Asbest - Asbestos

Asbest keltirib chiqaradigan o'pka kasalligi bilan aralashmaslik kerak, Asbestoz.
Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Asbest (ajralish).

Asbest
Muskovit.jpg bilan asbest
Elyaf tremolit asbest yoqilgan muskovit
Umumiy
TurkumSilikat minerallari
Strunz tasnifi09. ED.15
Dana tasnifi71.01.02d.03
Kristalli tizimOrtorombik, monoklinik
Identifikatsiya
Formula massasi277.11 g
RangYashil, qizil, sariq, oq, kul, ko'k
Kristall odatAmorf, donador, massiv
AjratishPrizmatik
SinganElyaf
Mohs o'lchovi qattiqlik2.5–6.0
YorqinlikIpak
Yo'lOq
O'ziga xos tortishish kuchi2.4–3.3
Optik xususiyatlariIkki tomonlama
Sinishi ko'rsatkichi1.53–1.72
Birjalikni buzish0.008
2V burchak20 ° dan 60 ° gacha
TarqoqlikNisbatan zaif
Yo'qolib ketishParallel yoki qiyalik
Ultraviyole lyuminestsentsiyaFloresan bo'lmagan
Erish nuqtasi400 dan 1.040 ° C gacha (752 dan 1904 ° F gacha)

Asbest (talaffuz: /æsˈbɛstəs/ yoki /æsˈbɛstɒs/) tabiiy ravishda yuzaga keladigan oltitani ifodalash uchun ishlatiladigan atama silikat minerallari. Ularning barchasi uzun va ingichka tolalardan iborat kristallar, har bir tola atmosferaga chiqarilishi mumkin bo'lgan ko'plab mikroskopik "fibrillalar" dan iborat ishqalanish va boshqa jarayonlar. Asbest juda yaxshi elektr izolyator va yuqori issiqlikka chidamli, shuning uchun ko'p yillar davomida u qurilish materiali sifatida ishlatilgan.[1] Biroq, bu endi taniqli sog'liq va xavfsizlikdir xavf va asbestdan qurilish materiali sifatida foydalanish ko'plab mamlakatlarda noqonuniy hisoblanadi. Asbest tolalarini nafas olish o'pkaning turli xil og'ir sharoitlariga, shu jumladan, olib kelishi mumkin asbestoz va saraton.[2]

Arxeologik tadqiqotlar asbest ishlatilganligini isbotladi Tosh asri sopol idishlarni mustahkamlash,[3] ammo katta miqdordagi qazib olish 19-asrning oxirida ishlab chiqaruvchilar va quruvchilar asbestni kerakli fizikaviy xususiyatlari uchun ishlatishni boshlaganlarida boshlandi.

Asbest 20-asrda 1970-yillarga qadar keng ishlatilgan bo'lib, asbest changining sog'liq uchun zarari jamoatchilik tomonidan tan olinishi uning asosiy qurilishida taqiqlanishiga olib keldi. yong'inga qarshi aksariyat mamlakatlarda.[4] Shunga qaramay va qisman ta'sirlanish oqibatlari o'nlab yillar davom etishi mumkinligi sababli, har yili kamida 100000 kishi asbest ta'siriga bog'liq kasalliklardan vafot etadi deb o'ylashadi.[5]

Asbest bilan bog'liq kasalliklarning og'irligiga qaramay, material butun dunyoda keng qo'llanilgan va 1980-yillarga qadar qurilgan binolarning aksariyati asbestdan iborat deb o'ylashadi.[6] Ko'plab rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlar hali ham asbestdan a sifatida foydalanishni qo'llab-quvvatlamoqda qurilish materiali, va eng yaxshi ishlab chiqaruvchi bilan asbestni qazib olish davom etmoqda Rossiya 2015 yilda bir million tonnaga yaqin ishlab chiqargan.[5]

Etimologiya

Birinchi marta 1600 yillarda ishlatilgan "asbest" so'zi oxir-oqibat Qadimgi yunoncha chóς, "so'nmas" yoki "so'nmas" ma'nosini anglatadi.[7][8][9] Ism uchun moddaning ishlatilishini aks ettiradi jo'jalar bu hech qachon yonmaydi.[7]

Orqali ingliz tiliga qabul qilingan Qadimgi frantsuzcha abestos, bu o'z navbatida so'zni yunoncha orqali oldi Lotin, lekin asl yunon tilida u aslida aytilgan ohak. Bu aytilgan Oksford ingliz lug'ati tomonidan noto'g'ri ishlatilgan bo'lishi kerak Pliniy ommalashtirgan asbest uchun noto'g'ri nom. Asbest yunon tilida shunday atalgan amiantos, "ifloslanmagan" ma'nosini anglatadi, chunki u a ga tashlanganida belgilanmagan olov. Bu kabi ko'plab tillarda asbest so'zining manbai, masalan Portugal amianto. U XV asrning boshlarida ingliz tilida "amiant" deb ham nomlangan, ammo uning o'rnini "asbest" egallagan.[10] So'z talaffuz qilinadi /æsˈbɛstəs/ yoki /æsˈbɛstɒs/.[11]

Tarix

Odamlar ming yillar davomida asbestdan foydalanib, yong'inga qarshi turadigan salfetkalar kabi egiluvchan buyumlar yaratdilar. Zamonaviy davrda kompaniyalar sanoat miqyosida asbestli iste'mol tovarlarini ishlab chiqarishni boshladilar. Endi odamlar asbest changining sog'lig'iga zarar etkazishini tan olishadi va bu butun dunyoda taqiqlangan yoki qat'iy tartibga solingan.[iqtibos kerak ]

Dastlabki foydalanish

Asbestdan foydalanish kamida 4500 yil, ko'l aholisi bo'lgan vaqtga to'g'ri keladi Juojarvi Sharqdagi mintaqa Finlyandiya sopol idishlar va pishirish idishlarini asbest mineral bilan mustahkamladi antofillit (qarang Asbest-keramika ).[12] Asbest bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan materialning birinchi tavsiflaridan biri Teofrastus, ToshlardaMiloddan avvalgi 300 yilgacha, garchi bu identifikatsiya shubha ostiga qo'yilgan bo'lsa.[13] Ham zamonaviy, ham qadimiy Yunoncha, ingliz tilida "asbest" nomi bilan tanilgan materialning odatiy nomi amiantos ("noma'lum", "toza"), frantsuz tiliga moslashgan amiante va ispan va portugal tillariga amianto. Yilda zamonaviy yunoncha ἀσβεστoἀσβεστ yoki aσβέστης so'zi doimiy ravishda va faqat ma'noda turadi Laym.

