Lyudovik XVI - Louis XVI - Wikipedia

Lyudovik XVI
Portret tomonidan Antuan-Fransua Kallet
Frantsiya qiroli
Hukmronlik	1774 yil 10 may - 1792 yil 21 sentyabr Frantsuzlar qiroli 1791 yil 3 sentyabr - 1792 yil 21 sentyabr
Taqdirlash	1775 yil 11-iyun Reyms sobori
O'tmishdosh	Louis XV
Voris	Monarxiya bekor qilindi
Tug'ilgan	(1754-08-23)23 avgust 1754 yil Versal saroyi, Frantsiya
O'ldi	21 yanvar 1793 yil(1793-01-21) (38 yosh) Revolyutsiya maydoni, Parij, Frantsiya
Dafn	21 yanvar 1815 yil Aziz Denis Bazilikasi
Turmush o'rtog'i	Avstriyalik Mari Antuanetta ​ ​ (m. 1770)​
Nashr	Mari Terez, Frantsiya malikasi Lui Jozef, fransiyalik Dofin Frantsiya Louis XVII Malika Sofi
To'liq ism Louis Auguste de France
Uy	Burbon
Ota	Lui, Frantsiya Dofini
Ona	Saksoniyalik Mariya Xosefa
Din	Rim katolikligi
Imzo

Lyudovik XVI (Louis-Auguste; Frantsuzcha talaffuz:[lwi sɛːz]; 1754 yil 23-avgust - 1793 yil 21-yanvar) oxirgi bo'ldi Frantsiya qiroli davrida monarxiya qulashidan oldin Frantsiya inqilobi. U deb nomlangan Fuqaro Lui Ket oldingi to'rt oy ichida u gilyotin bilan qatl etildi. 1765 yilda, otasi vafot etgach, Lui, Frantsiya Dofini, u yangi bo'ldi Dofin. Bobosiga Louis XV 1774 yil 10 mayda vafot etdi, u unvonni egalladi Frantsiya va Navarra qiroli, 1791 yil 4 sentyabrgacha, qirol unvonini olganiga qadar frantsuzlar gacha monarxiya bekor qilindi 1792 yil 21 sentyabrda.

Uning hukmronligining birinchi qismi Frantsiya hukumatiga muvofiq islohot qilishga urinishlar bilan ajralib turardi Ma'rifat g'oyalar. Bularga bekor qilish bo'yicha harakatlar kiritilgan krepostnoylik, olib tashlang dumaloq (er solig'i) va corvee (mehnat solig'i),^[1] katolik bo'lmaganlarga nisbatan bag'rikenglikni oshirish hamda o'lim jazosini bekor qilish qochqinlar.^[2][3] The Frantsuz zodagonlari taklif qilingan islohotlarga dushmanlik bilan munosabatda bo'ldi va ularni amalga oshirishga muvaffaqiyatli qarshi chiqdi. Lui amalga oshirdi tartibga solish ning don uning tarafdori bo'lgan bozor iqtisodiy liberal vazir Turgot, ammo buning natijasida non narxlari oshdi. Yomon hosil paytida, bu oziq-ovqat tanqisligiga olib keldi, ayniqsa 1775 yilda yomon hosil paytida, ommani qo'zg'olonga undadi. 1776 yildan Louis XVI faol ravishda Shimoliy Amerika mustamlakachilarini qo'llab-quvvatladi, ularni qidirayotganlar Buyuk Britaniyadan mustaqillik 1783 yilda amalga oshirilgan Parij shartnomasi. Undan keyingi qarzlar va moliyaviy inqirozlar taniqli bo'lmaganlariga sabab bo'ldi Ancien Regim. Bu chaqirilishga olib keldi 1789 yilgi general-shtatlar. Frantsiyaning o'rta va quyi sinflari vakillarining noroziligi natijasida frantsuz zodagonlari va ularga qarshi qarshilik kuchaygan mutlaq monarxiya, ulardan Lui va uning rafiqasi Qirolicha Mari Antuanetta, vakillar sifatida qarashgan. Borayotgan taranglik va zo'ravonlik kabi tadbirlar bilan belgilandi Bastiliyaga hujum qilish Parijdagi tartibsizliklar paytida Lui qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyatni aniq tan olishga majbur bo'ldi Milliy assambleya.

Luisning qat'iyatsizligi va konservatizmidan kelib chiqqan holda, Frantsiya xalqining ayrim unsurlari uni zulmni qabul qilingan zulmi ramzi sifatida ko'rishga majbur qilishdi. Ancien Regimva uning mashhurligi tobora yomonlashdi. U muvaffaqiyatsiz Varennesga parvoz 1791 yil iyun oyida, to'rt oy oldin konstitutsiyaviy monarxiya e'lon qilindi, shoh siyosiy najot umidlarini istiqbollari bilan bog'lab qo'ygani haqidagi mish-mishlarni oqlaganday tuyuldi chet el aralashuvi. Podshohning ishonchliligi chuqur buzildi va monarxiyani tugatish va respublika barpo etish tobora ko'payib boradigan imkoniyatga aylandi. O'sishi klerikalizm inqilobchilar orasida bekor qilingan dime (diniy er solig'i) va shunga qaratilgan bir qancha hukumat siyosati Frantsiyani xristianlashtirish.

Kontekstida fuqarolik va xalqaro urush, Louis XVI vaqtincha to'xtatilgan va hibsga olingan paytda 1792 yil 10-avgustdagi qo'zg'olon. Bir oy o'tgach, mutlaq monarxiya bekor qilindi va Birinchi Frantsiya Respublikasi 1792 yil 21 sentyabrda e'lon qilingan. Keyinchalik Louis tomonidan sud qilingan Milliy konventsiya (ushbu voqea uchun sud sifatida tashkil etilgan), aybdor deb topildi xiyonat va tomonidan ijro etilgan gilyotin 1793 yil 21-yanvarda, a desakralizatsiya qilingan Nomi ostida Frantsiya fuqarosi Fuqaro Lui Ket, ga murojaat qilib Xyu Ketet, asoschisi Kapetianlar sulolasi - buni inqilobchilar Lui familiyasi sifatida talqin qildilar. Lyudovik XVI Frantsiyada qatl qilingan yagona qirol edi va uning o'limi ming yildan ziyod davom etgan doimiy frantsuz monarxiyasiga barham berdi. Ikkala o'g'li ham bolaligida vafot etdi Burbonni tiklash; voyaga etgan yagona farzandi, Mari Terez, frantsuz harbiy asirlari evaziga avstriyaliklarga berilib, 1851 yilda oxir-oqibat farzandsiz vafot etdi.

Bolalik

Yosh duk de Berri (o'ngda) ukasi bilan Comte de Provence. Portret tomonidan François-Hubert Druua, 1757

Dyuk de Berri yosh bola, rassom noma'lum

Louis-Auguste de France, unvon kimga berilgan Dyuk de Berri tug'ilganida tug'ilgan Versal saroyi. Etti farzanddan biri, u tirik qolgan ikkinchi o'g'il edi Lui, Frantsiya Dofini va nabirasi Frantsiya Louis XV va uning hamrohi, Mariya Leshshyshka. Uning onasi edi Saksoniyalik Mari-Xosefe, qizi Saksoniyalik Frederik Avgust II, Shahzoda-saylovchi ning Saksoniya va Polsha qiroli.

