdan salbiy ravishda bumerangga aylanadi va ishonch nolga tushadi.[12] Lobbichilikda shaxsiy munosabatlarning ahamiyatini holatidan ko'rish mumkin Illinoys ota-o'g'il aloqalari aqlli tarmoq energetikasini to'lashga yordam berdi, ammo favoritizmda ayblovlar mavjud edi.[73] Va qonunchilikka foydali ta'sir ko'rsatishga intilayotgan ishbilarmon firma qaysi lobbiistni yollashiga alohida e'tibor qaratishi kerakligi haqida bejirim dalillar mavjud.[74]
Qonunchilikka ta'sir o'tkazishga urinayotgan lobbistlar uchun strategik mulohazalar "kuch bazasini topish" yoki ushbu siyosatni qo'llab-quvvatlashga mantiqan moyil bo'lgan saylov okrugini o'z ichiga oladi.[68] Vaqtni belgilash, shuningdek, ma'lum bir harakatni qachon taklif qilishni bilish va kerakli harakatlar ketma-ketligini katta ko'rinishga ega bo'lish ma'nosida muhimdir.[41] Strategik lobbichilik lobbi yondashuviga turli guruhlarning mumkin bo'lgan javoblarini baholashga harakat qiladi; bir tadqiqotda "boshqa manfaatlardan qarshilikni kutish" lobbi qanday ishlashi kerakligini aniqlashga yordam beradigan asosiy omil ekanligi taxmin qilingan.[40]
Borgan sari, lobbistlar koalitsiyalarni yig'ishga va ulardan foydalanishga intilishadi tashqi lobbi jamoatchilik fikrini chayqash orqali.[41] Kattaroq, xilma-xil va chuqur cho'ntakdagi koalitsiyalar tashqi lobbichilikda samaraliroq bo'lib, ko'pincha "sonlar kuchi" printsipi qo'llaniladi.[75] Qiziqish guruhlari "o'xshash maqsadlarga erishish yo'lida bir-biriga o'xshash joylashgan alohida tashkilotlarning barqaror koalitsiyalarini" tuzishga harakat qilishadi.[13] Bir tadqiqotga ko'ra, lobbist uchun Kongressdagi xodimga bevosita ta'sir qilish qiyin kechadi, chunki xodimlar yaxshi ma'lumotga ega va raqobatdosh manfaatlar nuqtai nazariga bo'ysunadilar. Bilvosita taktika sifatida lobbistlar manipulyatsiya qilishga urinishlari mumkin jamoatchilik fikri o'z navbatida, ba'zida kongress vakillariga bosim o'tkazishi mumkin.[67] Ushbu maqsadlarga qaratilgan tadbirlar orasida ommaviy axborot vositalaridan foydalanishga urinish, muxbirlar va tahrirlovchilar bilan aloqalarni rivojlantirish, ularni tahririyat yozishga undash va jamoatchilik fikriga ta'sir o'tkazish uchun hikoyalarni yoritishga undash kiradi, bu Kongressga ta'sir o'tkazishning ikkinchi darajali samarasini berishi mumkin.[67] Tahlilchi Ken Kollmanning so'zlariga ko'ra, jamoatchilik fikrini chalg'itish Kongress xodimiga qaraganda osonroq, chunki jamoatchilikni "yarim haqiqatlar, buzilishlar, qo'rqitish taktikalari va noto'g'ri ma'lumotlar" bilan bombardimon qilish mumkin.[67] Kollman ikkita maqsad bo'lishi kerakligini ta'kidlamoqda: (1) siyosatchilarga masala ortida jamoatchilik ko'magi borligini etkazish va (2) saylovchilar o'rtasida ushbu masalani jamoatchilik tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlashni kuchaytirish.[41] Kollman tashqi lobbichilik manfaatlar guruhi rahbarlari uchun "kuchli vosita" ekanligini ta'kidladi.[41] Bir ma'noda ushbu mezonlardan foydalanib, o'ylab ko'rish mumkin Jeyms Medison bilan shug'ullangan kabi tashqi lobbi, chunki Konstitutsiya taklif qilinganidan so'ng, u 85 ta gazeta tahririyatining ko'pchiligini odamlar Konstitutsiyani qo'llab-quvvatlashi uchun bahslashdi va keyinchalik bu yozuvlar Federalist hujjatlar.[9] Ushbu "lobbichilik" sa'y-harakatlari natijasida Konstitutsiya ratifikatsiya qilindi, garchi shtatlarning to'rtta qonun chiqaruvchisida g'alaba chekkalari kam bo'lgan. Bugungi kunda lobbichilik, odatda Kongress qonun chiqaruvchilariga telefon qo'ng'iroqlari, xatlar, elektron pochta xabarlarini yuborish maqsadli blitslaridan foydalangan holda muvofiqlashtirilgan kampaniyani olib borishni talab qiladi. Milliy savdo markazi, avtobus karvonlari va shunga o'xshash narsalarni tez-tez turli xil qiziqish guruhlari rahbarlarini muvofiqlashtiruvchi lobbistlar birlashtirib, umidvor bo'lgan sodda tushunarli va ishonarli xabar ortida birlashish uchun.[41]
Lobbistlar uchun lobbi xatti-harakatlarini tartibga soluvchi qoidalarga rioya qilish muhimdir. Bu qiyin va murakkab bo'lishi mumkin, o'rganish uchun vaqt talab etiladi, to'liq oshkor qilishni talab qiladi,[67] va xatolar lobbistni jiddiy huquqiy muammolarga olib kelishi mumkin.
Kongress vakillari va ishchilari uchun sovg'alar muammoli bo'lishi mumkin, chunki har qanday katta ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan narsalar oshkor etilishi kerak va odatda bunday sovg'alar noqonuniy hisoblanadi.[70] Sovg'a cheklovlariga rioya qilmaslik lobbichilikka sabab bo'lgan omillardan biri edi Jek Abramoff to eventually plead guilty to a "raft of federal corruption charges" and led to convictions for 20 lobbyists and public officials, including congressperson Bob Ney va Bush deputy interior secretary Stephen Griles.[70] Generally gifts to congresspersons or their staffs or federal officials are not allowed, but with a few exceptions: books are permitted, provided that the inside cover is inscribed with the congressperson's name and the name of one's organization.[12] Gifts under $5 are allowed.[12] Another exception is awards, so it is permitted to give a congressperson a plaque thanking him or her for support on a given issue.[12] Cash gifts payable by check can only be made to campaign committees, not to a candidate personally or to his or her staff; it is not permitted to give cash or stock.[12]
Wealthy lobbyists often encourage other lobbying clients to donate to a particular cause, in the hope that favors will be returned at a later date. Lobbist Jerald Kessidi encouraged other clients to give for causes dear to a particular client engaged in a current lobbying effort.[72] Some lobbyists give their own money: Cassidy reportedly donated a million dollars on one project, according to one report, which noted that Cassidy's firm received "many times that much in fees from their clients" paid in monthly retainers.[72] And their clients, in turn, had received "hundreds of millions in earmarked appropriations" and benefits worth "hundreds of millions more".[72]
The dynamics of the lobbying world make it fairly easy for a semi-skilled operator to defraud a client. This is essentially what happened in the Jek Abramoff hindlarning lobbichilik mojarosi. There was a concerned client—in this case, an Hindiston kazino —worried about possible ill-effects of legislation on its gambling business; and there were lobbyists such as Jek Abramoff who knew how to exploit these fears. The lobbyists actively lobbied qarshi their own casino-client as a way to ratchet up their fears of adverse legislation as well as stoke possible future contributions; the lobbyists committed other violations such as grossly overbilling their clients as well as violating rules about giving gifts to congresspersons. Numerous persons went to jail after the scandal. The following are factors which can make fraud a fairly easy-to-do activity: that lobbyists are paid only to try to influence decision-makers, and may or may not succeed, making it hard to tell if a lobbyist did actual work;[67] that much of what happens regarding interpersonal relations is obscure despite rather strict disclosure and transparency requirements; that there are sizable monies involved—factors such as these almost guarantee that there will be future scandals involving fraudulent lobbying activity, according to one assessment. A fraud similar to Abramoff's was perpetrated in Merilend by lobbyist Gerard E. Evans, who was convicted of mail and wire fraud in 2000 in a case involving falsely creating a "fictitious legislative threat" against a client, and then billing the client to work against this supposed threat.[76]
Lobbyists routinely monitor how congressional officials vote, sometimes checking the past voting records of congresspersons.[12] One report suggested that reforms requiring "publicly recorded committee votes" led to more information about how congresspersons voted, but instead of becoming a valuable resource for the news media or voters, the information helped lobbyists monitor congressional voting patterns.[77] As a general rule, lawmakers must vote as a particular interest group wishes them to vote, or risk losing support.[12]
Strategy usually dictates targeting specific office holders. On the state level, one study suggested that much of the lobbying activity targeted the offices of governors as well as state-level executive bureaucrats; state lobbying was an "intensely personal game" with face-to-face contact being required for important decisions.[78]
Lobbying can be a counteractive response to the lobbying efforts of others. One study suggested this was particularly true for battles surrounding possible decisions by the Oliy sud which is considered as a "battleground for public policy" in which differing groups try to "etch their policy preferences into law".[29] Sometimes there are lobbying efforts to slow or derail other legislative processes; masalan, qachon FDA began considering a cheaper generic version of the costly anti-clotting drug Lovenoks, the French pharmaceutical firm Sanofi "sprang into action to try and slow the process."[79] Lobbyists are often assembled in anticipation of a potential takeover bid, particularly when there are large high-profile companies, or a large foreign company involved, and substantial concern that the takeover may be blocked by regulatory authorities.[53]
An example may illustrate. Shirkat Tyco had learned that there had been discussion about a possible new tax provision that might have cost it $4 billion overall.[69] So the firm hired Jack Abramoff and paid him a retainer of $100,000 a month.[69] He assembled dozens of lobbyists with connections to key congressional committees with the ultimate objective being to influence powerful Senator Charlz Grassli.[69] Abramoff began with a fundraising effort to round up "every check" possible.[69] He sought funds from his other lobbying clients:
I had my clients understand that just as other clients who had nothing to do with them, would step up and give contributions to congressmen they needed to have some sway with, so similarly they needed to do the same. I went to every client I could, and rounded up every check we could for him.
— Lobbist Jek Abramoff 2011 yilda[69]
Lobbyists as educators and advisors
 | Ushbu bo'limda quyidagi so'zlar mavjud sub'ektiv tarzda mavzuni targ'ib qiladi haqiqiy ma'lumotlarni tarqatmasdan. (2013 yil yanvar) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) |
Since government has grown increasingly complex, having to deal with new technologies, the task of writing rules has become more complex. "Government has grown so complex that it is a virtual certainty that more than one agency would be affected by any piece of legislation," according to one view.[12] Lobbyists, therefore, spend considerable time learning the ins and outs of issues, and can use their expertise to educate lawmakers[80] and help them cope with difficult issues.[13] Lobbyists' knowledge has been considered to be an intellectual subsidy for lawmakers.[80][81] Some lobbyists become specialists with expertise in a particular set of issues, although one study suggested that of two competing criteria for lobbyists—expertise or access—that access was far more important.[39][82][83]
Lobbi guruhlari and their members sometimes also write legislation and qamchi bills, and in these instances, it is helpful to have lawyers skilled in writing legislation to assist with these efforts.[12] It is often necessary to research relevant laws and issues beforehand.[1] In many instances lobbyists write the actual text of the proposed law, and hire lawyers to "get the language down pat"—an omission in wording or an unclear phrase may open up a loophole for opponents to wrangle over for years.[12] And lobbyists can often advise a lawmaker on how to navigate the approval process.[80]
Lobbying firms can serve as mentors and guides. For example, after months of protesting by the Uol-Stritni egallab oling, one lobbying firm prepared a memo to its clients warning that Republicans may "turn on big banks, at least in public" which may have the effect of "altering the political ground for years to come."[84] Here are parts of the memo which were broadcast on the MSNBC tarmoq.
Leading Democratic party strategists have begun to openly discuss the benefits of embracing the growing and increasingly organized Occupy Wall Street (OWS) movement ... This would mean more than just short-term discomfort for Wall Street firms. If vilifying the leading companies of this sector is allowed to become an unchallenged centerpiece of a coordinated Democratic campaign, it has the potential to have very long-lasting political, policy and financial impacts on the companies in the center of the bullseye. ... the bigger concern should be that Republicans will no longer defend Wall Street companies...
— Clark, Lytle, Geduldig, Cranford, law/lobbying firm, to a Wall Street client[84]
A growing billion dollar business
| Mijoz | Amount Spent | % | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Moliya, sug'urta va ko'chmas mulk | $4,274,060,331 | 15% |
| 2 | Sog'liqni saqlash | $4,222,427,808 | 15% |
| 3 | Misc Business | $4,149,842,571 | 14% |
| 4 | Communications/Electronics | $3,497,881,399 | 12% |
| 5 | Energy & Natural Resources | $3,104,104,518 | 11% |
| 6 | Transport | $2,245,118,222 | 8% |
| 7 | Boshqalar | $2,207,772,363 | 7% |
| 8 | Ideological/Single-Issue | $1,477,294,241 | 5% |
| 9 | Agrobiznes | $1,280,824,983 | 4% |
| 10 | Mudofaa | $1,216,469,173 | 4% |
| 11 | Qurilish | $480,363,108 | 2% |
| 12 | Mehnat | $427,355,408 | 1% |
| 13 | Lawyers & Lobbyists themselves | $336,170,306 | 1% |
| Jami | $28,919,684,431 | 99%[87] | |
| Note: Amounts do emas o'z ichiga oladi kampaniyadagi hissalar.[88][89] |
Since the 1970s, there has been explosive growth in the lobbying industry, particularly in Vashington. By 2011, one estimate of overall lobbying spending nationally was $30+ billion dollars.[89] An estimate of lobbying expenses in the federal arena was $3.5 billion in 2010, while it had been only $1.4 billion in 1998.[50] And there is prodigious data since firms are required to disclose lobbying expenditures on a quarterly basis.
