Jeyn Ostinning uslublari va mavzulari - Styles and themes of Jane Austen

Sarlavha sahifasida
C. E. Brok 1895 yilgi nashr uchun rasm G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida (1813). Roman Ostinning mashhur kinoyali jumlasi bilan ochiladi: "Bu haqiqat hamma tomonidan e'tirof etilgan, yaxshi boylikka ega bo'lgan yolg'iz erkak xotiniga muhtoj bo'lishi kerak".[1]

Jeyn Ostin (1775-1817) ning o'ziga xos xususiyati adabiy uslub birikmasiga tayanadi parodiya, burlesk, kinoya, bepul bilvosita nutq va darajasi realizm. U komediya effekti va 18-asrda ayollar obrazini tanqid qilish uchun parodiya va burleskdan foydalanadi sentimental va gotik romanlar. Osten o'z tanqidini istehzo orqali ijtimoiy ikkiyuzlamachilikni ta'kidlab kengaytiradi; u ko'pincha qahramonlarning fikrlari va so'zlari bilan aralashadigan bepul bilvosita nutq orqali kinoya ohangini yaratadi roviyning ovozi. Tanqidchilar Ostinning personajlari psixologik chuqurlikka ega ekanliklariga ishonish darajasi uning realizmi haqidagi fikrlarini bildiradi. Ba'zi olimlar Osten realizm an'analariga individual obrazlarni yaxshi ijro etganligi va "kundalik" ga urg'u berganligi sababli tushib qolgan deb ta'kidlashsa, boshqalari uning obrazlari avvalgi asarlarga nisbatan chuqur his etishmasligini va shu bilan birga Ostinning polemik ohangida, uni realistik an'analardan tashqarida qoldiradi.

Ko'pincha "qishloq uylari romanlari" yoki "odob-axloq komediyalari ", Ostinning romanlari ham o'z ichiga oladi ertak elementlar. Ular 19-asrning boshqa romanlariga qaraganda kamroq bayon yoki manzarali tavsifga ega va juda ko'p dialoglarga ega. Ostin har bir belgi uchun o'ziga xos va nozik qurilgan ovozni shakllantiradi.

Uning uchastkalari asosan ta'lim bilan bog'liq; uning qahramonlari o'zlarini va xulq-atvorlarini yanada aniqroq ko'rishlari va yaxshi, odobli odamlar bo'lishlari uchun keladi. Ostin 19-asr boshlarida adabiyotda keng tarqalgan rasmiy axloqiy qoidalardan voz kechgan bo'lsa-da, odob-axloq, odob-axloq, jamiyat oldidagi burch va diniy jiddiylik bilan ajralib turadi - uning asarlarining asosiy mavzusi. Uning romanlari davomida jiddiy o'qish intellektual va axloqiy rivojlanish bilan bog'liq. Romanlar feministik mavzularni qay darajada aks ettirganligi olimlar tomonidan keng muhokama qilingan; aksariyat tanqidchilarning ta'kidlashicha, romanlar ba'zi ayol belgilar o'z dunyosini qanday boshqarishini ta'kidlaydi, boshqalari esa jismoniy va ma'naviy jihatdan cheklangan. Ostinning deyarli barcha asarlari 18-asr oxiri va 19-asr boshlari ayollari duch kelgan xavfli iqtisodiy vaziyatni o'rganadi.

Ostinning romanlari turli xil siyosiy konservativ va ilg'or deb ta'riflangan. Masalan, tanqidlarning bir qatori, uning qahramonlari o'zlarining shaxsiy xohish-istaklarini qurbon qilishlari va mavjud xizmatlariga bag'ishlanishlari orqali mavjud ijtimoiy tuzilmani qo'llab-quvvatlamoqdalar. Boshqasi esa Ostinning "boshqasiga" paternalistik hukmronlik qilishiga shubha bilan qarashini ta'kidlaydi, bu uning istehzoli ohangidan dalolat beradi. Janoblar atrofidagi siyosiy masalalarni o'rganish davomida Ostin pul va mol-mulk bilan bog'liq masalalarni, xususan mulk merosining o'zboshimchalik sifati va ayollarning xavfli iqtisodiy mavqeini ko'rib chiqmoqda. Uning butun faoliyati davomida jamiyat va shaxsning talablari o'rtasida ziddiyat mavjud. Ostin ko'pincha zamonaviy, interioriza qilingan roman xarakterining asoschilaridan biri hisoblanadi.

Uslublar

Parodiya va burlesk

Yalang'och daraxt tanasi uzuklarining sariq va jigarrang palitrasida, qabr toshlari bilan xaroba bo'lgan abbatni o'rab turgan rasm.
Yilda Northanger Abbey, Osten parodiya qiladi Gotik adabiy uslub 1790-yillarda mashhur.

Ostinning voyaga etmaganlar uchun yozganlari parodiyalar va burlesklar kabi mashhur 18-asr janrlari sentimental roman. U sentimental romanlarda keng tarqalgan ijtimoiy konvensiyani qaytarish, masalan, ota-onalarning ko'rsatmalariga nisbatan nafratlanish kulgili ravishda amaliy emasligini kulgili tarzda namoyish etadi; uning qahramonlari "barcha aql-idrok uchun o'lgan".[2] Uning bu komediya uslublariga bo'lgan qiziqishi qisman roman yozuvchisi tomonidan yozilgan Frensis Burni va dramaturglar Richard Sheridan va Devid Garrik,[3] professional faoliyati davomida unchalik ochiq davom etmadi.[4]

Ostinning burleskasi masxara qiladigan taqlid va uning bo'rttirilgan, joyidan bo'shatilgan ta'kidlanishi bilan ajralib turadi.[5] Masalan, ichida Northanger Abbey, u fitnaning mumkin emasligi va qat'iy konventsiyalarini masxara qiladi Gotik roman.[6] Biroq, u gotikani qat'iyan rad etmaydi. Ostin olimi sifatida Klaudiya Jonson "Ostin" gothic texnika - bo'ronlar, shkaflar, pardalar, qo'lyozmalar - kulgili ko'ngilxushlik bilan "kuladi, ammo u zolim otaning tahdidiga jiddiy e'tibor beradi.[7] Osten parodiya va burleskdan nafaqat komediya effekti uchun, balki, shuningdek, foydalanadi feministik tanqidchilar, ikkala sentimental va gotik romanlarda ularda tasvirlangan rollarni bajarishga harakat qilgan ayollarning hayotiga qanday qarshi kurashganligini ochib berish.[8] Sifatida Syuzan Gubar va Sandra Gilbert ularning asosiy ishlarida tushuntiring, Uyingizda jinni ayol (1979), Ostin "birinchi qarashda muhabbat, ehtirosning boshqa barcha his-tuyg'ularga va / yoki vazifalarga nisbatan ustunligi, qahramonning ritsarlik ekspluatatsiyasi, qahramonning zaif sezgirligi, sevishganlar tomonidan e'lon qilingan befarqlik kabi romanshunoslik klişelerini masxara qiladi. moliyaviy masalalarga va ota-onalarning shafqatsiz qo'polligiga ".[9]

Irony

 
"U [Bertram xonim] kunlarini o'tirgan holda, chiroyli kiyingan holda, divanda, uzun bo'yli igna ishlarini qiladigan, foydasiz va go'zalligi bo'lmagan, bolalaridan ko'ra ko'proq o'z qo'polligini o'ylaydigan, ammo juda yoqimli ayol edi. ikkinchisiga o'zini noqulaylik tug'dirmaganida ... "[10]

- Jeyn Ostin, Mensfild bog'i (1814)

Irony Ostinning eng xarakterli va eng ko'p muhokama qilinadigan adabiy uslublaridan biridir.[11] U bayonotning sodda ma'nosini kulgili bilan taqqoslab, asl nusxaning ma'nosiga putur etkazib, kinoya bilan ajratilgan. Voyaga etmaganlarning asarlarida u nomuvofiqlikka asoslangan satira, parodiya va kinoyaga tayanadi. Uning etuk romanlari ijtimoiy ikkiyuzlamachilikni birinchi o'ringa qo'yish uchun kinoyadan foydalanadi.[12]

Xususan Ostin nikoh bozorini tanqid qilish uchun kinoyadan foydalanadi.[13] Ehtimol, Ostindagi eng mashhur istehzo namunasi - bu ochilish chizig'i G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida: "Yaxshi boylikka ega bo'lgan yolg'iz erkak xotiniga muhtoj bo'lishi kerakligi haqiqatan ham tan olingan". Bir qarashda, jumla sodda va ishonarli, ammo romanning syujeti unga zid keladi: aynan omadsiz ayollar erlarga muhtoj bo'lib, ularni izlaydilar. Romanning oxiriga kelib, gapning haqiqati tan olinadi faqat bitta belgi bilan, Bennet xonim, onasi qizlariga er izlamoqda.[14]

