Ilon - Snake

Ilonlar Vaqtinchalik diapazon: Kechki bo'r – Hozir,[1] 94–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D. C P T J K Pg N
Ilmiy tasnif
Qirollik:	Animalia
Filum:	Chordata
Sinf:	Reptiliya
Buyurtma:	Squamata
Klade:	Ofidiya
Suborder:	Ilonlar Linney, 1758
Buzilishlar
Aletinofidiya Nopcsa, 1923 yil Skolekofidiya Cope, 1864 yil
Barcha turdagi ilonlarning dunyo miqyosida taqsimlanishi

Ilonlar cho'zilgan, oyoqsiz, yirtqich sudralib yuruvchilar ning suborder Ilonlar /s.rˈpɛntiːz/.^[2] Boshqalar singari skuamatlar, ilonlar bor ektotermik, amniot umurtqali hayvonlar bir-birining ustiga yopishgan tarozi. Ko'p turdagi ilonlar mavjud bosh suyaklari ularning kaltakesak ajdodlariga qaraganda bir nechta bo'g'imlarga ega bo'lib, ularga boshlaridan ancha kattaroq o'ljani yutishlariga imkon beradi yuqori harakatchan jag'lar. Ularning tor tanalarini joylashtirish uchun ilonlarning juftlashgan a'zolari (masalan, buyraklar) yonma-yon o'rniga bir-birining oldiga chiqadi va ko'pchiligida faqat bitta funktsionallik mavjud o'pka. Ba'zi turlari a tos kamari jufti bilan tarixiy Ikkala tomonning tirnoqlari kloaka. Kertenkeleler orqali mustaqil ravishda yigirma besh marta oyoq-qo'llari bo'lmagan yoki juda qisqargan oyoq-qo'llari bo'lgan uzaygan tanalar rivojlangan konvergent evolyutsiya, ko'plab nasllarga olib keladi oyoqsiz kaltakesaklar.^[3] Oyoqsiz kaltakesaklar ilonga o'xshaydi, ammo oyoqsiz kaltakesaklarning bir nechta umumiy guruhlari ko'z qovoqlari va tashqi quloqlariga ega, bularga ilonlar etishmayapti, ammo bu qoida universal emas (qarang. Amfisbaeniya, Dibamidae va Pygopodidae ).

Tirik ilonlar Antarktidadan tashqari barcha qit'alarda va aksariyat kichikroq quruqliklarda uchraydi; istisnolar qatoriga Irlandiya, Islandiya, Grenlandiya, kabi ba'zi katta orollar kiradi Gavayi arxipelagi va Yangi Zelandiya orollari va Atlantika va Markaziy Tinch okeanining ko'plab kichik orollari.^[4] Qo'shimcha ravishda, dengiz ilonlari Hind va Tinch okeanlari bo'ylab keng tarqalgan. 20 dan ortiq oilalar hozirda tan olingan, taxminan 520 dan iborat avlodlar va taxminan 3,600 turlari.^[5][6] Ularning o'lchamlari mayda, 10,4 sm (4,1 dyuym) uzunlikdan farq qiladi Barbados ipi ilon^[7] uchun retikulyatsiya qilingan piton uzunligi 6,95 metr (22,8 fut).^[8] Fotoalbom turlari Titanoboa cerrejonensis uzunligi 12,8 metr (42 fut) bo'lgan.^[9] Ilonlar, ehtimol, paytida yoki burrow yoki suvda yashovchi kaltakesaklardan rivojlangan deb o'ylashadi Yura davri 143 yildan 167 yilgacha bo'lgan eng qadimgi toshqotganliklar bilan Ma oldin.^[10] Zamonaviy ilonlarning xilma-xilligi paydo bo'lgan Paleotsen davr (v 66 dan 56 yil oldin, keyin Bo'r-paleogen yo'q bo'lib ketish hodisasi ). Ilonlarning saqlanib qolgan eng qadimgi tavsiflarini Bruklin papirusi.

Aksariyat turlar zararsiz va mavjud bo'lganlardir zahar undan o'zini himoya qilish uchun emas, balki birinchi navbatda o'ljani o'ldirish va bo'ysundirish uchun foydalaning. Ba'zilar odamlarga og'riqli shikast etkazish yoki o'limga olib keladigan darajada kuchli zaharga ega. Yomon bo'lmagan ilonlar o'ljani tiriklayin yutadi yoki o'ldiradi torayish.

Etimologiya

Inglizcha so'z ilon dan keladi Qadimgi ingliz snaka, o'zi Proto-german * snak-an- (qarang German Shnake "halqa ilon", shved snok "o't ilon"), dan Proto-hind-evropa ildiz * (lar) nēg-o- "sudralib yurish", "sudralib yurish", bu ham berdi yashirincha shu qatorda; shu bilan birga Sanskritcha naga "ilon".^[11] So'z quvib chiqarildi qo'shimchalar, kabi qo'shimchalar tor ingliz tilida bo'lsa-da, tor ma'noga o'tdi næddre ilon uchun umumiy so'z edi.^[12] Boshqa muddat, ilon, frantsuz tilidan, oxir-oqibat hind-evropadan * serp- (sudralib yurish uchun),^[13] bu ham berdi Qadimgi yunoncha erpō (ἕrπω) "Men emaklayapman".

Evolyutsiya

Ilonlarning qoldiqlari nisbatan yomon, chunki ilon skeletlari topildi odatda kichik va mo'rt hosil bo'ladi fotoalbomlashuv kam uchraydigan. Fosil qoldiqlari ilon sifatida aniqlanishi mumkin (garchi ko'pincha orqa oyoq-qo'llarini ushlab tursa ham) fotoalbomlarda birinchi marta Bo'r davr.^[15] Ilonning eng qadimgi qoldiqlari (Serpentes toj guruhi a'zolari) dengizdan olingan simolyofidlar, eng qadimgi Kechki bo'r (Senomiyalik yosh) Haasiophis terrasanctus,^[1] 112 yoshdan 94 million yoshgacha bo'lgan.^[16]

Asoslangan qiyosiy anatomiya, ilonlar kelib chiqqanligi haqida kelishuv mavjud kaltakesaklar.^[17]:11[18] Pitonlar va boas - zamonaviy ilonlar orasida mavjud bo'lgan dastlabki guruhlar - qoldiq orqa oyoq-qo'llari: mayda, tirnoqli raqamlar anal shporlar, bu juftlash paytida tushunish uchun ishlatiladi.^[17]:11[19] Oilalar Leptotiflopidalar va Typhopidae tos kamarining qoldiqlariga ham ega bo'lib, ular ko'rinishda shoxli proektsiyalar shaklida ko'rinadi.

Old oyoqlar ma'lum bo'lgan barcha ilonlarda mavjud emas. Bunga ularning evolyutsiyasi sabab bo'ladi Hox genlari, oyoq-qo'lni boshqarish morfogenez. Ilonlarning umumiy ajdodining eksenel skeletlari, boshqa ko'pgina tetrapodlar singari, bachadon bo'yni (bo'yin), ko'krak (ko'krak), bel (pastki orqa), sakral (tos suyagi) va kaudal (quyruq) umurtqalardan iborat mintaqaviy ixtisoslashuvlarga ega edi. Ilon evolyutsiyasining boshida, ko'krak qafasining rivojlanishi uchun mas'ul bo'lgan eksenel skeletdagi Hox gen ekspressioni dominant bo'lib qoldi. Natijada, orqa oyoq kurtaklaridan oldingi vertebra (mavjud bo'lganda) barchasi bir xil toraksga o'xshash xususiyatga ega (bundan tashqari atlas, o'qi, va 1-3 bo'yin umurtqalari). Boshqacha qilib aytganda, ilon skeletining katta qismi o'ta kengaygan ko'krak qafasi. Qovurg'alar faqat ko'krak umurtqalarida uchraydi. Bo'yin, bel va tos suyagi umurtqalari son jihatidan juda qisqargan (atigi 2-10 bel va tos suyaklari mavjud), dumaloq umurtqalardan faqat qisqa dumi qoladi. Biroq, quyruq hali ko'plab turlarda muhim foydalanish uchun etarlicha uzoq va ba'zi suvda yashovchi va daraxtlarda yashovchi turlarda o'zgartirilgan.