The industry, however, is not immune to economic downturns. If Congress is gridlocked, such as during the summer and early fall of 2011, lobbying activity dipped considerably, according to Washington Post.[90] Lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan firma Patton Boggs reported drops in revenue during that year, from $12 million in 2010 to $11 million in 2011.[90] To cope with the downturn, some law firms compensated by increasing activity in litigation, regulatory work, and representing clients in congressional investigations.[90]
A sea-change in government, such as a shift in control of the legislature from one political party to the other, can affect the lobbying business profoundly. For example, the primarily Democratic-serving lobbying firm Cassidy & Associates learned that control of Congress would change hands from Democrats to Republicans in 1994, and the firm acquired Republican lobbyists before the congressional handover of power, and the move helped the lobbying firm stay on top of the new political realities.[91]
Examples of lobbying
There are numerous examples of lobbying activity reported by the media. One report chronicled a somewhat unusual alliance of consumer advocates and industry groups to boost funding for the Oziq-ovqat va dori-darmonlarni boshqarish; the general pattern of lobbying efforts had been to try to reduce the regulatory oversight of such an agency. In this case, however, lobbying groups wanted the federal watchdog agency to have tougher policing authority to avert expensive problems when oversight was lax; in this case, industry and consumer groups were in harmony, and lobbyists were able to persuade officials that higher FDA budgets were in the public interest.[92] Religious consortiums, according to one report, have engaged in a $400 million lobbying effort on such issues as the relation between church and state, civil rights for religious minorities, bioethics issues including abortion and capital punishment and end-of-life issues, and family issues.[93]
Lobbying as a career
While national-level lobbyists working in Washington have the highest salaries, many lobbyists operating at the state level can earn substantial salaries. The table shows the top lobbyists in one state—Merilend —in 2011.
| Lobbist | Daromad |
|---|---|
| Gerard E. Evans | $1,232,000 |
| Timothy A. Perry | $1,217,793 |
| Joel D. Rozner | $1,215,161 |
| Robin F. Shaivitz | $1,156,368 |
| Gregory S. Proctor Jr. | $1,107,144 |
| John R. Stierhoff | $1,059,766 |
| Michael V. Johansen | $1,050,234 |
| Nicholas G. Manis | $1,016,250 |
| D. Robert Enten | $863,193 |
| Lisa Harris Jones | $857,000 |
| Manba: State Ethics komissiya[94] |
Top power-brokers such as Jerald Kessidi have made fortunes from lobbying:
Cassidy's reaction to his own wealth has been complicated. He lives large, riding around town in his chauffeured car, spending thousands on custom-made clothes, investing big money in, for example, the Charlie Palmer Steak restaurant at the foot of Capitol Hill just for the fun of it. He has fashioned a wine cellar of more than 7,000 bottles. He loves to go to England and live like a gentleman of the kind his Irish antecedents would have considered an anathema.
Effectiveness of lobbying
The general consensus view is that lobbying generally works overall in achieving sought-after results for clients, particularly since it has become so prevalent with substantial and growing budgets, although there are dissenting views. A study by the investment-research firm Strategas which was cited in Iqtisodchi va Vashington Post compared the 50 firms that spent the most on lobbying relative to their assets, and compared their financial performance against that of the S&P 500 in the stock market; the study concluded that spending on lobbying was a "spectacular investment" yielding "blistering" returns comparable to a high-flying hedge fund, even despite the financial downturn of the past few years.[74] 2009 yilgi tadqiqot Kanzas universiteti professor Raquel Meyer Alexander suggested that lobbying brought a substantial investitsiyalarning rentabelligi.[95] 2011 yil meta-tahlil of previous research findings found a positive correlation between corporate political activity and firm performance.[96] There are numerous reports that the Milliy miltiq uyushmasi or NRA successfully influenced 45 senators to block a proposed rule to regulate assault weapons, despite strong public support for gun control.[97][98] The NRA spends heavily to influence gun policy; it gives $3 million annually to the re-election campaigns of congresspersons directly, and gives additional money to PACs and others to influence legislation indirectly, according to the BBC 2016 yilda.[99]
There is widespread agreement that a key ingredient in effective lobbying is pul.[100] This view is shared by players in the lobbying industry.
Deep pockets speak; the money trumps it all.
— Anonymous lobbyist, 2002[67]
Still, effectiveness can vary depending on the situational context. One view is that large multiple-issue lobbies tend to be effective in getting results for their clients if they are sophisticated, managed by a legislative director familiar with the art of compromise, and play "political hardball".[12] But if such lobbies became too big, such as large industrial trade organizations, they became harder to control, often leading to lackluster results.[12] A study in 2001 which compared lobbying activity in US-style congressional against European-style parliamentary systems, found that in congressional systems there was an advantage favoring the "agenda-setters", but that in both systems, "lobbying has a marked effect on policies".[101] One report suggested that the 1,000 registered lobbyists in Kaliforniya were highly influential such that they were called the Uchinchi uy.[102]
Studies of lobbying by academics in previous decades painted a picture of lobbying being an ineffectual activity, although many of these studies were done before lobbying became prevalent in American politics. A study in 1963 by Bauer, Pool, & Dexter suggested lobbyists were mostly "impotent" in exerting influence.[41] Studies in the early 1990s suggested that lobbying exerted influence only "marginally", although it suggested that when lobbying activity did achieve political impacts, that the results of the political choices were sufficient to justify the expenditure on lobbying.[41] A fairly recent study in 2009 is that Washington lobbies are "far less influential than political rhetoric suggests", and that most lobbying campaigns do not change any views and that there was a strong entrenchment of the joriy vaziyat.[31] But it depends on what is seen as "effective", since many lobbying battles result in a stalemate, since powerful interests battle, and in many cases, merely keeping the "status quo" could be seen as a victory of sorts. What happens often is that varying coalitions find themselves in "diametrical opposition to each other" and that stalemates result.[13][103]
There is anecdotal evidence from numerous newspaper accounts of different groups battling that lobbying activity usually achieves results. Masalan, Obama administration pledged to stop for-profit colleges from "luring students with false promises", but with this threat, the lobbying industry sprang into action with a $16 million campaign, and their efforts succeeded in watering down the proposed restrictions.[104] How did the lobbying campaign succeed? Actions taken included:
- spent $16 million[104]
- hired "all-star list" of prominent players including Democrats and Republicans with White House ties[104]
- plotted strategy[104]
- worked with "fund-raising bundler" Jamie Rubin, a former Obama communications director[104]
- won support from influential people including congressperson-turned-lobbyist Dik Gefardt, senator-turned-lobbyist Jon Breaux, lobbist Toni Podesta, Washington Post CEO Donald E. Grem, education entrepreneur and Feniks universiteti asoschisi Jon Sperling, boshqalar[104]
- key leaders made "impassioned appeals"[104]
- mobilization effort produced 90,000 public documents to the Education department advocating against changes[104]
And sometimes merely keeping the joriy vaziyat could be seen as a victory. When gridlock led to the supposed supercommittee solution, numerous lobbyists from all parts of the political spectrum worked hard, and a stalemate resulted, but with each side defended their own special interests.[105] And while money is an important variable, it is one among many variables, and there have been instances in which huge sums have been spent on lobbying only to have the result backfire. One report suggested that the communications firm AT & T failed to achieve substantial results from its lobbying efforts in 2011, since government antitrust officials rejected its plan to acquire rival T-Mobile.[106]
Lobbying is a practical necessity for firms that "live and die" by government decisions, such as large government contractors such as Boeing. A study done in 2006 by Bloomberg yangiliklari suggested that lobbying was a "sound money-making strategy" for the 20 largest federal contractors. The largest contractor, Lockheed Martin Corporation, received almost $40 billion in federal contracts in 2003–4, and spent $16 million on lobbying expenses and campaign donations.[74] For each dollar of lobbying investment, the firm received $2,517 in revenues, according to the report.[74] When the lobbying firm Cassidy & Associates began achieving results with earmarks for colleges and universities and medical centers, new lobbying firms rose to compete with them to win "earmarks of their own", a clear sign that the lobbying was exceedingly effective.[49]
Lobbying controversies
Lobbying has been the subject of much debate and discussion. There is general consensus that lobbying has been a significant corrupting influence in American politics, although criticism is not universal, and there have been arguments put forward to suggest that the system is working properly.
Unfavorable image
Generally the image of lobbyists and lobbying in the jamoat sohasi is not a positive one, although this is not a universal sentiment. Lobbyists have been described as a "hired gun" without principles or positions.[67] Scandals involving lobbying have helped taint the image of the profession, such as ones involving lobbyist Jek Abramoff, and congressmen Rendi "Dyuk" Kanningem va Bob Ney and others, and which featured words such as "bribery", "lobbyist", "member of Congress" and "prison" tending to appear together in the same articles.[9][108] Negative publicity can sully lobbying's image to a great extent: high-profile cases of lobbying fraud such as Abramoff's;[9] dubious father-son exchange-of-favors ties;[73] public officials such as Nyut Gingrich being accused and then denying accusations of having done lobbying and earning $1.6 million from "strategic advice".[109] There are a variety of reasons why lobbying has acquired a negative image in public consciousness. While there is much disclosure, much of it happens in hard-to-disclose personal meetings, and the resulting secrecy and confidentiality can serve to lower lobbying's status.[12]
Aylanadigan eshik
Since the 1980s, congresspersons and staffers have been "going downtown"—becoming lobbyists—and the big draw is money.[110] The "lucrative world of K Street" means that former congresspersons with even "modest seniority" can move into jobs paying $1 million or more annually, without including bonuses for bringing in new clients.[110] The general concern of this revolving-door activity is that elected officials—persons who were supposed to represent the interests of citizens[111]—have instead become entangled with the big-money interests of for-profit corporations and interest groups with narrow concerns, and that public officials have been taken over by private interests.[77]
2005 yil iyul oyida, Davlat fuqarosi published a report entitled "The Journey from Congress to K ko'chasi ": the report analyzed hundreds of lobbyist registration documents filed in compliance with the Lobbying Disclosure Act va Chet el agentlarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazish to'g'risidagi qonun among other sources. It found that since 1998, 43 percent of the 198 members of Congress who left government to join private life have registered to lobby. A similar report from the Ta'sirchan siyosat markazi found 370 former members were in the "influence-peddling business", with 285 officially registered as federal lobbyists, and 85 others who were described as providing "strategic advice" or "public relations" to corporate clients.[110] Washington Post described these results as reflecting the "sea change that has occurred in lawmakers' attitudes toward lobbying in recent years." The report included a amaliy tadqiq of one particularly successful lobbyist, Bob Livingston, who stepped down as Saylangan ma'ruzachi and resigned his seat in 1999. In the six years since his resignation, Livingston guruhi grew into the 12th largest non-law lobbying firm, earning nearly $40 million by the end of 2004. During roughly the same time period, Livingston, his wife, and his two siyosiy harakatlar qo'mitalari (PACs) contributed over $500,000 to the campaign funds of various candidates.
Numerous reports chronicle the qaytib eshik hodisa.[67] A 2011 estimate suggested that nearly 5,400 former congressional staffers had become federal lobbyists over a ten-year period, and 400 lawmakers made a similar jump.[71] It is a "symbiotic relationship" in the sense that lobbying firms can exploit the "experience and connections gleaned from working inside the legislative process", and lawmakers find a "ready pool of experienced talent."[71] There is movement in the other direction as well: one report found that 605 former lobbyists had taken jobs working for lawmakers over a ten-year period.[71] Tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqotlar London iqtisodiyot maktabi found 1,113 lobbyists who had formerly worked in lawmakers' offices.[71] The lobbying option is a way for staffers and lawmakers to "cash in on their experience", according to one view.[49] Before the 1980s, staffers and aides worked many years for congresspersons, sometimes decades, and tended to stay in their jobs; now, with the lure of higher-paying lobbying jobs, many would quit their posts after a few years at most to "go downtown."[49]
And it is not just staffers, but lawmakers as well, including high-profile ones such as congressperson Richard Gefardt. He represented a "working-class" district in Missuri for many years but after leaving Congress, he became a lobbyist.[110] In 2007, he began his own lobbying firm called "Gephardt Government Affairs Group" and in 2010 it was earning close to $7 million in revenues with clients including Goldman Sachs, Boeing, Visa Inc., Ameren korporatsiyasi va Chiqindilarni boshqarish Inc..[110] Senatorlar Robert Bennet va Bayron Dorgan became lobbyists too.[112] Missisipi gubernatori Xeyli Barbur became a lobbyist.[113] In 2010, former representative Billi Tauzin earned $11 million running the drug industry's lobbying organization, called Amerika farmatsevtika tadqiqotlari va ishlab chiqaruvchilari (PhRMA).[110] His bill to provide prescription drug access to Medicare recipients gave major concessions to the pharmaceutical industry: (1)Medicare was prevented from negotiating lower costs for prescription drugs (2) the reimportation of drugs from first world countries was not allowed (3) Medicare D was undermined by a policy of Medigap D. After the bill passed a few months later, Tauzin retired from Congress and took an executive position at PhRMA to earn an annual salary of $2 million.[114] Many former representatives earned over $1 million in one year, including Jeyms Grinvud va Daniel Glikman.[110]
Insider's game
A similar concern voiced by critics of lobbying is that Washington politics has become dominated by elites, and that it is an "insider's game" excluding regular citizens[67] and which favors entrenched firms.[115] Individuals generally can not afford to lobby, and critics question whether corporations with "deeper pockets" should have greater power than regular persons.[1] In this view, the system favors the rich, such that the "rich have gotten richer, the weak weaker", admits lobbyist Jerald Kessidi.[49] There is concern that those having more money and better political connections can exert more influence than others.[1] However, analyst Barry Hessenius made a case that the excessive for-profit lobbying could be counteracted if there were more efforts to increase nonprofit lobbying and boost their effectiveness.[13][67] There is so much money that it has been described as a "flood" that has a "corrupting influence",[50] so that the United States appears to be "awash" in interest groups.[9] If coalitions of different forces battle in the political arena for favorable treatment and better rules and tax breaks, it can be seen as fair if both sides have equal resources and try to fight for their interests as best they can.[53][116] Gerald Cassidy said:
In a lot of areas, the stakes are between big companies, and it's hard to argue that one solution is better than another solution with regard to the consumer's interest ... The issue ... is whether Company A's solution, or Company B's solution, based on their technology or their footprint, is the right one.