Atama asbest Rim tabiatshunosiga kuzatilishi mumkin Katta Pliniy qo'lyozma Tabiiy tarix va uning ushbu atamadan foydalanishi asbestinon, "o'chib bo'lmaydigan" ma'nosini anglatadi.[7][8][12] Pliniy yoki uning jiyani Kichik Pliniy xalqqa asbestning zararli ta'sirini tan olganligi sababli,[14] dastlabki manbalarni o'rganish ikkala da'voni qo'llab-quvvatlamaydi.[15]

Boy Forslar matolarni olovga ta'sir qilish orqali tozalash orqali mehmonlarni hayratda qoldirdi. Masalan, ko'ra Tabariy, tegishli bo'lgan narsalardan biri Xosrov II Parviz, buyuk Sosoniyalik qirol (590-628 y.), peçete edi (Fors tili: Mndyl) Uni oddiygina olovga tashlash orqali tozalagan. Bunday mato asbestdan olib kelingan deb ishoniladi Hindu Kush.[16] Ga binoan Biruni uning kitobida Toshlar, asbestdan qilingan har qanday mato (Fors tili: شrsسst‎, azarshost) chaqirildi shostakeh (Fors tili: Shshthh‎).[17] Ba'zi forslar tolani hayvon deb nomlangan mo'yna deb hisoblashgan samandar (Fors tili: Semndr), Olovda yashagan va suv ta'sirida vafot etgan;[18][19] avvalgi e'tiqod shu erda paydo bo'lgan salamander olovga toqat qilar edi.[20]

Buyuk Karl, birinchi Muqaddas Rim imperatori (800-814) da, asbestdan tayyorlangan dasturxon borligi aytiladi.[21]

Marko Polo u qo'ng'iroq qiladigan joyda ko'rsatilgan Ghinghin talaslari, "biz olovga tashlansa, uni kuydirib bo'lmaydigan, biz salomander deb ataydigan mato ishlab chiqarilgan yaxshi tomir ..."[22]

Ba'zi arxeologlarning fikriga ko'ra, qadimgi odamlar asbestdan kafan yasashgan, ularda shohlarining jasadlarini faqat o'zlarining kullarini saqlab qolish va kullarni yog'och yoki boshqa yonuvchan materiallar bilan aralashtirishni oldini olish uchun yoqishgan. dafn marosimlari.[23][24] Boshqalarning ta'kidlashicha, qadimgi odamlar asbestdan abadiy jo'jalar qilishgan qabriston yoki boshqa lampalar.[18] Mashhur misol - oltin chiroq asbest lychnis, bu haykaltarosh Kallimax uchun qilingan Erexteyon.[25] So'nggi asrlarda chindan ham bu maqsadda asbest ishlatilgan.

Sanoat davri

Sanoat miqyosida asbest qazib olish 1878 yilda boshlangan Thetford shaharchasi, Kvebek, 1895 yilga kelib qazib olish tobora mexanizatsiyalashtirildi

Katta hajmdagi asbest sanoati 19-asrning o'rtalarida boshlandi. Italiyada asbest qog'oz va mato ishlab chiqarishga dastlabki urinishlar 1850-yillarda boshlangan, ammo bunday mahsulotlar uchun bozor yaratishda muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchragan. Kanadalik asbest namunalari 1862 yilda Londonda namoyish etilgan va Angliyada va Shotlandiyada ushbu resursdan foydalangan birinchi kompaniyalar tashkil etilgan. Asbest birinchi marta ip ishlab chiqarishda ishlatilgan va nemis sanoati Lui Vertxaym bu jarayonni Germaniyadagi fabrikalarida qabul qilgan.[26] 1871 yilda Patentli Asbest ishlab chiqaruvchi kompaniya tashkil etilgan Glazgo va keyingi o'n yilliklar ichida Klaydbank maydon yangi paydo bo'lgan sanoatning markaziga aylandi.[27]

Kanadadagi asbestli ma'danli poezdni yuklaydigan eng katta quvvatli belkurak Jeffri Mine, Jons-Manvil Co., Asbest, Kvebek, 1944 yil iyun

Sanoat miqyosida qazib olish ishlari boshlandi Thetford tepaliklari, Kvebek, 1870-yillardan boshlab. Janob Uilyam Edmond Logan ning yirik konlarini birinchi bo'lib ko'rgan xrizotil uning boshlig'i sifatida tepaliklarda Kanada geologik xizmati. U erdan minerallarning namunalari Londonda namoyish etildi va katta qiziqish uyg'otdi.[26] Ochilishi bilan Kvebek markaziy temir yo'li kabi 1876 yilda tog'-kon sanoati sohasidagi tadbirkorlar Endryu Styuart Jonson viloyatida asbest sanoatini tashkil etdi.[28] 1878 yilda konlarning 50 tonna ishlab chiqarish hajmi 1890 yillarda mashinasozlik texnologiyalari va ishlab chiqarishni kengaytirilishi natijasida 10 ming tonnadan oshdi.[26][29] Uzoq vaqt davomida dunyodagi eng katta asbest koni shaharchadagi Jeffri koni bo'lgan Asbest, Kvebek.[30]

XIX asr oxirida asbest qo'llanmalari ko'paytirildi - bu asbest bilan qoplangan reklama temir kiyim 1906 yildan

Yilda asbest ishlab chiqarish boshlandi Urals ning Rossiya imperiyasi 1880-yillarda va Alp tog'lari ning Shimoliy Italiya ning shakllanishi bilan Turin 1876 ​​yilda Italo-English Pure Asbestos kompaniyasining vakili, garchi bu tez orada Kanadadagi konlarning ishlab chiqarish darajasi oshgan bo'lsa. Kon qazish ham boshlandi Janubiy Afrika 1893 yildan buyon ingliz tadbirkor Frensis Oates homiyligida direktor De Beers kompaniya.[31] Aynan Janubiy Afrikada amolit ishlab chiqarish 1910 yilda boshlangan. AQShning asbest sanoati 1858 yilda erta boshlangan edi, o'shanda tokdan oldingi Jons kompaniyasi tomonidan asbest izolyatsiyasi sifatida foydalanish uchun tolali antofillit qazib olindi. Jons Manvill, Ward's Hilldagi karerda Staten oroli, Nyu-York.[32] AQShda ishlab chiqarish 1899 yilda yirik konlarning topilishi bilan jiddiy ravishda boshlandi Belvidere tog'i.

Asbestdan foydalanish 19-asrning oxirlarida tobora keng tarqalib bordi, chunki uning turli xil qo'llanilishlarida yong'inga chidamli qoplamalar, beton, g'isht, quvurlar va kaminli tsement, issiqlikka, olovga va kislotaga chidamli qistirmalari, quvurlarni izolyatsiya qilish, ship izolyatsiya, yong'inga chidamli gipsokarton, pol, tom yopish, maysazor mebellari va gipsokartonli birikma. 2011 yilda, Buyuk Britaniyadagi uylarning 50 foizidan ko'prog'i asbest mahsulotlariga taqiq qo'yilganiga qaramay, hali ham asbest borligi haqida xabar berilgan edi.[33]

Yaponiyada, ayniqsa keyin Ikkinchi jahon urushi, asbest ishlab chiqarishda ishlatilgan ammoniy sulfat guruch ishlab chiqarish uchun (1960 yillar davomida) temir yo'l vagonlari va binolarining shiftlari, temir skeletlari va devorlariga sepilgan va energiya samaradorligi sababli ham ishlatilgan. Yaponiyada asbest ishlab chiqarish 1974 yilda avjiga chiqdi va taxminan 1990 yilga qadar ishlab chiqarish keskin pasayib ketguncha ko'tarilish va tushish davrlarini bosib o'tdi.[34]

Toksiklikning kashf etilishi

Qo'shimcha xronologik havolalar uchun qarang Asbest kasalligi bo'yicha tibbiy maqolalar ro'yxati.