Lui-Ogyustni ota-onasi e'tiborsiz qoldirdi, chunki u akasini qo'llab-quvvatladi, Louis, duc de Bourgogne U chiroyli va kelishgan deb topilgan, ammo 1761 yilda to'qqiz yoshida vafot etgan. Lui-Ogyust, kuchli va sog'lom bola, lekin juda uyatchan, o'qishda juda yaxshi va lotin tili, tarix, geografiya va astronomiyani yaxshi bilardi. va italyan va ingliz tillarini yaxshi bilgan. U jismoniy mashg'ulotlardan, masalan, bobosi bilan ov qilish va ukalari bilan qo'pol o'yinlardan zavqlanardi, Lui-Stanislas, Comven de Provence va Charlz-Filipp, comte d'Artois. Lui-Ogyust yoshligidanoq uning boshqa bir qiziqishi - chilangarlikka da'vat etilgan, bu esa bola uchun foydali izlanish sifatida qabul qilingan.^[4]

Otasi vafot etganida sil kasalligi 1765 yil 20-dekabrda o'n bir yoshli Lui-Ogyust yangi bo'ldi Dofin. Uning onasi hech qachon eridan judo bo'lmagan va 1767 yil 13 martda sil kasalligidan vafot etgan.^[5] U olgan qat'iy va konservativ ta'lim Dyuk de La Vauguyon, "gouverneur des Enfants de France" (Frantsiya bolalari gubernatori), 1760 yildan 1770 yilda turmush qurguniga qadar, uni bobosi vafotidan keyin 1774 yilda meros qilib olishi kerak bo'lgan taxtga tayyorlamadi, Louis XV. Ta'lim davomida Lui-Ogyust din, axloq va gumanitar fanlar bo'yicha aralash tadqiqotlar olib borgan.^[6] Uning ustozlari, shuningdek, Lui-Ogyustni o'zi qaror qilgan noaniq shohga aylantirishda qo'lini tekkan bo'lishi mumkin. Abbé Berthier, uning o'qituvchisi, unga qo'rqoqlik kuchli monarxlarda qadriyat ekanligini o'rgatgan va Abbé Soldini, uning e'tirofchisi, odamlarning fikrlarini o'qishiga yo'l qo'ymaslikni buyurdi.^[7]

Oilaviy hayot

Mari Antuanetta, Frantsiya qirolichasi, uchta katta farzandi bilan, Mari-Teres, Lui-Charlz va Lui-Jozef, tomonidan Mari Luiza Élisabet Vije-Lebrun

1770 yil 16-mayda, o'n besh yoshida Lui-Ogyust o'n to'rt yoshli Xabsburg arxukadxonasiga uylandi. Mariya Antoniya (uning ismining frantsuzcha shakli bilan yaxshi tanilgan, Mari Antuanetta), uning bir marta olib tashlangan ikkinchi amakivachcha va Muqaddas Rim imperatorining kenja qizi Frensis I va uning rafiqasi Empress Mariya Tereza.^[8]

Ushbu nikoh Frantsiya jamoatchiligining dushmanligi bilan kutib olindi. Frantsiyaning Avstriya bilan ittifoqi mamlakatni halokatli holatga keltirdi Etti yillik urush, unda u inglizlar va prusslar tomonidan Evropada ham, Shimoliy Amerikada ham mag'lubiyatga uchradi. Lui-Ogyust va Mari-Antuanetta turmushga chiqqan paytga kelib, frantsuz xalqi umuman Avstriya ittifoqini yoqtirmasdi va Mari-Antuanetta yoqimsiz ajnabiy sifatida ko'rilar edi.^[9] Yosh juftlik uchun nikoh dastlab yoqimli, ammo uzoq edi. Lui-Ogyustning uyatchanligi va boshqa omillar qatorida yangi turmush qurganlarning yoshligi va tajribasizligi (ular bir-biriga umuman begona edi: ular to'yidan atigi ikki kun oldin uchrashgan) bu 15 yoshli kuyovning ko'nglini ololmasligini anglatadi. 14 yoshli kelini bilan uyushma. Uning imperatorlik maqsadlarida manipulyatsiya qilinishidan qo'rqishi, uni omma oldida unga nisbatan sovuq munosabatda bo'lishiga olib keldi.^[10] Vaqt o'tishi bilan, er-xotin yanada yaqinlashdi, garchi ularning nikohi 1773 yil iyul oyida tugatilgan bo'lsa-da, bu aslida 1777 yilgacha sodir bo'lmadi.^[11]

Louis XVI erta yoshda

Lui-Charlz, Frantsiya va bo'lajak Lyudovik XVII dafini, tomonidan Mari Luiza Élisabet Vije-Lebrun

Er-xotinning bir necha yil davomida hech qanday farzand ko'rmayotgani ularning turmushida og'irlik tug'dirdi,^[12] odobsiz risolalar nashr etilishi bilan kuchaygan (tuhmatlar ) ularning bepushtligini masxara qilish. Bittasi "Qirol buni qila oladimi? Podshoh buni qilolmaydimi?"^[13]

O'sha paytda er-xotinning birinchi marta farzand ko'rmaganligi sabablari haqida bahslashishgan va ular o'sha paytdan beri davom etmoqda. Bir taklif shundaki, Lui-Ogyust fiziologik disfunktsiyadan aziyat chekdi,^[14] ko'pincha shunday deb o'ylashadi fimoz, birinchi marta 1772 yil oxirida qirol shifokorlari tomonidan berilgan taklif.^[15] Ushbu qarashga rioya qilgan tarixchilar uning fikricha sunnat qilingan^[16] (fimozni davolashning umumiy usuli), bu turmushdan etti yil o'tgach, vaziyatni engillashtiradi. Lui shifokorlari jarrohlik amaliyotini yoqlamadilar - operatsiya nozik va shikast etkazuvchi bo'lib, kattalar erkaklariga "shunchalik zarar" etkazishi mumkin edi. Fimozis va natijada operatsiya qilish uchun dalil asosan kelib chiqishi ko'rinadi Stefan Tsveyg Mari Antuanetaning 1932 yilgi tarjimai holi.

Ko'pgina zamonaviy tarixchilar Lui hech qanday operatsiya qilmaganiga qo'shiladilar^[17][18][19] Masalan, 1777 yillarning oxirlarida Prussiya elchisi Baron Golts Frantsiya qiroli operatsiyani rad etgani haqida xabar bergan.^[20] Lui tez-tez jinsiy aloqada bo'lishga qodir ekanligini e'lon qildi Jozef II, va u operatsiya qilinishi kerak bo'lgan vaqt ichida, uning jurnaliga ko'ra deyarli har kuni ovga chiqdi. Agar u sunnat qilinganida, bu mumkin emas edi; hech bo'lmaganda, keyinchalik bir necha hafta davomida u ovga chiqa olmagan bo'lar edi. Hozirda er-xotinning jinsiy muammolari boshqa omillar bilan bog'liq. Antoniya Fraserning malikaning biografiyasida Iosif II ning 1777 yilda Versalga tashrif buyurganidan keyin birodarlaridan biriga bu haqda yozgan maktubi muhokama qilinadi. Xatda Jozef hayratlanarli darajada ochiqchasiga tafsilotlarni aytib berdi Lui nikoh to'shagida etarlicha ishlamasligi va Antuanetta konjugal faoliyatga qiziqmasligi . Jozef er-xotinni "to'liq fumblers" deb ta'riflagan; ammo, uning maslahati bilan Lui o'zini turmush vazifalariga yanada samarali tatbiq eta boshladi va 1778 yil mart oyining uchinchi haftasida Mari Antuanet homilador bo'ldi.

Oxir-oqibat, qirollik juftligi to'rt farzandning ota-onasiga aylanishdi. Ga binoan Xonim Kempan, Mari Antuanetaning kutib turgan xonimi, qirolicha ham ikki marta tushdi. Birinchisi, 1779 yilda, birinchi farzandi tug'ilgandan bir necha oy o'tgach, imperatori Mariya Tereza tomonidan iyul oyida yozilgan qiziga yozilgan maktubda eslatib o'tilgan. Madam Kempanning ta'kidlashicha, Lui butun ertalab xotinini yotog'ida yupatgan va bu voqeani bilganlarning hammasini sir tutishga qasam ichgan. Mari Antuanet 1783 yil 2-noyabrdan 3-tunda ikkinchi marta tushdi.