Ko'plab zamonaviy ilonlar guruhlari davrida paydo bo'lgan Paleotsen, bilan birga adaptiv nurlanish Yo'qolib ketishidan keyingi sutemizuvchilardan (parrandadan tashqari) dinozavrlar. Shimoliy Amerikada o'tloqlarning kengayishi ham ilonlar orasida portlovchi nurlanishni keltirib chiqardi.^[20] Ilgari, ilonlar Shimoliy Amerika faunasining kichik tarkibiy qismi bo'lgan, ammo Miosen davrida turlarning soni va ularning tarqalishi birinchi paydo bo'lishi bilan keskin ko'paygan ilonlar va elapidlar Shimoliy Amerikada va Colubridae (kabi ko'plab zamonaviy nasllarning kelib chiqishi, shu jumladan) Nerodiya, Lampropeltis, Pituofis va Pantherofis ).^[20]

Kelib chiqishi

Kabi ilonlarning kaltakesaklar paydo bo'lishidan kelib chiqqan bo'lishi mumkinligi haqida qazilma dalillar mavjud varanidlar davomida (yoki shunga o'xshash guruh) Bo'r davri.^[21] Erta qazilma ilonning qarindoshi, Najash rionegrina, bilan ikki oyoqli burrow hayvon edi sakrum va to'liq edi quruqlik.^[22] Bittasi mavjud ushbu taxminiy ajdodlarning analogi - bu quloqsiz monitor Lantanot ning Borneo (garchi u ham bo'lsa) yarimakvat ).^[23] Er osti turlari evolyutsiya uchun tartibga solingan tanalarni rivojlantirdi va oxir-oqibat oyoq-qo'llarini yo'qotdi.^[23] Ushbu gipotezaga ko'ra, kabi xususiyatlar shaffof, eritilgan ko'z qovoqlari (brille ) va tashqi quloqlarning yo'qolishi bilan kurashish uchun rivojlangan fossorial tirnalgan kabi qiyinchiliklar shox pardalar va quloqdagi axloqsizlik.^[21][23] Ba'zi ibtidoiy ilonlarning orqa oyoqlari borligi ma'lum, ammo ularning tos suyaklarida umurtqa pog'onalari bilan bevosita aloqasi yo'q edi. Bunga o'xshash fotoalbom turlari kiradi Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis va Evropodofis dan biroz kattaroq Najash.^[19]

Ushbu gipoteza 2015 yilda Braziliyada to'rt oyoqli ilonning 113 million yillik qoldiqlari topilishi bilan kuchaytirildi Tetrapodofis amplektusi. U ilonga o'xshash ko'plab xususiyatlarga ega, burg'ulash uchun moslangan va oshqozon boshqa hayvonlarga o'lja bo'lganligini ko'rsatadi.^[24] Hozirda noaniq Tetrapodofis - ilon yoki boshqa tur cho'ktirish tartib, chunki ilonga o'xshash tanasi mustaqil ravishda kamida 26 marta rivojlangan. Tetrapodofis umurtqa pog'onasi va bosh suyagida o'ziga xos ilon xususiyatlariga ega emas.^[25][26]

Bunga asoslangan alternativ gipoteza morfologiya, ilonlarning ajdodlari bilan bog'liqligini taxmin qiladi mosasaurlar - yo'q bo'lib ketgan suv havzasi sudralib yuruvchilar Bo'r - bu o'z navbatida varanid kaltakesaklaridan kelib chiqqan deb o'ylashadi.^[18] Ushbu gipotezaga ko'ra, ilonlarning birlashtirilgan, shaffof ko'z qovoqlari dengiz sharoitlariga qarshi kurashish uchun rivojlangan (osmos tufayli kornea suvining yo'qolishi), tashqi quloqlar esa suv muhitida ishlatilmay yo'qolgan deb o'ylashadi. Bu oxir-oqibat hozirgi hayvonga o'xshash hayvonga olib keldi dengiz ilonlari. Kech Bo'r, ilonlar erni qayta rekonstruksiya qildi va bugungi ilonlarga aylanishini davom ettirdi. Fosilizatsiya qilingan ilon qoldiqlari erta bo'r davridagi dengiz cho'kmalaridan ma'lum, bu esa ushbu gipotezaga mos keladi; ayniqsa, ular quruqlikdan kattaroq bo'lgani uchun Najash rionegrina. Shunga o'xshash bosh suyagi tuzilishi, oyoq-qo'llarining qisqargan yoki yo'qligi va boshqa anatomik xususiyatlar ham mosasaurlarda ham, ilonlarda ham ijobiy natijalarga olib keladi klasistik korrelyatsiya, garchi ushbu xususiyatlarning ba'zilari varanidlar bilan bo'lishsa.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

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  Tetrapodofis

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  Eupodophis descouensi

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  Eupodophis descouensi

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  Evropodofis descouensi orqa oyoq

So'nggi yillarda o'tkazilgan genetik tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, ilonlar ilgari ishonilganidek, kaltakesaklar bilan chambarchas bog'liq emas va shuning uchun ularning evolyutsiyasining ssenariy ssenariysida tavsiya etilgan ajdodimiz mosasavrlar bilan bog'liq emas. Ammo ko'proq dalillar mosanavrlarni varanidlarga qaraganda ilonlarga bog'laydi. Parchalangan qoldiqlar Yura davri va Erta bo'r bu guruhlar uchun chuqurroq qazilma yozuvlarini ko'rsatadi, bu ikkala farazni rad etishi mumkin.^[27][28]

2016 yilda ikkita tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, ilonlarda oyoq-qo'llarining yo'qolishi Polarizatsiya faoliyatining regulyatsion mintaqasi (ZRS) zonasidagi DNK mutatsiyalari bilan bog'liq. tovushli kirpi oyoq-qo'llarning rivojlanishi uchun juda zarur bo'lgan gen. Keyinchalik ilg'or ilonlarda oyoq-qo'llarning qoldiqlari yo'q, ammo piton va boas kabi bazal ilonlarda juda kamaygan, qoldiq orqa oyoqlarning izlari bor. Python embrionlari hattoki orqa oyoq kurtaklari to'liq rivojlangan, ammo ularning keyingi rivojlanishi ZRSdagi DNK mutatsiyalari bilan to'xtatiladi.^{[29][30][31][32]}

Tarqatish

Skandinaviyadagi Arktika doirasidan shimolga va Avstraliyadan janubga qarab 2900 dan ortiq ilon turlari mavjud.^[18] Ilonlarni Antarktidadan tashqari barcha qit'alarda, dengizda va 16000 fut (4900 m) balandlikda topish mumkin. Himoloy tog'lari Osiyo.^[18][33]:143 Ilonlar yo'q bo'lgan ko'plab orollar mavjud, masalan Irlandiya, Islandiya va Yangi Zelandiya^[4][33] (garchi Yangi Zelandiya suvlariga kamdan-kam tashrif buyuradigan bo'lsa ham sariq qorinli dengiz iloni va tarmoqli dengiz kraitidir ).^[34]

Taksonomiya

Barcha zamonaviy ilonlar ichida guruhlangan suborder Ilonlar yilda Linne taksonomiyasi, qismi buyurtma Squamata Biroq, ularning skuamatlar ichida aniq joylashuvi bahsli bo'lib qolmoqda.^[5]

Ikki buzilishlar Serpanlar quyidagilar: Aletinofidiya va Skolekofidiya.^[5] Ushbu ajratish asoslanadi morfologik xususiyatlari va mitoxondrial DNK ketma-ketlik o'xshashligi. Aletinofidiya ba'zida bo'linadi Genofidiya va Kanofidiya, ikkinchisi "kolubroid" ilonlardan iborat (kolubridlar, ilonlar, elapidlar, gidrofidlar va atractaspids ) va akrokordidlar, boshqa aletinofidiya oilalari esa Henofidiyani o'z ichiga oladi.^[35] Bugun mavjud emas, ammo Madtsoiidae, ulkan, ibtidoiy, pitonga o'xshash ilonlarning oilasi, taxminan 50 000 yil oldin Avstraliyada bo'lgan. Wonambi.