Ostinning kinoyasi jumla darajasidan tashqariga chiqadi. Ostin olimi Yan Fergusning ta'kidlashicha, "asosiy tuzilmalar G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida Bu roman harakati ichida kinoya yaratishdir, ular o'xshashlik va qarama-qarshiliklar singari o'quvchining diqqatini va hukmini butun vaqt davomida shubha ostiga qo'yadi va oxirida uning his-tuyg'ularini jalb qiladi. "[15] Ostinning kinoyasi individual personajlar va uning jamiyatidagi xatolarni yoritib beradi. Xususan, keyingi romanlarida u "qonun, odob-axloq va urf-odatlar xatolariga qarshi, ayollarni hisobot beradigan mavjudot deb tan olmaslik yoki bo'lishi kerak" deb kinoya qiladi.[16]

Bepul bilvosita nutq

Osten o'zining rivojlanishi bilan eng taniqli bepul bilvosita nutq, 18-asr romanchilari tomonidan kashf etilgan texnika Genri Filding va Frensis Burni.[17] Erkin bilvosita nutqda personajlarning fikrlari va nutqi roviyning ovozi. Ostin uni suhbatlarning qisqacha mazmunini berish yoki qahramon nutqi va fikrlarini keskin yoki kinoyali tarzda siqish uchun ishlatadi.[18] Yilda Tuyg'u va sezgirlik, Osten ushbu texnika bilan birinchi marta keng tajriba o'tkazdi.[19] Masalan,

Jon Dashvud xonim erining opa-singillari uchun qilmoqchi bo'lgan ishlarini umuman ma'qullamadi. Sevimli bolasining boyligidan uch ming funt sterlingni olish, uni eng dahshatli darajada qashshoqlashtirgan bo'lar edi. U bu mavzuda yana o'ylab ko'rishini iltimos qildi. Qanday qilib u o'z bolasini va uning yolg'iz farzandini ham shuncha katta pulni o'g'irlash uchun o'ziga javob bera oladimi?[20]

Ostin olimi Norman Peyj tushuntirganidek, "birinchi jumla [rivoyatchi] ning" ovozi "bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri bayon qilingan; uchinchi jumla oddiy bilvosita nutqdir; ammo ikkinchi va to'rtinchisi odatda erkin bilvosita nutq deb ta'riflanadi."[21] Ushbu ikki jumlada Osten personajning ichki fikrlarini ifodalaydi va o'quvchi personajlar ongiga kirib kelayotgani haqidagi tasavvurni yaratadi.[22] U ko'pincha fon belgilar uchun bilvosita nutqdan foydalanadi. Biroq, Peyj "Jeyn Ostin uchun ... bepul bilvosita nutqning eng yuqori fazilati ... [bu] nutqning yorqinligini, bir lahzaga ko'rinmasdan turib, bir lahzaga erishish imkoniyatini berishidir. mualliflik ovozi. "[23]

Suhbat va til

 
"Unday bo'lsa, - dedi Elizabet, - siz barkamol ayol haqidagi g'oyangizni ko'p narsani tushunishingiz kerak."

- Ha, men bunda juda ko'p narsani tushunganman.

"Oh! Albatta, - deb qichqirdi uning [Darsining] sodiq yordamchisi (miss Bingli), - hech kim haqiqatan ham hurmatga sazovor bo'lolmaydi, chunki u odatda uchrashadigan narsadan oshib ketmaydi. Ayol musiqa, qo'shiq aytish, rasm chizishni yaxshi bilishi kerak. , raqsga tushish va zamonaviy tillar, so'zga loyiqdir; va bulardan tashqari, u o'z havosida va yurish uslubida, ovozining ohangida, manzili va ifodalarida ma'lum bir narsaga ega bo'lishi kerak, aks holda bu so'z yarimga teng bo'ladi. - munosib. "

"U bularning barchasiga ega bo'lishi kerak, - deya qo'shimcha qildi Darsi, - va bularning barchasiga u yana muhimroq narsani qo'shishi kerak, bu esa uning fikrini yaxshilab o'qish orqali yaxshilanadi."

"Men sizning oltita yetuk ayolni bilishingizga endi hayron bo'lmayman. Endi sizning bilimingizga hayronman har qanday."[24]

— Jeyn Ostin, G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida (1813)

19-asrning boshidagi boshqa romanlar bilan taqqoslaganda, Ostinning hikoyalari yoki manzaralari juda kam tasvirlangan - ular juda ko'p dialoglarni o'z ichiga oladi, xoh belgilar o'rtasida bo'lsin, yozilgan bepul bilvosita nutq yoki harflar bilan ifodalanadi.[25] Masalan, ichida G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida sifatida boshlangan epistolyar roman, harflar qahramon tarbiyasida hal qiluvchi rol o'ynaydi[26] va ochilish boblari teatrlashtirilgan ohangda.[27] Ostinning suhbatlarida ko'plab qisqa jumlalar, savol-javob juftliklari va personajlar o'rtasidagi tezkor almashinuvlar mavjud, ehtimol esda qolarli narsa repartee o'rtasida Yelizaveta va Darsi.[28] Bu Ostinning badiiy asarlarini keltirilgan parchalar va kotirovka kitoblarida mashhur qildi.[29]

Ostin har bir belgisiga o'ziga xos va nozik qurilgan ovozni beradi: ular nutqlari bilan diqqat bilan ajralib turadi. Masalan, Admiral Croft o'zining dengiz jargoni bilan ajralib turadi Ishontirish va janob Vudxaus o'zining hipokondriyal tili bilan ajralib turadi Emma.[30] Biroq, Ostinning xarakterlarini eng ko'p ajratib turadigan narsa bu tilni noto'g'ri ishlatishdir. Sahifaning tushuntirishicha, yilda Tuyg'u va sezgirlik Masalan, Lyusi Stil kabi belgilarning tildan to'g'ri foydalana olmasligi ularning "axloqiy chalkashligi" ning belgisidir.[31][a] Yilda Katarin yoki Bower, Camilla faqat ma'nosiz zamonaviy aktsiyalar iboralarida gaplasha oladi. U haqiqiy hissiyotni ifoda eta olmaydi, chunki uning barcha his-tuyg'ulari bo'sh giperbola orqali amalga oshiriladi.[32] Osten, ayniqsa, axloqiy ma'lumotnomani yaratish uchun adabiyot haqidagi suhbatlardan foydalanadi. Yilda Katarin yoki BowerMasalan, Katarin Kamilaga adabiyot haqidagi yuzaki va odatiy mulohazalari asosida axloqiy hukmlar qiladi.[33]

Realizm

Ostinning romanlari qay darajada realistik olimlar tomonidan qizg'in muhokama qilinmoqda. Uning romanlarida jismoniy tavsifning etishmasligi ularga haqiqatsizlik havosini beradi. Osten romanlarida, Peyj ta'kidlaganidek, "jismoniy idrok, shakl va rang dunyosi va sezgir javobga oid so'zlarning aniq yo'qligi" mavjud.[34] Shunday bo'lsa-da, Ostin o'zining romanlarining fonini diqqat bilan o'rganib chiqdi, almanaxlardan foydalangan va xayoliy olamlarining xronologiyasini va geografiyasini aniq tasvirlash uchun kitoblarni o'qigan. Alastair Duckworth u "roman yozuvchisi haqiqatan ham mavjud bo'lgan narsalarni tasvirlashi, tasavvur mavjud tartib bilan cheklanib qolishi kerak degan xavotirni" namoyon etishini ta'kidlaydi.[35] Ostin nasrida "nisbatan kam sonli tez-tez ishlatiladigan so'zlar, asosan shaxsiy fazilatlar - fazilatlar, ya'ni tashqi ko'rinishga emas, balki xarakter va temperamentga ishora qiluvchi epitet va mavhum ismlar" mavjud.[36] Bu o'quvchilarga o'zlarini xarakterlarni "yaqindan bilganidek his qilishlariga imkon beradi aql".[37] Ko'pgina olimlar o'quvchi va xarakter o'rtasidagi bu aloqani realizm belgisi deb bilishadi. Masalan, Janet Todd yozishicha, "Ostin o'z matnlarida qisman o'quvchilar tomonidan identifikatsiyalash orqali va qisman tarixga va xotiraga ega bo'lgan yumaloq belgilar orqali realizm illyuziyasini yaratadi".[38] Biroq, Ostin obrazlarining chuqurligi to'g'risida ozgina kelishuv mavjud emas. Butler, Ostin, birinchi navbatda, realist yozuvchi emasligini ta'kidladi, chunki u o'zining qahramonlari psixologiyasini tasvirlashga unchalik qiziqmaydi. Ostenni qarshi polemikist sifatida ko'rish sezgirlik, Butlerning ta'kidlashicha, u "aqliy tajribaning hissiy, mantiqsiz va beixtiyor turlaridan qochgan", chunki u ularning mavjudligini inkor etmasa ham, ularni rad etadi.[39]