— Lobbyist Gerald Cassidy[49]
A related but slightly different criticism is that the problem with lobbying as it exists today is that it creates an "inequity of access to the decision-making process".[13] As a result, important needs get left out of the political evaluation, such that there are no anti-hunger lobbies or lobbies seeking serious solutions to the problem of poverty.[49] Nonprofit advocacy has been "conspicuously absent" from lobbying efforts, according to one view.[13] Critics suggest that when a powerful coalition battles a less powerful one, or one which is poorly connected or underfunded, the result may be seen as unfair and potentially harmful for the entire society. The increasing number of former lawmakers becoming lobbyists has led Senator Rass Feingold (D-WI) to propose[qachon? ] paring back the many Kapitoliy tepaligi privileges enjoyed by former senators and representatives. His plan[iqtibos kerak ] would deprive lawmakers-turned-lobbyists of privileges such as unfettered access to otherwise "members only" areas such as the House and Senate floors and the House gym.
Choice-making problems
A concern among many critics is that influence peddling hurts overall decision making, according to this criticism. Proposals with merit are dropped in favor of proposals backed by political expediency.[13] An example cited in the media is the recent battling between food industry lobbyists and healthcare lobbyists regarding school lunches. A group supported by the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Qishloq xo'jaligi vazirligi proposed healthier lunches as a way to combat bolalarda semirish by limiting the number of potatoes served, limiting salty foods, and adding more fresh vegetables, but this group was countered by a strong food lobby backed by Coca Cola, Del Monte, and makers of frozen pizza.[117] The food lobbyists succeeded in blocking the proposed reforms, even writing rules suggesting that the tomat pastasi a pizza qualified as a sabzavot,[50] but overall, according to critics, this case appeared to be an example where business interests won out over health concerns.[117] Critics use examples such as these to suggest that lobbying distorts sound governance.[117] Tomonidan o'rganish XVF economists found that the "heaviest lobbying came from lenders making riskier loans and expanding their mortgage business most rapidly during the housing boom," and that there were indications that heavy-lobbying lenders were more likely to receive bailout funds.[115][118][119] The study found a correlation between lobbying by financial institutions and excessive risk-taking during 2000–2007, and the authors concluded that "politically active lenders played a role in accumulation of risks and thus contributed to the financial crisis".[119] Another study suggested that governments tend to protect domestic industries, and have a habit of shunting monies to ailing sectors; the study suggested that "it is not that government policy picks losers, it is that losers pick government policy."[120] One critic suggested that the financial industry has successfully blocked attempts at regulation in the aftermath of the 2008 financial collapse.[121]
Governmental focus
Critics have contended that when lawmakers are drawn into battles to determine issues such as the composition over school lunches or how much an ATM fee should be,[122] more serious issues such as defitsitni kamaytirish yoki Global isish yoki ijtimoiy Havfsizlik beparvo qilingan[50][77] It leads to legislative inertia.[123] The concern is that the preoccupation with what are seen as superficial issues prevents attention to long-term problems. Critics suggested that the 2011 Congress spent more time discussing per-transaction debit-card fees while neglecting issues seen as more pressing.[77][124]
Methodological problems
In this line of reasoning, critics contend that lobbying, in and of itself, is not the sole problem, but only one aspect of a larger problem with American governance. Critics point to an interplay of factors: citizens being uninvolved politically;[67] congresspersons needing huge sums of money for expensive television advertising campaigns; increased complexity in terms of technologies; congresspersons spending three days of every week raising money;[124] va hokazo. Given these temptations, lobbying came along as a logical response to meet the needs of congresspersons seeking campaign funds and staffers seeking personal enrichment. In a sense, in competitive politics, the umumiy manfaat gets lost:
I know what my client wants; no one knows what the common good is.
— Anonymous lobbyist[67]
A lobbyist can identify a client's needs. But it is hard for a single individual to say what is best for the whole group. The intent of the Constitution's Framers was to have built-in constitutional protections to protect the common good, but according to these critics, these protections do not seem to be working well:
The structure of representative government, elected by the people, was to be our system's built-in protection of the whole of us—fairly elected officeholders were to represent their constituent groups, free from any obligations to special interests. Unfortunately, money has corrupted the system and compromised both the fairness of the electoral process as well as the independence and impartiality of elected officials.
— Barry Hessenius in Hardball Lobbying for Nonprofits, 2007[13]
Lourens Lessig, professor Garvard yuridik fakulteti va muallifi Respublika, Yo'qotilgan, suggested that the moneyed persuasive power of special interests has insinuated itself between the people and the lawmakers.[125][126][127] U iqtibos keltirdi Kongress vakili Jim Kuper who remarked that Congress had become a "Farm League for K Street" in the sense that congresspersons were focused on lucrative lobbying careers after Congress rather than on serving the public interest while in office.[128] In a speech, Lessig suggested the structure of incentives was such that legislators were tempted to propose unnecessary regulations as a way to further lobbying industry activity.[129] According to one view, major legislation such as proposed Wall Street reforms have spurred demand for "participating in the regulatory process."[90] Lessig suggested the possibility that it was not corporations deciding to take up lobbying, but Congress choosing to debate less-than-important issues to bring well-heeled corporations into the political fray as lobbyists. As a result of his concerns, Lessig has called on state governments to summon a Ikkinchi konstitutsiyaviy konventsiya to propose substantive reform.[127] Lessig believes that a constitutional amendment should be written to limit political contributions from non-citizens, including corporations, anonymous organizations, and foreign nationals.[130]
Our current tax system with all its complexities is in part designed to make it easier for candidates, in particular congressmen, to raise money to get back to congress ... All sorts of special exceptions which expire after a limited period of time are just a reason to pick up the phone and call somebody and say 'Your exception is about to expire, here’s a good reason for you to help us fight to get it to extend.' Va bu ularga pul talon-taroj qilishning bir turi bo'lgan amaliyotni amalga oshirish imkoniyatini beradi - xususiy sektordagi pul daraxtlarini o'zlarining saylov kassalariga silkitib, ular yana kongressga qatnashishlari uchun.
— Lourens Lessig, 2011[123]
Kabi olimlar Richard Labunski, Sanford Levinson, Glenn Reynolds,[131] Larri Sabato,[132] as well as newspaper columnist Uilyam Safire,[133] and activists such as John Booth of RestoringFreedom.org have called for constitutional changes that would curb the powerful role of money in politics.[128]
Expansion of lobbying
Law in the United States is generally made by Kongress, but as the federal government has expanded during much of the twentieth century, there are a sizeable number of federal agencies, generally under the control of the Prezident. These agencies write often industry-specific rules and regulations regarding such things as automobile safety and air quality.[132] Unlike elected congresspersons who are constantly seeking campaign funds, these appointed officials are harder to influence, generally. However, there are indications that lobbyists seek to expand their influence from the halls of Congress deeper into the federal bureaucracy.[80][134]
President Obama pledged during the election campaign to rein in lobbying. As president in January 2009, he signed two ijro buyruqlari va uchta prezidentlik memorandumlari[135] to help ensure his administration would be more open, transparent, and accountable. These documents attempted to bring increased accountability to federal spending and limit the influence of special interests, and included a lobbyist gift ban and a revolving door ban. 2009 yil may oyida Recovery Act Lobbying Rules.[136] The Ijro etuvchi filialni isloh qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, H.R. 985, was a bill which would have required over 8,000 Executive Branch officials to report into a public database nearly any "significant contact" from any "private party." The purpose was to identify lobbying activity.[137] The bill was supported by proponents as an expansion of "government in the sunshine" including groups such as Davlat fuqarosi.[137]
But the proposals ran into serious opposition from various groups including the lobbying industry itself.[137] Opponents argued that the proposed reporting rules would have infringed on the right to petition, making it difficult not just for lobbyists, but for regular citizens to communicate their views on controversial issues without having their names and viewpoints entered into a hukumat ma'lumotlar bazasi.[138] Opposition groups suggested that although the proposed rules were promoted as a way to regulate "lobbyists," persons described as a "private party" could be practically anybody, and that anybody contacting a federal official might be deemed to be a "lobbyist". The AQSh Adliya vazirligi raised constitutional and other objections to the bill.[139] Opponents mobilized over 450 groups including the AQSh savdo palatasi va Milliy rieltorlar uyushmasi with letter writing campaigns against the proposed restrictions. Lobbyist Howard Marlowe argued in a "stern letter"[80] that the restriction on gift-giving to federal employees would create "fear of retribution for political donations":
Since your announcement to seek the Presidency you have consistently attacked the honorable profession of lobbying ... Lobbyists play an important role in the legislative process, serving as educators to elected officials. It is in the best interest to government to have informed individuals who serve as experts in every arena of public policy. Our ability to access and navigate the legislative process and push issues forward through a bureaucratic cluster is a vital service to the nation. The Draft Order would inhibit one of the most vital tools in the advocate's arsenal by creating fear of retribution for political donations. Making this kind of disclosure a part of the bidding process tarnishes a competition based on qualifications, adds an unneeded level of bureaucracy, and endangers the protection of free speech afforded to all Americans by the First Amendment of the Constitution...
In 2011, there were efforts to "shift regulatory power from the executive branch to Congress" by requiring that any "major rule" which may cost the economy more than $100 million must be decided by Congress with an up-or-down vote.[30] But skeptics think that such a move proposed by Republican lawmakers could "usher in a lobbying bonanza from industry and other special-interest groups" to use campaign contributions to reshape the regulatory milieu.[30]
Potential for reform
Critics suggest that Congress has the power to fix itself, but is reluctant to sacrifice money and power. One report suggested that those in control had an "unbroken record of finding ways to navigate around reform laws or turn regulatory standards to their own advantage."[77]
Arguments for lobbying
There are counterarguments that the system is working as it should, despite being rather messy. According to this line of argument, the Madisonian view of politics—in which factions were supposed to compete with other factions—is working exactly as it should. Competing factions, or in this case, competing interest groups, square off. Battling happens within the federal government, but instead of by settling arguments by elections, arguments are settled by powerful interest groups fighting each other, often financially.[1] And it might appear to members of groups which lost in a lobbying battle that the sabab for their loss was that the other side lobbied unfairly using more money.[1] There are numerous instances in which opposed lobbies stalemate, and instances in which these stalemates have been seen as a positive result. And sometimes powerful financial interests lose the battle.
Lobbi siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchilarga qimmatli ma'lumotlarni olib keladi, lobbichilik foydasiga yana bir dalilga ko'ra. Lobbiistlar ma'lum bir masalani ko'p yillar davomida chuqur o'rganish orqali yuqori darajada bilimga ega bo'lishganligi sababli, ular qonun chiqaruvchilarga xatolardan qochish hamda murakkab masalalarning nuanslarini tushunishga yordam berish uchun katta tajriba to'plashlari mumkin. Ushbu ma'lumotlar Kongressga tez-tez murakkab tarmoqlarni tartibga soluvchi va juda batafsil va aniq qarorlarni chiqaradigan ko'plab federal agentliklarni nazorat qilishda yordam berishi mumkin.[140] Shunga ko'ra, Kongress uchun ushbu agentliklar nima qilayotganini kuzatib borish qiyin.[140] Ta'kidlanishicha, lobbistlar Kongressga ushbu faoliyatni nazorat qilishda, ehtimol ma'muriy qarorlar to'g'risida "qizil bayroqlar" ko'tarish orqali yordam berishi mumkin.[140] Bundan tashqari, kongressmenlar taklif qilingan ma'muriy qaror to'g'risida qayerda turganlarini tezkorlik bilan aniqlay oladilar, shunchaki qaysi lobbichi guruhlar taklifni qo'llab-quvvatlayotganini va unga qarshi bo'lganlarini ko'rish orqali.[140]
Lobbichilikni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi yana bir dalil shundan iboratki, turli xil qiziqish guruhlari va lobbistlar koalitsiyalar tuzish va qo'llab-quvvatlashga intilish bilan birga, ko'pincha bu jarayonda o'z pozitsiyalarini o'zgartiradilar yoki yumshatadilar yoki o'zgartiradilar va manfaatdorlar guruhlari va lobbistlar bir-birlarini ma'lum ma'noda tartibga soladilar.[140]
Lobbi mexanizmini qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan umumiy fikr shundaki, har bir fuqaroni o'nlab maxsus manfaatlar "vakili" sifatida talqin qilish mumkin:[12]
Har bir fuqaro alohida qiziqishdir ... Qora tanlilar, iste'molchilar, o'qituvchilar, choicers, qurol nazorati bo'yicha advokatlar, nogironlar, chet elliklar, eksportchilar va sotuvchilar - bularning barchasi alohida qiziqishlar ... Bugungi kunda biron bir amerikalik yo'q, uning vakili bo'lmagan (u biladimi yoki yo'qmi) kamida o'nlab maxsus qiziqish guruhlari tomonidan. ... Biror kishining alohida qiziqishi - boshqa odamning despotizmidir ...