Guruh ichida sistematikada ko'plab munozaralar mavjud. Masalan, ko'plab manbalar tasniflanadi Boidae va Pythonidae bir oila kabi, ba'zilari esa saqlab qolishadi Elapidae va Hydrophiidae (dengiz ilonlari) nihoyatda yaqin munosabatlariga qaramay amaliy sabablarga ko'ra ajralib turadi.

Yaqinda o'tkazilgan molekulyar tadqiqotlar monofil ning qoplamalar zamonaviy ilonlar, skolekofidlar, tiflopidlar + anomalepididlar, aletinofidiyalar, asosiy aletinofidiyalar, uropeltidlar (Silindrofis, Anomoxilus, uropeltinlar), makrostomatanlar, booids, boids, pithonids and caenophidians.^[14]

Oilalar

Oyoqsiz kaltakesaklar

Ilonlar kaltakesaklardan rivojlangan (va ular bilan birlashtirilgan) oyoqsiz sudralib yuruvchilar bo'lsa-da, oyoq-qo'llarini mustaqil ravishda yo'qotgan va yuzaki ravishda ilonlarga o'xshash boshqa ko'plab turdagi kaltakesaklar mavjud. Ular orasida gijja va shisha ilon.

Boshqalar serpantinli tetrapodlar ilonlarga aloqasi yo'q seziliyaliklar (amfibiyalar), amfisbaeniyaliklar (kaltakesakka yaqinlashadi) va yo'q bo'lib ketgan aistopodlar (amfibiyalar).

Biologiya

Voyaga etgan Barbados ipi, Leptotiflops carlae, an Amerikalik chorak dollar

Hajmi

Hozir yo'q bo'lib ketgan Titanoboa cerrejonensis ilonlarning uzunligi 12,8 m (42 fut) bo'lgan.^[9] Taqqoslash uchun, eng katta mavjud ilonlar retikulyatsiya qilingan piton uzunligi taxminan 6,95 m (22,8 fut),^[8] va yashil anakonda uzunligi 5,21 m (17,1 fut) ni tashkil etadi va 97,5 kg (215 funt) da Yerdagi eng og'ir ilon hisoblanadi.^[39]

Tarozining boshqa uchida, eng kichigi mavjud ilon Leptotiflops carlae, uzunligi taxminan 10,4 sm (4,1 dyuym).^[7] Aksariyat ilonlar juda kichik hayvonlardir, ularning uzunligi taxminan 1 m (3,3 fut).^[40]

Idrok

Sichqonni yeyayotgan ilonning termografik tasviri

Chuqurchalar, pitonlar va ba'zi bir boaslarda bor infraqizil sezgir retseptorlari tumshug'idagi iliq qonli o'ljaning nurlangan issiqligini "ko'rish" imkonini beradigan chuqur oluklarda. Chuqur ilonlarida oluklar burun va ko'z o'rtasida boshning har ikki tomonidagi katta "chuqurchada" joylashgan. Boshqa infraqizil sezgir ilonlarda burun lablari ostidan yuqori labda bir nechta kichik labiya chuqurlari joylashgan.^[41]

Ilonlar o'ljasini kuzatib borish uchun hiddan foydalanadilar. Ular o'zlarining hidlaridan foydalanib hidlaydilar vilkalar tillar havodagi zarralarni to'plash uchun, keyin ularni vomeronazal organ yoki Jakobsonning organi tekshirish uchun og'izda.^[41] Tildagi vilka ilonlarga bir vaqtning o'zida o'ziga xos hid va ta'm sezgisini beradi.^[41] Ular tillarini doimo harakatda ushlab turadilar, havodan, erdan va suvdan zarralar tanlaydilar, topilgan kimyoviy moddalarni tahlil qiladilar va mahalliy muhitda o'lja yoki yirtqichlar borligini aniqlaydilar. Suvda yashovchi ilonlarda, masalan anakonda, til suv ostida samarali ishlaydi.^[41]

Dan chiziqli diagramma G.A. Boulenger "s Britaniya Hindistonining hayvonot dunyosi (1890) ilon boshidagi qalqonlarning terminologiyasini tasvirlaydi

Pastki qismi tebranishga juda sezgir. Bu ilonlar yerdagi zaif tebranishlarni aniqlab, ularga yaqinlashayotgan hayvonlarni sezish imkoniyatini beradi.^[41]

Ilonni ko'rish juda xilma-xil: faqat yorug'likni qorong'ulikdan zo'r ko'rish qobiliyatigacha farqlay olishdan, lekin asosiy tendentsiya shundaki, ularning ko'rish qobiliyati keskin bo'lmasa-da, etarli va harakatlarni kuzatib borish imkoniyatini beradi.^[42] Umuman olganda, ko'rish daraxtli ilonlarda eng yaxshi, ilonlarda esa zaifroq. Ba'zi ilonlar, masalan Osiyo tok iloni (tur) Ahaetulla ), bor binokulyar ko'rish, Ikkala ko'z bilan bir nuqtaga e'tibor qaratishga qodir. Aksariyat ilonlar diqqatlarini ob'ektiv ga nisbatan oldinga va orqaga retina, boshqasida esa amniot linzalari cho'zilgan. Ko'p tungi ilonlarning ko'zlari yorilgan, kunduzgi ilonlarning ko'zlari esa yumaloq. Aksariyat turlar uchta vizual pigmentga ega va, ehtimol, yorug'lik paytida ikkita asosiy rangni ko'rishlari mumkin. Xulosa qilishicha, barcha ilonlarning so'nggi umumiy ajdodlari ultrabinafsha nurlarini sezgir ko'rish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lishgan, ammo quyosh nurida ko'rish uchun ko'rishga bog'liq bo'lgan ilonlarning aksariyati ultrabinafsha nurlarini filtrlaydigan quyosh ko'zoynaklari rolini o'ynaydigan linzalar rivojlangan va ehtimol ularning ko'rish qobiliyatini kuchaytiradi. qarama-qarshiliklarni takomillashtirish.^[43]

Teri

Ilonning terisi yopilgan tarozi. Ilonlarning shilimshiq ekanligi haqidagi keng tarqalgan tushunchadan farqli o'laroq, ilonlarni chalkashtirib yuborishi mumkin qurtlar, ilon terisi silliq va quruq to'qimalarga ega. Aksariyat ilonlar sayohat qilish uchun sirtlarni ushlash uchun ixtisoslashgan qorin tarozilaridan foydalanadilar. Tana tarozi silliq bo'lishi mumkin, keeled yoki donador. Ilonning ko'z qovoqlari shaffof "ko'zoynak" tarozi bo'lib, ular doimiy ravishda yopiq bo'lib turadi, ular ham ma'lum brille.