Ostin yozayotgan paytda tarixiy romanlar ning Valter Skott va dastlabki realistik romanlari Mariya Edgevort allaqachon realistik an'anani boshlagan edi.[40] Ba'zan Ostinning romanlari ushbu yangi janrlarning o'sishi sifatida qaraladi. Dastlabki ko'rib chiqishda Emma, Skotning o'zi Ostinning "tabiatdan nusxa ko'chirish qobiliyatini maqtadi, chunki u haqiqatan ham hayotning umumiy qatlamlarida mavjud va" o'quvchi ... a uning atrofida har kuni sodir bo'layotgan narsalarning to'g'ri va ajoyib namoyishi. "[41] Biroq, Ostin olimi Uilyam Galperinning ta'kidlashicha, Ostin 19-asr realizmida - keyinchalik u bilan bog'langan realizmda ishtirok etishi mumkin emas edi, chunki u hali to'liq aniqlanmagan edi. Uning ta'kidlashicha, Ostinning romanlari realizmning boshlang'ich bosqichlarining bir qismi bo'lgan.[42] Shuning uchun, Ostenni realist yozuvchi sifatida ko'rish o'rniga, uni a manzarali realizm avjiga chiqqan yozuvchi. Uning tafsilotlarga, ehtimollikka va qarama-qarshiliklarga e'tibor qaratishi uni "kundalik tarixchi" deb atashga majbur qiladi.[43]

Jon Uiltshirning ta'kidlashicha, Ostinning asarlari kasallik va sog'liqni davolashda realistik an'analardan ajralib turishi mumkin. Realistik an'analarga ko'ra, sog'liq yaxshi ko'rinishga ega, chunki bu ko'rinmas fonning bir qismi bo'lib, kasal yoki jarohat olgan yoki deformatsiyaga uchragan belgilar shu sababli ko'zga ko'rinadigan bo'lib qoladi. Ostinning asarlarida sog'liq masalasi birinchi o'rinda turadi - Emmaning salomatligi, janob Vudxausning gipoxondriyasi, Fanni Praysning "jismoniy xavfsizligi". Salomatlik (yaxshi yoki yomon) Ostinning ko'plab asosiy xarakterlarini tavsiflashning muhim qismidir va bu bilan boshlanadi Mensfild bog'i uning fitnalarini ochishda hal qiluvchi elementga aylanadi. Ayol uchun sog'liq bu tovar bo'lib, uni patriarxal erkak qarashlariga ozmi-ko'pmi jalb qiladi (masalan, Marianne kasalligidan keyin ko'proq "bozorga" tushadi).[44]

Janr

Jeyn Ostin jiyani Jeyms Edvard Ostinga "Varete va Glow bilan to'la kuchli, erkalik, ruhiy eskizlar" men juda yaxshi cho'tka bilan ishlagan Fil suyagi (kengligi ikki dyuym) ga "to'g'ri kelmasligini" mashhur yozgan. , juda ko'p mehnatdan so'ng ozgina samarani beradi. "[45] Ostin romanlari ko'pincha "qishloq uylari romanları" yoki "odob-axloq komediyalari ". Xulq-atvor komediyalari" sayqallangan va murakkab jamiyatda yashovchi janoblar va xonimlarning munosabatlari va fitnalari bilan bog'liq "va komediya" ijtimoiy konvensiyalar va bezaklarning buzilishi natijasidir va uning ta'siriga katta darajada ishonadi aql-idrok va suhbatning porlashi. "[46] Biroq, Ostinning romanlari ham muhim ahamiyatga ega ertak ularga elementlar. G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida an'anaviyga amal qiladi Zolushka fitna esa "Ishontirish Zolushka haqidagi hikoyani qayta yozadi, chunki u ertakning diqqatini qahramonning go'zallikka aylanishidan shahzodaning uning yuziga ikkinchi qarashiga o'zgartiradi. "[47] Biroq, Fanni, ichida Mensfild bog'i, Shahzodaning maftunkor xarakterini rad etadi va hech bo'lmaganda bitta olim ushbu Ostinda "fantastika" xavfiga qarshi umumiy hujum "degan signalni bergan.[48]

Willoughby Mariannening sochlaridan qulfni kesib tashlash Tuyg'u va sezgirlik

Ostinning romanlari XVIII asr romanlari an'analarida osonlikcha joylashishi mumkin. Ostin, boshqa oilasi singari, ajoyib roman o'qigan edi. Uning maktublarida zamonaviy badiiy adabiyotga oid ko'plab ishoralar mavjud, ko'pincha u o'qigan narsalar bilan yaxshi tanish bo'lganligini ko'rsatadigan kichik tafsilotlar. Osten, hatto kichik romanlarni ham o'qidi va qayta o'qidi.[49] U janrda juda ko'p o'qidi, shu jumladan, o'sha paytda ham, hozirgi kunda ham vasat deb hisoblangan ko'plab asarlar, lekin ayol yozuvchilarning mahalliy uydirmalarini ta'kidlashga moyil edi va o'z romanlarida ushbu asarlarga ko'plab havolalar mavjud. Masalan, "mag'rurlik va xurofot" iborasi Burnining so'zlaridan kelib chiqqan Sesiliya va Wickham subplot G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida parodiya Genri Filding "s Tom Jons.[50]

Ostinning dastlabki asarlari ko'pincha bir nechta belgilar atrofida tuzilgan. Masalan, Tuyg'u va sezgirlik a didaktik ikki qahramonning e'tiqodi va xulq-atvori o'rtasidagi qarama-qarshilikka asoslangan roman, ayniqsa 1790-yillarda moda bo'lgan va Edgeuort tomonidan namoyish etilgan roman formati Julia va Kerolaynning xatlari va Elizabeth Inchbald "s Tabiat va san'at.[51] Aylanma kutubxonalarda ko'pincha faqat romanning nomlari keltirilgan kataloglardan foydalanilganligi sababli, Ostin o'z o'quvchilari uchun aks sado beradigan nomlarni tanlagan; "tuyg'u va sezgirlik" kabi mavhum taqqoslashlar axloqiy an'ana va qahramonlarning ism-sharif nomlari yangi romantik roman an'analarining bir qismi edi.[52] Elinor, "tuyg'u" ni ifodalovchi va "sezgirlik" ni ifodalovchi Marianne, Butlerning so'zlariga ko'ra "idrokning ikki uslubi o'rtasidagi" kontrastni ifodalaydi.[53] "Mariannening yo'li sub'ektiv, intuitiv, konvensiya buzilmaganida inson tabiatining tabiiy yaxshiliklariga ishonchni anglatadi. Uning fikri Elinorning ehtiyotkor pravoslavligi bilan tuzatiladi, u o'z istaklariga ishonmaydigan va hattoki uning yordamini izlash uchun sababini ham talab qiladi. ob'ektiv dalillar. "[53][b] Biroq, boshqa tanqidchilar bu ikkala belgining qarama-qarshiligi qat'iy ikkilik emasligini ta'kidladilar. Masalan, Marianne munosiblikni muhokama qiladi va Elinor ehtiros bilan sevadi Edvard.[55]

1760 dan 1820 yilgacha kitoblarni olib borish Britaniyada mashhurlik darajasiga yetdi; bir olim bu davrni "ayollar uchun xushmuomala kitoblar asri" deb ataydi.[56] Do'stlik kitoblari bag'ishlangan yozuvlar, turmushga oid qo'llanmalar, retseptlar kitoblari va uy xo'jaligi asarlari kabi oldingi janrlarning uslublari va ritorikalarini birlashtirdi. Ular o'z o'quvchilariga ideal ayolning tavsifini (ko'pincha) taklif qilishdi va shu bilan birga amaliy maslahatlarni tarqatishdi. Shunday qilib, ular nafaqat odob-axloq qoidalarini belgilab berishdi, balki o'quvchilarning kiyim tanlashiga rahbarlik qilishdi va "to'g'ri" odob-axloq qoidalarini bayon qilishdi.[57] Ostinning badiiy adabiyoti ushbu odat haqidagi taxminlarga asoslanib, ularni shubha ostiga qo'ydi va bunday kitob yozuvchilariga qarshi munosabat bildirdi Xanna ko'proq, Jon Gregori va Xester Chapone.[58] Juveniliyadan boshlang, xuddi erta Katarin yoki Bower, Ostin bu janrni puxta aqlsiz va ijtimoiy voqelik uchun ahamiyatsiz deb hisoblagan.[59]