— Donald E. deKieffer, muallifi Lobbi bo'yicha Kongress uchun Fuqarolar uchun qo'llanma, 2007[12]
Agar neft sanoati kabi qudratli guruhlar hukumatda jangda g'alaba qozonishsa, gaz bilan ishlaydigan mashinalarni boshqaradigan iste'molchilar, bu fikrga ko'ra, ozgina foyda ko'rishlari mumkin. Hatto Vikipediya o'quvchilarini ham a deb tasavvur qilish mumkin edi alohida qiziqish va turli xil lobbilar tomonidan namoyish etilgan. Masalan, raqiblari Onlayn qaroqchilik to'g'risidagi qonunni to'xtatish qilmish Vikipediya kabi saytlarni cheklashi mumkinligiga ishongan; 2012 yil 18-yanvar kuni norozilik shakli sifatida va ingliz Vikipediyasining o'quvchilarini va ishtirokchilarini o'zlarining kongressdoshlarini yozishga undash usuli sifatida "onlayn entsiklopediya"qoraygan hukumatni lobbi qilish uchun qilingan harakatlar doirasida bir kunga.[141][142]
Lobbichilikni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi yana bir qarash - bu ekstremizmdan saqlanishda yordam beradigan foydali maqsadga xizmat qiladi.[12] Ushbu qarashga ko'ra, lobbichilik "ichki kechikishlar" va ruxsatnomalarni qo'shib, qarshi lobbilarni jang qilishga undaydi.[12] Jang paytida, ehtimol, zararli qarorlar va noto'g'ri qarorlar foydasiz ko'rinadigan kechikishlar va kutishlar bilan to'sqinlik qiladi.[12]
Biroz boshqacha qarash - lobbichilik boshqa kasblardan farq qilmaydi:
Lobbi qonun amaliyoti yoki tibbiyot amaliyotidan ko'ra mukammal emas.
— Lobbiist Jerald S. J. Kassidi, 2007 yil[49]
Normativ muhit
Axborotni oshkor qilish va ichki qoidalar
Odatda, Qo'shma Shtatlar lobbichilikni muntazam ravishda oshkor qilishni talab qiladi va bunday keng talablarga ega bo'lgan kam sonli mamlakatlardan biri bo'lishi mumkin.[39] Bir ma'noda oshkor qilish lobbistlar va davlat amaldorlariga o'z harakatlarini ochiqlik bayrog'i ostida va qonunlarning to'liq bajarilishi bilan oqlashlariga imkon beradi.[143] Qoidalarda ko'pincha lobbist ma'lum bir faoliyatga qancha pul sarflashi va xarajatlar to'g'risida qanday hisobot berilishi ko'rsatilgan; ko'plab qonunlar va ko'rsatmalar 1995 yil lobbichilikni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi qonun.[14] Shaffoflik va axborotni oshkor etish talablari shuni anglatadiki, har qanday tahlillar uchun - jurnalistlar, jamoatchilik va raqib lobbichilik harakatlari uchun statistik ma'lumotlarning hajmi mavjud.[144] Tadqiqotchilar lobbi xarajatlarini ko'plab nosozliklar, masalan, energetika kompaniyalari hissasi bo'yicha ajratishi mumkin.[144]
Ba'zan kim "lobbi" va aniq nima ekanligini aniq belgilab beradi lobbi faoliyati qiyin bo'lishi mumkin. Lobbichilikni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi qonunga ko'ra, bir nechta vakolatli ta'riflarga quyidagilar kiradi:
- Lobbi faoliyati "bu kabi aloqalarni qo'llab-quvvatlashga qaratilgan lobbichilik aloqalari va sa'y-harakatlar, shu jumladan tayyorgarlik va rejalashtirish faoliyati, tadqiqot va boshqa aloqalarni amalga oshirishda, aloqalarda foydalanish uchun va boshqalarning lobbi faoliyati bilan muvofiqlashtirish uchun mo'ljallangan ishlar".[39]
- Lobbi bo'yicha aloqa "yopiq ijro etuvchi hokimiyat mansabdor shaxsiga yoki qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyat organining mansabdor shaxsiga har qanday og'zaki yoki yozma muloqot (shu jumladan elektron aloqa") degan ma'noni anglatadi.[39]
Hali ham ajralib turadi lobbistlar dan strategik maslahatchi qiyin bo'lishi mumkin, chunki har birining vazifalari ko'pincha bir-biri bilan qoplanishi mumkin va ularni aniq belgilash qiyin.[110] A o'rtasidagi farq nimani anglatishi haqida muammolar ko'tarildi lobbist va a qadoqlovchi; bitta hisobot tasvirlangan paketlar "o'z saylovoldi kampaniyasiga o'z pullarini qo'shadigan va uni boshqalardan so'raydigan tarafdorlar" sifatida va bunday odamlar haqiqatan ham shundaymi degan savol tug'ildi. lobbistlar saylovi uchun pul mablag'larini jalb qilish bilan bog'liq Barak Obama va Obamaning lobbistlardan pul olmaslik to'g'risidagi va'dasini buzganligi.[145] Lobbichilikning qonuniy jihatlari, shuningdek, tomonlari bilan chambarchas bog'liq kampaniyani moliyalashtirishni isloh qilish, lobbistlar ko'pincha kongressmenlarni qayta saylash harakatlari uchun xayr-ehson izlashga vaqt ajratishadi; ushbu masalalarni saralash axloqiy muammolarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin.[67]
Lobbi bilan shug'ullanishni tartibga soluvchi ko'plab qoidalar mavjud, ko'pincha shaffoflik va oshkor qilishni talab qiladi.[14] Lobbi uchun pul to'lagan odamlar qonun chiqaruvchiga birinchi marta murojaat qilganidan keyin 45 kun ichida yoki ishga joylashtirilganidan keyin 45 kun ichida Senat kotibi va Vakillar Palatasi kotibi oldida ro'yxatdan o'tishlari kerak.[12][14] Istisno shundaki, har bir moliyaviy chorak uchun har bir mijoz uchun 3000 dollardan kam daromad oladigan yoki lobbi uchun harajatlar har chorakda 11500 dollardan kam bo'lgan lobbistlar ro'yxatdan o'tishlari shart emas.[14] Yarim kunlik lobbistlar, agar har qanday chorakda lobbi faoliyati bilan shug'ullanadigan ish vaqtining 20 foizidan ko'prog'ini sarf qilmasa, ro'yxatdan o'tishdan ozod qilinadi. Agar lobbistlar lobbist sifatida qonun chiqaruvchi bilan ikki yoki undan ortiq aloqada bo'lsa, ular ro'yxatdan o'tishlari kerak.[12][14] Ro'yxatdan o'tishga qo'yiladigan talablar lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan yoki ichki lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan kompaniyalarga ham tegishli, ayniqsa ular lobbi uchun 11,500 dollardan ko'proq mablag 'sarf qilsalar.[14] Odatda cherkovlardan tashqari notijorat tashkilotlari, agar ular tashqi lobbi firmasini yollasa, ro'yxatdan o'tishdan ozod qilinadi.[14] Hujjatlar har chorakda tuzilishi kerak va lobbistning har bir mijozi uchun alohida fayl kerak bo'lib, unda mijozning ismi va lavozimi, lobbi xarajatlari smetasi va lobbistning daromadni hisoblagandan so'ng erishgan daromadlari kabi ma'lumotlar bo'lishi kerak. lobbichilik.[14]
Shtatlar, qo'shimcha ravishda, lobbichilik faoliyatiga oid ma'lumotlarni oshkoralik va oshkoralik yo'nalishida harakat qilmoqdalar. Kaliforniya deb nomlangan onlayn ma'lumotlar bazasiga ega Cal-Access garchi u kam mablag 'bilan ta'minlanganligi haqida xabarlar bo'lgan.[146][147] Ro'yxatdan o'tish yig'imlaridan yig'ilgan pul ko'pincha Cal-Access kabi ma'lumotlarni oshkor qilish xizmatlari uchun to'lanadi.[148] Shikoyat bor edi Illinoys oshkor qilish talablari ko'pincha etarlicha qat'iy bo'lmaganligi va lobbistlarga "jamoatchilik e'tiborisiz" va mumkin bo'lgan "manfaatlar to'qnashuvi" bilan ishlashga imkon berganligi.[143] Ko'pgina mahalliy munitsipalitetlar qonun chiqaruvchi agentlardan lobbi sifatida ro'yxatdan o'tishni talab qilmoqdalar, masalan, Kolumbus va Sinsinnati kabi Ogayo shtatining belanchak shtatida, mahalliy shahar kengashi a'zolariga mijozlar manfaatlarini himoya qilish.[iqtibos kerak ]
Oshkor etishni talab qiladigan qonunlar yigirmanchi asrda ko'proq tarqalgan. 1946 yilda lobbiistlar nima bilan shug'ullanganliklari, kimning nomidan va qancha pul olganliklarini oshkor qilishni talab qiladigan "quyosh qonuni" mavjud edi.[12][149] Natijada 1946 yildagi lobbichilikni federal tartibga solish to'g'risidagi qonun lobbichilik qoidalarini 1995 yilgacha lobbichilikni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi qonun o'zgartirgandan keyin boshqargan.[12] Federal saylov kampaniyasi to'g'risidagi 1971 yilgi qonun, keyinchalik 2002 yilda o'zgartirilgan Makkeyn Fingold to'g'risidagi qonun, saylovoldi tashviqotini tartibga soluvchi qoidalarga ega edi.[12] Kongressning har bir filialida ham qoidalar mavjud.[12] Qonunchilik, odatda, katta xarajatlarni hisobga olgan holda hisobotlarni hamda ta'sir ko'rsatgan qonunchilikni talab qiladi; tegishli qonunlarning bir nechtasini matnida topish mumkin 2 AQSh ch. 26.[150]
Lobbi qonuni - doimiy rivojlanib boradigan sohadir; The Amerika advokatlar assotsiatsiyasi 2009 yilda 800 sahifadan ko'proq qo'llanma kitobini nashr etdi.[151] Qonunlar ko'pincha aniqroq bo'lib, ularga rioya qilmaslik jiddiy muammolarga olib kelishi mumkin.[72] Har chorakda hisobotni topshirmaslik yoki bila turib noto'g'ri hisobotni tuzish yoki noto'g'ri hisobotni tuzatmaslik 200 ming dollargacha jarima solishga va besh yilgacha ozodlikdan mahrum qilishga olib kelishi mumkin.[14] Jazolar qonun chiqaruvchiga qilingan sovg'alarni ro'yxatiga kiritmagan lobbistlarga nisbatan qo'llanilishi mumkin.[14][72] Boshqa vaziyatlarda jazo yengil bo'lishi mumkin: masalan, Kongressning lobbi tarafdori Fraser Verrusio mijozini uyiga olib borishda aybini tan olganidan keyin bir necha soat qamoqda o'tirdi. Jahon seriyasi beysbol o'yini va bu haqda xabar bermaslik.[152] Soliq qoidalari lobbichilikda qo'llanilishi mumkin. Bir vaziyatda, xayriya Gavayi oilaviy forumi lobbi faoliyati bilan shug'ullanganidan keyin soliqdan ozod qilingan maqomini yo'qotish xavfi; federal soliq qonunchiligi, masalan, lobbi faoliyatini umumiy xarajatlarining 20 foizigacha cheklashi yoki boshqa yo'llar bilan foyda olish uchun mo'ljallangan korporatsiya singari soliqqa tortilishi mumkinligi kabi xayriya tashkilotlarini talab qiladi.[153]
Lobbiistlar ba'zida oshkoralik va oshkoralikni talab qiladigan qoidalarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydilar:
Bizning kasbimiz Kongress tomonidan olib borilayotgan konstruktiv o'zgarishlar va islohotlarni qabul qilishimiz yoki bo'shliqlarni qidirib topishimiz va ilon moyi sotuvchilari qatorida tarixga siljishni davom ettirishimiz mumkin bo'lgan juda muhim nuqtada.
— Lobbiist Jerald S. J. Kassidi, 2007 yil[49]
Skandallar ham tartibga solishga turtki berishi mumkin. The Jek Abramoff hindlarning lobbichilik mojarosi 1990-yillarda boshlanib, 2006 yilda aybdor deb topilishiga olib kelgan, 2006 yildagi qonunchilik shaffofligi va hisobdorligi to'g'risidagi qonunga ilhom bergan (S. 2349 ). Ga binoan Time jurnali Senat qonun loyihasi:
- lobbistlarning o'zlariga qonun chiqaruvchilarga sovg'alar va ovqat sotib olishlarini taqiqlab qo'ydilar, ammo o'sha lobbistlar vakili bo'lgan firmalar va tashkilotlar sovg'alar va imtiyozlarni hal qilishlari mumkin bo'lgan bo'shliqni qoldirdilar;
- agar qonun chiqaruvchilar buyurtma qilingan axloq qo'mitasi tomonidan oldindan tasdiqlangan bo'lsa, xususiy mablag 'bilan sayohat qilishga ruxsat berish;
- lobbistlardan tez-tez va batafsil faoliyat to'g'risidagi hisobotlarni taqdim etishni va ularni ommaviy ravishda e'lon qilishni talab qildi. Qonun loyihasi 2006 yilda 90–8 ovoz bilan ma'qullangan.