Lyudovik XVI va Mari Antuanet to'rtta tug'ilgan bolalarning ota-onalari edi:

• Mari-Teres-Sharlot (1778 yil 19 dekabr - 1851 yil 19 oktyabr)
• Lui-Jozef-Xaver-Fransua, Dofin (1781 yil 22-oktyabr - 1789 yil 4-iyun)
• Lui-Charlz, Dofin uning akasi vafotidan so'ng, Frantsiyaning bo'lajak titul qiroli Lyudovik XVII (1785 yil 27 mart - 1795 yil 8 iyun)
• Sophie-Helen-Béatrix, go'dakligida vafot etgan (1786 yil 9-iyul - 1787 yil 19-iyun)

Biologik farzandlaridan tashqari, Lyudovik XVI yana oltita bolani asrab oldi: "Armand" Francois-Michel Gagné (taxminan 1771-1792), 1776 yilda qabul qilingan kambag'al etim; Jan Amilkar (taxminan 1781-1793), a Senegallik qul malika tomonidan sovg'a sifatida berilgan bola Chevalier de Boufflers 1787 yilda, lekin u uni ozod qildi, suvga cho'mdirdi, qabul qildi va pensiyaga joylashtirdi; Ernestin Lambriket (1778-1813), saroydagi ikki xizmatchining qizi, u qizining o'yindoshi sifatida tarbiyalangan va 1788 yilda onasi vafot etganidan keyin uni asrab olgan; va nihoyat "Zoo" Jeanne Louise Victoire (1787 yilda tug'ilgan), 1790 yilda ota-onasi, usher va uning xotini qirolga xizmat qilganida vafot etganda, ikkita katta opasi bilan birga asrab olingan.^[21]

Ulardan faqat Armand, Ernestin va Zoe qirol oilasi bilan birga yashaganlar: Jan Amilkar va Zoe va Armandning katta birodarlari, shuningdek qirollik juftligining rasmiy tarbiyachilari bo'lganlar, qirolicha qamoqxonaga qadar shunchaki malika hisobidan yashaydilar. hech bo'lmaganda Amilkar uchun o'limga olib keldi, chunki u pul to'lamaganida uni maktab-internatdan haydab chiqarishdi va xabarlarga ko'ra ko'chada ochlikdan o'lgan.^[21] Armand va Zoy Ernestinning pozitsiyasiga o'xshashroq pozitsiyaga ega edilar: Armand respublikada hamdard bo'lganligi sababli inqilob boshlanganda ularni tark etguniga qadar qirol va malika bilan sudda birga yashagan va Zoe o'yindoshi sifatida tanlangan. Dofin, xuddi Ernestin bir paytlar Mari-Terezning sherigi sifatida tanlangan va singlislariga 1791 yilda Varennesga uchishdan oldin monastir internatiga yuborilgan.^[21]

Frantsiyaning mutlaq monarxi, 1774–1789

Ushbu bo'lim uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang tomonidan ishonchli manbalarga iqtiboslarni qo'shish. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan material shubha ostiga olinishi va olib tashlanishi mumkin. (2017 yil yanvar) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Lui XVI Antuan-Fransua Kallet tomonidan, 1786 yil

1774 yilda Lyudovik XVI taxtga o'tirganda, u o'n to'qqiz yoshda edi. Uning zimmasida juda katta mas'uliyat bor edi, chunki hukumat chuqur qarzga botgan va despotik monarxiyaga g'azablanish kuchaygan. U o'zi vaziyatni hal qilish uchun o'zlarini achinarli darajada malakasiz deb his qildi.

Qirol sifatida Lyudovik XVI birinchi navbatda diniy erkinlik va tashqi siyosatga e'tibor qaratdi. Frantsiyani boshqarish intellektual qobiliyatiga hech kim shubha qilmasa-da, 1765 yildan beri Dofin sifatida ko'tarilgan bo'lsa-da, unga qat'iylik va qat'iyatlilik etishmasligi aniq edi. Uning xalqi tomonidan sevilishini istashi uning ko'pgina farmoyishlarining muqaddimalarida yaqqol ko'rinib turibdiki, bu uning harakatlari mohiyatini va odamlarga foyda keltirish kabi ezgu niyatlarini, masalan, qismlar. Uning qarori to'g'risida so'roq qilishganda, u: "Bu siyosiy jihatdan aqlsiz deb hisoblanishi mumkin, ammo menimcha, bu umumiy istak bo'lib tuyuladi va men sevishni xohlayman".^[22] Qarorisizlikka qaramay, Lyudovik XVI "har doim jamoatchilik fikri bilan maslahatlashib turishi kerak; bu hech qachon noto'g'ri emas" deb, yaxshi qirol bo'lishga qaror qildi.^[23] Shuning uchun u tajribali maslahatchi tayinladi, Jan-Frederik Felipo, Maurte jamoati 1781 yilda vafotigacha ko'plab muhim vazirlik vazifalarini o'z zimmasiga olgan.

Louis XVI hukmronligining asosiy voqealari orasida uning imzolanishi ham bor edi Versal farmoni, deb ham tanilgan Tolerantlik farmoni, 1787 yil 7-noyabrda ro'yxatdan o'tgan parcha 1788 yil 29-yanvarda. Rim bo'lmagan katoliklarga berish - Gugenotlar va Lyuteranlar, shu qatorda; shu bilan birga Yahudiylar - Frantsiyadagi fuqarolik va huquqiy maqom va ularning dinlariga amal qilishning qonuniy huquqi, ushbu farmon amalda bekor qilindi Fonteynboning farmoni bu 102 yildan beri qonun edi. Versal farmoni Frantsiyada diniy erkinlikni qonuniy ravishda e'lon qilmagan - bu bilan yana ikki yil davom etdi 1789 yildagi Inson va fuqaro huquqlarining deklaratsiyasi - ammo bu diniy ziddiyatlarni bartaraf etishda muhim qadam bo'ldi va uning doirasidagi diniy ta'qiblarni rasman tugatdi.^[24]

"Le Couronnement de Louis XVI"., Benjamin Duvivier tomonidan 1775 yil 11 iyunda Lyudovik XVI toj-marosim marosimiga bag'ishlangan

Tomonidan tubdan moliyaviy islohotlar Turgot va Malesherbes dvoryanlarning g'azabiga sabab bo'lgan va ular tomonidan to'sib qo'yilgan qismlar qirolning yangi soliqlarni undirish uchun qonuniy huquqiga ega emasligini ta'kidlagan. Shunday qilib, 1776 yilda Turgo ishdan bo'shatildi va Malesherbes iste'foga chiqdi, uning o'rniga Jak Nekker. Necker qo'llab-quvvatladi Amerika inqilobi va u soliqlarni oshirish o'rniga yirik xalqaro kreditlarni olish siyosatini olib bordi. U 1781 yilda Frantsiya tojining harajatlari va hisob-kitoblari to'g'risidagi birinchi buxgalteriya hisobotini nashr etish orqali jamoatchilik foydasiga erishishga harakat qildi. Compte-rendu au Roi. Ushbu chalg'ituvchi nashr Frantsiya aholisini qirollikning ortiqcha ortiqcha ishlaganiga ishonishiga olib keldi.^[25] Qirollikning moliyaviy muammolarini yashirish va mensimaslik siyosati muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchraganda, Lui ishdan bo'shatilib, uning o'rniga 1783 yilda Charlz Aleksandr de Kalonne, mamlakat qarzidan qutulish yo'lini "sotib olish" uchun davlat xarajatlarini ko'paytirgan. Yana bu muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi, shuning uchun Lui ularni chaqirdi Eslatmalar yig'ilishi 1787 yilda Kalonne tomonidan taklif qilingan inqilobiy yangi moliyaviy islohotni muhokama qilish uchun. Qarzning haqiqiy miqdori haqida zodagonlarga xabar berilganda, ular hayratda qolishdi va rejani rad etishdi.

Shundan so'ng, Louis XVI va uning yangi General des finances boshqaruvchisi, Etien-Sharl de Lomeni de Brien, shunchaki majburlashga urindi Parlement de Parij yangi qonunlar va soliq islohotlarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazish. A'zolari rad etgandan keyin Parcha, Lyudovik XVI o'zining mutlaq kuchidan foydalanib, ularni har qanday usul bilan bo'ysundirishga harakat qildi: ko'p hollarda o'zining islohotlarini ro'yxatdan o'tkazishni majbur qildi (1787 yil 6-avgust, 1787-yil 19-noyabr va 8-may), barchasini surgun qildi Parcha 1787 yil 15-avgustda jazo sifatida Troya sudiga magistratlar, olti a'zoning 19-noyabrdagi parlament sessiyalarida qatnashishini taqiqlab, ikkita juda muhim a'zoni hibsga olishdi. Parcha1788 yil 6 mayda uning islohotlariga qarshi chiqqan va hatto 1788 yil 8 mayda "Parlement" ni tarqatib yuborgan va uni butun sud hokimiyatidan mahrum qilgan, uni 8 may 178 yilda umumiy majlis bilan almashtirgan. Ushbu choralar va shoh hokimiyatining namoyishlari muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchtaga bog'liq hal qiluvchi omillar. Birinchidan, aholining aksariyati Parcha Shohga qarshi va shu tariqa doimiy ravishda unga qarshi bosh ko'targan. Ikkinchidan, qirol xazinasi moddiy jihatdan nogironlik darajasida qashshoq bo'lib, uni o'zi amalga oshirgan islohotlarni davom ettirishga qodir emas edi. Uchinchidan, Podshoh o'zidan avvalgilar kabi muttasil kuchga ega bo'lsa-da, mutloqlikning to'g'ri ishlashi uchun hal qiluvchi shaxsiy vakolati yo'q edi. Endi oddiy odamlarga ham, zodagonlarga ham yoqmaydigan Lui XVI o'z qarorlari va islohotlarini bekor qilishdan oldin, 2 oydan 4 oygacha bo'lgan muddatlarda juda qisqa vaqt ichida o'z zimmasiga olishga qodir edi.