Mavzular

Ta'lim va o'qish

 
"Men roman mualliflari bilan shunchalik keng tarqalgan, o'zlarini qo'shib qo'ygan spektakllarni o'zlarining nafratli tanqidlari bilan kamsitadigan odatiy va odil bo'lmagan odatlarni qabul qilmayman - bu kabi asarlardagi eng qattiq epitetlarni berishda eng katta dushmanlari bilan qo'shilib, va ularni o'zlarining qahramonlari tomonidan o'qishga deyarli hech qachon ruxsat berishmaydi, agar u tasodifan romanni qabul qilsa, uning betakror sahifalarini nafrat bilan aylantirishga amin ... Bir-birimizni tashlab ketmaylik; biz jarohatlangan tanamiz. bizning asarlarimiz dunyodagi boshqa har qanday adabiy korporatsiyalarnikiga qaraganda kengroq va ta'sirlanmagan zavq bag'ishladi, kompozitsiyalarning biron bir turi bu qadar chirkin bo'lmagan. "[60]

 — Jeyn Ostin, Northanger Abbey (1817)

Ostinning syujetlari asosan ta'lim bilan bog'liq; uning qahramonlari "o'zlarini va xulq-atvorlarini aniq ko'rish uchun" jarayonni boshdan kechirishadi va shu bilan "yaxshi odamlar bo'lishadi".[61] Masalan, ichida G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida, Yelizaveta xato jarayonini boshdan kechirmoqda, xatoni tan olish, pushaymon bo'lish va yaxshiroq ishlashga qaror qilish. U Vikem va Darsi haqida ham adashganini tushunadi. Uning aqliy jarayonlarini o'rganayotganda, u Darsiga nisbatan hech qachon ob'ektiv bo'lmaganligini anglaydi. U qaysarlik bilan saqlanib qolgan antipatiya tuyg'ularidan tashqari, uni yoqtirmaslik yoki rad etish uchun ob'ektiv sabablari yo'qligini tushunadi:

U o'zidan mutlaqo uyalib ketdi. - U Darsi ham, Uikxem ham ko'r, yuzma-yuz, beg'araz va bema'ni ekanligini his qilmasdan o'ylay olmasdi. "Men qanchalik xor ish qildim!" - deb qichqirdi u. - Men o'zimning aql-idrokim bilan maqtanganman! ... Birimizning afzalligimizdan mamnun edim, ikkinchisining e'tiborsizligidan xafa bo'ldim, tanishlarimizning boshida men egalik va jaholatga qarshi kurashdim va aql-idrokni haydab chiqardim. Shu paytgacha men hech qachon o'zimni tanimaganman.[62]

Ostinning hikoyalari uning romanlarida eng dramatik va esda qolarli bo'lgan o'z-o'zini anglashning ushbu daqiqalariga to'g'ri keladi.[63][c] Ostin shuningdek o'quvchilarni, xususan ularning hissiyotlarini tarbiyalashga harakat qilmoqda.[67] Masalan, ichida Tuyg'u va sezgirlik va keyingi romanlarida u hukm va xushyoqishni keltirib chiqarishga qaratilgan.[68]

Ostinning barcha romanlari davomida o'qish intellektual va axloqiy rivojlanish bilan bog'liq. Ammo o'qish amaliyotining hammasi ham "yaxshilanishga" olib kelmaydi. O'z madaniyatini anglash uchun bilim to'plash uchun yuzaki o'qigan belgilar (masalan, Meri Bennet G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida), yoki ularning ijtimoiy mavqeini ko'zga tashlagan holda, bu axloqiy o'sishdan foyda ko'rmaydi. Ideal o'quvchi Elizaveta vakili bo'lib, u Darsi haqidagi fikrini qayta ko'rib chiqib, o'z xatini qayta ko'rib chiqib, uni qayta sharhlashga tayyor edi.[69][d]

Axloq

Odob-axloq, jamiyat oldidagi burch va diniy jiddiylik bilan ajralib turadigan axloq - Ostin asarlarining asosiy mavzusi. Ga chizish Jonsoniy An'anaga ko'ra, Ostin "vazifa" va "odob-axloq" kabi so'zlarni o'zining badiiy adabiyoti davomida doimiy ravishda axloqiy tizimining belgisi sifatida ishlatadi. Ostinning odob-axloq qoidalari nafaqat odob-axloq qoidalari, balki axloq kodeksi hamdir.[71] Muhim talqinlardan biriga ko'ra, Ostenni "konservativ xristian axloqshunos" deb hisoblash mumkin[72] uning jamiyat haqidagi qarashlari "oxir-oqibat diniy printsipda asoslangan".[73] Shu bilan birga, Ostinning asarlari uning zamondoshlari orasida noyobdir, ular ichida juda kam ma'lumotlarga ega Injil.[74] Buning o'rniga u ko'pincha axloqli shoirlarning asarlariga murojaat qiladi Uilyam Kovper.[75] Shunga qaramay, boshqa tanqidchilar ta'kidladilar Mensfild bog'i 1790-yillardagi konservativ romanlarga qarshi kurash sifatida qaralishi mumkin, chunki taqvodorlik qadriyatlariga eng yaqin rioya qiladigan belgi, filial itoatkorlik va kamtarlik, Fanni, konservativ mafkuraning muvaffaqiyatsizligidan eng ko'p zarar ko'radi.[76]

Ostin iqtisodiy mulohazalar odamlarning xulq-atvoridagi axloqiy masalalarni engib chiqadi deb qo'rqardi; uning eng ashaddiy xarakterlari - Vikem, Meri Krouford, Janob Elliot - iqtisodiy jihatdan eng asosli.[77] Uning asarlaridagi axloqiy takomillashtirish nafaqat personajlar uchun, balki o'quvchilar uchun ham muhimdir. Uning romanlari "hissiyotlarni idrok va axloqiy tuyg'u bilan birga o'rgatish va takomillashtirish" uchun mo'ljallangan.[78] Tug'ma axloqiy tuyg'uga emas, balki murakkab axloqiy vijdonga ishongan Ostin, ular o'rganishi mumkin bo'lgan axloqiy jihatdan noaniq belgilarni tasvirlash orqali o'quvchilarni munosib fazilatlarga undash zarurligini his qildi. Garchi u va Jonson xuddi shunday axloq tuyg'usiga ega bo'lishsa-da, Jonson o'quvchilarga fazilatni faqat bir o'lchovli belgilar singdirishi mumkin deb ta'kidlagan.[79] Burni va Ostin, aksincha, "axloqiy harakatni qiyinlashtiradigan hissiyotlar va hissiyotlarni murakkablashtiradigan axloqiy tamoyillar bilan qiziqishadi".[80]

Din

Tanqidchilar va sharhlovchilar Ostenni "vijdonli va imonli cherkov ayol" ekaniga uzoq vaqtdan beri qo'shiladilar. [81] Qolgan xatlaridagi ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, Oliver MakDonagga Osten pravoslav anglikan bo'lganligi, Anglikan cherkovi (vatanparvarlik nuqtai nazaridan) milliy xarakterga ega ekanligi va u "diniylik va jamoat axloqi rivojlanib borayotganidan" mamnun bo'lganligi haqida dalolat beradi. Uning hayoti davomida Angliya.[82] 1939 yilda Kanon Garold Anson "Ostinning romanlari diniy tortishuvlar yoki" kuchli cherkov motivi "ni o'z ichiga olganligi uchun emas, balki diniydir, chunki ular" o'z hayotlarida yashaydigan asosiy tamoyillarni va " boshqalar "." Gari Kellining so'zlariga ko'ra, "bu Ostenni diniy roman yozuvchisi deb topgan tanqidchilarning hukmron qarashiga aylandi.[83]

Cherkov ijtimoiy va diniy tadbir ham bo'lgan. Yilda EmmaMasalan, shahar janob Eltonning rafiqasini birinchi marta cherkovda ko'rish. (Kris Hammond, 1898)

Ostinning uslubiga qattiq tili ta'sir ko'rsatdi King James versiyasi Injil va, ayniqsa, tomonidan Umumiy ibodat kitobi, ikkalasi ham Ostin har hafta Anglikan xizmatlarining bir qismi sifatida hayoti davomida har hafta eshitilgan.[84] Izabel Grundining so'zlariga ko'ra, "Eski Ahdning deyarli tarixdan oldingi mualliflari unga tezkorligi va hikoyadan xabardorligini, Yangi Ahd mualliflari umumiy aqlga kirishish qobiliyatini va bitta tafsilot yordamida verisimilitet illyuziyasini uyg'otish qobiliyatini vasiyat qilganlar. .. qisqacha deklarativ jumlalar uchun uning ta'mi - bu xushxabar bilan bo'lishadigan narsadir. "[85] Biroq, Ostinning uslubiga ushbu asarlar katta ta'sir ko'rsatgan bo'lsa-da, u o'z asarida to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Muqaddas Kitobga yoki boshqa muqaddas asarlarga murojaat qilmaslikka qaror qilgan ko'rinadi. Dudining ta'kidlashicha, "u o'z yoshidagi yozuvchilar orasida Muqaddas Kitobga murojaatlarni yoki Bibliyadagi personajlarni, sahnalarni yoki hikoyalarni rad etishda o'ziga xosdir".[86]