Tarozilarning to'kilishi deyiladi ekdiz (yoki odatdagi foydalanishda, mollash yoki egiluvchan). Ilonlar holatida terining to'liq tashqi qatlami bir qatlamda to'kiladi.^[44] Ilon tarozilari diskret emas, balki epidermisning kengaytmalari - shuning uchun ular alohida-alohida emas, balki har birida to'liq tashqi qatlam sifatida to'kiladi. eritma, paypoq ichkariga aylantirilganiga o'xshaydi.^[45]

Ilonlar terining rang berish naqshlarining xilma-xilligiga ega. Ushbu naqshlar ko'pincha xatti-harakatlar bilan bog'liq, masalan, yirtqichlardan qochish istagi. Oddiy yoki uzunlamasına chiziqlarga ega bo'lgan ilonlar ko'pincha yirtqichlardan qochishlari kerak, naqshlari (yoki ularning etishmasligi) yirtqichlarga mos yozuvlar nuqtalarini bermaydi, shuning uchun ilon ogohlantirmasdan qochib ketadi. Oddiy ilonlar odatda faol ov strategiyasini qabul qiladilar, chunki ularning naqshlari harakat haqida o'lja qilish uchun ozgina ma'lumot yuborishga imkon beradi. Lekelenmiş ilonlar, odatda, pistirmaga asoslangan strategiyalarni qo'llaydilar, chunki bu ular atrofga notekis shaklli narsalar, masalan, tayoq yoki toshlar bilan aralashishiga yordam beradi. Naqshli naqshlar ilonlarni atrof-muhitga aralashishiga yordam berishi mumkin.^[46]

Bosh, orqa va qornidagi tarozilar shakli va soni ko'pincha xarakterli bo'lib, taksonomik maqsadlarda ishlatiladi. Tarozilar asosan tanadagi pozitsiyalariga qarab nomlanadi. "Rivojlangan" da (Caenophidian ) ilonlar, keng qorin tarozi va qatorlari dorsal tarozilar ga mos keladi umurtqalar, olimlarga umurtqani hisoblamasdan ruxsat berish disektsiya.

Erish

Terini to'kayotgan ilon

Erish, yoki ekdiz, bir qator funktsiyalarni bajaradi. Birinchidan, eski va eskirgan teri o'rnini bosadi; ikkinchidan, bu oqadilar va Shomil kabi parazitlardan xalos bo'lishga yordam beradi. Kuyikish yo'li bilan terining yangilanishi hasharotlar kabi ba'zi hayvonlarda o'sishni ta'minlashi kerak; ammo, bu ilonlar masalasida bahslashdi.^[45][47]

Molting ilon hayoti davomida vaqti-vaqti bilan sodir bo'ladi. Kuyishdan oldin, ilon ovqatlanishni to'xtatadi va ko'pincha yashiradi yoki xavfsiz joyga ko'chadi. To'kilmasdan oldin teri xira va quruq ko'rinishga ega bo'lib, ko'zlar bulutli yoki ko'k rangga aylanadi. Qadimgi terining ichki yuzasi suyuqlashadi. Bu eski terini ostidagi yangi teridan ajratishga olib keladi. Bir necha kundan keyin ko'zlar tiniqlashadi va ilon o'zining eski terisidan "chiqib ketadi". Qadimgi teri og'iz yaqinida sinadi va ilon silkinib chiqadi, bunga qo'pol sirtlarni ishqalash yordam beradi. Ko'pgina hollarda, gips terisi tanadan orqada orqaga qarab, paypoqni ichkaridan tortib olish kabi bir bo'lakka bo'linadi. Teri ostida yangi, kattaroq, yorqinroq teri qatlami paydo bo'ldi.^[45][48]

Keksa ilon terisini yiliga bir yoki ikki marta tashlashi mumkin. Ammo hali ham o'sayotgan yoshroq ilon yiliga to'rt martagacha to'kilishi mumkin.^[48] Tashlab ketilgan teri o'lchov naqshining mukammal izini beradi va agar tashlangan terisi oqilona buzilmagan bo'lsa, odatda ilonni aniqlash mumkin.^[45] Ushbu davriy yangilanish ilonning ramzi bo'lishiga olib keldi shifo va Dori, rasmda ko'rsatilganidek Asclepius tayoqchasi.^[49]

O'lchovni hisoblash ba'zan turlar aniq jinsiy dimorf bo'lmagan paytda ilonning jinsini aniqlash uchun ishlatilishi mumkin. Proba joylashtirilgan kloaka u qadar davom etolmaguncha. Zond to'xtagan joyda belgilanadi, olib tashlanadi va tarozi yoniga qo'yib subkudal chuqurlik bilan taqqoslanadi.^[50] Kattalashtirish soni ilonning erkak yoki ayol ekanligini aniqlaydi gemipenlar erkakning tekshiruvi ayolning kloakasidan farqli o'laroq (odatda uzunroq).^{[50][tushuntirish kerak ]}

Skelet

Taqqoslanganda, ilonlarning skeletlari boshqa ko'plab sudralib yuruvchilarnikidan tubdan farq qiladi (masalan toshbaqa, o'ng), deyarli butunlay kengaytirilgan qovurg'adan iborat.

The skelet ilonlarning aksariyati faqat bosh suyagi, gipoid, umurtqa pog'onasi va qovurg'alaridan iborat, ammo henofidiyalik ilonlarda tos suyagi va orqa oyoq-qo'llari qolgan.

The ilonning bosh suyagi qattiq va to'liqdan iborat neyrokraniy, boshqa suyaklarning ko'pi shunchaki erkin bog'langan, ayniqsa katta harakatlanadigan jag'ning suyaklari, bu manipulyatsiya va katta o'lja buyumlarini yutishni osonlashtiradi. Pastki jag'ning chap va o'ng tomonlari faqat oldingi uchlarida egiluvchan bog'lam bilan qo'shilib, ularni keng ajratish imkonini beradi, pastki jag 'suyaklarining orqa uchi esa to'rtburchak suyagi bilan artikulyatsiya qilib, yanada harakatchanlikni ta'minlaydi. Er osti va to'rtburchak suyaklarining suyaklari, shuningdek, er osti tebranishlarini ko'tarishi mumkin.^[51] Jag'ning yon tomonlari bir-biridan mustaqil ravishda harakatlanishi mumkinligi sababli, jag'larini sirt ustida ushlab turgan ilonlar sezgir stereo eshitish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lib, ular yirtqichlarning holatini aniqlay olishadi. Yoq-kvadrat-shtapel yo'li tebranishlarni aniqlashga qodir angstrom tashqi quloq va yo'qligiga qaramay, miqyosi suyak suyagi mexanizmi impedansni moslashtirish havodan tebranishlarni olish uchun boshqa umurtqali hayvonlarda ishlatiladi.^[52][53]

Hyoid - bu "bo'yin" mintaqasida, bosh suyagining orqa va ventral qismida joylashgan kichik suyak bo'lib, u boshqa hamma singari ilon tilining mushaklari uchun birikma bo'lib xizmat qiladi. tetrapodlar.

Umurtqa pog'onasi 200 dan 400 gacha (yoki undan ko'p) umurtqalardan iborat. Quyruq umurtqalari nisbatan kam sonli (ko'pincha ularning 20 foizidan kamrog'i) va qovurg'alari yo'q, tana umurtqalarining har birida ikkita qovurg'a bor. Vertebra proektsiyalarga ega bo'lib, ular mushaklarning kuchli biriktirilishiga imkon beradi, bu esa oyoq-qo'llarsiz harakatlanishni ta'minlaydi.

Avtotomiya ba'zi bir kaltakesaklarda uchraydigan xususiyat ilonlarning ko'pchiligida yo'q.^[54] Ilonlarda kaudal avtotomiyasi kam uchraydi va intervertebraldir, kaltakesaklardan farqli o'laroq, intravertebral, ya'ni tanaffus umurtqada mavjud bo'lgan oldindan belgilangan sinish tekisligi bo'ylab sodir bo'ladi.^[55][56]

Ba'zi ilonlarda, eng muhimi boas va pitonlar, juftlik shaklida orqa oyoqlarning qoldiqlari bor tos suyaklari. Ikkala tomonidagi bu tirnoqlarga o'xshash kichik o'smalar kloaka vestigial orqa suyagi skeletining tashqi qismi bo'lib, ular ilium va femur qoldiqlarini o'z ichiga oladi.