Undan hokimiyat tarqalib, islohotlar muqarrar bo'lib qolayotganligi sababli, uni chaqirish uchun tobora baland ovozda chaqiriqlar paydo bo'ldi. Bosh shtatlar, 1614 yildan beri uchrashmagan (hukmronlik boshida Louis XIII ). Yangi pul islohotlarini ma'qullash uchun so'nggi urinish sifatida Lyudovik XVI 1788 yil 8-avgustda general-shtatlarni chaqirdi va ularning ochilish kunini 1789 yil 1-mayga belgilab qo'ydi. Boshqa davlatlarda bo'lgani kabi, general-shtatlar chaqirilishi bilan hukmronligi davrida Lui XVI o'z obro'sini va jamoat obro'sini, ehtimol u kabi frantsuz aholisi istaklariga sezgir bo'lmagan kishilar qo'liga topshirdi. General Estates chaqirilganidan beri ancha oldin bo'lganligi sababli, qanday tartib-qoidalarga rioya qilish kerakligi haqida munozaralar bo'lib o'tdi. Oxir oqibat Parlement de Parij "barcha an'anaviy urf-odatlar ehtiyotkorlik bilan saqlanib qolinishi kerak, chunki General Estates bu narsalar sodir bo'lishi mumkin degan tasavvurga ega bo'lmaslik kerak". Ushbu qarorga binoan qirol 1614 yilda va general-shtatlarning oldingi chaqiriqlarida odatiy bo'lgan, ammo yaqinda bo'lib o'tgan tenglik e'lonlari bilan ko'tarilgan Uchinchi mulkka toqat qilib bo'lmaydigan ko'plab an'analarni saqlab qolishga rozi bo'ldi. Masalan, Birinchi va Ikkinchi mulklar o'zlarining eng yaxshi kiyimlarini kiyib yig'ilishga kirishdilar, Uchinchi mulk esa oddiy, zulm bilan achchiq qora rangda kiyinishlari kerak edi, chunki Lyudovik XVI buni kechirolmasdi. U General-Estates deputatlariga hurmat bilan qaragandek tuyuldi: o'zini o'zi qadrlaydigan vatanparvarlik to'lqini ostida Estates a'zolari qirol huzurida bosh kiyimlarini echishdan bosh tortdilar, shuning uchun Lui ularni o'zlariga topshirdi.^[26]

Ushbu chaqiriq umumiy iqtisodiy va siyosiy o'zgargan voqealardan biri edi bezovtalik mamlakatning Frantsiya inqilobi. 1789 yil iyun oyida Uchinchi mulk o'zini bir tomonlama e'lon qildi Milliy assambleya. Lyudovik XVIning uni boshqarishga urinishlari natijasida Tennis kortiga qasamyod (serment du jeu de paume), 20 iyunda, deklaratsiyasi Milliy Ta'sis yig'ilishi 9-iyul kuni va oxir-oqibat Bastiliyaga hujum qilish Frantsiya inqilobini boshlagan 14 iyulda. Uch qisqa oy ichida qirolning ijro etuvchi hokimiyatining aksariyati millatning saylangan vakillariga o'tkazildi.

Tashqi siyosat

Yetti yillik urushda frantsuzlarning ishtiroki Lyudovik XVI halokatli meros qoldirgan edi. Buyuk Britaniyaning g'alabalari ularning Frantsiyaning mustamlaka hududlarining ko'p qismini egallab olishlarini ko'rgan edi. Ba'zilari 1763 yilda Frantsiyaga qaytarilgan Parij shartnomasi, Shimoliy Amerikaning keng hududi inglizlarga berildi.

Bu Frantsiya rahbariyati orasida Britaniyaga qarshi qasos olish urushiga qarshi kurashish uchun frantsuz harbiylarini qayta tiklashga qaratilgan strategiyani keltirib chiqardi, unda yo'qolgan koloniyalarni tiklash mumkin degan umidda edi. Frantsiya hali ham G'arbiy Hindistondagi kuchli ta'sirini saqlab qoldi va Hindistonda Buyuk Britaniya bilan tortishuvlar va kuch o'ynash uchun imkoniyat qoldirib, beshta savdo punktini saqlab qoldi.^[27]

Amerika inqilobi va Evropa haqida

Kornuallisning Frantsiya (chapda) va Amerika (o'ngda) qo'shinlariga taslim bo'lishi Yorktown qurshovi 1781 yilda, tomonidan Jon Trumbull

Lyudovik XVI elchilarini qabul qilmoqda Tippu Sulton 1788 yilda Emil Vattierdan keyin Voyer, 19-asr

1776 yil bahorida, Vergenes Tashqi ishlar vaziri, Frantsiyaning azaliy dushmani bo'lgan Buyuk Britaniyani kamsitish va bu davrda yo'qolgan hududni tiklash imkoniyatini ko'rdi. Etti yillik urush, qo'llab-quvvatlash orqali Amerika inqilobi. O'sha yili Lui ishontirdi Per Beaumarchais isyonchilarga maxfiy ravishda materiallar, o'q-dorilar va qurollarni yuborish. 1778 yil boshida u rasmiy hujjatni imzoladi Ittifoq shartnomasi va o'sha yil oxirida Frantsiya bordi Angliya bilan urush. Frantsiyaning katta moliyaviy muammolariga qaramay, urush foydasiga qaror qabul qilishda qirol moddiy jihatdan signalistlar tomonidan tarqatilgan xabarlardan ta'sirlandi Saratoga jangi Angliya o'n uchta mustamlakaga ulkan imtiyozlar berishga, so'ngra ular bilan ittifoq qilib, G'arbiy Hindistondagi frantsuz va ispan mulklariga zarba berishga tayyorlanayotganini taxmin qilmoqda.^[28] Tez orada Ispaniya va Niderlandiya frantsuzlarga qo'shilib, Britaniyaga qarshi koalitsiyaga qo'shilishdi. 1778 yildan keyin Buyuk Britaniya o'z e'tiborini G'arbiy Hindiston, chunki shakar orollarini himoya qilish o'n uchta koloniyani tiklashga urinishdan ko'ra muhimroq edi. Frantsiya va Ispaniya Britaniya orollarini o'zlari bilan bosib olishni rejalashtirdilar 1779 yil Armada, ammo operatsiya hech qachon davom etmadi.

Amerikaning isyonchilariga Frantsiyaning dastlabki harbiy yordami umidsizlikka uchradi, mag'lubiyatlar Rod-Aylend va Savana. 1780 yilda Frantsiya yubordi Rochambeau va Grass katta quruqlik va dengiz kuchlari bilan birga amerikaliklarga yordam berish. The Frantsiya ekspeditsiya kuchlari Shimoliy Amerikaga 1780 yil iyulda kelgan. Karib dengizida frantsuz flotining paydo bo'lishi bir qator shakar orollarini, shu jumladan Tobago va Grenada.^[29] 1781 yil oktyabrda Frantsiya harbiy-dengiz blokadasi ingliz qo'shinini majburan majburlashda muhim rol o'ynadi Kornuollis taslim bo'lish Yorktown qurshovi.^[30] Bu xabar 1782 yil martda Londonga etib kelganida, hukumat Lord Shimoliy qulab tushdi va Buyuk Britaniya darhol tinchlik shartlarini sudga berdi; ammo, Frantsiya Hindiston va G'arbiy Hindistondagi ko'proq ingliz mustamlakalarini bosib olish umidida urush tugashini 1783 yil sentyabrgacha qoldirdi.