Tanqidchilar Ostinning o'sha davrdagi Anglikan cherkovi tarkibidagi avj olayotgan Evangelistlar harakati bilan bo'lgan munosabati to'g'risida aniq tasavvurga ega emaslar.[e] 19-asrning dastlabki yigirma yillarida Evangelistizm suiiste'mollik va qarama-qarshi illatlarni isloh qilishni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi yuqori o'rta sinfning kuchli guruhi sifatida samarali bo'ldi. Butlerning so'zlariga ko'ra, Ostin Evangelist diniga xayrixoh bo'lganmi yoki yo'qmi, uning asarlari jamiyatning tobora kuchayib borayotganligi va islohotga bo'lgan intilishini aks ettiradi.[72] Boshqa tanqidchilar Ostinning shaxsiy qarashlariga nisbatan qat'iyroq pozitsiyani egallashdi. Masalan, MakDonag ham, Uoldron ham u bu harakatni shaxsan yoqtirmasligini ta'kidlaydilar.[89] Valdron, Osten harakatning xatti-harakatlarini idealizatsiya qilishini ma'qullamagan bo'lar edi, deb ta'kidlaydi.[90] MakDonagning fikriga ko'ra, Ostinning xatlari va boshqa shaxsiy yozuvlari uning yoshi ulg'aygan sari diniy jihatdan jiddiyroq bo'lishiga olib keladi.[91] Mensfild bog'i va Ishontirish ko'pincha Ostinning dindorligi kuchayib borayotganiga misol sifatida keltirilgan romanlardir. Masalan, Ishontirish "Jeyn Ostin 1800 yildan oldin boshlangan uchta romanning bo'shashgan, ko'proq ruxsat etilgan ijtimoiy muhitidan farq qiladi."[92] va Providence-ga tez-tez murojaatlarni o'z ichiga oladi.[93] Yilda Mensfild bog'i, Fanni ma'naviyat va to'g'ri axloqni anglatadi. Aynan u Genri Kroufordning Mariya bilan bo'lgan munosabatini diniy ma'noda, gunoh, ayb va jazo tilida ifodalaydi. U chinakam, qattiq va kurashuvchan nasroniy sifatida tasvirlangan, mukammal emas, balki astoydil harakat qilmoqda.[94]

Jins

Feminizm

Ostinning asarlari ma'rifatparvar feministlar an'analariga amal qiladimi yoki yo'qmi degan ilmiy munozaralar kuchli. Meri Wollstonecraft.

Ko'tarilishidan beri feministik adabiy tanqid 1970-yillarda Ostin qay darajada edi degan savol feministik yozuvchi Ostin tanqidining boshida bo'lgan. Olimlar 18-asr feminizmining ikkita asosiy turini aniqladilar: "tori feminizmi" va "ma'rifiy feminizmi". Ostin ikkalasi bilan ham bog'liq bo'lgan. Kabi yozuvchilarni o'z ichiga olgan tory feminizm Meri Astell va Doroti Vorsvort, "erkaklar dunyosida ayollarga nisbatan past daraja sifatida qarash" ni tan olgan fikr an'anasi.[95] Ushbu an'ana bo'yicha yozuvchilar ayollarni axloqiy va ma'naviy o'zini o'zi rivojlantirish va oila va jamoat uchun xayriya xizmati orqali ushbu kamsitishga qarshi turishga chaqirishgan.[95] Butler Ostinning tori feministik urf-odatlariga uslubiy va tematik jihatdan yaqinligi sababli tegishli ekanligini ta'kidladi. Mariya Edgevort.[96] Bundan tashqari, Ostinning "qahramonlarning oiladagi bo'ysunuvchi roli ... ularning muloyimligi, meditatsionligi, o'zini rad etishi va o'zini tuta bilishi" konservativ mualliflarning qahramonlari kabi xususiyatlarga ega. Jeyn Uest va Meri Brunton.[97]

Kabi yozuvchilarni o'z ichiga olgan ma'rifiy feminizm Katarin Makolay va Meri Wollstonecraft, "ayollar erkaklar bilan bir xil axloqiy xususiyatga ega, bir xil axloqiy maqomga ega bo'lishlari va o'z xatti-harakatlari uchun bir xil javobgarlikni o'z zimmalariga olishlari kerak" degan da'vo odati.[98] Margaret Kirxem Ostinning bu urf-odatlarning bir qismi ekanligini ta'kidladi, chunki uning "qahramonlari erlarini hurmat qilsalar ham, sevsalar ham unga sig'inmaydilar yoki sig'inmaydilar. Ular, ayniqsa keyingi romanlarda umuman turmush qurishga ruxsat berilmagan. qahramonlar o'zlarining aql-idrok fazilatlarini qadrlashi va ularning oqilona hukm qilish kuchini hamda yaxshi qalblarini qabul qilishlari to'g'risida ishonchli dalillarni keltirmaguncha. "[99] Anne Elliot, ning qahramoni Ishontirish, ana shunday qahramonning namunasidir.[100] Kirxemning ta'kidlashicha, Ostin Meri Vulstonstonning, xususan, asarlarini yaxshi bilgan va unga qoyil qolgan Ayol huquqlarining isbotlanishi (1792).[101] Bundan tashqari, u va boshqalar Ostinning romanlari radikallar an'analariga rioya qilgan deb ta'kidlaydilar Yakobin romanlari ko'pincha feministik masalalar bilan shug'ullanadigan 1790-yillarning.[102]

Ostinning butun badiiy adabiyoti davomida, feministik tanqidchilarning fikriga ko'ra, ayol belgilar erkak mualliflari tomonidan yozilgan matnlarga sharh berib, o'z olamlarini yaratishni o'z zimmalariga oladilar. Ularning asosiy ishlarida Uyingizda jinni ayol (1979), ta'kidladilar feministik tanqidchilar Sandra Gilbert va Syuzan Gubar adabiy dunyoda erkaklar va ularning hikoyalari hukmronlik qiladi va Ostin buni tan oldi va tanqid qildi. Eng taniqli misol Northanger Abbey Bu erda qahramon Ketrin "tarix unga hech qanday g'azablanmaydigan va charchamaydigan hech narsa aytmaydi" deb shikoyat qiladi. Papalar va podshohlarning janjallari, urushlar yoki vabalar bilan, har bir sahifada; erkaklar juda yaxshi hech narsa, va deyarli hech qanday ayol - bu juda charchagan ". Ostinning voyaga etmaganlar uchun parodiyasi Oliver Goldsmit "s Angliya tarixi "qisman, xolis va johil tarixchi" tomonidan "mualliflik qilingan". Bunday bayonotlarda Ostin tarix erkaklar fantastikasi va ayollar uchun unchalik ahamiyatga ega emasligini ta'kidlamoqda.[103] Feministik tanqidchilar Ostinning fantastikasida ayol rassomning roliga ham e'tibor berishadi. Masalan, Klaudiya Jonson Emmani qudratli qahramon, uning uyini, turmush qurish tanlovini, jamoasini va pulini boshqaradigan rassom deb biladi. Emma odamlar hayoti uchun hikoyalar yaratadi va shu bilan ayol rassomning obrazini aks ettiradi.[104]

Ostinning romanlarida feministik unsurlar bor, degan bahsga qaramay, olimlar hanuzgacha Ostinning romanlarida ayollar tez-tez cheklangan sifatida namoyish etilishini va ayol avtoritetlarning tasvirlari kamligini ta'kidlashmoqda. Ayollar tom ma'noda kichik joylarda cheklangan[105] ammo "miseucation" va "moliyaviy qaramlik" kabi ijtimoiy omillar yanada samarali ravishda cheklanib qolmoqda.[106] Gilbert va Gubarning ta'kidlashicha, ayollar "har qanday bo'g'ib bo'lmasin, o'z qamoqxonalarida tan olishlari kerak", chunki "ular umuman dunyoda juda zaif".[107] Masalan, ichida Ishontirish Anne Elliot erkaklar va ayollar o'rtasidagi farqlarni quyidagicha ta'riflaydi: "Biz uyda yashaymiz, tinch, cheklangan va hissiyotlarimiz bizni ovlaydi. Siz majburan majburlanasiz. Sizda doimo kasb, mashg'ulot, biznes yoki boshqa narsalar mavjud. siz zudlik bilan dunyoga qaytasiz, doimiy ishg'ol va o'zgarish tez orada taassurotlarni susaytiradi. "[108] Butlerning ta'kidlashicha, Ostinning romanlarida ayol ustozlar yoki obro'li shaxslarning tasvirlari yo'q. Butlerning ta'kidlashicha, romanlarida ayollar jaholatdan bilimga o'tolmaydilar va ularning ko'plari "g'alati va hatto g'ayritabiiy ravishda samarasiz". Buning o'rniga ular hokimiyat arboblariga uylanishadi.[109] Gilbert va Gubar aytganlaridek, "ayol bo'lish degani yutuqdan voz kechish va o'zini erkaklar va ular taqdim etgan bo'shliqlarga moslashishdir".[110] Masalan, ichida Ishontirish, Meri va Luiza o'sib ulg'ayganlarida mustaqilliklarini yo'qotadilar va atrofdagilarga ishonib qoladilar.[111]

Ayollarning iqtisodiy mavqei

1898 yilda nashr etilgan Kris Xemmondning illyustratsiyasi, janob Eltonning turmushga oid iqtisodiy masalalari Emma.