Ilonlar polifiodontlar doimiy ravishda almashtiriladigan tishlar bilan.^[57]

Ichki organlar

Ilon anatomiyasi.^{fayl haqida ma'lumot}

1. qizilo'ngach
2. traxeya
3. trakeal o'pka
4. ibtidoiy chap o'pka
5. o'ng o'pka
6. yurak
7. jigar
8. oshqozon
9. havo xaltasi
10. o't pufagi
11. oshqozon osti bezi
12. taloq
13. ichak
14. moyaklar
15. buyraklar

Ilon va boshqa sudralib yuruvchilar uch kamerali yurakka ega, ularni boshqaradi qon aylanish tizimi chap va o'ng atrium va bitta qorincha orqali.^[58] Ichkarida qorincha uchta o'zaro bog'langan bo'shliqlarga bo'linadi, ular ichiga cavum arteriosum, cavum pulmonale va cavum venosum kiradi.^[59] Kavum venozum kislorodsizlanadi qon cavum arteriosum to'g'ridan-to'g'ri chap atriumdan kislorodli qonni qabul qilganda, o'ng atriumdan. Cavum venosum ostida joylashgan kavum pulmonale, u pompalanadi qon o'pka magistraliga.^[60]

Ilonning yuragi xaltachaga o'ralgan bo'lib, uni perikard, joylashgan ikkiga bo'linish ning bronxlar. Yurak diafragma yo'qligi tufayli harakatlana oladi. Ushbu sozlash yurakni yutib yuborilgan katta o'lja qizilo'ngach orqali o'tayotganda mumkin bo'lgan zararlardan himoya qiladi. The taloq ga biriktirilgan o't pufagi va oshqozon osti bezi qonni filtrlaydi. The timus yurak ustidagi yog 'to'qimalarida joylashgan va qondagi immunitet hujayralarining paydo bo'lishi uchun javobgardir. Ilonlarning yurak-qon tomir tizimi, shuningdek, buyrak portal tizimining mavjudligi bilan ajralib turadi, unda ilonning dumidan qon yurakka qaytishdan oldin buyraklar orqali o'tadi.^[61]

The tarixiy chap o'pka ko'pincha kichik yoki ba'zan yo'q, chunki ilonlarning naychali tanalari barcha a'zolarini uzun va ingichka bo'lishini talab qiladi.^[61] Aksariyat turlarda faqat bittasi o'pka funktsionaldir. Ushbu o'pkada tomir almashinuvida ishlamaydigan qon tomir old qismi va orqa qismi mavjud.^[61] Ushbu "o'pka o'pkasi" uchun ishlatiladi gidrostatik ba'zi suv ilonlarida suzuvchanlikni sozlash maqsadlari va quruqlik turlarida uning vazifasi noma'lum bo'lib qolmoqda.^[61] Juftlashgan ko'plab organlar, masalan buyraklar yoki reproduktiv organlar, tanada gavdalanadi, biri ikkinchisidan oldinda joylashgan.^[61]

Ilonlarda yo'q limfa tugunlari.^[61]

Zahar

Beg'ubor sutli ilonlar ko'pincha yanglishadi marjon ilonlar uning zahari odamlar uchun o'likdir.

Kobralar, ilonlar va yaqin turlardan foydalanish zahar ularning o'ljasini immobilizatsiya qilish, yaralash yoki o'ldirish. Zahar o'zgartirilgan tupurik orqali etkazib berildi tishlar.^[17]:243 Viperidlar va elapidlar kabi "rivojlangan" zaharli ilonlarning tishlari zaharni samaraliroq qilish uchun ichi bo'sh, shu bilan birga orqa tomon kabi ilonlar boomslang shunchaki orqa tomonida zaharli yaraga kanal ochish uchun truba bor. Ilon zahari ko'pincha o'ljaga xosdir - ularning o'zini himoya qilishdagi o'rni ikkinchi darajali.^[17]:243

Zahar, barcha tuprik sekretsiyalari singari, oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini eruvchan birikmalarga bo'linishini boshlaydigan va to'g'ri hazm qilishni osonlashtiradigan predmetdir. Hatto zaharli bo'lmagan ilon chaqishi ham (har qanday hayvon chaqishi kabi) to'qimalarga zarar etkazadi.^[17]:209

Ba'zi qushlar, sutemizuvchilar va boshqa ilonlar (masalan qirollar ) zaharli ilonlarga o'lja beradigan ba'zi zaharlarga qarshilik va hatto immunitetni rivojlantirgan.^[17]:243 Zaharli ilonlarga uchtasi kiradi oilalar va ilonlarni rasmiy ravishda tashkil etmaydi tasnif ishlatilgan guruh taksonomiya.

The so'zlashuv "zaharli ilon" atamasi odatda ilonlar uchun noto'g'ri belgidir. Zahar nafas olganda yoki yutiladi, ilonlar tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan zahar uning jabrdiydasiga tish go'shti orqali yuboriladi.^[62] Ammo ikkita istisno mavjud: Rabdofis yeyayotgan qurbaqalardan toksinlarni ajratib oladi, so'ngra ularni yirtqich hayvonlardan saqlanish uchun ularni bez bezlaridan ajratadi va unchalik katta bo'lmagan populyatsiya garter ilonlar ichida BIZ. holati Oregon jigaridan etarlicha toksinlarni ushlab turadi yangilar ular kichik mahalliy yirtqichlarga samarali zahar berish uchun ovqatlanadilar (masalan qarg'alar va tulkilar ).^[63]

Ilon zaharli moddalari murakkab aralashmalardir oqsillar va boshning orqa qismida zahar bezlarida saqlanadi.^[63] Barcha zaharli ilonlarda bu bezlar kanallar orqali yuqori jag'dagi yivli yoki ichi bo'sh tishlarga ochiladi.^[17]:243[62] Ushbu oqsillar potentsial aralash bo'lishi mumkin neyrotoksinlar (asab tizimiga hujum qiladigan), gemotoksinlar (qon aylanish tizimiga hujum qiladigan), sitotoksinlar, bungarotoksinlar va organizmga turli xil ta'sir ko'rsatadigan boshqa ko'plab toksinlar.^[62] Deyarli barcha ilon zahari mavjud gialuronidaza, zaharning tez tarqalishini ta'minlovchi ferment.^[17]:243

Gemotoksinlardan foydalanadigan zaharli ilonlarning odatda og'zining old qismida tish go'shti bor, bu ularga zaharni qurbonlariga kiritishni osonlashtiradi.^[62] Nörotoksinlardan foydalanadigan ba'zi ilonlar (masalan mangrov ilon ) og'zining orqa qismida tishlari bor, tishlari orqaga o'ralgan.^[64] Bu ilon uchun ham zahardan foydalanishni, ham olimlar uchun ularni sog'ishni qiyinlashtiradi.^[62] Elapidlar ammo, masalan kobralar va kraits bor proteroglif - ular og'zining old tomoniga o'rnatib bo'lmaydigan va ilon singari "pichoqlay olmaydigan" ichi bo'sh tishlari bor. Ular aslida jabrlanuvchini tishlashlari kerak.^[17]:242

Yaqinda barcha ilonlar ma'lum darajada zaharli bo'lishi mumkinligi, zararsiz ilonlarning zahari zaifligi va tishlari yo'qligi haqida fikrlar ilgari surilgan.^[65] Hozirgi vaqtda "zararsiz" deb nomlangan ilonlarning aksariyati ushbu nazariyaga ko'ra zararsiz hisoblanadi, chunki ularda zaharli yuborish usuli yo'q yoki odamga xavf tug'diradigan darajada etkazib berishga qodir emas. Ushbu nazariya ilonlar zaharli bo'lgan oddiy kaltakesak ajdodidan kelib chiqqan bo'lishi mumkin, degan xulosaga keladi va shunga o'xshash zaharli kaltakesaklar gila hayvon, boncuklu kertenkele, kaltakesaklarni kuzatish va endi yo'q bo'lib ketgan mosasaurlar bundan kelib chiqqan bo'lishi ham mumkin. Ular buni baham ko'rishadi zahar qoplamasi boshqalari bilan sauriyalik turlari.