1995 yilda, 104-Kongress dan o'tib, lobbichilikni isloh qilishga urindi 1995 yil lobbichilikni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi qonun bu o'z harakatlari uchun kompensatsiya qilingan lobbistlarni aniqlaydi va Kongress rasmiylarida ro'yxatdan o'tishni talab qiladi. Keyinchalik qonun hujjatlariga o'zgartishlar kiritildi Lobbichilikni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi 1998 yildagi texnik o'zgartirishlar to'g'risidagi qonun. Keyinchalik 2007 yilda "Halol etakchilik va Ochiq hukumat to'g'risida" gi qonunga olib keladigan o'zgartirishlar mavjud.[39] The 2006 yil lobbichilikning shaffofligi va hisobdorligi to'g'risidagi qonun (HR 4975 ) ba'zi senatorlar va yaxshi hukumat guruhlari koalitsiyasi qonun loyihasini juda zaif deb baholagan bo'lsa-da, qonunchilik Senat qoidalarini o'zgartirdi.[154] The Halol etakchilik va ochiq hukumat to'g'risidagi qonun 2007 yil keng qamrovli edi axloq qoidalari va islohotlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi, (HR 2316 ), 2007 yilda o'tgan Uy va Kongress ko'pchilik ovoz bilan.[155] Qonunchilikning Senatning parallel versiyasi, (S. 1 ), 2007 yilda deyarli bir ovozdan qabul qilingan.[156] Vakillar va Senat o'zaro kelishmovchiliklarni hal qilib, tuzatilgan qayta ko'rib chiqilgandan so'ng, Prezident Bush kiritilgan qonun loyihasini imzoladi (Pub.L. 110-81 (matn) (pdf) ).
Ba'zi shtatlar davlat xizmatchilariga o'zlari ishlagan masalalar bo'yicha lobbichilik qilishni doimiy ravishda taqiqlashni ko'rib chiqdilar. Masalan, tuman xodimlarining kirib kelishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun ushbu yo'nalish bo'yicha taklif bor edi Merilend har doim o'zlari ishlagan masalalar bo'yicha lobbichilik qilishdan. Ushbu taklif tuman mutasaddilari moliyaviy ma'lumotni e'lon qilishlari va shuningdek, pudratchilar tomonidan sovg'alarni taqiqlashlari kerakligini ta'kidladilar.[37]
Qamoqdan chiqqan Jek Abramoff lobbi haqida ko'p gapirgan. Uning fikriga ko'ra, lobbichilikning haddan tashqari jabhasini ushlab turish uchun ishlab chiqilgan me'yoriy hujjatlar samara bermadi va islohotlar va qoidalar tizimni "umuman" tozalamadi. Abramoff lobbistlar "Kongress tomonidan qabul qilingan har qanday islohot atrofida yo'l topa olishlarini" aytib, ularga misol keltirdilar:
Siz kongressmenni tushlikka 25 dollarga olib borib, unga gamburger yoki biftek yoki shunga o'xshash narsalarni sotib ololmaysiz ... Ammo siz uni mablag 'yig'adigan tushlikka olib borib, nafaqat o'sha biftekni sotib olmaysiz, balki unga 25000 dollar qo'shimcha berishingiz mumkin. va uni mablag 'yig'uvchi deb atang - va shu kongressmen bilan bir xil kirish huquqiga ega bo'ling.
Shunga o'xshash nuqtai nazar, islohotlarni amalga oshirishga qaratilgan harakatlarni "uning o'tishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik uchun tish-tirnog'iga qarshi kurashgan" degan fikrni ilgari surdi, chunki islohotlarga qodir odamlar o'zlarining vakolatlarini va daromadlarini qisqartiradilar.[13]
Xorijiy lobbi
Dunyo bo'ylab tijorat yanada integratsiyalashganligi sababli, shtab-kvartirasi bir mamlakatda joylashgan va boshqa ko'plab mamlakatlarda tobora ko'proq biznes olib borilayotganligi sababli, lobbichilik harakatlari tobora ortib borayotganligini aks ettiradi deb kutish mantiqan to'g'ri globallashuv. Ba'zan chet elga tegishli korporatsiyalar Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari hukumatini lobbi qilishni xohlashadi va bunday holatlarda yangi qoidalar qo'llanilishi mumkin, chunki bu muammoni hal qilish juda qiyin bo'lishi mumkin. milliy xavfsizlik manfaatlar xavf ostida va ularga qanday ta'sir qilishi mumkin.
1938 yilda Chet el agentlarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazish to'g'risidagi qonun[157] har qanday chet el direktori nomidan lobbist tomonidan olib boriladigan barcha siyosiy faoliyatlarning aniq ro'yxatini talab qildi.[12] Chet el sub'ektlari va Amerika tamoyillariga qarshi potentsial qadriyatlarni ifodalovchi firmalarning lobbi faoliyati to'g'risida jiddiy xavotirlar mavjud edi Eksa kuchi davomida agitprop Amerika tuproqlariga ekilgan Ikkinchi jahon urushi[158] jamoatchilik bilan aloqalar mutaxassisi Ayvi Lining ishonchli vakili tomonidan "German Dye Trust ".[159] Natijada, 1938 yilda Chet el agentlarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazish to'g'risidagi qonun yoki FARA Kongress tomonidan qabul qilingan va ushbu qonun chet el lobbistlaridan o'zlarining shartnomalari to'g'risidagi ma'lumotlarni Adliya vazirligi bilan bo'lishishini talab qilgan.[160] FARA vakolati siyosatchilarga jamoatchilik fikri, siyosati va qonunchiligiga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan ma'lumot manbalarini ochib berishdan iborat edi.[161] Biroq, maqsad lobbistning nutqini yoki lobbichilikning mazmunini cheklash emas edi.[162] Shunga qaramay, FARAda ro'yxatdan o'tishlari kerak bo'lgan chet el lobbistlarining yarmidan kamrog'i buni qilgan deb taxmin qilingan.[159]
1960 yillarga kelib, FARA ijro etilishidagi muvaffaqiyatsizliklar lobbichilikning haddan tashqari ko'payishiga qarshi jamoatchilikning noroziligiga olib keldi, chet el poraxo'rliklari haqidagi ma'lumotlar 70-yillarning boshlarida muntazam ravishda tarqaldi.[163] Ushbu qonunchilik chet el firmalarining avtonomiyalarini qisqartirishni taklif qildi, ularning aksariyati konstitutsiyaga mos kelmasligi xavotiri tufayli ratifikatsiya qilinmadi.[163] Vakillar palatasi bir qoidani qabul qilar ekan[164] chet el lobbi faoliyati ustidan jamoatchilik nazoratini kuchaytirish uchun taxminlarga ko'ra, lobbistlarning taxminan 75 foizi ro'yxatdan o'tish talabidan, shu jumladan chet el manfaatlarini himoya qiluvchi shaxslardan ozod qilingan.[165]
Umumiy tendentsiya shundan iboratki, xorijiy kompaniyalar vakili lobbistlar soni ko'paymoqda.[167] Vashington ishi APCO Worldwide, diktaturasini ifodalovchi firma General Sani Abacha 1995 yilda Nigeriyaning demokratiyasi tarafdori bo'lgan to'qqiz nafar faolni osib o'ldirganligi salbiy tanqidga sabab bo'ldi.[160] Amaldagi qonunchilikda xorijiy davlatlarning federal, shtat yoki mahalliy saylovlarga o'z hissasini qo'shishi taqiqlangan bo'lsa-da, bo'shliqlar chet el korporatsiyalarining Amerikadagi sho'ba korxonalariga "deb nomlangan" tashkilotlar tuzishga imkon beradi. ajratilgan ajratilgan mablag'lar yoki pul yig'ish uchun SSF-lar.[168] Bir qarashga ko'ra, qaysi firmalar "begona" deb ta'riflanganligi aniq emas edi va aniqlikning yo'qligi ularning faoliyatini tartibga solish qobiliyatiga putur etkazadi. Xorijiy davlatlar tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan lobbichilik harakatlariga quyidagilar kiradi Isroil, Saudiya Arabistoni, kurka, Misr, Pokiston, Liviya va Xitoy lobbilar. 2010 yilda xorijiy hukumatlar lobbi ishlariga taxminan 460 million dollar sarfladilar Kongress va AQSh hukumati.[169] 2015 yildan 2017 yilgacha Saudiya Arabistoni 18 million dollar to'lagan ro'yxatdan o'tganlarning 145tagacha lobbistlar AQSh hukumatiga ta'sir o'tkazish.[170]
Kongress mahalliy lobbi faoliyati to'g'risidagi qonunchilikni yangilash orqali mahalliy lobbichilik firmalariga qarshi tanqidlarni bostirishga harakat qildi - masalan, Lobbiistlarni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi qonun 1997 yilda)[171]- xorijiy lobbichilikni tartibga solishda bo'shliqlarni tuzatishda uning harakatsizligi janjallarga sabab bo'lganligi haqida xabar berilgan edi.[171] 2010 yil boshida AQShning xorijiy kompaniyalariga qarashli sho'ba kompaniyalarining saylov kampaniyasi xarajatlarini cheklash bo'yicha Demokratik harakatlariga qarshi lobbichilik kuchaygani haqida xabar berilgan edi.[172] Taklif etilayotgan narsa, AQShning xorijiy firmalarning sho'ba korxonalari tomonidan lobbichilik faoliyatini cheklash edi.[172] 2011 yilda Xitoy firmasi Alibaba AQSh firmasini sotib olishni o'ylay boshlagach, Vashingtondagi lobbi firmasini yolladi Yahoo!.[53] "Favqulodda" deb ta'riflangan lobbichilik harakati Eronning chekka oppozitsiyasi guruhining nomini terroristik tashkilotdan xayrixoh tashkilotga o'zgartirishga harakat qilgan holatlar bo'lgan.[173] Belgilanishni pasaytirmoqchi bo'lgan lobbistlar tashqi aloqalar bo'yicha nufuzli rasmiylarni, shu jumladan sobiq xizmatchilarni yolladilar Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi sobiq direktorlar Federal qidiruv byurosi tayinlash o'zgarishini himoya qilish uchun direktor va boshqalar.[173] Ammo xorijiy xalqlar manfaatlarini qonunga xilof ravishda lobbi qilishda ayblanganlar ham bo'lgan[174] yoki chet el agenti sifatida ro'yxatdan o'tolmaganlar[175] natijada kim qamoq jazosiga duch kelishi mumkin.
Shuningdek qarang
- Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Savdo palatasi
- Qo'shma Shtatlardagi lobbichilik tarixi
- Siyosiy harakatlar qo'mitasi
- Milliy miltiq uyushmasi
- Qo'shma Shtatlarning ikkinchi konstitutsiyaviy konvensiyasi
- AARP (ilgari Amerika nafaqaxo'rlar uyushmasi)
- Halol etakchilik va ochiq hukumat to'g'risidagi qonun 2007 yil
- Qo'shma Shtatlardagi Isroil lobbisi
- Amerika Isroil jamoatchilik bilan aloqalar qo'mitasi
- Qo'shma Shtatlardagi diasporalar siyosati
- Xitoy lobbi
- AQShdagi turk lobbisi
- Qo'shma Shtatlardagi Liviya lobbisi
- Saudiya Arabistoni Qo'shma Shtatlardagi lobbi
- Qazilma yoqilg'ilar lobbi
- Florida CPA instituti
- Albaniya Amerika fuqarolik ligasi
- Amerika avtomobil assotsiatsiyasi
- Ta'sirchan siyosat markazi
- Qo'shma Shtatlardagi arab lobbisi
- Jek Abramoff hindlarning lobbichilik mojarosi
- Jerri Lyuis - Lower lobbichilik firmasining ziddiyatlari
- 1995 yil lobbichilikni oshkor qilish to'g'risidagi qonun
- Pul aylanishi
- Onalar mast holda transport vositasini boshqarishga qarshi
- Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari va Harriss
- NARFE (Milliy faol va nafaqaga chiqqan federal xodimlar)
Adabiyotlar
- ^ a b v d e f g h Demang Media kompaniyasining Evangeline Marzec (2012 yil 14-yanvar). "Korporativ lobbi nima?". Chron.com. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Robert Reyx, 2015 yil 9-iyun, Salon jurnali, Robert Reyx: Lobbi tarafdorlari bizning demokratiyamizni buzmoqdalar, bir vaqtning o'zida bitta qonuniy pora, 2017 yil 30-mayda olingan: "... Ushbu ikkinchi janjal juda qonuniy, ammo bu tobora kuchayib borayotgan xavf ... lobbichilikdan olingan moliyaviy mukofotlar qo'ziqorinlarga aylandi, chunki yirik korporatsiyalar va ulkan Uoll-Strit banklari o'zlarining o'yinlarini o'zlariga jalb qilish uchun boyliklarini tashladilar. afzallik .... "
- ^ Mayk Masnik, 2012 yil 12 aprel, Tech Dirt, Lobbi poraxo'rlikka yaqinmi ... Yoki tovlamachilikmi?, 2017 yil 30-may kuni olingan,
- ^ Gilens, Martin; Sahifa, Benjamin I. (2014 yil 1-sentyabr). "Amerika siyosatining sinov nazariyalari: elita, qiziqish guruhlari va o'rtacha fuqarolar". Siyosatning istiqbollari. 12 (3): 564–581. doi:10.1017 / S1537592714001595. ISSN 1541-0986.