Buyuk Britaniya o'n uchta mustamlakaning mustaqilligini Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari deb tan oldi va Frantsiya urush vazirligi o'z armiyasini tikladi. Biroq, inglizlar 1782 yilda asosiy frantsuz flotini mag'lub etdi va muvaffaqiyatli himoya qildi Yamayka va Gibraltar. Fransiya 1783 yilda urushni tugatgan Parij shartnomasidan ozgina foyda oldi, faqat Tobago va Senegal mustamlakalaridan tashqari. Lyudovik XVI Kanadani, Hindistonni va G'arbiy Hindistondagi boshqa orollarni Buyuk Britaniyadan qutqarish maqsadidan butunlay hafsalasi pir bo'lgan, chunki ular juda yaxshi himoyalangan va Qirollik floti materik Britaniyaga istilo qilinishini imkonsiz qilib qo'ygan. Urush 1 066 millionga tushdi livralar, yuqori foizli yangi soliqlar hisobidan moliyalashtiriladi (yangi soliqlarsiz). Nekker inqirozni oddiy daromadlarning oddiy xarajatlardan oshib ketishini tushuntirish bilan va kreditlar haqida gapirmasdan jamoatchilikdan yashirdi. 1781 yilda u lavozimidan majburlanganidan so'ng, yangi soliqlar undirildi.^[31]

Frantsiyani Evropa ishlarida neytral pozitsiyani qabul qilmasdan Amerikaga bu aralashuvni amalga oshirish mumkin emas edi, chunki bu qit'a urushiga jalb qilinmaslik edi, bu shunchaki frantsuz siyosatidagi xatolarni takrorlash edi. Etti yillik urush. Qirol Lui tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan Vergennes, Avstriyani 1778 yilda Bavariya merosxo'rlik inqirozida Avstriyani qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun urushga borishdan bosh tortdi. Muqaddas Rim imperatori Jozef Bavariyaning bir qismini boshqarishga urindi. Vergennes va Maurepas Avstriyaning pozitsiyasini qo'llab-quvvatlashdan bosh tortdilar, ammo Mari Antuanetning Avstriya foydasiga aralashuvi Frantsiyani Avstriyaga nisbatan maqbul pozitsiyani egallashga majbur qildi. Teschen shartnomasi aholisi 100 ming kishini tashkil etgan hududni tovon puli sifatida olgan. Biroq, bu aralashuv qirolicha obro'si uchun halokat bo'ldi "l'Autrichienne"(frantsuz tilida" avstriyalik "degan ma'noni anglatadi, ammo" chienne "qo'shimchasi" kaltak "ma'nosini anglatishi mumkin).^[32]

Osiyo haqida

Louis XVI beryapti La Perus uning ko'rsatmalari, tomonidan Nikolas-Andre Monsiau

Lyudovik XVI Amerika inqilobiy urushidan inglizlarni Hindistondan chiqarib yuborish imkoniyati sifatida foydalanishga umid qildi.^[27] 1782 yilda u bilan ittifoq tuzdi Peshva Madxu Rao Narayan. Natijada, Bussy qo'shinlarini Fransiya oroli (hozir Mavrikiy ) va keyinchalik 1783 yilda frantsuzlarning Hindistondagi harakatlariga hissa qo'shdi.^[27][33] Sufren ning ittifoqchisiga aylandi Hyder Ali ichida Ikkinchi Angliya-Misur urushi Hindistondagi inglizlar hukmronligiga qarshi, 1782–1783 yillarda, Hindiston va qirg'oqlari bo'ylab ingliz flotiga qarshi kurash olib bordi Seylon.^[34][35]

Frantsiya ham aralashdi Cochinchina quyidagi Mgr Pigneau de Bheaine harbiy yordam olish uchun aralashish. Frantsiya-Cochinchina ittifoqi imzolandi 1787 yildagi Versal shartnomasi, Louis XVI va shahzoda o'rtasida Nguyen Anh.^[36]

Lyudovik XVI, shuningdek, razvedkaning katta sayohatlarini rag'batlantirdi. 1785 yilda u tayinladi La Perus butun dunyo bo'ylab suzib yurish ekspeditsiyasini boshqarish. (La Perez va uning parki ketgandan keyin g'oyib bo'ldi Botanika ko'rfazi 1788 yil mart oyida. Lui o'ldirilgan kuni ertalab "La Peruzening biron bir xabari bormi?" deb so'raganligi yozilgan.)^[37]

1789–1792 yillarda inqilobiy konstitutsiyaviy hukmronlik

Lyudovik XVI ning konstitutsiyaviy monarx bo'lgan davri bo'yicha stipendiyalar etishmayapti, garchi bu juda uzoq vaqt bo'lgan bo'lsa ham. Ko'pgina biograflarning qirol hayotining bu davrida nima uchun batafsil ma'lumot bermaganligi sababi, uning bu davrdagi harakatlari bilan bog'liq bo'lgan noaniqlik bilan bog'liq, chunki Lyudovik XVI Tileriyada qoldirilgan deklaratsiyasida uning harakatlarini konstitutsiyaviy hukmronlik davrida ko'rib chiqqanligi vaqtincha; u o'zining "saroyi qamoqxona" ekanligini aks ettirdi. Ushbu muddat muassasa so'nggi so'nggi daqiqalarida muhokama qilinishini namoyish etish bilan namuna bo'ldi.^[38]

Lyudovik XVI avvalgi saroyida bo'lgan vaqt 1789 yil 5-oktabrda, Parijdagi ishchi erkaklar va ayollarning g'azablangan to'dasi inqilobchilar tomonidan qo'zg'atilganida tugadi. yurish qildi ustida Versal saroyi, qirol oilasi yashagan joyda. Tong otgach, ular saroyga kirib kelishdi va qirolichani o'ldirishga urinishdi, u mensimagan hayotning ramzi bo'lgan beparvo hayot tarzi bilan bog'liq edi. Ancien Regim. Vaziyat yumshatilgandan so'ng Lafayet, boshlig'i Garde milliy, shoh va uning oilasini olomon olib kelishdi Tuileries saroyi Parijda, agar shoh Parijda ular orasida yashasa, odamlar oldida ko'proq javobgar bo'ladi, degan fikr.

Bittasi Louis d'or 1788 yil, Lyudovik XVI tasvirlangan

Inqilobning xalq suvereniteti tamoyillari, keyingi davrlarning demokratik tamoyillari markazida bo'lsa-da, ko'p asrlik printsipidan qat'iy ravishda chiqib ketdi. ilohiy huquq bu frantsuz monarxiyasining markazida edi. Natijada, inqilobga Frantsiyaning ko'plab qishloq aholisi va Frantsiyaga qo'shni barcha hukumatlar qarshi turishdi. Shunga qaramay, Parij shahri ichida va ko'pchilik Milliy Majlis a'zolari bo'lgan o'sha davr faylasuflari orasida monarxiya hech qanday yordamga ega emas edi. Inqilob tobora radikallashib, omma boshqarib bo'lmaydigan darajada bo'lganida, inqilobning bir qator etakchi arboblari uning foydalaridan shubha qila boshladilar. Ba'zilar, shunga o'xshash Honoré Mirabeau, yangi kuchini tiklash uchun toj bilan yashirincha fitna uyushtirdi konstitutsiyaviy shakl.