Zaharli ilonlar ikkiga bo‘linadi taksonomik oilalar:

• Elapidlar – kobralar shu jumladan qirol kobralari, kraits, mambalar, Avstraliyaning mis boshlari, dengiz ilonlari va marjon ilonlar.^[64]
• Viperidlar – ilonlar, bo'rilar, mis boshlar /paxta og'zi va bushmasters.^[64]

O'z ichiga olgan uchinchi oila mavjud opistoglif (orqa fanged) ilonlar (shuningdek, boshqa ilon turlarining aksariyati):

• Kolubridlar – bomslanglar, daraxt ilonlari, tok ilonlari, mangrov ilonlar, hammasi bo'lmasa ham kolubridlar bor zaharli.^[17]:209[64]

Ko'paytirish

Ko'plab reproduktiv usullar ilonlar tomonidan ishlatilgan bo'lsa-da, barcha ilonlar ishlaydi ichki urug'lantirish. Bu juftlik, vilkalar yordamida amalga oshiriladi gemipenlar, ular teskari o'girilib, erkakning dumida saqlanadi.^[66] Ayolning devorlarini ushlash uchun gemipenlar tez-tez yivlanadi, bog'lanadi yoki o'raladi kloaka.^[67][66]

Ko'p turdagi ilonlar yotardi tuxum ular yotqizgandan ko'p o'tmay tark etishadi. Biroq, bir nechta tur (masalan, qirol kobra ) chindan ham uyalar quradi va inkubatsiyadan keyin tuxum qo'yadigan baliqlar atrofida qoladi.^[66] Ko'pchilik pitonlar ularning tuxumlari debriyajini o'rab oling va ular chiqquncha ular bilan qoling.^[68] Python urg'ochi tuxumni tashlab ketmaydi, faqat vaqti-vaqti bilan quyoshga cho'mish yoki suv ichish kerak. U hatto tuxumni inkubatsiya qilish uchun issiqlik hosil qilish uchun "titraydi".^[68]

Ilonning ba'zi turlari ovoviviparous va tuxumni deyarli chiqishga tayyor bo'lguncha tanalarida saqlang.^[69][70] Yaqinda ilonlarning bir nechta turlari to'liq ekanligi tasdiqlandi jonli kabi boa konstriktori va yashil anakonda, a orqali yosh bolalarini oziqlantirish platsenta shuningdek a sarig 'sumkasi, bu sudralib yuruvchilar orasida juda g'alati yoki boshqa har qanday narsadir akula rekvizimi yoki plasental sutemizuvchilar.^[69][70] Tuxumlarning saqlanib qolishi va tirik tug'ilish ko'pincha sovuq muhit bilan bog'liq.^[66][70]

Garter iloni jinsiy tanlov uchun o'rganilgan

Jinsiy tanlov ilonlarda turmush o'rtoqlarni sotib olishda har xil taktikalardan foydalanadigan 3000 tur ko'rsatilgan.^[71] Ular xohlagan urg'ochilar uchun erkaklar o'rtasida urf-odat urushi turmush o'rtoq bilan tepalikni o'z ichiga oladi, bu ko'pchilik tomonidan namoyish etiladi viperidlar unda bitta erkak raqibining vertikal ko'tarilgan old tanasi atrofida aylanib, uni pastga majbur qiladi. Odatda ilonlar chalg'igan paytda bo'ynini tishlash paydo bo'ladi.^[72]

Fakultativ partenogenez

Partenogenez embrionlarning o'sishi va rivojlanishi urug'lanmasdan sodir bo'ladigan ko'payishning tabiiy shakli. Agkistrodon contortrix (mis boshi) va Agkistrodon piscivorus (paxta og'zi) fakultativ partenogenez bilan ko'payishi mumkin. Ya'ni, ular jinsiy ko'payish usulidan jinssiz rejimga o'tishga qodir.^[73] Partenogenezning paydo bo'lishi ehtimoldan yiroq avtomiksis terminal termoyadroviy bilan, bir xil ikkita terminal mahsulot ishlab chiqariladigan jarayon mayoz diploid hosil qilish uchun sug'urta zigota. Ushbu jarayon genomning keng tarqalishiga olib keladi homozigotlik, zararli retsessiv allellarning va ko'pincha rivojlanish anormalliklarining ifodasi. Ham asirda tug'ilgan, ham yovvoyi tug'ma A. contortrix va A. piscivorus partenogenezning ushbu shakliga qodir ekanligi ko'rinadi.^[73]

Ko'paytirish cho'ktirish sudralib yuruvchilar deyarli faqat jinsiydir. Erkaklar odatda ZZ juftlik xromosomalarini aniqlaydilar, ayollar esa ZW juftligiga ega. Biroq, Kolumbiyalik Rainbow boa (Epikratlar mavr ) fakultativ partenogenez bilan ko'payishi mumkin, natijada WW urg'ochi nasl hosil bo'ladi.^[74] WW ayollari, ehtimol, terminal avtomiksis tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan.

Xulq-atvor

Qishki uyqu

Qish ilonlarnikidan ko'ra sovuqroq bo'lgan hududlarda faol turganda mahalliy turlar chidaydi brumat. Darhaqiqat, sutemizuvchilar uxlab yotgan qish uyqusidan farqli o'laroq, brumating sudralib yuruvchilar uyg'oq, ammo harakatsiz. Shaxsiy ilonlar teshiklarda, tosh uyumlari ostida yoki yiqilgan daraxtlar ichida cho'kishi mumkin yoki ilonlar ko'p sonli joyda to'planishi mumkin. qish uyqusi.

Oziqlantirish va ovqatlanish

Gilam pitoni siqish va iste'mol qilish a tovuq

Afrikalik tuxumni iste'mol qiladigan ilon tuxum iste'mol qilish

Hamma ilonlar qattiq go'shtli, kaltakesaklar, qurbaqalar, boshqa ilonlar, mayda sutemizuvchilar, qushlar, shu jumladan mayda hayvonlarni iste'mol qilish tuxum, baliqlar, salyangozlar, qurtlar yoki hasharotlar.^{[17][3][18][75]} Ilonlar tishlay olmaydi yoki ovqatlarini parcha-parcha qilolmaydi, ular o'ljani butunlay yutib yuborishlari kerak. Ilonning tanasi uning ovqatlanish odatlariga katta ta'sir ko'rsatadi. Kichikroq ilonlar kichikroq o'ljani yeydi. Voyaga etmagan pitonlar kaltakesak yoki sichqonchani boqishni boshlashlari va masalan, kattalar kabi kichkina kiyik yoki antilopani bitirishi mumkin.

Ilon jag ' murakkab tuzilishdir. Ilonlarning jag'ini chiqarib yuborishi mumkin degan keng tarqalgan fikrdan farqli o'laroq, ilonlar juda moslashuvchan pastki jag ', ikkala yarmi mahkam bog'lanmagan va ularning ko'plab boshqa bo'g'imlari bosh suyagi (qarang ilon bosh suyagi ), bu ularning og'zini keng ochib, o'ljasini butunlay yutib yuborishiga imkon beradi, hatto diametri ilonning o'zidan kattaroq bo'lsa ham.^[75] Masalan, Afrikalik tuxumni iste'mol qiladigan ilon boshining diametridan ancha kattaroq tuxum eyishga moslashgan egiluvchan jag'lari bor.^[17]:81 Ushbu ilonning tishlari yo'q, lekin uning ichki chetida suyak o'simtalari bor umurtqa pog'onasi, u tuxumni iste'mol qilganda qobiqlarni sindirish uchun foydalanadi.^[17]:81

Ilonlarning aksariyati turli xil o'lja hayvonlarini iste'mol qilsa-da, ayrim turlari bo'yicha ba'zi bir ixtisoslashuv mavjud. Qirol kobralari va avstraliyalik bandi-bandi boshqa ilonlarni iste'mol qiling. Oilaning ilonlari Pareidae og'zining o'ng tomonida chapga qaraganda ko'proq tishlar bor, chunki ularning o'ljalari chig'anoqlari odatda soat yo'nalishi bo'yicha aylanadi.^{[17]:184[76][77]}

Ba'zi ilonlarda zaharli luqma bor, ular uni o'lja qilishdan oldin o'ldirishadi.^[75][78] Boshqa ilonlar o'z o'ljalarini o'ldirishadi torayish.^[75] Boshqalar esa o'ljalarini butun va tiriklayin yutmoqdalar.^[17]:81[75]

Dolichophis jugularis o'lja a Sheltopusik

Ovqatlangandan so'ng, ilonlar uxlab qolishadi hazm qilish joy oladi.^[50] Ovqat hazm qilish, ayniqsa katta o'lja iste'mol qilgandan so'ng, intensiv faoliyatdir. Faqatgina vaqti-vaqti bilan oziqlanadigan turlarda, butun ichak energiyani tejash uchun ovqatlanish o'rtasida kamaytirilgan holatga kiradi. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Bo'lish ektotermik ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is 30 °C (86 °F). So much metabolik energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus ), surface body temperature increases by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) during the digestive process.^[79] Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitatsiya its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive fermentlar dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or patlar ) va tirnoqlari, which are excreted along with chiqindilar.