1899 yilda H. Montague Murray asbestning sog'liqqa salbiy ta'sirini qayd etdi.[35] Asbest bilan bog'liq birinchi hujjatli o'lim 1906 yilda bo'lgan.[36]

1900-yillarning boshlarida tadqiqotchilar asbest-qazib olinadigan shaharlarda ko'plab erta o'lim va o'pka muammolarini ko'rishni boshladilar. Birinchi shunday tadqiqotni Merrey o'tkazgan Charing Xoch kasalxonasi, London 1900 yilda o'limdan keyin o'tkazilgan tekshiruv natijasida vafot etgan yigitning o'pkasida asbest izlari aniqlangan o'pka fibrozi asbest to'qimachilik fabrikasida 14 yil ishlagandan so'ng. Adelaida Anderson, Britaniyadagi fabrikalar inspektori asbestni 1902 yilda zararli sanoat moddalari ro'yxatiga kiritgan. Shu kabi tekshirishlar 1906 yilda Frantsiyada va 1908 yilda Italiyada o'tkazilgan.[37]

Asbest mato

Birinchi tashxis asbestoz 1924 yilda Buyuk Britaniyada ishlab chiqarilgan.[36][38][39] Nelli Kershou da ishlagan Turner Brothers Asbest yilda Rochdeyl, Buyuk Manchester, Angliya 1917 yildan boshlab xom asbest tolasini ipga aylantiradi.[39][40] 1924 yilda uning o'limi rasmiy surishtiruvga sabab bo'ldi. Patolog Uilyam Edmund Kukning guvohlik berishicha, uning o'pkasini tekshirganda oldingi tuzalishni ko'rsatuvchi eski yara izlari bor sil kasalligi infektsiya va keng fibroz, unda "turli xil shakldagi mineral moddalar zarralari" ko'rinib turardi, ammo ularning aksariyati keskin burchaklarga ega.[38] Ushbu zarrachalarni Buyuk Britaniyaning fabrikalar tibbiy inspektori SA SA Genri tomonidan taqdim etilgan asbest kukuni namunalari bilan taqqoslab, ular "asbestdan kelib chiqqan va o'pka fibrozining asosiy sababi va shuning uchun o'lim bo'lgan" degan xulosaga kelishdi. . "[39][41]

Kukning qog'ozi natijasida, Parlament asbest changining ta'sirini o'rganish bo'yicha fabrikalarning tibbiy inspektori E. R. A. Merewether va C. W. Narx, a zavod inspektori va changni kuzatish va nazorat qilishning kashshofi.[42] Ularning keyingi hisoboti, Asbest ishchilarida o'pka fibrozisi va boshqa o'pka ta'sirining paydo bo'lishi, 1930 yil 24 martda parlamentga taqdim etilgan.[43] Asbestozning rivojlanishi asbest changining uzoq vaqt inhalatsiyasi bilan muttasil bog'liq bo'lgan degan xulosaga keldi va asbest ishchilarining sog'liqni saqlash bo'yicha birinchi tadqiqotini o'tkazdi, natijada 20 yil va undan ko'proq vaqt davomida ish bilan band bo'lganlarning 66% asbestozdan aziyat chekdi.[42] Hisobot 1931 yil 1 martda kuchga kirgan 1931 yilda birinchi asbest sanoat qoidalarini nashr etishga olib keldi.[44] Ushbu qoidalar shamollatishni tartibga solib, asbestozni ish bilan bog'liq uzrli kasallikka aylantirdi.[45] Atama mezoteliyoma birinchi marta tibbiy adabiyotlarda 1931 yilda ishlatilgan; uning asbest bilan aloqasi birinchi marta 40-yillarda qayd etilgan. Taxminan o'n yil o'tgach, AQShda shunga o'xshash qonunlar amal qildi.

Qo'shma Shtatlarda taxminan 100000 kishi kema qurilishi bilan bog'liq asbest ta'siridan vafot etdi yoki o'lik kasal. In Xempton yo'llari maydon, kemasozlik markazi, mezotelyoma paydo bo'lishi milliy ko'rsatkichdan etti baravar ko'pdir.[46] Ikkinchi jahon urushi kemalarida minglab tonna asbest quvurlarni, qozonxonalarni, bug 'dvigatellarini va bug' turbinalarini izolyatsiya qilish uchun ishlatilgan. Urush paytida Qo'shma Shtatlarda kemasozlik zavodining taxminan 4,3 million ishchisi bo'lgan; har 1000 ishchiga taxminan 14 kishi mezoteliyomadan va noma'lum soni asbestozdan vafot etgan.[47]

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari hukumati va asbest sanoati jamoatchilikni xavf-xatarlardan xabardor qilish va jamoatchilik ta'sirini kamaytirish uchun etarlicha tez ishlamaganligi uchun tanqid qilindi. 1970-yillarning oxirlarida sud hujjatlari asbest-sanoat mutasaddilari 1930-yillardan boshlab asbest xavfini bilishini va ularni jamoatchilikdan yashirganligini isbotladilar.[47]

Avstraliyada 1946-1980 yillarda asbest qurilish va boshqa sohalarda keng qo'llanilgan. 1970-yillardan boshlab asbestning xavfliligi to'g'risida xavotir kuchayib bordi va undan foydalanish asta-sekin tugatildi, 1983 yilda qazib olish to'xtatildi. Asbestdan foydalanish 1989 yilda tugatilgan va 2003 yil dekabrda butunlay taqiqlangan. Asbestning zarari hozirda Avstraliyada yaxshi ma'lum va asbestoz yoki mezoteliyoma bilan og'riganlarga yordam va yordam mavjud.[48]

Sanoat va mahsulot turlari bo'yicha foydalaning

Serpantin guruhi

Yilda Yigit kasalxonasi, London, 1941, opa-singillar asbest ko'rpalarni elektr isitiladigan ramka ustiga o'rnatib, bemorlarni tez isitishiga yordam berish uchun kapot yaratdilar.
Ning misoli asbest tsement urushdan keyingi vaqtinchalik uyning yonbag'irlari va astarlari Yardli, Birmingem, ushbu inshootlarning qariyb 40 mingtasi 1946 yildan 1949 yilgacha oilalarni qurish uchun qurilgan

Serpantin minerallar qatlam yoki qatlamli tuzilishga ega. Xrizotil (odatda oq asbest deb nomlanadi) serpantin guruhidagi yagona asbest mineralidir. Qo'shma Shtatlarda xrizotil eng ko'p ishlatiladigan asbest turi bo'lgan. AQSh ma'lumotlariga ko'ra Atrof muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi (EPA) Asbest qurilish inspektorlari qo'llanmasida xrizotil Qo'shma Shtatlardagi binolarda topilgan asbestning taxminan 95% ni tashkil qiladi.[49] Xrizotil ko'pincha turli xil mahsulotlar va materiallarda mavjud, jumladan:

  • Xlor gidroksidi diafragma membranalari xlor ishlab chiqarish uchun ishlatiladi (hozirda AQShda)[50]
  • Gipsokarton va qo'shma birikma (shu jumladan teksturali paltolar)
  • Gips
  • Ikkinchi Jahon urushi davomida 1960 yillarga qadar ko'pgina mamlakatlar uchun gaz niqob filtrlari; Germaniya va SSSRning Fuqarolik filtrlari 1988 yilgacha asbestga ijobiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi
  • Vinil plitkalar, choyshab, yopishtiruvchi moddalar
  • Uyingizda tomlari, kigizlar, siding va shingil[51]
  • "Tranzit "panellar, siding, dastgoh va quvurlar
  • Popkornning shiftlari, shuningdek, akustik shiftlar deb nomlanadi
  • Yong'inga qarshi
Asbestli qo'lqop
  • Kalk
  • Sanoat va dengiz qistirmalari
  • Tormoz yostiqlar va poyabzallar
  • Sahna pardalari
  • Yong'in choyshablari
  • Ichki yong'in eshiklari
  • Yong'in o'chiruvchilar uchun o'tga chidamli kiyim
  • Issiqlik quvurlarini izolyatsiyasi
  • Kimyoviy moddalar, suyuqliklar va sharobdan mayda zarrachalarni tozalash uchun filtrlar
  • Tish to'qimalarining qoplamalari
  • HVAC moslashuvchan kanal ulagichlari
  • Burg'ulash suyuqligi qo'shimchalar
Asbestdan tayyorlangan gaz plitalarida ovqat tayyorlash uchun maishiy issiqlik tarqatuvchi vosita (ehtimol 1950-yillar; "Amiante pur" frantsuzcha "Sof asbest")
Taxminan bog'lanmagan asbestni o'z ichiga olgan qistirma

Evropa Ittifoqi va Avstraliyada bu sog'liq uchun mumkin bo'lgan xavf sifatida taqiqlangan[52] va endi umuman ishlatilmaydi.

Amfibol guruhi

Amfibollar shu jumladan bir xil (jigarrang asbest) va krokidolit (ko'k asbest) ilgari ko'plab mahsulotlarda 1980 yillarning boshlariga qadar ishlatilgan.[iqtibos kerak ] Tremolit asbest ko'pgina ifloslantiruvchi moddalarni tashkil etdi, agar barchasi tabiiy ravishda mavjud bo'lgan xrizotil yotqiziqlari bo'lsa. Ambibol guruhidagi barcha turdagi asbestlardan foydalanish G'arb dunyosining aksariyat qismida 1980 yillarning o'rtalarida, Yaponiyada esa 1995 yilga qadar taqiqlangan.[53] Asbestning amfibol turlarini o'z ichiga olgan ba'zi mahsulotlar quyidagilarni o'z ichiga olgan:

  • Kam zichlikdagi izolyatsiya plitasi (ko'pincha AIB yoki asbest izolyatsiya plitasi deb ataladi) va ship plitalari;
  • Asbest tsement qurilish uchun choyshab va quvurlar, suv va elektr / telekommunikatsiya xizmatlari uchun korpus;
  • Issiqlik va kimyoviy izolyatsiya (masalan, yong'inga qarshi eshiklar, limpetli buzadigan amallar, orqada qolish va qistirmalar).

Sigaret ishlab chiqaruvchi Lorillard (Kentning filtrlangan sigaret ) 1952 yildan 1956 yilgacha "Mikronit" filtrida krokidolit asbest ishlatilgan.[54]

Avtoulovda asosan xrizotil asbest tolalari ishlatilgan tormoz balatalari, poyabzal va debriyaj disklari, amfibollarning ifloslantiruvchi moddalari mavjud edi. Taxminan 1990-yillarning o'rtalaridan boshlab tormoz balatalari yangi yoki almashtiriladigan o'rniga keramik, uglerod, metall va aramid tolasi (Twaron yoki Kevlar - ishlatiladigan xuddi shu material o'q o'tkazmaydigan jiletlar ).

Sun'iy Rojdestvo qorlari, oqim sifatida tanilgan, ilgari asbest bilan qilingan.[55] Bu filmlarda effekt sifatida ishlatilgan Oz sehrgar va uni do'konlar do'konlari oynalari namoyish etdi va u "Pure White", "Snow Drift" va "White Magic" o'z ichiga olgan savdo markalari ostida xususiy uylarda sotuvga chiqarildi.[56]

Uglerod sekvestratsiyasida potentsial foydalanish

Iqlim o'zgarishini yumshatish uchun asbestdan foydalanish salohiyati ko'tarildi. Garchi foydali qazilmalarni qazib olishning salbiy jihatlari, shu jumladan sog'liqqa ta'sirini hisobga olish kerak bo'lsa-da, uglerodni ajratish uchun mineral chiqindilaridan foydalanishni o'rganish o'rganilmoqda. Nikel, mis, olmos va platinadan chiqindilarni qazib olish chiqindilaridan foydalanish ham potentsialga ega, ammo asbest eng katta potentsialga ega bo'lishi mumkin va uni o'rganish uchun rivojlanayotgan ilmiy tadqiqot sohasida olib borilayotgan tadqiqot mavzusi.[57]

Qurilish

Rivojlangan mamlakatlar

Qadimgi dekorativ shiftlar, shunga o'xshash, oz miqdorda o'z ichiga olishi mumkin oq asbest
1929 yildan gazeta e'lonlari Pert, G'arbiy Avstraliya, uchun asbest qoplamasi turar-joy binolarini qurish uchun

Ko'pgina rivojlangan mamlakatlar yoki mintaqalarda, shu jumladan Evropa Ittifoqi, Buyuk Britaniya, Avstraliya, Gonkong, Yaponiya va Yangi Zelandiyada asbestdan foydalanish yangi qurilish loyihalarida sog'liq va xavfsizlik sababli taqiqlangan. Shunisi e'tiborga loyiqki, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, bu erda asbest tsement asbest quvurlari kabi qurilishda davom etmoqda. The 5-davra sudi 1991 yilda EPA asbestni taqiqlashiga to'sqinlik qildi, chunki EPA tadqiqotlari shuni ko'rsatdiki, taqiq 450 dan 800 million AQSh dollarigacha turadi, shu bilan birga 13 yillik muddatda 200 atrofida hayotni saqlab qoladi va EPA muqobil mahsulotlarning xavfsizligi uchun etarli dalillarni taqdim etmaydi. .[58] 1980-yillarning o'rtalariga qadar oz miqdordagi oq asbest ishlab chiqarishda ishlatilgan Artex, dekorativ chiroyli tugatish,[59] ammo, Artex tipidagi materiallarning ozgina ma'lum etkazib beruvchilari 1999 yilgacha hali ham oq asbest qo'shib kelishgan.[60]