1791 yildan boshlab, Montmorin, Tashqi ishlar vaziri, inqilobiy kuchlarga yashirin qarshilik ko'rsatishni boshladi. Shunday qilib, .ning mablag'lari Liste Fuqarolik Milliy assambleya tomonidan har yili ovoz berib, qisman monarxiyani saqlab qolish uchun maxfiy xarajatlarga ajratilgan. Arnault Laport Fuqarolik ro'yxatiga mas'ul bo'lgan Montmorin va Mirabeau bilan hamkorlik qildi. Miraboning to'satdan vafotidan so'ng, Maximilien Radix de Saint-Foix, taniqli moliyachi uning o'rnini egalladi. Aslida u Lyuad XVI monarxiyani saqlab qolishga harakat qilgan maxfiy maslahatchilar kengashini boshqargan; ushbu sxemalar muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lib chiqdi va keyinchalik paydo bo'ldi armoire de fer topildi. Frantsiya duch kelgan moliyaviy qiyinchiliklarga kelsak, Assambleya Komissiyasini tashkil qildi va Lui XVI iqtisodiy vaziyatni to'g'rilashdan tashvish va manfaatdorligini e'lon qilishga urinib ko'rdi, shu jumladan dramatik o'lchov sifatida toj kumushini eritishni taklif qildi, ammo jamoatchilikka qirol bunday bayonotlar endi avvalgi ma'noga ega emasligini va bunday ishni qilish mamlakat iqtisodiyotini tiklay olmasligini tushunmadi.^[38]

Miraboning 7 aprelda vafot etishi va Lyudovik XVIning qat'iyatsizligi toj va mo''tadil siyosatchilar o'rtasidagi muzokaralarni o'ta zaiflashtirdi. Uchinchi mulk rahbarlari, shuningdek, o'sha paytdagi siyosatni o'zgartirish uchun qilgan qattiq harakatlaridan keyin orqaga burilishni yoki mo''tadil bo'lishni xohlamadilar va shuning uchun konstitutsiyaviy monarxiya rejalari uzoq davom etmadi. Bir tomondan, Lui hech qachon uning ukalari singari reaktsionerlarga o'xshamas edi Comte de Provence^{[iqtibos kerak ]} va comte d'Artois va u ularga qarshi to'ntarishlarni amalga oshirishga bo'lgan urinishlarini to'xtatishni so'rab bir necha bor xabar yubordi. Bu ko'pincha uning yashirin nomzodi regent orqali qilingan Kardinal Lomeni de Brien. Boshqa tomondan, Lui yangi demokratik hukumatdan monarxning an'anaviy roliga bo'lgan salbiy munosabati bilan ham, unga va uning oilasiga bo'lgan munosabatidan ham chetlandi. U, ayniqsa, Tilerilerdagi mahbus sifatida saqlanayotgani va yangi rejimning Rim-katolik cherkovi emas, balki davlatga "konstitutsiyaviy ruhoniylar" ga emas, balki tanlagan taniqli ruhoniylari va ruhoniylariga ega bo'lishiga ruxsat bermaganligi uni juda g'azablantirdi. .

Varennesga parvoz (1791)

1792 yil XVI Lyudovikning rangtasvir bilan bo'yalganligi. Izohda sana ko'rsatilgan Tennis kortiga qasamyod va shunday xulosaga keladi: "Yashirin urushni rejalashtirish va uning qasosini olish uchun o'z vatandoshlari o'z o'choqlariga qaytguncha jasorat bilan kutayotgan o'sha Lyudovik XVI".

1791 yil 21-iyunda Lyudovik XVI oilasi bilan yashirincha Parijdan qirollik qal'asi shaharchasiga qochishga urindi. Montmedi Frantsiyaning shimoliy-sharqiy chegarasida, u erda u qo'shilish kerak edi muhojirlar va Avstriya tomonidan himoya qilinadi. Safarni shved zodagonlari rejalashtirgan va ko'pincha qirolicha Mari-Antuanetaning maxfiy sevgilisi deb taxmin qilgan, Aksel fon Fersen.^[39][40]

Milliy Majlis konstitutsiya yo'lida astoydil harakat qilgan bo'lsa, Lui va Mari-Antuanet o'zlarining rejalarida qatnashdilar. Lui tayinlagan edi Bretuil aksilinqilobni amalga oshirish maqsadida boshqa xorijiy davlatlar rahbarlari bilan muomala qilib, vakolatli shaxs sifatida qatnashish. Lui o'zi chet el yordamiga qarshi rezervatsiya qildi. Uning onasi va otasi singari u ham avstriyaliklarni xiyonatkor va prusslar haddan tashqari ambitsiyali deb o'ylardi.^[41] Parijda ziddiyatlar ko'tarilib, unga Assambleyadan o'z xohish-irodasiga qarshi choralar ko'rishga majbur qilishganda, Lyudovik XVI va malika Frantsiyadan yashirincha qochib ketishni rejalashtirishdi. Qochishdan tashqari, ular yordamida "qurolli kongress" o'tkazishga umid qilishdi muhojirlar, shuningdek, ular qaytib kelishi va aslida Frantsiyani qaytarib olishlari mumkin bo'lgan boshqa xalqlarning yordami. Rejalashtirishning bunday darajasi Luisning siyosiy qat'iyatliligini ochib beradi, ammo aynan shu qat'iy fitna uchun u oxir-oqibat davlatga xiyonat qilganlikda aybdor deb topildi.^[42] U (to'shagida) 16 sahifali yozma manifestni qoldirdi, Deklaratsiya du roi, adressée à tous les François, à sa sortie de Parij,^[43] an'anaviy sifatida Louis XVIning vasiyatnomasi ("Lui XVI siyosiy vasiyatnomasi"), uning konstitutsiyaviy tuzumdan voz kechishini noqonuniy deb tushuntirib bergan; u gazetalarda bosilgan. Biroq, uning qat'iyatliligi, ko'plab kechikishlar va Frantsiyani tushunmaslik qochishning muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lishiga sabab bo'ldi. 24 soat ichida qirol oilasi hibsga olingan Varennes-en-Argonne ko'p o'tmay Jan-Batist Druet, qirolni o'z profilidan 50 livrda tanigan tayinlash^[44] (qog'oz pul), ogohlantirish bergan edi. Lyudovik XVI va uning oilasi Parijga olib ketildi, u erga 25 iyun kuni etib kelishdi. Shubhali xoinlar sifatida qaralib, ularni mahkam ushladilar uy qamog'i ular Tilereyga qaytib kelgandan keyin.^[45]

Shaxsiy darajada qochish rejalarining muvaffaqiyatsizligi bir qator noto'g'ri xatti-harakatlar, kechikishlar, noto'g'ri talqinlar va noto'g'ri qarorlar tufayli yuzaga keldi.^[46] Kengroq nuqtai nazardan, bu muvaffaqiyatsizlikka shohning qat'iyatsizligi sabab bo'lgan - u kichik muammolarning og'irlashishiga yo'l qo'yib, jadvalni bir necha bor qoldirgan. Bundan tashqari, u siyosiy vaziyatni umuman noto'g'ri tushungan. U Parijdagi oz sonli radikallargina butun xalq rad etgan inqilobni targ'ib qilmoqda deb o'ylardi. U yanglishib, sub'ektlari tomonidan sevimli deb o'ylardi.^[47] Qisqa muddatda qirolning parvozi Frantsiya uchun shikast etkazdi, u xavotirdan zo'ravonlikgacha vahimagacha bo'lgan hissiyotlar to'lqini qo'zg'atdi. Har bir inson urush yaqinligini tushundi. Qirol haqiqatan ham inqilobni rad etganini chuqur anglash, shu vaqtgacha uni Xudoning irodasining namoyon bo'lishi sifatida boshqargan yaxshi podshoh sifatida ko'rgan odamlar uchun yanada katta zarba bo'ldi. Ular xiyonat qilishni his qilishdi va natijada Respublikachilik Endi kofexonalardan chiqib ketishdi va tez radikallashgan Frantsiya inqilobining hukmron falsafasiga aylandi.^[48]

Chet davlatlarning aralashuvi

1791 yil 25-iyunda qirollik oilasining Parijga qaytishi, Jan-Lui Pyorning rasmidan so'ng rangli mis plitalar.

Evropaning boshqa monarxiyalari Frantsiyadagi voqealarga xavotir bilan qarashdi va ular Lui tarafdori bo'ladimi yoki Frantsiyadagi betartiblikdan foydalanib aralashadimi, yo'qmi deb o'ylashdi. Asosiy figurani Mari-Antuanetaning ukasi, Muqaddas Rim imperatori edi Leopold II. Dastlab u inqilobga tengdoshlik bilan qaragan edi. Biroq, u tobora radikallashib borayotganligi sababli u yanada ko'proq bezovta bo'ldi. Shunga qaramay, u hali ham urushdan qochishga umid qilar edi.