Joylashtirish

The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have developed several different modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which form a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others; transitions between modes are abrupt.^[80][81]

Yanal to'lqinlanish

Crawling prints of a snake

Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion.^[81] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves".^[80] While this movement appears rapid, snakes have rarely been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often much less.^[82] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned per meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.^[83]

Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake species.^[80] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.^[80] Each of these environmental objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.^[84] The speed of this movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8^{[tushuntirish kerak ]} along the snake's length being ideal.^[82] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.^[84]

When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.^[85] Thrust is generated by pushing their body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation, which justifies calling them separate modes.^[86] All snakes can laterally undulate forward (with backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving backwards with forward-moving waves).^[80]

Boshqa tomonga o'tish

A neonate sidewinder rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes ) sidewinding

Most often employed by colubroid snakes (kolubridlar, elapids va ilonlar ) when the snake must move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune, sidewinding is a modified form of lateral undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.^[87][88] This mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.^[87] The static nature of the contact points can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint, without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the cost for a lizard to move the same distance.^[83] Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated with the sand being hot.^[87]

Kontsertina

When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.^[80][88] In this mode, the snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake extends and straightens.^[87] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very demanding, up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.^[83] This high cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.

Arboreal

Oltin daraxt ilon climbing a flower

The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.^[89] While on tree branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.^[89] In general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will laterally undulate if contact points are available.^[89] Snakes move faster on small branches and when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches with little 'clutter'.^[89]

Gliding snakes (Xrizopel ) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.^[87][90][91] These snakes can perform a controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.^[87][90]

To'rtburchak

The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.^[92] In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the skin.^[92] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is most often used by large pitonlar, boas va ilonlar when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.^[87]

Odamlar bilan o'zaro aloqalar

Most common symptoms of any kind of snake bite envenomation.^[93][94] Furthermore, there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.^[93]

Tishlash

Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in place

Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most snakes prefer to avoid contact and will not attack humans. With the exception of large constrictors, nonvenomous snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of a nonvenomous snake is usually harmless; their teeth are not adapted for tearing or inflicting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and holding. Although the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a nonvenomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater hazard to humans.^[17]:209 The Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti (WHO) lists ilon chaqishi under the "other neglected conditions" category.^[95]

Hujjatli o'limlar resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from venomous snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725 species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite. Australia averages only one fatal snake bite per year. Yilda Hindiston, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in a single year, with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.^[96] The WHO estimates that on the order of 100 000 people die each year as a result of snake bites, and around three times as many amputations and other permanent disabilities are caused by snakebites annually.^[97]

The davolash for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of the snake. Some antivenom is species-specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snakes are chuqur ilonlari, bundan mustasno marjon ilon. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of the different species of bo'rilar, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the immunized horse. The serum is separated and further purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses are more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom.^[98] Antivenom for the more dangerous species (such as mambalar, taypanlar va kobralar ) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa, and Australia, although these antivenoms are species-specific.

Ilon sehrgarlari

An Hind kobra in a basket with a snake charmer. These snakes are perhaps the most common subjects of snake charmings.

In some parts of the world, especially in India, ilon maftunkor is a roadside show performed by a charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a basket that contains a snake that he seemingly charms by playing tunes from his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snake responds.^[99] Snakes lack external ears, though they do have internal ears, and respond to the movement of the flute, not the actual noise.^[99]

The 1972 yildagi yovvoyi tabiatni muhofaza qilish to'g'risidagi qonun in India technically proscribes snake charming on grounds of reducing animal cruelty. Other snake charmers also have a snake and mongoz show, where both the animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the snakes, as well as the mongooses, may be seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out in India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws proscribing the practice. Many Indians have never seen snake charming and it is becoming a folktale of the past.^{[99][100][101][102]}

Tuzoq

The Irulas qabilasi Andxra-Pradesh va Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the hot, dry plains forests, and have practiced the art of snake catching for generations. They have a vast knowledge of snakes in the field. They generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple stick. Earlier, the Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the complete ban of the snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched to catching snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so collected is used for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for other medicinal products.^[103] The Irulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.

Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers or wranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves a gerpetolog using a long stick with a V- shaped end. Some television show hosts, like Bill Xast, Austin Stevens, Stiv Irvin va Jeff Korvin, prefer to catch them using bare hands.

Iste'mol

A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake", supposedly Enhidris bocourti) occupies a place of honor among the live delicacies waiting to meet their consumers outside of a Guanchjou restoran

Snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant

While not commonly thought of as food in most cultures, in others the consumption of snakes is acceptable, or even considered a delicacy. Snake soup ning Kanton oshxonasi is consumed by locals in autumn, to warm up their body. Western cultures document the consumption of snakes under extreme circumstances of hunger.^[104] Pishgan jingalak ilon meat is an exception, which is commonly consumed in Texas^[105] and parts of the Midwestern Qo'shma Shtatlar. In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, drinking the blood of snakes—particularly the kobra —is believed to increase sexual virility.^[106] The blood is drained while the cobra is still alive when possible, and is usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve the taste.^[106]

In some Asian countries, the use of snakes in alcohol is also accepted. In such cases, the body of a snake or several snakes is left to steep in a jar or container of liquor. It is claimed that this makes the liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). Buning bir misoli Xabu snake sometimes placed in the Okinava suyuqlik Xabushu (ブ酒,) also known as "Habu Sake".^[107]

Ilon sharob (蛇 酒) - butun ilonlarni quyish natijasida hosil bo'lgan alkogolli ichimlik guruchli sharob yoki donli spirt. Ushbu ichimlik birinchi marta Xitoyda iste'mol qilinganligi qayd etilgan G'arbiy Chjou sulolasi va muhim davolovchi vosita deb hisoblangan va unga ko'ra odamni kuchaytirishga ishongan an'anaviy xitoy tibbiyoti.^[108]

Uy hayvonlari

In the Western world, some snakes (especially docile species such as the to'p piton va jo'xori iloni ) are kept as pets. To meet this demand a asir etishtirish industry has developed. Snakes bred in captivity tend to make better pets and are considered preferable to wild caught specimens.^[109] Snakes can be very low maintenance pets, especially compared to more traditional species. They require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in length. Pet snakes can be fed relatively infrequently, usually once every 5 to 14 days. Certain snakes have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.

Simvolik

The reverse side of the throne of Pharaoh Tutanxamon with four golden uraeus cobra figures. Oltin bilan lapis lazuli; Shohlar vodiysi, Thebes (1347–37 BCE).