Taqiqlanishidan oldin asbest qurilish sohasida minglab materiallarda keng qo'llanilgan. Asbest miqdori va materialning yumshoqligi tufayli ba'zilari boshqalarga qaraganda xavfli hisoblanadi. Püskürtülen qoplamalar, quvur izolasyonu va Asbest izolyatsiya plitasi (AIB) tarkibida asbest miqdori yuqori va mo'rt tabiat borligi sababli eng xavfli hisoblanadi. 1990-yillarning oxiridan oldin qurilgan ko'plab eski binolarda asbest mavjud. Qo'shma Shtatlarda asbest tadqiqotlari uchun tavsiflangan minimal standart mavjud ASTM standart E 2356-18. Buyuk Britaniyada Sog'liqni saqlash va xavfsizlik bo'yicha ijroiya deb nomlangan ko'rsatma chiqardi HSG264 so'rovnomalarni qanday yakunlash kerakligini tavsiflash bilan birga, boshqa usullardan foydalanish mumkin, agar ular boshqa vositalar bilan qoidalarga javob berganligini namoyish etsa.[61] EPA tarkibiga asbest bilan ifloslangan inshootlarning barchasi kiradi, ammo barchasi hammasi emas Superfundning milliy ustuvor yo'nalishlari ro'yxati (NPL). Asbest bilan ifloslangan binolarni ta'mirlash va buzish EPAga tegishli NESHAP va OSHA qoidalari. Asbest ostida yopilgan material emas CERCLA aybsiz xaridorlarni himoya qilish. Buyuk Britaniyada asbest va tarkibidagi moddalarni olib tashlash va yo'q qilish Asbest qoidalarini boshqarish 2006 yil.[62]

AQShning asbest iste'moli 1973 yilda 804000 tonnani tashkil etdi; jahon asbestga bo'lgan talab 1977 yilga kelib eng yuqori darajaga etdi, 25 mamlakat har yili qariyb 4,8 million tonna ishlab chiqaradi.[63]

Qadimgi binolarda (masalan, Buyuk Britaniyada 1999 yilgacha, oq asbest taqiqlanishidan oldin qurilgan), ba'zi joylarda asbest mavjud bo'lishi mumkin. Asbest joylari to'g'risida xabardor bo'lish asbestni bezovta qilish xavfini kamaytiradi.[64]

Asbestli qurilish qismlarini olib tashlash, ular tomonidan ta'minlanadigan yong'indan himoya qilishni ham olib tashlashi mumkin, shuning uchun dastlab asbest ta'minlagan yong'indan to'g'ri himoya qilish uchun yong'indan himoya o'rnini bosuvchi vositalar talab qilinadi.[64][65]

Evropa va Shimoliy Amerikadan tashqarida

Kabi ba'zi mamlakatlar, masalan Hindiston, Indoneziya, Xitoy, Rossiya va Braziliya, asbestdan keng foydalanishni davom ettirmoqdalar. Eng keng tarqalgan bo'lib, tom yopish va yon devorlar uchun gofrirovka qilingan asbest-sement plitalari yoki "A / C plitalari" mavjud. Millionlab uylar, fabrikalar, maktablar yoki shiyponlar va boshpanalar asbestdan foydalanishda davom etmoqda. Ushbu choyshablarni o'lchamiga qarab kesish va choyshablarni tomga yopishtirishga yordam beradigan 'J' murvatini olish uchun burg'ulash teshiklari joyida amalga oshiriladi. Klima plitalarini ishlab chiqarish va ulardan foydalanishda sezilarli o'zgarishlar yuz bermadi rivojlanayotgan davlatlar rivojlangan mamlakatlarda keng tarqalgan cheklovlardan so'ng[iqtibos kerak ].

2001 yil 11 sentyabrdagi hujumlar

Shuningdek qarang: 11 sentyabr xurujlaridan kelib chiqadigan sog'liqqa ta'sir

Sifatida Nyu-York shahri "s Jahon savdo markazi quyidagidan keyin qulab tushdi 11 sentyabr hujumlari, Quyi Manxetten qurilish qoldiqlari va yonuvchan materiallar aralashmasi bilan yopilgan edi. Ushbu murakkab aralashma ushbu hududdagi minglab aholi va ishchilarga havodagi va changdagi ma'lum bo'lgan asbest, qo'rg'oshin, shisha tolalar va maydalangan beton kabi xavflarga duchor bo'lish xavotirini keltirib chiqardi.[66] Taxminan 1000 tonnadan ortiq asbest binolar vayron bo'lgandan keyin havoga tarqaldi.[67] Asbest va boshqa toksikantlar aralashmasidan nafas olish favqulodda vaziyatlar xizmati favqulodda vaziyatlar xizmati xodimlarining saraton kasalligidan o'lim darajasi juda yuqori ekanligi bilan bog'liq deb taxmin qilinadi.[67] Hozirgacha vafot etganlar faqatgina "aysbergning uchi" bo'lganligi sababli, minglab odamlar saraton kasalligiga chalinish xavfi ostida.[67] Ba'zi sharhlovchilar rasmiylarni binolarni qurishda asbestdan foydalanganliklarini tanqid qildilar.

2002 yil may oyida EPA, boshqa federal idoralar, Nyu-York shahri va Nyu-York shtati tomonidan ko'plab tozalash, chang yig'ish va havoni nazorat qilish tadbirlari ochiq havoda o'tkazilgandan so'ng, Nyu-York shahri yashash joylarini tozalash va sinovdan o'tkazish uchun rasmiy ravishda federal yordam so'radi. Jahon Savdo Markazi havodagi asbest uchun joy.[66]

Boshqa mahsulotlar tarkibidagi asbest ifloslantiruvchi moddalar

Vermikulit

Vermikulit o'xshash hidratlangan laminar magniy-alyuminiy-temir silikatdir slyuda. U ko'plab sanoat dasturlarda ishlatilishi mumkin va izolyatsiya sifatida ishlatilgan. Vermikulitning ba'zi konlari oz miqdordagi asbest bilan ifloslanganligi aniqlandi.[68]

Bitta vermikulit koni tomonidan boshqariladi W. R. Grace va Company yilda Libbi, Montana odatda asbest bilan ifloslangan vermikulit qazib olish natijasida ishchilar va jamoat aholisi xavf ostida qolmoqda richterit, vinil, aktinolit yoki tremolit.[69] Libbi konidan asbest bilan ifloslangan Vermikulit Kanada va Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari orqali uy-joy va tijorat binolarida izolyatsiya sifatida ishlatilgan. W. R. Greys va Kompaniyaning bo'shashgan plomba vermikuliti sifatida sotildi Zonolit kabi purkagichli mahsulotlarda ham ishlatilgan Monokote.

1999 yilda EPA Livida tozalash ishlarini boshladi va endi bu joy a Superfund tozalash maydoni.[70] EPA kondan zararli asbest chiqarilishini, shuningdek, hududdagi tuproqni bezovta qiladigan boshqa harakatlar orqali aniqlagan.[71]

Talk

Laboratoriya issiqlik tarqatuvchi asbestdan yasalgan, a ustidan tripodda Teclu burner

Talk asbest rudasining yaqinligi sababli ba'zan asbest bilan ifloslanishi mumkin (odatda tremolit ) yer osti talk konlarida.[72] 1973 yilga kelib, AQSh federal qonuni barcha talk mahsulotlarini asbestsiz bo'lishini talab qildi.[73] va bugungi kunda talk mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqarishda qattiq sifat nazorati mavjud bo'lib, kosmetik markali talkni (masalan, talk kukuni) sanoat darajasidagi talkdan ajratish (ko'pincha ishqalanish mahsulotlarida ishlatiladi) iste'molchilar uchun bu masalani deyarli yo'q qildi.[74]