- ^ a b v d e f g Bred Plyumer (2011 yil 8-noyabr). "Korporativ lobbi - bu juda eksklyuziv klub". Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Li Fang, 2014 yil 10 mart, Millat, Barcha lobbistlar qayerda ketishdi? Qog'ozda ta'sirchan savdo-sotiq qurib bormoqda. Ammo pulni lobbichilik qilish Vashingtonga, avvalgidek, kirib kelmoqda. Nima gaplar?, Kirish 21 mart 2014 yil
- ^ "Uoll-strit AQShdagi saylovlarni lobbichilik qilish uchun rekord darajada 2 milliard dollar sarfladi". Financial Times. 2017 yil 8 mart.
- ^ "Uoll-strit 2016 yilgi saylovlarga ta'sir o'tkazishga harakat qilib, 2 milliard dollar sarfladi". Baxt. 2017 yil 8 mart.
- ^ a b v d e Ronald J. Xrebenar; Bryson B. Morgan (2009). "Amerikadagi lobbichilik". ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-112-1. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
Maqolaning xv sahifasiga qarang
- ^ Jon Jozef Lalor (muharrir) (1890). "Siyosatshunoslik, siyosiy iqtisod ..." Charlz E. Merrill va Co. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
78-betga qarang
CS1 maint: qo'shimcha matn: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola) - ^ "Tarix".
- ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m n o p q r s t siz v w x y z aa ab ak reklama ae af ag ah ai aj Donald E. deKieffer (2007). "Lobbi bilan shug'ullanadigan fuqarolar uchun Kongress: qayta ko'rib chiqilgan va yangilangan". Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-55652-718-0. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
Ch.1 ga qarang
- ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m Barri Hessenius (2007). "Notijorat tashkilotlari uchun Hardball lobbi: yangi asrda notijorat tashkilotlari uchun haqiqiy targ'ibot". Palgrave Makmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8202-5. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e f g h men j k Media Magistr of Liza (2012 yil 14-yanvar). "Lobbichilik bo'yicha federal ko'rsatmalar". chron.com. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Donald H. Xayder (1974). "Hukumatlar Vashingtonga kelganda: gubernatorlar, merlar va hukumatlararo lobbi". Bepul matbuot. ISBN 0-02-913370-X. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Vashington vakillari (32 tahr.). Bethesda, MD: Columbia Books. Noyabr 2007. p. 949. ISBN 978-1-880873-55-7.
- ^ "Lobbichilik haqida qisqacha ma'lumot". Lobbi bo'yicha ma'lumotlar bazasi. Ta'sirchan siyosat markazi. Olingan 27 dekabr, 2019.
- ^ "Tramp Tayvan bilan suhbatdan keyin Xitoy bilan o'zaro kelishuv xavfini tug'diradi". CNN. 2016 yil 2-dekabr. Olingan 3 dekabr, 2016.
- ^ "Tramp Tayvan prezidenti bilan suhbatlashdi, bu AQShning Xitoyga nisbatan o'n yillik siyosatidagi katta tanaffus". Vashington Post.
- ^ JULIE XIRSFELD DAVIS va ERIK LIPTON, Nyu-York Tayms, 2016 yil 6-dekabr, Bob Doul Tramp-Tayvan qo'ng'irog'ida sahna ortida ishlagan, 2016 yil 7-dekabrda olindi, "... Tayvan hukumati uchun chet el agenti vazifasini bajaruvchi sobiq senator Bob Dul parda ortida ishlagan ... Tayvan rasmiylari va prezident Donald J. Trampning shtabi o'rtasida yuqori darajadagi aloqalarni o'rnatish uchun , ... o'tgan hafta janob Tramp va Tayvan prezidenti o'rtasida g'ayrioddiy telefon qo'ng'irog'i bilan yakunlandi ... "
- ^ Tim Dikkinson, 2018 yil 2-aprel, "Rolling Stone" jurnali, NRA-ga kirib borish va Trampni saylashga yordam berish bo'yicha o'n yillik Rossiya kampaniyasi ichida: Femme fatales, dabdabali Moskvadagi partiyalar va qora pullar - Rossiya qanday qilib milliy o'qchilar uyushmasi ishlagan, 2018 yil 11-aprelda olingan: "... Putin G'arbdagi millatchi muxolifat guruhlarini noqonuniy ravishda moliyalashtirish bo'yicha uzoq yillik tajribaga ega ... Kremlning NRA bilan aloqasi katta miqdordagi mablag'ni guruh xazinasiga quyish bilan yakunlandi ..."
- ^ Josh Delk, 2018 yil 17 mart, Tepalik, FEC 2016 yilda Rossiyaning noqonuniy xayriya mablag'larini qabul qilgan-qilmaganligini ko'rib chiqmoqda: hisobot, 2018 yil 11-aprelda olingan
- ^ 24-mart, 2018-yil, Piter Stoun va Greg Gordon tomonidan, Makklatchi hisoboti, NRA-da ishlagan yuristning aytishicha, guruhning Rossiya bilan aloqalari haqida xavotirlar bo'lgan, 2018 yil 11 aprelda olingan, "......"
- ^ "Tramp ma'muriyati bilan aloqasi bo'lgan tez rivojlanayotgan lobbi kompaniyalariga millionlar oqmoqda". USA Today. 2018 yil 18-may.
- ^ "Saudiya Arabistoni valiahd shahzodasining Oq uyga tashrifi Saudiya tarafdorlari lobbisiga oydinlik kiritmoqda". Al-Jazira. 2018 yil 20 mart.
- ^ "Lobbiistlar Kongressga katta yordam beradigan Saudiya ittifoqchilari uchun milliard dollarlik qurol-yarog '". IBTimes. 2017 yil 12-dekabr.
- ^ "Saudiyaliklar AQShning roziligini olish uchun eng yaxshi lobbichilarni yollaydilar". Bloomberg. 2018 yil 12 mart.
- ^ a b "Hedge Fund Group 3-chorakda bir million dollarlik lobbi ishlarini o'tkazdi". CBS News. Associated Press. 2011 yil 12-dekabr. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Liza A. Solovej; Pol M. Kollinz jr (iyul 2009). "AQSh Oliy sudida qarshi faol lobbichilik". Amerika siyosiy tadqiqotlari. 37 (4): 670–699. doi:10.1177 / 1532673X08328674. S2CID 6898262.
- ^ a b v Suzi Ximm (2011 yil 7-dekabr). "Regulyativ hokimiyatni Kongressga o'tkazish lobbi bonanzasini keltirib chiqaradimi?". Washington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Baumgartner, Berri, Xojnacki, Kimball, Lich (2009). "Lobbichilik va siyosatni o'zgartirish: kim yutadi, kim yutadi va nima uchun". Chikago universiteti matbuoti. Orqa qopqoq. ISBN 978-0-226-03946-6. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
Vashington lobbilarining siyosiy ritorika ko'rsatganidan ancha kam ta'siri bor.
CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola) - ^ Ben Pershing (2011 yil 16 aprel). "Xafagarchilik kuchayib borar ekan, D.C.ga yangi lobbi strategiyasi kerakmi?". Washington Post. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Sakramento asalari Stiven Magagnini (2011 yil 19-dekabr). "Kaliforniyalik odam AQShning Misrga yordamini to'xtatish uchun lobbichilikni olib boradi". Mayami Xerald. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Greg Toppo (2011 yil 30-dekabr). "DC maktablarining sobiq boshlig'i lobbichilik qilish, siyosatchilarga yordam berish bilan band". USA Today. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ MARTHA BRANNIGAN (2011 yil 28-dekabr). "Shahar meri Gimenez Tallaxassida lobbichilik bo'yicha yangi shartnomalarga veto qo'ydi: okrug komissiyasi xarajatlarni qisqartirish niyatida emasligini ta'kidlab, Mayami-Dade meri Karlos Gimenez lobbichilik firmalariga 450 ming dollar to'laydigan choraga veto qo'ydi".. Mayami Xerald. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Uilyam Mansell (2011 yil 18-avgust). "Floridadagi lobbichilik elektr stantsiyalari Sankt-Pet-Pit shahri uchun kurashadi". Qadimgi shimoli-sharqiy shahar markazidagi Sent-Pit yamog'i. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013 yil 31 yanvarda. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Alison Knezevich (2011 yil 2-noyabr). "Viloyat axloq qoidalari to'g'risidagi qonun lobbichilikni cheklaydi va majburiy tartibni qo'shadi". Baltimor Sun. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ TIM NOVAK (2011 yil 26 sentyabr). "Chikagodagi ettita sobiq aldermen endi shahar hokimligini lobbi qilmoqda". Chikago Sun-Times. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e f g h men Uilyam Kerr; Uilyam Linkoln; Prachi Mishra (2011 yil 22-noyabr). "Firma lobbisi dinamikasi". VOX. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Tomas T. Holyoke. "Jang maydonlarini tanlash: bir nechta joylar bo'yicha qiziqishlar guruhi lobbisi". Har chorakda siyosiy tadqiqotlar. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
2003 yil sentyabr. 56 yo'q. 3 325–336
- ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l Ken Kollman (1998). "Lobbi tashqarisida: jamoatchilik fikri va qiziqishlar guruhining strategiyalari". Prinston universiteti matbuoti. ISBN 0-691-01740-9. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
(Qarang: Kirish va Kirish)
- ^ Dan Eggen va T.V. Farnam (2011 yil 13-iyul). "Ta'sir sohasi: yaqinda sizning ekraningiz - lobbi kampaniyasi". Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Kia Kokalitcheva, 2016 yil 13-iyul, Fortune jurnali, Hukumat lobbistlari har qachongidan ham osonroq, 2016 yil 21-avgustda olingan
- ^ https://ballotpedia.org/Taxpayer-funded_lobbying
- ^ https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/taxpayer-funded-lobbying-drives-the-earmark-problem
- ^ https://www.pacificresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/TPFL_NoApp.pdf
- ^ "Murojaat qilish huquqi". Illinoysning birinchi o'zgartirish markazi. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013 yil 11 aprelda.
- ^ "O'LGAN QO'LLANILGAN LOTEREYA ODAMI.; CHARLES KARYERASI T. XOVARD, LUYZIANA KOMPANIYASI". The New York Times. 1885 yil 1-iyun. Olingan 3 dekabr, 2011.
- ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m n Robert G. Kaiser; Elis Crites (tadqiqot ishtirokchisi) (2007). "Qanday qilib lobbichilik Vashingtonning eng katta biznesiga aylandi - Katta pul yangi poytaxtni yaratadi. Lobbi jadal rivojlanar ekan, Vashington va siyosat o'zgaradi". Fuqaro K ko'chasi. Washington Post. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2008 yil 28 avgustda. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
- ^ a b v d e f Pol Xarris (2011 yil 19-noyabr). "'Amerika bundan ham yaxshiroq ': tepadagi falaj saylovchilarni o'zgarishlardan umidvor qiladi ". Guardian. London. Olingan 17 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d Ketrin Xo (2011 yil 25-dekabr). "Lobbi amaliyoti yuridik firmalarga ko'proq mustaqillik va advokat bo'lmaganlar uchun teng huquqlilikni ta'minlaydi". Washington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Ketrin Xo (2011 yil 14-dekabr). "Holland & Knightning lobbi guruhi an'anaviy soatlik hisob-kitoblarni amalga oshiradi". Washington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d BEN PROTESS (2011 yil 29 dekabr). "Alibaba lobbichilik firmasiga teging". The New York Times. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Salamon, Lester M va Jon J Zigfrid (1977), "Iqtisodiy kuch va siyosiy ta'sir: sanoat tuzilmasining davlat siyosatiga ta'siri", American Policy Science Review 71.
- ^ Magistrlar, Marik F va Gerald D Keym (1985), "Katta korporatsiyalar orasida PAC ishtirokining aniqlovchilari", Journal Journal of Politics 47.
- ^ Bombardini, Matilde (2008), "Firma bir xilligi va lobbi ishtiroki", Xalqaro iqtisodiyot jurnali 75
- ^ a b v d BEN PROTESS (2011 yil 1-avgust). "Uoll-strit lobbi ishlariga katta mablag 'sarflashni davom ettirmoqda". Nyu-York Tayms. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Jere R. Frensis (1987 yil bahor). "Tavsiya etilgan buxgalteriya standartlariga qarshi lobbichilik: ish beruvchilarning pensiya hisobi ishi". Buxgalteriya hisobi va davlat siyosati jurnali.
6-jild, 1-son, 35-57-betlar
- ^ xodimlar yozuvchisi (2011 yil 16-dekabr). "Amazon 3-choragida hukumatni lobbi qilishga 450 ming dollar sarfladi". Boston Globe. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013 yil 18-yanvarda. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Lynn Sweet (2011 yil 21-noyabr). "Chikagodagi" Boing "lobbichilikni, siyosiy mushaklarni burish bilan shug'ullanadi". Chikago Sun-Times. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2012 yil 18 mayda. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Renae Merle va Hamza Shaban, 2017 yil 19 sentyabr, Vashington Post, Buzilishdan oldin, Equifax sudga ta'sir qilishni cheklashga intildi, 2017 yil 20-sentabrda olingan: "... Equifax ... kompaniya iste'molchilar tomonidan sudga berilsa, qancha pul to'lashga majbur bo'lishini cheklash uchun qonunchilik bo'yicha Kongressni lobbi qildi ... qonun chiqaruvchilarni o'z regulyatorlarining vakolatlarini qaytarib olishga majbur qildi. ... Respublika vakili Barri Loudermilk ushbu taklif bo'yicha 7 sentyabr kuni bo'lib o'tgan tinglovda ... "
- ^ a b v d Kimberli Kindi, 2017 yil 30-may, Vashington Post, Kongress federal Internet-maxfiylik qoidalarini qanday bekor qildi, 2017 yil 30-may kuni olingan
- ^ "Qanday qilib ommaviy immigratsiya uchun chegaralarni ochish" chap qanot "g'oyasiga aylandi?". 2016 yil 11-fevral.