27 avgustda Leopold va Prussiyalik Frederik Uilyam II bilan maslahatlashgan holda muhojirlar Frantsiya zodagonlari tomonidan chiqarilgan Pillnits deklaratsiyasi Evropa monarxlarining Lui va uning oilasi farovonligidan manfaatdorligini e'lon qildi va agar ularga biror narsa tushsa noaniq, ammo og'ir oqibatlarga tahdid qildi. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as an easy way to appear concerned about the developments in France without committing any soldiers or finances to change them, the revolutionary leaders in Paris viewed it fearfully as a dangerous foreign attempt to undermine France's sovereignty.

In addition to the ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, there were continuing disputes over the status of Austrian estates in Elzas, and the concern of members of the Milliy Ta'sis yig'ilishi about the agitation of muhojirlar nobles abroad, especially in the Avstriya Niderlandiyasi and the minor states of Germany.

The Storming of the Tuileries Palace, on 10 August 1792 (Musée de la Revolution française )

Oxir-oqibat Qonunchilik majlisi, supported by Louis XVI, declared war on Austria ("the King of Bohemia and Hungary") first, voting for war on 20 April 1792, after a long list of grievances was presented to it by the foreign minister, Charlz Fransua Dumouris. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the Revolution had thoroughly disorganised the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. The soldiers fled at the first sign of battle and, in one case, on 28 April 1792, murdered their general, Irish-born komte Théobald de Dillon, ular xoinlikda aybladilar.^[49]

While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganised its armies, a Prussian-Austrian army under Charlz Uilyam Ferdinand, Brunsvik gersogi yig'ilgan Koblenz ustida Reyn. In July, the invasion began, with Brunswick's army easily taking the fortresses of Longvi va Verdun. The duke then issued on 25 July a proclamation called the Brunsvik manifesti, written by Louis's émigré cousin, the Shahzoda de Kond, declaring the intent of the Austrians and Prussians to restore the king to his full powers and to treat any person or town who opposed them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.

Contrary to its intended purpose of strengthening Louis XVI's position against the revolutionaries, the Brunswick Manifesto had the opposite effect of greatly undermining his already highly tenuous position. It was taken by many to be the final proof of collusion between the king and foreign powers in a conspiracy against his own country. The anger of the populace boiled over on 10 avgust when an armed mob – with the backing of a new municipal government of Paris that came to be known as the Insurrectional Parij kommunasi – marched upon and invaded the Tuileries Palace. The royal family took shelter with the Legislative Assembly.

Imprisonment, execution and burial, 1792–1793

Louis XVI imprisoned at the Tour du Temple, tomonidan Jan-Fransua Garneray (1755–1837)

Louis was officially arrested on 13 August 1792 and sent to the Ma'bad, an ancient fortress in Paris that was used as a prison. On 21 September, the National Assembly declared France to be a Republic, and monarxiyani bekor qildi. Louis was stripped of all of his titles and honors, and from this date was known as Citoyen Louis Capet.

The Jirondinlar were partial to keeping the deposed king under arrest, both as a hostage and a guarantee for the future. Members of the Commune and the most radical deputies, who would soon form the group known as tog ', argued for Louis's immediate execution. The legal background of many of the deputies made it difficult for a great number of them to accept an execution without the qonunning tegishli jarayoni, and it was voted that the deposed monarch be tried before the National Convention, the organ that housed the representatives of the sovereign people. In many ways, the former king's trial represented the trial of the monarchy by the revolution. It was seen as if with the death of one came the life of the other. Tarixchi Jyul Mishel later argued that the death of the former king led to the acceptance of violence as a tool for happiness. He said, "If we accept the proposition that one person can be sacrificed for the happiness of the many, it will soon be demonstrated that two or three or more could also be sacrificed for the happiness of the many. Little by little, we will find reasons for sacrificing the many for the happiness of the many, and we will think it was a bargain."^[50]

Two events led up to the trial for Louis XVI. First, after the Valmi jangi on 22 September 1792, General Dumouriez negotiated with the Prussians who evacuated France. Louis could no longer be considered a hostage or as leverage in negotiations with the invading forces.^[51] Second, in November 1792, the armoire de fer (iron chest) incident took place at the Tuileries Palace, when the existence of the hidden safe in the king's bedroom containing compromising documents and correspondence, was revealed by François Gamain, the Versailles locksmith who had installed it. Gaiman went to Paris on 20 November and told Jan-Mari Roland, Girondinist Minister of the Interior, who ordered it opened.^[52] The resulting scandal served to discredit the king. Following these two events the Girondins could no longer keep the king from trial.^[51]

On 11 December, among crowded and silent streets, the deposed king was brought from the Temple to stand before the convention and hear his indictment, an accusation of xiyonat and crimes against the State. On 26 December, his counsel, Raymond Desez, delivered Louis's response to the charges, with the assistance of Fransua Tronxet va Malesherbes. Before the trial started and Louis mounted his defense to the convention, he told his lawyers that he knew he would be found guilty and be killed, but to prepare and act as though they could win. He was resigned to and accepted his fate before the verdict was determined, but he was willing to fight to be remembered as a good king for his people.^[53]

The convention would be voting on three questions: first, Is Louis guilty; second, whatever the decision, should there be an appeal to the people; and third, if found guilty, what punishment should Louis suffer? The order of the voting on each question was a compromise within the Jacobin movement between the Girondins and Mountain; neither were satisfied but both accepted.^[54]

Execution of Louis XVI in the Revolyutsiya maydoni. The empty pedestal in front of him had supported an equestrian statue of his grandfather, Louis XV. When the monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792, the statue was torn down and sent to be melted.

On 15 January 1793, the convention, composed of 721 deputies, voted on the verdict. Given the overwhelming evidence of Louis's collusion with the invaders, the verdict was a foregone conclusion – with 693 deputies voting guilty, none for acquittal, with 23 abstaining.^[55] The next day, a roll-call vote was carried out to decide upon the fate of the former king, and the result was uncomfortably close for such a dramatic decision. 288 of the deputies voted against death and for some other alternative, mainly some means of imprisonment or exile. 72 of the deputies voted for the death penalty, but subject to several delaying conditions and reservations. The voting took a total of 36 hours.^[54] 361 of the deputies voted for Louis's immediate execution. Louis was condemned to death by a majority of one vote. Filipp Egalite, formerly the Duke of Orléans and Louis's cousin, voted for Louis's execution, a cause of much future bitterness among French monarchists; he would himself be guillotined on the same scaffold, Revolyutsiya maydoni, before the end of the same year, on 6 November 1793.^[56]

The next day, a motion to grant Louis XVI reprieve from the death sentence was voted down: 310 of the deputies requested mercy, but 380 voted for the immediate execution of the death penalty. This decision would be final. Malesherbes wanted to break the news to Louis and bitterly lamented the verdict, but Louis told him he would see him again in a happier life and he would regret leaving a friend like Malesherbes behind. The last thing Louis said to him was that he needed to control his tears because all eyes would be upon him.^[57]

	Paul Wranitzky: "Funeral March for the Death of King Louis XVI" from the Symphony Op. 31 "The Revolution" or "La Paix", Mov. 2 Pt. 2018-04-02 121 2. Porticodoro / SmartCGArt Media Productions - Klassik orkestr.
Ushbu faylni o'ynatishda muammo bormi? Qarang ommaviy axborot vositalarida yordam.