2000 yilda sertifikatlangan asbest-sinov laboratoriyasida o'tkazilgan testlar amfibol asbestning tremolit shaklini ilgari bolalarning mashhur sakkizta markasidan uchtasida topdi qalam qisman talkdan qilingan: Crayola, Prang va RoseArt.[75] Crayola rangli qalamlarda sinovlar asbest miqdorini 0,05% atrofida ekanligini aniqladi Chinnigullar pushti va 2,86% in Orkide; Prang rangli qalamlarda bu ko'rsatkich 0,3% dan Periwinkle dan 0,54% gacha Sariq; Rose Art qalamida u 0,03% dan edi jigarrang 1,20% gacha apelsin. Umuman olganda, ushbu tovar belgilariga oid 32 xil rangli qalam ilgari juda oz miqdordagi asbest, qolgan sakkiztasida esa izlar mavjud edi. The San'at va ijodiy materiallar instituti, a savdo uyushmasi ishlab chiqaruvchilar nomidan rangli qalamlarning xavfsizligini sinovdan o'tkazgan dastlab sinov natijalari noto'g'ri bo'lishi kerak deb ta'kidlagan, ammo keyinchalik ular asbest uchun sinov o'tkazmayotganliklarini aytishgan.[75] 2000 yil may oyida Krayolaning aytishicha, asbest sanoati nomidan 250 marotaba sud da'volari qabul qilingan materiallar bo'yicha tahlilchi Richard Li tomonidan o'tkazilgan testlar uning qalamlari asbest uchun salbiy ekanligini aniqladi.[76] Shunga qaramay, 2000 yil iyun oyida Crayola ishlab chiqaruvchisi Binney va Smit va boshqa ishlab chiqaruvchilar o'z mahsulotlarida talk ishlatishni to'xtatish to'g'risida kelishib oldilar va Qo'shma Shtatlardagi mahsulot tarkibini o'zgartirdilar.[76]

Konchilik kompaniyasi, R T Vanderbilt Co. of Gouverneur, Nyu-York talkni qalam ishlab chiqaruvchilarga etkazib bergan, "bizning bilimimiz va e'tiqodimizga ko'ra" uning nutqida asbest yo'qligini ta'kidlaydi.[77] Ammo ommaviy axborot vositalarining ta'kidlashicha Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari minalar xavfsizligi va sog'liqni saqlash boshqarmasi (MSHA) 2000 yilda sinovdan o'tgan to'rt talk namunasida asbest topdi.[75] Davlat kotibining minalar xavfsizligi va sog'lig'i bo'yicha yordamchisi keyinchalik yangiliklar muxbiriga "Aslida laboratoriya hisobotidagi ND (aniqlanmagan) qisqartmasi - namunalarda aslida asbest tolasi topilmaganligini bildiradi" deb yozgan.[78] 1970 yildan 2000 yilgacha mineral kimyogarlar, hujayra biologlari va toksikologlar tomonidan o'tkazilgan ko'plab tadqiqotlar davomida talk mahsulotlarida asbest namunalari va talk bilan shug'ullanadigan ishchilar orasida asbest ta'sirining alomatlari aniqlanmagan,[79] ammo yaqinda olib borilgan ishlar ushbu xulosalarni "bir xil" asbest xavfi foydasiga rad etdi.[80][81][tushuntirish kerak ]

2018 yil 12 iyulda Missuri shtatidagi hakamlar hay'ati buyruq berdi Jonson va Jonson kompaniyaning talk asosida ishlab chiqarilgan mahsulotlarida, shu jumladan uning bolalar kukunida asbest borligi va ularning tuxumdonlar saratoniga sabab bo'lganligi haqida da'vo qilgan 22 ayolga rekord darajada 4,69 milliard dollar to'lash.[82]

Turlari va ular bilan bog'langan tolalar

Oltita mineral turi EPA tomonidan "asbest" deb belgilanadi, shu jumladan serpantin sinfiga va amfibol sinfiga tegishli. Oltita asbest mineral turlarining barchasi odam ekanligi ma'lum kanserogenlar.[83][84] Ko'rinadigan tolalar o'zlari har biri millionlab mikroskopik "fibrillalar" dan iborat bo'lib, ular aşınma va boshqa jarayonlar natijasida ajralib chiqishi mumkin.[42]

  • Xrizotil asbest

  • Asbest tolalari

  • Asbest

  • Moviy asbest (krokidolit), o'lchagich 1 sm

  • Mineralning tolali tabiatini ko'rsatish uchun masxara qilingan ko'k asbest

Serpantin

Serpantin sinfidagi tolalar jingalakdir. Xrizotil serpantin sinfining yagona asbest a'zosi.

Asbest tolalarining hajmi boshqa zarralar bilan taqqoslaganda (USEPA, 1978 yil mart)

Xrizotil

Xrizotil, CAS raqami. 12001-29-5 , dan olinadi serpantinit butun dunyoda keng tarqalgan jinslar. Uning idealizatsiyasi kimyoviy formula bu Mg3(Si2O5)(OH )4.[45] Xrizotil mikroskop ostida oq tola bo'lib ko'rinadi.

Xrizotil har qanday turga qaraganda ko'proq ishlatilgan va Amerikadagi binolarda topilgan asbestning taxminan 95 foizini tashkil qiladi.[85] Xrizotil asbestning amfibol turlariga qaraganda ancha egiluvchan bo'lib, ularni yigirish va matoga to'qish mumkin. Eng ko'p ishlatiladigan asbest tsementli tom yopish asosan binolar, omborlar va garajlar uchun ishlatilgan. Bundan tashqari, shiftlar uchun, ba'zan devorlar va pollar uchun ishlatiladigan choyshab yoki panellarda ham bo'lishi mumkin. Xrizotil tarkibiga kirgan qo'shma birikma va ba'zi gipslar. Xrizotilni o'z ichiga olgan ko'plab boshqa buyumlar, shu jumladan tormoz plyonkalari, sug'urta qutilaridagi yong'inga qarshi to'siqlar, quvurlarni izolyatsiya qilish, pol plitalari, uy plitalari va yuqori haroratli uskunalar uchun qistirmalar.[iqtibos kerak ]

Amfibol

Amfibol sinfidagi tolalar ignaga o'xshashdir. Birgalikda, krokidolit, tremolit, antofillit va aktinolit amfibol sinfining a'zolari.

Birgalikda

Birgalikda, CAS raqami. 12172-73-5 , ko'pincha jigarrang asbest deb ataladi, a savdo nomi ga tegishli amfibolalar uchun kammingtonit -grunerit qattiq eritma seriyali, odatda Janubiy Afrikadan, qisman deb nomlangan qisqartma "Janubiy Afrikaning Asbest konlari" uchun. Amozit uchun berilgan bitta formula bu Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. Amozit mikroskop ostida kulrang-oq vitreus tolasi sifatida ko'rinadi. Issiqlik izolyatsiyalash mahsulotlarida yong'inga qarshi vosita sifatida eng ko'p uchraydi, asbest izolyatsiya plitasi va ship plitalari.[85]

Krokidolit

Krokidolit, CAS raqami. 12001-28-4 , odatda ko'k asbest sifatida tanilgan, amfibolning tolali shakli riebeckite, asosan Afrikaning janubiy qismida, shuningdek, Avstraliya va Boliviyada joylashgan. Krokidolit uchun berilgan formulalardan biri Na2FeII
3FeIII
2Si8O22(OH )2. Krosidolit mikroskop ostida ko'k tola sifatida ko'riladi.