Ostinning romanlari 18-asr oxiri va 19-asr boshlaridagi ayollarning xavfli iqtisodiy ahvolini o'rganadi. Gilbert va Gubar tushuntirganidek, "Ostin uylanish uchun pul bosimining asosi bo'lgan ayollarning kuchsizligini, meros qonunlarining adolatsizligini, ayollarning johilligi rasmiy ta'limni inkor etganligini, merosxo'r yoki beva ayolning psixologik zaifligini, spinsterning ekspluatatsiya qilingan qaramligini, ish bilan ta'minlanmagan xonimning zerikishi ".[112] Ushbu masalalarni o'rganishda u Burnining romanlari an'analarini davom ettirdi, xususan Sesiliya (1782) va Kamilla (1796).[113]

Dunyo nikohi Ostinning tugallanmagan romanining mavzusi, Watsons, which portrays a female economy in which the odds for marriage heavily favour those young women whose fathers can and will pay a mahr. Physical attractiveness and "accomplishments" are helpful but insufficient in the absence of adequate funds for a marriage settlement.[114] After Mr. Watson dies, the family does not have sufficient money for the dowries or support of the four daughters. As historian Oliver MacDonagh writes, "[m]atrimony was their only hope of escape from current penury and future ruin or near-ruin. Dowerless, they were pursuing it with varying degrees of ruthlessness."[115]

MacDonagh points out that none of the marriages in Austen's fiction of which she approved was financially imprudent.[116] For Austen, marriage and children were a girl's natural and best aspiration. She advocated sincere attachment, material prudence and circumspect delay in the choice of a marriage partner. If the appropriate conditions were met, then marriage should follow.[117] Austen realized that women without independent means felt very great pressure to marry someone who could look after them, because otherwise they would be a burden on their families.[118] The marriage market that she describes is quite detailed and well understood by all concerned. For example, as is explained in Mensfild bog'i, "Miss Maria Ward, 'with only seven thousand pounds', had the good luck to captivate a baronet, 'her uncle, the lawyer, allowed her to be at least three thousand pounds short of any equitable claim to it'. To indulge in a marriage less lucrative than might have been expected was regarded as 'throwing oneself away', and someone like Mary Crawford, who prided herself on her realism, could not bring herself to do it."[119]

Jinsiy hayot

Austen's depiction of sexuality is muted and indirect. While her depictions of Elizabeth and Darcy in G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida include descriptions of their physical reactions to each other, which was unusual at the time,[120] the climactic moments of this and her other novels are presented from a distance.[121] Moreover, Austen does not turn her irony on sexual experiences.[122] She often refers to the sexual attraction between characters in oblique terms. For example, she writes that Elinor considers the "unaccountable bias in favor of beauty", which caused an intelligent man to choose a silly wife. This "unaccountable bias" represents sexual power, the physical attraction of one body to another, "everything that cannot be said about the relations between men and women".[123]

Siyosat

There is no agreement on Austen's political views and it was not until the second half of the 20th century that her novels were viewed as political at all.[124] As Gary Kelly explains:

Some see her as a political "conservative" because she seems to defend the established social order. Others see her as sympathetic to 'radical' politics that challenged the established order, especially in the form of patriarchy ... some critics see Austen's novels as neither conservative nor subversive, but complex, criticizing aspects of the social order but supporting stability and an open class hierarchy.[125]

Marilyn Butler and Alastair Duckworth have made the case for Austen as a conservative writer. Butler argues that one measure of a conservative writer is "whether the plot, broadly, suggests a victim suffering at the hands of society". Butler argues that Austen's novels are so structured, and thus conservative. She divides Austen's works into two kinds: stories involving a "Heroine who is Right" and a spokeswoman for conservative orthodoxy, and stories involving a "Heroine who is Wrong" who must learn from her mistakes by recognizing them and resolving to do better. In the novels in which the "Heroine is Right", the same process of error, self-knowledge and resolve to follow reason is present, but in another principal character or characters. The "Heroine who is Right" helps bring about the change in these other characters.[126] Butler contends that "Austen's stress upon her heroines' subordinate role in a family, upon their dutifulness, meditativeness, self-abnegation and self-control, were codes shared with other conservative writers, especially women moralists such as Jeyn Uest va Meri Brunton. The acquiescent heroine challenges the hero or heroine of novels of the 1790s by reformists such as Bage, Godvin, Xolkroft, Xayslar va Wollstonecraft, who insist on thinking independently and speaking out."[97]

Yilda Tuyg'u va sezgirlik, for example, Elinor and Marianne represent "the view of the nature-nurture dichotomy usually adopted by conservatives", that is, "on the one hand, Marianne's way is subjective, intuitive, implying confidence in the natural goodness of human nature when untrammelled by convention. Her view is corrected by the more cautious orthodoxy of Elinor, who mistrusts her own desires, and requires even her reason to seek the support of objective evidence."[127] Duckworth argues that Austen's heroines aim "to support and maintain an inherited structure of values and behavior", often with an explicit Christian stoicism.[128] In his interpretation, Austen's heroines' morality is based in religious principle and duty to society. Austen's novels portray "society" positively, and her novels end with hero and heroine united in the company of true friends, society "reaffirmed around the central union, and the social fragmentation that initially threatened ... reconstituted through individual commitment into a new whole."[129]

Scholars such as Claudia Johnson argue that Austen is indebted to the political novels of the 1790s and that she is sceptical of the paternalistic ruling order.[130] For example, Johnson argues that Tuyg'u va sezgirlik tanqididir primogenizatsiya and the arbitrariness of property inheritance. She contends that the novel is not, as it is often assumed to be, "a dramatized conduct book patly favoring female prudence over female impetuosity".[131] Johnson concludes that Austen created "a progressive middle ground" after the blistering political fights of the 1790s.[132] Kelly agrees, writing that Austen embraced the "hierarchical social structure and constitution of church and state" yet also recognized that they needed reform.[133] Jenkyns supports this view: "What must be said emphatically is that she does not praise the existing state of society." [134] He gives as examples such flawed representatives of the status quo as Sir Walter Elliot, Sir Thomas Bertram and Emma Woodhouse's father; Austen's admiration of the Navy as an avenue of social mobility (the Crofts and Captain Wentworth in Ishontirish); and her sympathetic portrayal of characters who are "in trade" or newly risen from it (Bingley and the Gardiners in G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida, the Westons and Frank Churchill in Emma).[135]

Role of colonialism

 
"'But I [Fanny] do talk to him [Sir Thomas] more than I used. I am sure I do. Did not you hear me ask him about the slave-trade last night?'

'I [Edmund] did—and was in hopes the question would be followed up by others. It would have pleased your uncle to be inquired further.'

'And I longed to do it—but there was such a dead silence! And while my cousins were sitting by without speaking a word, or seeming at all interested in the subject, I did not like—I thought it would appear as if I wanted to set myself off at their expense, by shewing a curiosity and pleasure in his information which he must wish his own daughters to feel.'"[136]

— Jeyn Ostin, Mensfild bog'i (1814)

One of the most hotly debated topics in Austen criticism is the role of mustamlakachilik in Austen's works. 1993 yilda Edvard Said nashr etilgan Madaniyat va imperatorlik, in which he argued that the relationship between the English and the Antigua estates in Mensfild bog'i represents the relationship between the center and the periphery of the British empire. He argued that "England was surveyed, evaluated, made known, whereas 'abroad' was only referred to or shown briefly without the kind of presence or immediacy lavished on London, the countryside, or northern industrial centers such as Manchester or Birmingham."[137] Specifically, "Thomas Bertram's slave plantation in Antigua is mysteriously necessary to the poise and the beauty of Mansfield Park, a place described in moral and aesthetic terms" but it is rarely mentioned.[138]

In response to Said's argument, several alternative theories were proposed. For example, it was argued that the women of Mansfield Park and the slaves in Antigua were similarly disenfranchised and victimized.[139] Others argue that the crucial opposition is not between a center and a periphery, i.e. Mansfield and Antigua, but rather within Mansfield Park itself, between Sir Thomas and Fanny. In this view, the novel is "an inquiry into Mansfield's corruption that challenges the ethical basis for its authority both at home and, by implication, overseas".[140] Some critics, such as Susan Fraiman, directly challenge Said, arguing that Austen's position as a dispossessed woman gave her an outsider's view of Britain and its empire, arguing that there are anti-imperialist elements in Austen's criticism of provincialiaty.[141]