- ^ "Sizning Internet-provayderingiz lobbi uchun qancha pul sarflaydi?". Comparitech. Olingan 29 may, 2019.
- ^ "UFCW kasaba uyushmasi federal hukumatni lobbi qilish uchun 80 ming dollar sarfladi". CBS News. Associated Press. 2011 yil 27 dekabr. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ JOHN SHVARTZ (2011 yil 9-may). "Qamoqdan chiqarilgan mahbuslar advokatning lobbi to'lovlari bilan kurashmoqda". The New York Times. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m n o p q r s t siz Vudstok ilohiyot markazi (2002). "Lobbichilik axloqi: uyushgan manfaatlar, siyosiy hokimiyat va umumiy manfaat". Jorjtaun universiteti matbuoti. ISBN 0-8784-0905-X. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
("lobbichilik axloqi" bo'limining 1-sahifasiga qarang).
- ^ a b v d Willard C. Richan (2006). "Ijtimoiy o'zgarishlarni lobbichilik qilish: uchinchi nashr". Haworth Press. ISBN 9780865549937. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e f "Seshanba kuni podkast: Jek Abramoff lobbichilik to'g'risida". MILLIY RADIO. 2011 yil 20-dekabr. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e CNN Wire Staff (2011 yil 6-noyabr). "Abramoff: lobbichilik islohotlari" noto'g'ri "tizimni tuzatmadi". CNN. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 10-noyabrda. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e f T.V. Farnam (2011 yil 13 sentyabr). "Kongress, lobbichilik firmalari, o'quv ko'rgazmalari o'rtasida ish bilan ta'minlanadigan eshik". Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d e f g Robert G. Kaiser; Elis Crites (tadqiqot ishtirokchisi) (2007). "Qanday qilib lobbichilik Vashingtonning eng katta biznesiga aylandi - Katta pul yangi poytaxtni yaratadi. Lobbi jadal rivojlanar ekan, Vashington va siyosat o'zgaradi". Fuqaro K ko'chasi. Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
- ^ a b JOHN SULLIVAN, FREDRIK N. TULSKI va KRISTEN Makkuari (2012 yil 7-yanvar). "Davlat amaldorlari oilaning mijozlariga yordam berishdi". The New York Times. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v d Bred Plyumer (2011 yil 10 oktyabr). "Lobbichilikdan katta hajmdagi qaytish". Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
... Yuqori darajadagi lobbistni yollash ajoyib sarmoyaga o'xshaydi ...
- ^ Dara Olmsted (2011 yil 28 mart). "Suv yo'llarini lobbi qilish". Boston Globe. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.[doimiy o'lik havola ]
- ^ Jon Vagner (2012 yil 2-yanvar). "Evans Annapolisdagi lobbi sohasida eng yaxshi joyni qo'lga kiritdi". Washington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
... Evans sud qilindi ... u uydirma qonunchilik tahdidini uyg'otishda ayblanib, mijozlarni lobbichilik qilishda aybladi ...
- ^ a b v d e THOMAS B. EDSALL (2011 yil 14-dekabr). "Siyosiy islohotlarni millat saylovchilarining cho'ntagiga to'g'ri kiritish". The New York Times. Olingan 23 yanvar, 2012.
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jild 9 yo'q. 4-bet 429–455
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- ^ RICHARD L. XALL va ALAN V. DEARDORFF (2006). Qonunchilik subvensiyasi sifatida lobbichilik. Amerika siyosiy fanlari sharhi, 100, 69–84 betlar doi:10.1017 / S0003055406062010
- ^ Bertran, Marianne, Matilde Bombardini va Franchesko Trebbi (2011), "Siz kimni bilasizmi yoki nimani bilasiz? Lobbichilik jarayonining empirik bahosi", Britaniya Kolumbiyasi universiteti ish qog'ozi.
- ^ Blanes i Vidal, Xordi, Mirko Drakaz va Kristian Fons-Rozen (2011), "Aylanadigan eshik lobbistlari", London Iqtisodiyot maktabi ish qog'ozi.
- ^ a b Jeyson Cherkis (2011 yil 23-noyabr). "Uoll-strit mijozlariga bosqinchilik harakati to'g'risida maslahat berish uchun firma to'g'risida eslatma". Huffington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ "Lobbi bo'yicha ma'lumotlar bazasi". Ochiq sirlar. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 19 iyulda.
- ^ "Sektorlar reytingi". Ochiq sirlar. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2010 yil 19 dekabrda.
- ^ Eslatma: yaxlitlash xatosi tufayli raqamlar 100% ga qo'shilmaydi.
- ^ "Lobbi | OpenSecrets". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 19 iyulda. Olingan 29 oktyabr, 2010.
- ^ a b Sachs, Jeffri (2011). Sivilizatsiya narxi. Nyu-York: tasodifiy uy. pp.112. ISBN 978-1-4000-6841-8.
Javob beriladigan siyosat markazi Sivilizatsiya narxi Jeffri D. Saks tomonidan (s.112) 1998 yildan 20 gacha bo'lgan raqamlar11 milliard AQSh dollarida: Moliya, sug'urta va ko'chmas mulk $ 4,5; Salomatlik 4,5 dollar; Turli xil biznes $ 4,5; Aloqa va elektronika $ 3,7; Energiya va tabiiy resurslar $ 3,3; Transport $ 2,4; Boshqa $ 2,3; Mafkura / bitta nashr $ 1,5; Agrobiznes $ 1,3; Mudofaa $ 1,3; Qurilish $ 0,5; 0,5 dollarlik mehnat; Advokatlar va lobbistlar 0,4 dollar
- ^ a b v d Ketrin Xo (2011 yil 30 oktyabr). "Kongress ortidan lobbi daromadlari orqada qolmoqda". Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Robert G. Kaiser; Elis Crites (tadqiqot ishtirokchisi) (2007). "Qanday qilib lobbichilik Vashingtonning eng katta biznesiga aylandi - Katta pul yangi poytaxtni yaratadi. Lobbi jadal rivojlanar ekan, Vashington va siyosat o'zgaradi". Fuqaro K ko'chasi. Vashington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
- ^ Dina ElBog'dadiy (2011 yil 30-noyabr). "FDAni moliyalashtirish lobbichilik harakati bilan kuchaytirildi". Washington Post. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Dan Gilgoff (2011 yil 22-noyabr). "Hisobot Vashingtondagi diniy lobbichilik portlashini kuzatmoqda". CNN. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Jon Vagner (2012 yil 2-yanvar). "Evans Annapolisdagi lobbi sohasida eng yaxshi joyni qo'lga kiritdi". Washington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Rakel Meyer Aleksandr, Stiven V. Mazza, Syuzan Sols. "Lobbi xarajatlari uchun daromad stavkalarini o'lchash: ko'p millatli korporatsiyalar uchun soliq imtiyozlarini empirik ravishda o'rganish ", 2009 yil 8 aprel. 2013 yil 7 martda qabul qilingan.
- ^ Lyuks, Shon; Kruuk, T. Rassel; Woehr, Devid J. (yanvar 2011). "Biznesni siyosat bilan aralashtirish: korporativ siyosiy faoliyatning ilgari va natijalarini meta-tahlili". Menejment jurnali. Olingan 26-noyabr, 2012.
doi: 10.1177 / 0149206310392233 Menejment jurnali; jild 37 yo'q. 1 223–247
- ^ Bill Deyli (2013 yil 19 aprel). "Heidi Heitkamp menga qurolni boshqarishda xiyonat qildi". Vashington Post. Olingan 14 iyun, 2016.
..Heitkamp ... qurolni tekshirishni yanada kengroq qilish uchun qonunchilikni blokirovka qilishga ovoz berdi ... 41 respublikachi va boshqa uchta demokrat bilan bir qatorda - bu choralar o'tish uchun zarur bo'lgan 60 ovozga etishmayotganining asosiy sababi edi ... to'qqiz 10 amerikaliklarda ... qo'llab-quvvatlash ... fon tekshiruvi ... u qurol lobisidan eshitgan ....
- ^ Barak Obama (2013 yil 17 aprel). "Prezident Obamaning qurolni nazorat qilish to'g'risidagi Billni mag'lub etish to'g'risidagi nutqi (transkript)" Ertami-kechmi, biz buni to'g'ri qabul qilamiz. Ushbu bolalarning xotiralari buni talab qiladi. Va Amerika xalqi ham shunday qiladi."". Vaqt. doi:10.1525 / california / 9780520276130.001.0001. ISBN 9780520276130. Olingan 14 iyun, 2016.
... Shuning uchun Amerika xalqining 90 foizi uni qo'llab-quvvatladi ... qurol lobbi qonun loyihasida ataylab yolg'on gapirdi. ...
- ^ "AQSh qurollarini boshqarish: NRA nima va u nega shunchalik kuchli? Bu AQShdagi eng qizg'in munozarali masalalardan birining eng kuchli o'yinchilaridan biri - qurol nazorati - lekin aynan NRA nima? Mana tez hidoyat ". BBC yangiliklari. BBC. 2016 yil 8-yanvar. Olingan 14 iyun, 2016.
... NRA ... rasmiy ravishda qurol siyosatiga ta'sir qilish uchun yiliga taxminan 3 million dollar sarflaydi ... katta miqdordagi mablag'lar boshqa joylarda PAC va mustaqil xarajatlar - kuzatib borish qiyin bo'lgan mablag'lar orqali sarflanadi. ...
- ^ Toni Burman (2011 yil 17-dekabr). "Burman: AQShda saylov kampaniyasini moliyalashtirish demokratiya uchun hazil qiladi". Yulduz. Toronto. Olingan 23 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Yordamchi, Elxanan; Persson, Torsten (2001 yil 3-noyabr). "Lobbi va qonunchilik savdosi". Iqtisodiy tahlil va siyosatdagi yutuqlar. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2010 yil 2 oktyabrda. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
Vol. 1: nashr. 1, 3-modda.
- ^ Karen de Sa (2011 yil 26-dekabr). "Shtat senatori Kaliforniyadagi lobbi to'lovini ikki baravar - kuniga 14 sentgacha oshirishni maqsad qilgan". San-Xose Merkuriy yangiliklari. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
... Kaliforniyadagi ro'yxatdan o'tgan 1000 nafar lobbi shu qadar ta'sirchanki, ular "Uchinchi uy" nomi bilan tanilgan. ...
- ^ Morten Bennedsena; Sven E. Feldmann (2006 yil may). "Axborot lobbisi va siyosiy hissalar". Jamiyat iqtisodiyoti jurnali. doi:10.1016 / j.jpubeco.2005.08.003.
90-jild, 4-5-sonlar, 2006 yil may, 631-656-betlar
- ^ a b v d e f g h ERIC LICHTBLAU (2011 yil 9-dekabr). "Lobbi blitsi bilan, foyda keltiradigan kollejlar yangi qoidalarni kengaytirdilar". The New York Times. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Aleks M. Parker (2011 yil 13 oktyabr). "Superko'mitaning lobbi faoliyati eng yaxshi natijalardan boshlanadi". AQSh yangiliklari. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Jim Puzzanghera (2011 yil 21-dekabr). "AT&T katta pul lobbisini topdi, reklama harakatlari har doim ham o'z samarasini bermaydi". Los Anjeles Tayms. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
... Ammo uning 39 milliard dollarlik T-Mobile AQSh-ni sotib olishni rad etishi shuni ko'rsatdiki, pul sizni antitrestlik amaldorlaridan sevishingizni sotib ololmaydi ...
- ^ Jozef Keppler, Puck (1889 yil 23-yanvar)
- ^ Milliy jamoat radiosi, 2006 y., STEV INSKEEP (xost), GOP Feys Neyning ketishi, etakchilik qarori, 2014 yil 17-aprelda "... Kongress a'zosi Bob Ney lobbist Jek Abramoff tomonidan korruptsiya ayblovi bilan aybdor deb topilganida aniqlandi ..."
- ^ Nia-Malika Xenderson (2011 yil 15-dekabr). "Nyut Gingrich Freddi Makda ishlayotganda" hech qanday lobbi qilmagan "deb ta'kidlamoqda". Washington Post. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
Gingrich ... qarz beruvchiga strategik maslahat bergani uchun 1,6 million dollar ishlab topdi. ...
- ^ a b v d e f g h THOMAS B. EDSALL (2011 yil 18-dekabr). "Bu aylanayotgan eshikdagi muammo". The New York Times. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ "Davlat xizmatidagi manfaatlar to'qnashuvini boshqarish - OECD". Iqtisodiy hamkorlik va rivojlanish tashkiloti (OECD). 2005. Olingan 9 dekabr, 2018.
- ^ Catalina Camia (2011 yil 11-yanvar). "Two ex-senators join major lobbying firm". USA Today. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Lucy Madison (December 22, 2011). "Haley Barbour will return to lobbying after governorship ends". CBS News. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ The Legacy of Billy Tauzin -- The White House PhRMA-Deal, Sunlight Foundation, 2010
- ^ a b Casey B. Mulligan (May 25, 2011). "Financial Lobbying and the Housing Crisis". The New York Times. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
... The study by the I.M.F. economists found that the heaviest lobbying came from lenders making riskier loans ...