Snakes composing a bronze kerykeion from the mythical Longanus Sitsiliyadagi daryo

Yilda qadimgi Mesopotamiya, Nirax, the messenger god of Istaran, was represented as a serpent on kudurrus, yoki chegara toshlari.^[110] Representations of two intertwined serpents are common in Sumerian art and Neo-Sumerian artwork^[110] and still appear sporadically on silindr muhrlari and amulets until as late as the thirteenth century BC.^[110] The horned viper (Cerastes cerastes ) ichida paydo bo'ladi Kassit va Neo-Ossuriya kudurrus^[110] and is invoked in Ossuriya texts as a magical protective entity.^[110] A dragon-like creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the Ellinizm davri (Miloddan avvalgi 323 - Miloddan avvalgi 31).^[110] Yilda ma'lum bo'lgan bu jonzot Akkad sifatida musḫuššu, "g'azablangan ilon" degan ma'noni anglatadi, ma'lum xudolar uchun ramz sifatida va umumiy himoya timsol sifatida ishlatilgan.^[110] Aslida u yer osti xudosining xizmatchisi bo'lgan ko'rinadi Ninazu,^[110] ammo keyinroq xizmatga aylandi Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, shuningdek, keyinchalik, Ninazuning o'g'li Ningishzida, Bobil milliy xudo Marduk, yozuvchi xudo Nabu va Ossuriya milliy xudosi Ashur.^[110]

Yilda Misr tarixi, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of the pharaoh in ancient times. Bo'lgandi sajda qildilar as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Kleopatra ).^{[iqtibos kerak ]} The ouroboros taniqli edi qadimgi Misr symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.^[111] Ouroborosning kashshofi "Ko'p yuzli" edi,^[111] so'zlariga ko'ra besh boshli ilon Amduat, omon qolgan eng keksa odam Oxirat hayoti kitobi, Quyosh xudosi Ra jasadini himoya qilib aylantiradi deyilgan.^[111] "Haqiqiy" ouroborosning saqlanib qolgan eng qadimiy tasviri zargarlik qilingan ma'badlardan olingan qabr ning Tutanxamon.^[111] Milodning dastlabki asrlarida ouroboros ramzi sifatida qabul qilingan Gnostik Nasroniylar^[111] va 136-bob Pistis Sofiya, dastlabki Gnostik matnda "dumi og'zida bo'lgan buyuk ajdar" tasvirlangan.^[111] O'rta asr alkimyosida ouroboros qanotlari, oyoqlari va dumlari bo'lgan odatiy g'arbiy ajdarga aylandi.^[111]

In Injil Shoh Ammonlik Naxax, whose name means "Snake", is depicted very negatively, as a particularly cruel and despicable enemy of the ancient Hebrews.

Meduza (1597) by the Italian artist Karavaggio

Imperial Yaponiya depicted as an evil snake in a WWII propaganda poster

"The Smoking Snake", insignia of the Braziliya ekspeditsiya kuchlari Ikkinchi Jahon Urushida

The ancient Greeks used the Gorgoneion, a depiction of a hideous face with serpents for hair, as an apotropa belgisi yomonlikdan saqlanish.^[112] A Yunon afsonasi described by Pseudo-Apollodorus in his Biblioteka, Meduza edi a Gorgon with serpents for hair whose gaze turned all those who looked at her to stone and was slain by the hero Persey.^{[113][114][115]} In the Roman poet Ovid "s Metamorfozalar, Meduza is said to have once been a beautiful priestess of Afina, whom Athena turned into a serpent-haired monster after she was raped by the god Poseidon in Athena's temple.^[116] In another myth referenced by the Boeotian shoir Hesiod and described in detail by Pseudo-Apollodorus, the hero Gerakllar is said to have slain the Lernaean Hydra,^[117][118] a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna.^[117][118]

The legendary account of the foundation of Thebes mentioned a monster snake guarding the spring from which the new settlement was to draw its water. In fighting and killing the snake, the companions of the founder Kadmus all perished – leading to the term "Cadmean g'alabasi " (i.e. a victory involving one's own ruin).^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Asclepius tayoqchasi, in which the snake, through ekdiz, symbolizes healing

Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Hygieia kosasi, symbolizing pharmacy, and the Kaduceus va Asclepius tayoqchasi, which are symbols denoting medicine in general.^[49]

One of the etymologies proposed for the common female first name Linda is that it might derive from Old German Lindi yoki Linda, meaning a serpent.

India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.^[119] Snakes are worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes' aversion for milk).^[119] The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva va Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.^[120] There are also several temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of Snakes) and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on which day snakes are venerated and prayed to. Shuningdek qarang Naga.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

In India there is another mythology about snakes. Odatda ma'lum bo'lgan Hind kabi "Ichchhadhari " snakes. Such snakes can take the form of any living creature, but prefer human form. These mythical snakes possess a valuable gem called "Mani", which is more brilliant than diamond. There are many stories in India about greedy people trying to possess this gem and ending up getting killed.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

The ilon is one of the 12 celestial animals of Xitoy burji, ichida Xitoy taqvimi.^[121]

Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.^[122] They emphasized animals and often depicted snakes in their art.^[123]

Din

Ushbu bo'lim uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang tomonidan ishonchli manbalarga iqtiboslarni qo'shish. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan materialga qarshi chiqish va olib tashlash mumkin. (2017 yil aprel) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Snakes are a part of Hindu worship. A festival, Nag Panchami, in which participants worship either images of or live Nagas (cobras) is celebrated every year. Most images of Lord Shiva depict snake around his neck. Puranas have various stories associated with snakes. Puranalarda, Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as "Ananta-Shesha", which means "Endless Shesha". Other notable snakes in Hinduism are Ananta, Vasuki, Taxak, Karkotaka va Pingala. Atama Naga is used to refer to entities that take the form of large snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Snakes have also been widely revered, such as in qadimgi Yunoniston, where the serpent was seen as a healer. Asklepius carried a serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on many ambulances.

In religious terms, the snake and yaguar are arguably the most important animals in ancient Mesoamerika. "Ekstaz holatida lordlar ilon raqsini raqsga tushirishadi; tushayotgan buyuk ilonlar binolarni bezab turibdi Chichen Itza ga Tenochtitlan, va Nahuatl so'z palto ilon yoki egizak ma'nosini anglatadi, kabi asosiy xudolarning bir qismini tashkil qiladi Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl va Coatlicue."^[124] Ikkalasida ham Mayya va Aztec calendars, the fifth day of the week was known as Snake Day.

Yilda Yahudiylik, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being saved from imminent death.^[125]

In some parts of Christianity, Masih 's redemptive work is compared to saving one's life through beholding the Nexushtan (serpent of guruch ).^[126] Snake handlers use snakes as an integral part of church worship in order to exhibit their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly in Christianity, the serpent has been seen as a representative of yovuzlik and sly plotting, which can be seen in the description in Ibtido chapter 3 of a snake in the Adan bog'i tempting Momo Havo.^[127] Avliyo Patrik is reputed to have expelled all snakes from Ireland while converting the country to Christianity in the 5th century, thus explaining the absence of snakes there.

In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book of the Bible when a serpent appears before the first couple Odam Ato va Momo Havo and tempts them with the taqiqlangan meva dan Bilim daraxti.^[127] The snake returns in Chiqish qachon Muso, as a sign of God's power, turns his staff into a snake and when Moses made the Nexushtan, a bronze snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that plagued them in the desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Shayton ichida Vahiy kitobi: "And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years."^[128]

Yilda Neo-butparastlik va Vikka, ilon donolik va bilimning ramzi sifatida qaraladi.

Ballcourt marker from the Postclassic site of Mixco Viejo Gvatemalada. This sculpture depicts Kukulkan, jaws agape, with the head of a human warrior emerging from his maw.^[129]

Dori

Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential treatments or preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease, hemophilia, and hypertension, and to control bleeding (e.g. during surgery).^{[130][131][132]}

Shuningdek qarang

•  Ilonlar portali
•  Sudralib yuruvchilar portali

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Tashqi havolalar

• "Serpentes" uchun bibliografiya"". Biologik xilma-xillik merosi kutubxonasi.
• "Ilonlar". Integratsiyalashgan taksonomik axborot tizimi.
• "AQSh ilonlari". eNature. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2008-03-15.
• "Hindiston yarim orolining ilonlari". Naturemagics Kerala fotogalereyasi.
• "Gerpetologiya ma'lumotlar bazasi". Shvetsiya tabiiy tarix muzeyi.
• BBC tabiati: Ilon yangiliklari va BBC dasturlarining o'tmishdagi va hozirgi video lavhalari.
• Ilonlar taksonomiyasining asoslari Hayot qisqa, ammo ilonlar uzun