Krokidolit odatda yumshoq bo'lib uchraydi yumshoq tolalar. Asbestiform amfibol yumshoq yumshoq tolalar sifatida ham paydo bo'lishi mumkin, ammo amozit kabi ba'zi navlari odatda tekisroq. Asbestning barcha shakllari fibrillar, chunki ular kengligi 1 dan kam bo'lgan tolalardan iborat mikrometr juda katta kenglikdagi to'plamlarda. Ayniqsa ingichka tolali asbest "amianthus" deb ham yuritiladi.

Boshqa materiallar

Boshqa tartibga solinadigan asbest minerallari, masalan tremolit asbest, CAS No. 77536-68-6 , Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; aktinolit asbest, CAS № 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, FeII)5(Si8O22) (OH)2; va antofillit asbest, CAS No. 77536-67-5 , (Mg, FeII)7Si8O22(OH)2; sanoatda kamroq qo'llaniladi, ammo baribir turli xil qurilish materiallari va izolyatsiya materiallarida uchraydi va ulardan bir nechtasida ishlatilgan iste'mol mahsulotlari.

Kabi boshqa tabiiy asbestiform minerallar richterit, Na (CaNa) (Mg, FeII)5(Si8O22) (OH)2va vinil, (CaNa) Mg4(Al, FeIII) (Si8O22) (OH)2tartibga solinmasa ham, ba'zilar tremolit, amozit yoki krokidolitdan kam bo'lmagan zararli deyishadi.[86] Ular asbest o'rniga "asbestiform" deb nomlanadi. AQSh bo'lsa-da Mehnatni muhofaza qilish boshqarmasi (OSHA) ularni asbest standartiga kiritmagan, NIOSH va Amerika Torakal Jamiyati ularni tartibga solinadigan materiallar sifatida kiritishni tavsiya qilgan, chunki ular sog'liq uchun ham xavfli bo'lishi mumkin.[86]

Ishlab chiqarish

1900 yildan to hozirgi kungacha dunyo miqyosida asbest ishlab chiqarish (metrik tonna), shu jumladan trend yo'nalishini ham o'z ichiga oladi

2017 yilda 1,3 mln tonna dunyo bo'ylab asbest qazib olindi. Rossiya dunyodagi 53% bilan eng yirik ishlab chiqaruvchi bo'ldi, undan keyin Qozog'iston (16%), Xitoy (15%) va Braziliya (11,5%).[87][88] Osiyo dunyoda ishlab chiqarilgan asbestning taxminan 70 foizini Xitoy, Hindiston va Indoneziya eng katta iste'molchilari bilan iste'mol qiladi.[89]

2009 yilda dunyodagi asbest ishlab chiqarishning taxminan 9% Kanadada qazib olindi.[90] 2011 yil oxirida Kanadaning qolgan ikkala asbest koni, ikkalasi ham joylashgan Kvebek, to'xtatilgan operatsiyalar.[91] 2012 yil sentyabr oyida Kvebek hukumati asbest qazib olishni to'xtatdi.[92]

Sog'likka ta'siri

Asbest ogohlantiruvchi yorlig'i
Chap tomonlama mezoteliyoma (tasvirning o'ng tomonida ko'rinadi): ko'krak qafasi KT
Asosiy maqola: Asbestning sog'liqqa ta'siri

Asbest tolasining barcha turlari odamlarda va hayvonlarda sog'liq uchun jiddiy xavf tug'dirishi ma'lum.[93][94][95] Amozit va krokidolit asbest tolasining eng xavfli turlari hisoblanadi;[96][97] ammo, xrizotil asbest hayvonlarda o'smalar hosil qildi va odamlarda asbestoz va malign mezotelyomaning taniqli sababi hisoblanadi,[98] mesoteliyoma kasbiy jihatdan xrizotil ta'siriga uchragan odamlarda, kasbiy ta'sirga uchragan oila a'zolari va asbest fabrikalari va konlariga yaqin joyda yashovchilarda kuzatilgan.[99]

1980-yillarda va 1990-yillarda, ba'zida asbest tsementni ishlab chiqarish jarayoni asbestni kimyoviy jarayonlar orqali yoki tsementning tolalarga yopishishiga va ularning fizik o'lchamlarini o'zgartirish orqali "zararsizlantirish" mumkin degan fikrlar ilgari surilgan; keyingi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, bu haqiqat emas edi va o'nlab yillik asbest tsement buzilganda tabiatda mavjud bo'lgan asbest tolalarini ajratib bo'lmaydigan o'zgarishlarni amalga oshirdi.[100]

Asbestga tolalar shaklida ta'sir qilish har doim xavfli hisoblanadi. Bu material bilan ishlash yoki unga ta'sir qilish yumshoq yoki asbest tolalarining bo'shashishiga olib kelishi mumkin bo'lgan materiallar yoki asarlar yuqori xavfli hisoblanadi. Umuman olganda, asbestni yutishdan kasal bo'lib qolgan odamlar doimiy ravishda material bilan ishlagan ishlarida muntazam ravishda ta'sirlanishadi.[101]

AQSh Mehnatni muhofaza qilish boshqarmasi (OSHA) ishchilarni ish joyidagi asbest ta'siridan himoya qilish uchun standartlarga ega. Asbestga ta'sir qilishning ruxsat etilgan chegarasi sakkiz soatlik o'rtacha tortilgan havo har santimetr uchun 0,1 tolaga teng bo'lib, ekskursiya limiti 30 santimetr davomida har santimetr uchun 1,0 asbest tolasi.[102]

Asbestga surunkali ta'sir qilish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan eng keng tarqalgan kasalliklar asbestoz va mezotelyoma hisoblanadi.[103]

Tartibga solish

Asosiy maqola: Asbest va qonun

Asbestga to'liq taqiqlar

Butun dunyoda 67 ta mamlakat va hududlar (shu jumladan Yevropa Ittifoqi ) asbestdan foydalanishni taqiqlagan. Ro'yxatda keltirilgan ayrim mamlakatlarda mayda foydalanish uchun imtiyozlarga ruxsat beriladi; ammo, sanab o'tilgan barcha mamlakatlar barcha turdagi asbestlardan foydalanishni taqiqlagan bo'lishi kerak.[104][105]

 Jazoir Chex Respublikasi Iroq Mavrikiy Seyshel orollari
 Argentina Daniya Irlandiya Monako Slovakiya
 Avstraliya Jibuti Isroil Mozambik Sloveniya
 Avstriya Misr Italiya Gollandiya Janubiy Afrika
 Bahrayn Estoniya YaponiyaYangi Kaledoniya Ispaniya
 Belgiya Finlyandiya Iordaniya Yangi Zelandiya Shvetsiya
 Braziliya Frantsiya Koreya (Janubiy) Norvegiya Shveytsariya
 Bruney Gabon Quvayt Ummon Tayvan
 Bolgariya Germaniya Latviya Polsha kurka
 Kanada Gibraltar Lixtenshteyn Portugaliya Birlashgan Qirollik
 Chili Gretsiya Litva Qatar Urugvay
 Kolumbiya Gonduras Lyuksemburg Ruminiya
 Xorvatiya Vengriya Shimoliy Makedoniya Saudiya Arabistoni
 Kipr Islandiya Maltada Serbiya