On Monday, 21 January 1793, Louis XVI, at age 38, was beheaded by gilyotin ustida Revolyutsiya maydoni. As Louis XVI mounted the scaffold, he appeared dignified and resigned. He delivered a short speech in which he pardoned "...those who are the cause of my death.... ".^[58] He then declared himself innocent of the crimes of which he was accused, praying that his blood would not fall back on France.^[59] Many accounts suggest Louis XVI's desire to say more, but Antoine-Joseph Santerre, general Milliy gvardiya, halted the speech by ordering a drum roll. The former king was then quickly beheaded.^[60] Some accounts of Louis's beheading indicate that the blade did not sever his neck entirely the first time. There are also accounts of a blood-curdling scream issuing from Louis after the blade fell but this is unlikely, since the blade severed Louis's spine. The executioner, Charlz Anri Sanson, testified that the former king had bravely met his fate.^[61]

Immediately after his execution, Louis XVI's corpse was transported in a cart to the nearby Madelein qabristoni, joylashgan rue d'Anjou, where those guillotined at the Revolyutsiya maydoni were buried in mass graves. Before his burial, a short religious service was held in the Madeleine church (destroyed in 1799) by two priests who had sworn allegiance to the Ruhoniylarning fuqarolik konstitutsiyasi. Afterward, Louis XVI, his severed head placed between his feet, was buried in an unmarked grave, with ohak spread over his body.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} The Madeleine cemetery was closed in 1794. In 1815 Louis XVIII had the remains of his brother Louis XVI and of his sister-in-law, Marie-Antoinette transferred and buried in the Aziz Denis Bazilikasi, the Royal necropolis of the Kings and Queens of France. Between 1816 and 1826, a commemorative monument, the Chapelle expiatoire, was erected at the location of the former cemetery and church.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

While Louis's blood dripped to the ground, several onlookers ran forward to dip their handkerchiefs in it.^[62] This account was proven true in 2012 after a DNA comparison linked blood thought to be from Louis XVI's beheading to DNA taken from tissue samples originating from what was long thought to be the mummified head of his ancestor, Frantsiyalik Genrix IV. The blood sample was taken from a squash gourd carved to commemorate the heroes of the French Revolution that had, according to legend, been used to house one of the handkerchiefs dipped in Louis's blood.^[63]

Meros

Memorial to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, sculptures by Edme Goll va Per Petitot ichida Sen-Deniy bazilikasi

19-asr tarixchisi Jyul Mishel attributed the restoration of the French monarchy to the sympathy that had been engendered by the execution of Louis XVI. Michelet's Histoire de la Révolution Française va Alphonse de Lamartine "s Histoire des Girondins, in particular, showed the marks of the feelings aroused by the revolution's regicide. The two writers did not share the same sociopolitical vision, but they agreed that, even though the monarchy was rightly ended in 1792, the lives of the royal family should have been spared. Lack of compassion at that moment contributed to a radicalization of revolutionary violence and to greater divisiveness among Frenchmen. For the 20th century novelist Albert Kamyu the execution signaled the end of the role of God in history, for which he mourned. For the 20th century philosopher Jan-Fransua Lyotard the regicide was the starting point of all French thought, the memory of which acts as a reminder that French modernity began under the sign of a crime.^[64]

The Duchess of Angoulême at the deathbed of Genri Essex Edgevort, last confessor to Louis XVI, by Alexandre-Toussaint Menjaud, 1817

Louis's daughter, Mari-Teres-Sharlot, the future Duchess of Angoulême, survived the French Revolution, and she lobbied in Rome energetically for the canonization of her father as a saint of the Catholic Church. Despite his signing of the "Civil Constitution of the Clergy", Louis had been described as a martyr by Pope Pius VI in 1793.^[65] In 1820, however, a memorandum of the Congregation of Rites in Rome, declaring the impossibility of proving that Louis had been executed for religious rather than political reasons, put an end to hopes of canonization.

Other commemorations of Louis XVI include:

• The C minor-da rekvizit for mixed chorus by Luidji Cherubini was written in 1816, in memory of Louis XVI.
• Pol Vranitski 's Symphony Op. 31, which is themed on the events of the French Revolution, includes a section titled "The Funeral March for the Death of the King Louis XVI".
• Shahar Louisville, Kentucky, is named for Louis XVI. In 1780, the Virjiniya Bosh assambleyasi bestowed this name in honor of the French king, whose soldiers were aiding the American side in the Inqilobiy urush. The Virginia General Assembly saw the King as a noble man, but many other Continental delegates disagreed.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} (At that time, Kentukki ning bir qismi edi Virjiniya Hamdo'stligi. Kentucky became the 15th Qo'shma Shtatlarning shtati in 1792.)

Kino va adabiyotda

King Louis XVI has been portrayed in numerous films. Yilda Gvardiya kapitani (1930), he is played by Styuart Xolms. Yilda Mari Antuanetta (1938), he was played by Robert Morley. Jan-Fransua Balmer portrayed him in the 1989 two-part miniseries La Révolution française. More recently, he was depicted in the 2006 film Mari Antuanetta tomonidan Jeyson Shvartsman. Yilda Sacha Gitri "s Si Versal m'était conté, Louis was portrayed by one of the film's producers, Gilbert Bokanowski, using the alias Gilbert Boka. Several portrayals have upheld the image of a bumbling, almost foolish king, such as that by Jak Morel in the 1956 French film Mari-Antuanette reine de France and that by Terence Budd ichida Lady Oskar live action film. Yilda Mensiz inqilobni boshlang, Louis XVI is portrayed by Xyu Griffit as a laughable cuckold. Mel Bruks played a comic version of Louis XVI in The History of the World Part 1, portraying him as a erkinlik who has such distaste for the peasantry he uses them as targets in stenddan o'q otish. 1996 yilda filmda Masxara; Urbeyn Kanslier plays Louis.

Louis XVI has been the subject of novels as well, including two of the muqobil tarixlar antologiya qilingan If It Had Happened Otherwise (1931): "If Drouet's Cart Had Stuck" by Hilaire Belloc and "If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness" by André Maurois, which tell very different stories but both imagine Louis surviving and still reigning in the early 19th century. Louis appears in the bolalar kitobi Ben va men tomonidan Robert Louson but does not appear in the 1953 animatsion qisqa metrajli film based on the same book.

Ajdodlar

Larmuseau et al. (2013)^[66] tested the Y-DNA of three living members of the House of Bourbon, one descending from Louis XIII of France via King Louis Philippe I, and two from Louis XIV via Philip V of Spain, and concluded that all three men share the same STR haplotype and belonged to Haplogroup_R1b (R-M343). The three individuals were further assigned to sub-haplogroup R1b1b2a1a1b* (R-Z381*). These results contradicted an earlier DNA analysis of a handkerchief dipped in the presumptive blood of Louis XVI after his execution performed by Laluez-Fo et al. (2010).^[67]

Sarlavhalar, uslublar, sharaflar va qurollar

Qirollik uslublari Lyudovik XVI Par la grâce de Dieu, Roi de France et de Navarre
Yo'naltiruvchi uslub	Uning Eng xristian ulug'vorligi
Og'zaki uslub	Your Most Christian Majesty

Sarlavhalar va uslublar

• 23 August 1754 – 20 December 1765: Oliy shoh hazratlari Berri gersogi
• 20 December 1765 – 10 May 1774: Oliy shoh hazratlari The Dauphin of France
• 10 May 1774 – 4 September 1791: His Most Christian Majesty The King of France
• 4 September 1791 – 21 September 1792: Janobi Oliylari The King of the French
• 21 September 1792 – 21 January 1793: Citizen Louis Capet

Louis's formal style before the revolution was "Louis XVI, par la grâce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre", or "Louis XVI, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre".

Hurmat

•  Frantsiya: The Knight Muqaddas Ruh buyrug'i, 2 February 1767
•  Ispaniya: The Knight Oltin Fleece ordeni, 27 July 1761

Qurollar

Coat of arms of Louis XVI

Izohlar Upon his accession to the throne Louis assumed the qirollik gerbi of France & Navarre.[68] Qabul qilingan 1774–1793 Crest The Royal crown of France Helm An opened gold helmet, with blue and gold mantling. Eskutcheon Azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orle Or an emerald Proper (for Navarre). Qo'llab-quvvatlovchilar The two supporters are two angels, acting as xabarchilar for the two realms. The dexter angel carries a standard with the arms of France, and wearing a tabard with the same arms. The sinister angel also carries a standard and wears a tabard, but that of Navarre. Both are standing on puffs of cloud. Shiori The motto is written in gold on a blue ribbon: MONTJOIE SAINT DENIS the war cry of France, Sankt-Denis was also the abbey where the oriflamme saqlanib qoldi. Buyurtmalar The escutcheons are surrounded first by the chain of the Aziz Mayklning ordeni and by the chain of the Muqaddas Ruh buyrug'i, both were known as the ordres du roi. Boshqa elementlar Above all is a pavilion armoyé with the Royal crown. From it, is a royal blue mantle with a semis of fleurs-de-lis Or, lined on the inside with ermine. Banner Royal standard of the king

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Tashqi havolalar

• Lyudovik XVI da Britannica entsiklopediyasi
• Full text of writings of Louis XVI in Ball State University's Digital Media Repository
• Works by or about Louis XVI kutubxonalarda (WorldCat katalog)