- ^ Alan Zibel (November 4, 2011). "Lobbying Titans Square Off Over Loan Limits". Wall Street Journal. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b v KJ Dell'Antonia (November 3, 2011). "Lobbying Against the Too-Healthy School Lunch". Slate jurnali. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Stephen Gandel (May 26, 2011). "Wall Street and Markets: Did Lobbying Cause the Financial Crisis?". Time jurnali. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
... The IMF economists found that lenders that lobbied the most also tended to make riskier loans. ... areas of the country dominated by lenders who spent the most lobbying dollars also tended to higher rates of default....
- ^ a b Igan, Deniz; Mishra, Prachi; Tressel, Thierry (2012). "A Fistful of Dollars: Lobbying and the Financial Crisis". NBER Macroeconomics Annual. 26 (1): 195–230. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.167.2455. doi:10.1086/663992. S2CID 168107092.
- ^ Richard E. Baldwin; Frédéric Robert-Nicoud (December 13, 2010). "Entry and Asymetric Lobbying: Why Governments Pick Losers" (PDF). Evropa iqtisodiy assotsiatsiyasi jurnali. 5 (5): 1064–1093. doi:10.1162/JEEA.2007.5.5.1064. S2CID 5876811.
- ^ NPR Staff (October 22, 2011). "Occupy Wall Street, Tea Party: United In Distrust". Milliy radio. Olingan 23 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Tamara Keith (May 10, 2011). "Banks, Retailers In Lobbying Race Over Debit Fees". Milliy radio. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b -Tom Ashbruk (2012 yil 2-yanvar). "Lourens Lessig pul, korruptsiya va siyosat to'g'risida". 90.9 wbur (Bostonning NPR). Olingan 23 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b Bloomberg News-dan Margaret Carlson (2011 yil 26-dekabr). "Kitoblarni ko'rib chiqish: Garvard huquqshunosligi professori Lourens Lessig siyosatda pul madaniyatini buzish rejasini taklif qilmoqda". Chicago Tribune. Olingan 23 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Lourens Lessig (2011 yil 16-noyabr). "Respublika, Yo'qotilgan: Pul Kongressni qanday buzadi va uni to'xtatish rejasi". Google, YouTube, Huffington Post. Olingan 13 dekabr, 2011.
(see 32.06 minutes into the video)
- ^ Lessig, Lawrence (June 19, 2007). "Required Reading: the next 10 years (Lessig Blog)". Lessig.org. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011 yil 16 yanvarda. Olingan 23 yanvar, 2011.
- ^ a b Lessig, L. (2011) Republic, Lost: How Money Corrupts Congress – and a Plan to Stop It Arxivlandi 2014 yil 10 aprel, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi (New York City: Hachette/Twelve) parcha
- ^ a b Lourens Lessig (2010 yil 8 fevral). "Demokratiyamizni qanday qaytarish mumkin". CBS News, The Nation. Olingan 14 dekabr, 2011.
- ^ Lourens Lessig (2011 yil 16-noyabr). "Respublika, Yo'qotilgan: Pul Kongressni qanday buzadi va uni to'xtatish rejasi". Google, YouTube. Olingan 13 dekabr, 2011.
- ^ Hill, Adriene (October 4, 2011) "Campaign finance, lobbying major roadblocks to effective government" Bozorda ertalab hisobot (American Public Media)
- ^ James O'Toole (December 12, 2011). "Constitutional convention call gains traction". Pitsburg Post-Gazette. Olingan 14 dekabr, 2011.
- ^ a b "America's constitution: If it ain't broke". Iqtisodchi. 2007 yil 8-noyabr. Olingan 23 dekabr, 2011.
- ^ Letter to the editor (October 10, 1987). "In Defense of John Jay, Our First Chief Justice". The New York Times. Olingan 23 dekabr, 2011.
- ^ a b Howard Marlowe, president (May 31, 2011). "(letter from All American League of Lobbyists to President Obama, May 31, 2011)". docstoc.com. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ "Arxivlangan nusxa". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2009 yil 10 iyunda. Olingan 11 iyun, 2009.CS1 maint: nom sifatida arxivlangan nusxa (havola) Axloq qoidalari
- ^ Jesse Lee (May 29, 2009). "Update on Recovery Act Lobbying Rules: New Limits on Special Interest Influence". oq uy. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2009 yil 10 iyunda.
- ^ a b v Fredreka Schouten (November 22, 2011). "Proposed lobbying restrictions upset business groups". USA Today. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Memorandum Arxivlandi 2007 yil 1 aprel, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi: "Congressman Waxman advances grave new threat to citizens' 'right to petition' government officials," by Douglas Johnson and Susan Muskett, J.D., National Right to Life Committee, February 20, 2007.
- ^ Letter from Richard D. Hertling Arxivlandi 2007 yil 14 iyun, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi, Acting Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legislative Affairs, U.S. Department of Justice, to the Honorable Henry A. Waxman, Chairman, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, U.S. House of Representatives, March 8, 2007.
- ^ a b v d e Epshteyn, Devid; Sharyn O'Halloran (October 1995). "A Theory of Strategic Oversight: Congress, Lobbyists, and the Bureaucracy". Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization. 11 (2): 227–255. JSTOR 764997.
- ^ Tiffany Hsu & Andrea Chang (January 18, 2012). "Websites go dark to protest SOPA, PIPA bills: Thousands of popular websites including Wikipedia, Reddit and Boing Boing have shut down for as long as 24 hours to protest congressional antipiracy bills they say amount to censorship". Los Anjeles Tayms. Olingan 19 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ "SOPA and PIPA – Learn more". Vikimedia. 2012 yil 18-yanvar. Olingan 18 yanvar, 2012.
(Screen image when readers tried to access Wikipedia:) ...Right now, the U.S. Congress is considering legislation that could fatally damage the free and open Internet. For 24 hours, to raise awareness, we are blacking out Wikipedia. ...
- ^ a b FREDRIC N. TULSKY & JOHN SULLIVAN (January 7, 2012). "Disclosure Often Spotty or Inaccurate". The New York Times. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ a b orqali Nyu-York Tayms (2005). "Most popular lobbying firms for energy policy". Boston Globe. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ ERIC LICHTBLAU (October 27, 2011). "Obama Backers Tied to Lobbies Raise Millions". The New York Times. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Patrick McGreevy (December 9, 2011). "CalAccess database for campaign money crashes again ... and again". Los Anjeles Tayms. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Times' Opinion Staff (December 28, 2011). "Lobbying ... for just pennies a day!". Los Anjeles Tayms. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Karen de Sá (December 26, 2011). "State senator aims to double lobby fee in California – to 14 cents a day". San-Xose Merkuriy yangiliklari. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ 1946 law (60 Stat. 839) August 2, 1946. Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act
- ^ "Lobbying Reform: Background and Legislative Proposals, 109th Congress" (.pdf). R. Eric Petersen. Olingan 9 yanvar, 2007.
- ^ William V. Luneburg, Thomas M. Susman and Rebecca H. Gordon, editors (2009). "The Lobbying Manual: A Complete Guide to Federal Lobbying Law and Practice – Fourth Edition". Amerika advokatlar assotsiatsiyasi. ISBN 9781604424645. Olingan 12 yanvar, 2012.CS1 maint: bir nechta ism: mualliflar ro'yxati (havola)
- ^ "Hours-Long Sentence Is Given in Lobbying Case". The New York Times. ASOSIYATSIY PRESS. 2011 yil 6-avgust. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ "It's lobbying, and it's taxable (editorial)". Staradvertiser. 2010 yil 21 sentyabr. Olingan 14 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Statement of Reform Groups on Lobbying Legislation Passed by Senate, 2006 yil 29 mart. Aksiya huquqiy markazi, Umumiy sabab, Demokratiya 21, Ayol saylovchilar ligasi, Davlat fuqarosi va AQSh PIRG.
- ^ "H.R. 2316: Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007". GovTrack.us. Olingan 2 avgust, 2007.
- ^ Tyorner, Trish; Associated Press (2007 yil 31-iyul). "House Approves Tighter Earmark, Lobbying Rules". Fox News. Olingan 2 avgust, 2007.
- ^ (52 Stat. 631) of June 8, 1938
- ^ The Harvard Law Reviews Association. " 'Foreign' Campaign Contributions and the First Amendment. Harvard Law Review, 110.8 (1986): 1886–1903
- ^ a b Silverstayn, Ken. "Their Men in Washington: Undercover with D.C.'s lobbyists for hire". Harpers Magazine. July 2007.<http://www.harpers.org/archive/2007/07/0081591 >
- ^ a b Silverstayn, Ken. "Their Men in Washington: Undercover with D.C.'s lobbyists for hire". Harpers Magazine. July 2007. <http://www.harpers.org/archive/2007/07/0081591 >
- ^ Zhang, Juyan. "World system and its agents: An analysis of the registrants of Foreign Agent Registration Act (FARA)" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, New Orleans Sheraton, New Orleans, LA, May 27, 2004
. 2009-05-26 <http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112875_index.html > - ^ Atieh, Jahad. "Foreign Agents: Updating FARA to Protect American Democracy." University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law. pp. 1051–1088, Fall 2009: 1052
- ^ a b Keffer, Jone M. and Hill, Roland Paul. "Ethical Approach to Lobbying Activities of Businesses in the United States", Journal of Business Ethics, 16.12/13 (1997): 1371–1379
- ^ Bill S. 349 in 1994 by a vote of 315–110
- ^ Dunham, R. S.: 1994, 'Why Lobbying Reform Could Get Lobbied to Death', Business Week, 57
- ^ "Saudi Arabia Reboots Its Washington Lobbying Blitz". Bloomberg. 2018 yil 25-aprel.
- ^ Zhang, Juyan. "World system and its agents: An analysis of the registrants of Foreign Agent Registration Act (FARA)" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, New Orleans Sheraton, New Orleans, LA, May 27, 2004. 2009-05-26 <http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112875_index.html >
- ^ The Harvard Law Reviews Association. "Foreign" Campaign Contributions and the First Amendment. Harvard Law Review, 110.8 (1986): 1886–1903
- ^ "Lobbying by Foreign Countries Decreases ". Qo'ng'iroq. 2011 yil 14 sentyabr.
- ^ "As Trump Travels to Saudi Arabia, the Kingdom’s D.C. Lobbying Surge Is Paying Off ". Intercept. 2017 yil 19-may.
- ^ a b Atieh, Jahad. "Foreign Agents: Updating FARA to Protect American Democracy." University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law. 1052 (Fall 2009): 1051–1088
- ^ a b Bravin, Jess and Mullins, Brody. "Foreign Spending on Politics Fought". The Wall Street Journal. 2010 yil 9-yanvar.
- ^ a b SCOTT SHANE (November 26, 2011). "For Obscure Iranian Exile Group, Broad Support in U.S." The New York Times. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ Richard A. Serrano (July 20, 2011). "Pair charged with illegally lobbying for Pakistan: Two U.S. citizens are accused of secretly being paid by Pakistan's spy service and failing to register as foreign agents. The charges are likely to further strain Washington-Islamabad relations". Los Anjeles Tayms. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
- ^ SM. Matthews (January 12, 2012). "Former Congressman Gets One Year For Lobbying For Terror Sponsor". Wall Street Journal. Olingan 13 yanvar, 2012.
Izohlar
- ^ Federalist No. 10. p. 56 ning the Dawson edition Vikipediya manbasida.
- ^ Federalist No. 10. p. 58 ning the Dawson edition Vikipediya manbasida.
- ^ Federalist No. 10. p. 60 ning the Dawson edition Vikipediya manbasida.
Qo'shimcha o'qish
- Balogh, Brian "'Mirrors of Desires': Interest Groups, Elections, and the Targeted Style in Twentieth-Century America," in Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian Zelizer, eds. The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political Theory, (2003), 222–49
- Baumgartner, Frank R., and Beth L. Leech. Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science (1998), 64–82, reviews the political science literature on interest groups
- Blanes i Vidal, Xordi; Mirko Draca and Christian Fons-Rosen: Revolving Door Lobbyists, 5th Annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies Paper, July 2010
- Clemens, Elisabeth S. The People’s Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest-Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1925 (1997)
- Hansen, John M. Gaining Access: Congress and the Farm Lobby, 1919–1981 (1991);
- Kaiser, Robert G. "So Damn Much Money: The Triumph of Lobbying and the Corrosion of American Government" (2009).
- Loomis, Christopher M. "The Politics of Uncertainty: Lobbyists and Propaganda in Early Twentieth-Century America," Siyosat tarixi jurnali Volume 21, Number 2, 2009 in MUSE loyihasi
- Lux, S., Crook, T. R., and Woehr, D. 2011. Mixing business with politics: A meta-analysis of the antecedents and outcomes of corporate political activity. Journal of Management, 37(1): 223–247.
- Stokes, Leah. 2020. Short Circuiting Policy: Interest Groups and the Battle Over Clean Energy and Climate Policy in the American States. Oksford universiteti matbuoti.
- Thompson, Margaret S. The "Spider Web": Congress and Lobbying in the Age of Grant (1985) on 1870s
- Tichenor, Daniel J. and Richard A. Harris, "Organized Interests and American Political Development," Political Science Quarterly 117 (Winter 2002–3): 587–612 onlayn
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Tashqi havolalar
- Lobbying Database dan OpenSecrets.org
- FollowtheMoney.org
- Government Accountability Groups (from "500 Leading U.S. Progressive Organizations by Category")
- Sourcewatch
- Lobbyists.info database of lobbyists and government relations professionals
- Open Secrets glossary
- Lawrence Lessig TED talk on lobbying
- Quyosh nurlari fondi
- US Senate Lobbying-Database Search
- US House of Representatives-Lobby Contributions Search
- Report on AIPAC lobbying
- Lobbyists 4 Good
- Moral lobbying techniques for persuading state legislators