Property and class

Austen's novels raise and explore a variety of issues relating to money and property and the power they convey.[142] Masalan, ichida G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida, the plot revolves around the problems caused by primogenizatsiya, as the Bennet property is sabab bo'lgan away from the Bennet daughters,[143] va Tuyg'u va sezgirlik questions the arbitrariness of property inheritance when the elderly Mr. Dashwood disinherits one side of his nephew's family because of his affection for a baby on the other.[144] As Copeland explains, "[f]rom the focus of Tuyg'u va sezgirlik, G'urur va noto'g'ri aqidava Northanger Abbey, where the single most significant economic problem for women is the lack of a fortune, Austen's works steadily engage women in more and more complex relationships to the economy. Mensfild bog'i, Emmava Ishontirish, each in turn, move through an examination of the economy as measure of social morality, as agent of social disruption, [and] as source of national identity".[145]

Lyme Hall, part of Lyme Park

The novels discuss social status and social position in terms of "rank", "station" and "degree", and not in terms of "class" in the modern sense. Where the more modern concept of "class" is determined principally by productivity and income, and connotes conflict, the term "rank" focused on lineage and connoted harmony, stability and order.[146] Austen generally portrays characters in the professional classes, such as the clergy and armed forces, most positively. Masalan, ichida Mensfild bog'i, the heroine marries a clergyman, while in Ishontirish, the model marriage is that of Admiral and Mrs. Croft.[147] Although Austen's novels suggest that characters should be judged by moral standards and not simply by social status, she always specifies their social positions, often (as with the Gardiners in G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida) making it part of the earliest descriptions of a character.[148] Austen outlines characters' social connections in detail.[149] Yilda Emma the reader is exposed to a wide spectrum of hierarchical society: the janob, the near-gentry, professionals, artisans, servants and the undeserving poor.[150] While social contact between these groups is frequent in a small village, transition between groups was uncommon. For example, Emma, a member of the gentry, dines with the Coles, "rising" members of the near-gentry, but she marries Knightley, a member of the gentry, who feels free to dine with Robert Martin, one of his tenant farmers.[151]

In his influential analysis of the role of landed estates in Austen's fiction, Duckworth argues that "estates function not only as the settings of action but as indexes to the character and social responsibility of their owners".[152] Landscape improvements appear as an issue in all of the novels, but in Mensfild bog'i they become a recurring motif, reflecting the social change at the center of the novel.[153] Yilda G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida, it is seeing Pemberley for the first time that sparks Elizabeth's love for Darcy. Duckworth writes that "when Elizabeth comes to exclaim to herself that 'to be mistress of Pemberley might be something' she has, we might conjecture, come to recognize not merely the money and status of Pemberley, but its value as the setting of a traditional social and ethical orientation, its possibilities ... as a context for her responsible social activity."[154]

Individual and society

After being rejected by Willoughby, Marianne is consumed by a fever, as are many heroines of sensibility. (Chris Hammond, 1899)

Throughout Austen's work there is a tension between the claims of society and the claims of the individual.[155] There are two major scholarly traditions in this area. Some critics, such as Reginald Ferrar, D. W. Harding and Marvin Mudrick,[f] have argued that Austen's style is detached; her work is ironically distanced and subtly subverts the prevailing values of her society.[156] Her novels, partly through their use of free indirect speech, are part of the development of individualism and individual consciousness, represented in the history of the novel through works by authors such as Samuel Richardson, whose "fascination with inner life" influenced Austen.[157]

Uning nufuzli kitobida Desire and Domestic Fiction (1987), Nancy Armstrong argued that the modern individual self is a construct of late-18th and early-19th-century domestic fiction. According to Armstrong, "written representations of the self allowed the modern individual to become an economic and psychological reality".[158] Perhaps her most important point is that subjectivity is constituted through language, specifically the printed word.[159] In the section of her book devoted to Austen, Armstrong compares and contrasts Emma Richardson bilan Pamela and contends that the novel demonstrates the power of language to construct and deconstruct communities and selves.[160] As Wiltshire has observed, "middle class" British society in Austen's time placed a premium on outward decorum, manners and the limitation of emotional distress to "private" life. In Austen's novels, the reader is aware that a character is suffering psychological stress or disturbance, but the other characters are aware only of physical symptoms and complaints. The body becomes a place of social tension in these novels.[161] For example, Mrs. Bennet continually refers to her "poor nerves", a bodily affliction which it was appropriate to discuss. Her obvious emotional frustrations were not an appropriate topic, as the notion of the private, individualized self developed.[162]

Other critics, such as Duckworth, contend that Austen's heroines "support and maintain an inherited structure of values and behavior", displaying a version of Christian stoicism. He emphasizes that Austen's novels highlight the dangers of individualism; her heroines emerge from isolation and despair to be reinstated into society.[163] Yilda Mensfild bog'i, in particular, the morally suspect characters—the Crawfords, Rushworth and the Bertram daughters—represent individualism.[164] Ning qahramoni Emma embodies the dangers of individualism as her position of power allows her to affect everyone in Highbury.[165] Yilda Tuyg'u va sezgirlik, Austen juxtaposes Elinor, who regulates the expression of her feelings according to social conventions, with Marianne, who expresses her feelings in accordance with sezgirlik and literary conventions. The novel suggests that Elinor's behaviour "is based on a truer perception of the nature of emotions" than Marianne's, even though it is based on social convention, because those very conventions allow her to process emotions like grief, while sensibility forces Marianne to indulge it.[166] By following social conventions, Elinor is more sensitive to the feelings of those around her; her emotions bring "together private and public experience, or one's relations with oneself and with others".[167] Individual romantic experience is less important than the social good that comes of Elinor's self-denial; however, that very self-denial leads to personal happiness in the end when she marries her love.[168] As Lynch explains, "[a]s a whole Austen's writing is about social relations—the relationship between, say, domestic life and public life—va about reading relations—about the textual conventions by which audiences are formed and distinguished. Her narratives weave together the processes of romantic choice and cultural discrimination."[169]

Austen's heroines often incur a cost to themselves during this social integration. Feminist critics have highlighted the ways in which her heroines accommodate themselves to masculine power by sacrificing their own creativity. Elizabeth and Emma search for replacement father figures in ways that suggest "why female survival depends on gaining male approval and protection".[110] These father figures, who are often also mentors, show Austen's connection to the 18th-century novel, which includes many such figures.[170] Gilbert and Gubar argue that Austen's heroines often have a fragmented self—the private and the public—pointing to Mensfild bog'i as the most dramatic example.[171]

Izohlar

  1. ^ Other examples include Mary Crawford in Mensfild bog'i and Mrs. Elton in Emma.
  2. ^ G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida can be seen as a contrast between Elizabeth and Darcy and between the two couples, Elizabeth and Darcy and Jane and Bingley.[54]
  3. ^ Northanger Abbey is about the education of Catherine; she comes to realize what her own mistakes were: "The visions of romance were over. Catherine was completely awakened."[64] Emma's discovery that she loves Knightley "brings her back to the directness and truth she is capable of when her judgment is clear" and instills in her a new humility and willingness to criticize herself.[65] Yilda Ishontirish, Wentworth makes the mistake of abandoning Anne Elliot and then comes to recognize this error, saying "I shut my eyes, and would not understand you, or do you justice."[66]
  4. ^ The readings habits of the eponymous heroine of Catharine, or the Bower are contrasted with Camilla's. Catharine reads history and literature and cultivates self-control and judgment, while Camilla reads superficially, ending up vain and materialistic.[70]
  5. ^ The direct evidence of Austen's writings is ambiguous. Austen wrote to her sister, Cassandra, in 1809 in reaction to the publication of Hanna More's popular novel Colebs in Search of a Wife, that "My disinclination for it before was affected, but now it is real; I do not like Evangelicals."[87] By 1814 Austen's attitudes had evidently changed. In a letter to her niece, Fanny Knight, commenting on Fanny's first serious relationship, Austen stated that she was "by no means convinced that we ought not all to be Evangelicals".[88]
  6. ^ For a discussion of the views of these critics, see Jeyn Ostinning qabul tarixi.

Adabiyotlar

  1. ^ Ostin, G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida, 3.
  2. ^ Waldron, 17; Litz, 7–14.
  3. ^ Grundy, "Jane Austen and literary traditions", 203; Kirkham, 35; Litz, 14–17.
  4. ^ Doody, "The short fiction", 98.
  5. ^ Lascelles, 49, 55–72; Fergus, 20.
  6. ^ Johnson, 35; see also Litz, 51–53; Fergus, 20–24; Mudrick, 39–40.
  7. ^ Johnson, 35; see also Mudrick, 46–48.
  8. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 119; see also Kirkham, 35.
  9. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 151.
  10. ^ Ostin, Mensfild bog'i, 16.
  11. ^ Brownstein, "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice", 34; Litz, 107–111; Mudrick 1–3.
  12. ^ Mudrick, 1.
  13. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 112.
  14. ^ Mandal, "Language", 29–30; Litz, 107.
  15. ^ Fergus, 93; see Litz, 107–111 for another discussion of structural irony.
  16. ^ Kirkham, 92.
  17. ^ Page, 124; Mandal, "Language", 30–31.
  18. ^ Mandal, "Language", 30–31; Page, 121.
  19. ^ Butler, 189-90.
  20. ^ Qtd in Page, 122.
  21. ^ Page, 122.
  22. ^ Lynch, Economy of Character, 237.
  23. ^ Page, 134.
  24. ^ Ostin, G'urur va noto'g'ri aqida, 27.
  25. ^ Burrows, "Style", 178; Page, 31.
  26. ^ Page, 31.
  27. ^ Page, 114–115; Mandal, "Language", 28–29; Jenkyns, 1–2; Lascelles, 106–107.
  28. ^ Page, 118.
  29. ^ Looser, v-xv.
  30. ^ Litz, 51–53, Page, 140–147, Lascelles, 88–89.
  31. ^ Page, 20–22, 148–52; see also Mandal, "Language", 24–27, 31–32.
  32. ^ Waldron, 23–24.
  33. ^ Butler, 170–172.
  34. ^ Page, 54–55.
  35. ^ Duckwork, 32–33; see also Lascelles, 171–173.
  36. ^ Page, 54–55; see also Lascelles, 89–90.
  37. ^ Page, 56–57.
  38. ^ Todd, The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen, 28.
  39. ^ Butler, 294–295.
  40. ^ Kelly, "Religion and politics", 152.
  41. ^ Scott, 58; Galperin, "Austen's Readers", 96
  42. ^ Galperin, "Austen's Readers", 91; Galperin, Historical Austen, 19–20.
  43. ^ Galperin, Historical Austen, 31.
  44. ^ Wiltshire, 8–10.
  45. ^ Letter to J. E. Austen, 16 December 1816. Le Fay, Jane Austen's Letters, p. 323.
  46. ^ Fergus, 98.
  47. ^ Lynch, Economy of Character, 219; see also Johnson, 74.
  48. ^ Litz, 129–31.
  49. ^ Doody, "Reading", 358.
  50. ^ Doody, "Reading", 358–62.
  51. ^ Butler, 182–183; Litz, 75–81.
  52. ^ Benedict, "Sensibility by the Numbers", 69–73.
  53. ^ a b Butler, 188; Litz, 79.
  54. ^ Butler, 211–212.
  55. ^ Johnson, 60–63; see also Waldron, chapter 3.
  56. ^ Qtd in Armstrong, 61.
  57. ^ Sutherland, 26; Johnson, 16.
  58. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 116; Armstrong, 144.
  59. ^ Waldron, 18–20.
  60. ^ Ostin, Northanger Abbey, 33–34.
  61. ^ Devlin, 1.
  62. ^ Qtd in Butler, 208.
  63. ^ Butler, 176; Devlin, 3–4; Litz, 132–143.
  64. ^ Qtd in Butler, 176.
  65. ^ Butler, 257–258; Litz, 132–143.
  66. ^ Qtd in Butler, 275–276.
  67. ^ Fergus, 3–4.
  68. ^ Fergus, 39.
  69. ^ Richardson, 402; Armstrong, 138.
  70. ^ MacDonagh, 78–79.
  71. ^ Mandal, "Language", 27; Todd, 20; Butler, 296.
  72. ^ a b Butler, 162–164.
  73. ^ Duckworth, 28; see also Kelly, "Religion and politics", 155.
  74. ^ Doody, "Reading", 348.
  75. ^ Stabler, 48.
  76. ^ Johnson, 115–116.
  77. ^ Duckworth, 29–30, 88.
  78. ^ Fergus 3, 39.
  79. ^ Devlin, 55, 68; see also Fergus, 5, 120.
  80. ^ Fergus, 70.
  81. ^ MacDonagh, 4; Kelley, 152; Butler, 162, citing Richard Whately, one of Austen's earliest reviewers; Collins, 181–184; Wheeler, "Religion", Jeyn Ostin kontekstda, 406, 409–410.
  82. ^ MacDonagh, 6–7; Kelly, 152; Butler, 162–164
  83. ^ Kelly, 155.
  84. ^ Doody, "Reading", 348; Grundy, 195–196; also Jenkyns, 3–4 and Wheeler, 406.
  85. ^ Grundy, 196.
  86. ^ Doody, "Reading", 348).
  87. ^ Letter of 24 January 1809, qtd in Wheeler, 407.
  88. ^ Letter of 18–20 November 1814, qtd in Wheeler, 407.
  89. ^ MacDonagh, 6–7; Waldron, 85.
  90. ^ Waldron, 85.
  91. ^ MacDonagh, 4.
  92. ^ Butler, 163.
  93. ^ Johnson, 163.
  94. ^ MacDonagh, 11–12.
  95. ^ a b Butler, xxiii.
  96. ^ Butler, xxxiv–xlii.
  97. ^ a b Butler, xv–xvi.
  98. ^ Qtd from Kirkham in Butler, xxii.
  99. ^ Kirkham, 31; see also Johnson, 153.
  100. ^ Johnson, 146.
  101. ^ Kirkham, 34.
  102. ^ See, for example, Johnson, chapter 1.
  103. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 133–134.
  104. ^ Johnson, 124–125, 134–136.
  105. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 124.
  106. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 135; Jenkyns, 143–145, 155–165.
  107. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 108.
  108. ^ Johnson, 160.
  109. ^ Butler, xl–xli.
  110. ^ a b Gilbert and Gubar, 154.
  111. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 177.
  112. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 136.
  113. ^ Waldron, 38.
  114. ^ MacDonagh, 31.
  115. ^ MacDonagh, 28–31; see also Waldron, 38.
  116. ^ MacDonagh, 43.
  117. ^ MacDonagh, 74–75.
  118. ^ Collins, 161; Harding, 171–172.
  119. ^ Collins, 161.
  120. ^ Johnson, 90.
  121. ^ Mudrick, 30–31.
  122. ^ Mudrick, 111–113.
  123. ^ Wiltshire, 56–57.
  124. ^ Kelly, "Religion and politics", 155.
  125. ^ Kelly, "Religion and politics", 156.
  126. ^ Butler, 165–167.
  127. ^ Butler, 188.
  128. ^ Duckworth, 5–9.
  129. ^ Duckworth, 26–27.
  130. ^ Johnson, Chapter 1.
  131. ^ Johnson, 49–50.
  132. ^ Johnson, 166.
  133. ^ Kelly, "Religion and Politics", 153.
  134. ^ Jenkyns, 195.
  135. ^ Jenkyns, 34, 43–44, 153–154, 183–198.
  136. ^ Ostin, Mensfild bog'i, 136.
  137. ^ Said, 72.
  138. ^ Said, 59.
  139. ^ Ferguson, 118.
  140. ^ Fraiman, 211.
  141. ^ Fraiman, 214–217.
  142. ^ Copeland, "Money", Jeyn Ostin kontekstda, 317–318.
  143. ^ McMaster, 119.
  144. ^ Johnson, 51–52.
  145. ^ Copeland, "Money", Kembrij sherigi, 132.
  146. ^ Keymer, 387.
  147. ^ McMaster, 120–21; Jenkyns, 193–194.
  148. ^ McMaster, 125, 129.
  149. ^ Keymer, 388–389; Duckworth, 85–86.
  150. ^ Aristocrats are absent; MacDonagh, 131–134.
  151. ^ MacDonagh, 134–135.
  152. ^ Duckworth, 38–39.
  153. ^ Duckworth, 39.
  154. ^ Duckworth, 124.
  155. ^ Litz, 117–118; see also Duckworth, 37–38.
  156. ^ Harding, 166–168; Mudrick, 1; Duckworth, 5–9.
  157. ^ Wiltshire, 21–22; Stabler, 44–45; see also Butler, 189–190.
  158. ^ Armstrong, 8.
  159. ^ Armstrong, 25.
  160. ^ Armstrong, chapter 3.
  161. ^ Wiltshire, 22.
  162. ^ Wiltshire, 21–22.
  163. ^ Duckworth, 5–9; see also Poovey, 208.
  164. ^ Duckworth, 37–38.
  165. ^ Duckworth, 147–148; Poovey, 224.
  166. ^ Fergus, 51.
  167. ^ Fergus, 51; see also Butler, 188, and Duckworth 109–113.
  168. ^ Poovey, 193.
  169. ^ Lynch, 216.
  170. ^ Devlin, 16.
  171. ^ Gilbert and Gubar, 163.

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