Avstraliya

Asbest Products Ltd (Sidney) eksport uchun asbest tsement gofrirovka qilingan tom qoplamasi

Krokidolit (moviy asbest) dan foydalanish 1967 yilda taqiqlangan, qurilish sohasida amozit (jigarrang asbest) dan foydalanish 1980 yillarning o'rtalariga qadar davom etgan. Nihoyat, 1989 yilda qurilish mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqarish taqiqlandi, ammo 2003 yil 31 dekabrgacha u qistirmalari va tormoz qoplamalarida qoldi va ularni olib kirish, ishlatish yoki qayta ishlash mumkin emas.[106][107]

Asbest muammo bo'lib qolmoqda. Avstraliyadagi Ikkinchi Jahon urushi va 1980-yillarning boshlarida qurilgan uchta uydan ikkitasida hanuzgacha asbest bor.[108]

The union that represents workers tasked with modifying electrical meter boxes at residences stated that workers should refuse to do this work until the boxes have been inspected for asbestos,[109] and the head of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU ) has called on the government to protect its citizens by ridding the country of asbestos by 2030.[110]

Handlers of asbestos materials must have a B-Class license for bonded asbestos and an A-Class license for friable asbestos.

Shahar Wittenoom, in Western Australia was built around a (blue) asbestos mine. The entire town continues to be contaminated, and has been disincorporated, allowing local authorities to remove references to Wittenoom from maps and roadsigns.

Kanada

From 31 December 2018 it was illegal to import, manufacture, sell, trade or use products made from asbestos. There are exemptions for its use in the chlor-alkali industry, the military, nuclear facilities and for magnesium extraction from asbestos mining residues.[111]

Yaponiya

Revelations that hundreds of workers had died in Japan over the previous few decades from diseases related to asbestos sparked a scandal in mid-2005.[112] Tokyo had, in 1971, ordered companies handling asbestos to install ventilators and check health on a regular basis; however, the Japanese government did not ban crocidolite and amosite until 1995, and a near complete ban with a few exceptions on asbestos was implemented in 2006, with the remaining exceptions being removed in March 2012 for a full-fledged ban.[113]

Yangi Zelandiya

In 1984, the import of raw amphibole (blue and brown) asbestos into Yangi Zelandiya taqiqlangan edi. In 2002 the import of chrysotile (white) asbestos was also banned.[114] In 2015 the government announced that the importation of asbestos would be completely banned with very limited exceptions (expected to be applied to replacement parts for older machines) that would be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.[115]

North-west of Nelson, in the Upper Takaka Valley is New Zealand's only commercially harvested asbestos mine. A low-grade Chrysotile was mined here from 1908 to 1917 but only 100 tons was washed and taken out by packhorse. A new power scheme enabled work to renew and between 1940 and 1949, 40 tons a month was mined by the Hume Company. This continued to 1964, when, due to the short length of its fibre, the limited commercial viability forced mining to cease.[116][117]

Janubiy Koreya

In May 1997, the manufacture and use of krokidolit va bir xil, commonly known as blue and brown asbestos, were fully banned in Janubiy Koreya.[118] In January 2009, a full-fledged ban on all types of asbestos occurred when the government banned the manufacture, import, sale, storage, transport or use of asbestos or any substance containing more than 0.1% of asbestos.[119] In 2011, South Korea became the world's sixth country to enact an asbestos harm aid act, which entitles any Korean citizen to free lifetime medical care as well as monthly income from the government if he or she is diagnosed with an asbestos-related disease.[120]

Birlashgan Qirollik

In the United Kingdom, blue and brown asbestos materials were banned outright in 1985 while the import, sale and second hand reuse of white asbestos was outlawed in 1999. The 2012 Control of Asbestos Regulations state that owners of non-domestic buildings (e.g., factories and offices) have a "duty to manage" asbestos on the premises by making themselves aware of its presence and ensuring the material does not deteriorate, removing it if necessary. Employers, e.g. construction companies, whose operatives may come into contact with asbestos must also provide annual asbestos training to their workers.[121]

Countries where asbestos is legal

Qo'shma Shtatlar

Shuningdek qarang: Asbestos and the law (United States)
Researcher using a fiber length classifier to produce length-selected fibers of asbestos for toxological studies

The United States remains one of the few rivojlangan mamlakatlar to not completely ban asbestos.[122]

1989 yilda Qo'shma Shtatlar atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi (EPA) issued the Asbestos Ban and Phase Out Rule but in 1991, asbestos industry supporters challenged and overturned the ban in a landmark lawsuit: Corrosion Proof Fittings v. the Environmental Protection Agency. Although the case resulted in several small victories for asbestos regulation, the EPA ultimately did not put an end to asbestos use. The ruling left many consumer products that can still legally contain trace amounts of asbestos. Six categories of asbestos-containing products are however banned: corrugated paper, rollboard, commercial paper, specialty paper, flooring felt and any new uses of asbestos. The Toza havo to'g'risidagi qonun also bans asbestos pipe insulation and asbestos block insulation on components such as boilers and hot water tanks, and spray-applied surfacing asbestos-containing materials. The Iste'molchilar uchun mahsulotlar xavfsizligi to'g'risidagi qonun bans asbestos in artificial fireplace embers and wall patching compounds. The Oziq-ovqat va dori-darmonlarni boshqarish bans asbestos-containing filters in pharmaceutical manufacturing, processing and packing.[123][124]

2010 yilda, Vashington shtati banned asbestos in automotive brakes starting in 2014.[125]

Meksika

Since 1970, as a result of increased regulation of asbestos in Europe and in the United States, there was a massive transfer of asbestos-processing enterprises to Mexico. Asbestos is used in many products – roofing, boilers, pipes, brakes, and wires, produced by over 2,000 Mexican companies, many of them subsidiaries or subcontractors of US companies, and sold throughout the Americas. In 2000, 58% of Mexican asbestos-containing exports went to the United States, and 40% to Central American countries and Cuba.[126][127]

Vetnam

Corrugated asbestos roof (with Fibre cement )

In Vietnam, chrysotile asbestos is not banned and still widely used. Amphibole asbestos is banned from trade and use. Vietnam is one of the top 10 asbestos users in the world with an annual import volume of about 65,000–70,000 tons of chrysotile.[128] About 90% of the imported asbestos is used to produce about 100 million m2 of cement roofing sheets (asbest-sement ). According to one study, among 300 families in Yen Bai, Thanh Hoa, 85% of households use asbestos roofing sheets, but only 5% know about their harms.[129]

However, the master plan (for construction materials development to 2020 with orientation to 2030 submitted by the Qurilish vazirligi to the Government in January 2014) still suggests continued use of chrysotile for a long time.[129]

Substitutes for asbestos in construction

Fiberglas insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of izolyatsiya materiallari. The safety of this material has also been called into question due to similarities in material structure.[130] Biroq, Xalqaro saraton tadqiqotlari agentligi removed fiberglass from its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001.[131] A scientific review article from 2011 claimed epidemiology data was inconsistent and concluded that the IARC's decision to downgrade the carcinogenic potential of fiberglass was valid. However, this study was funded by a sponsored research contract from the North American Insulation Manufacturer's Association.[132]

In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by Bal Diktsit, deb nomlangan Zetex. This fabric is lighter than asbestos, but offers the same bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength.[133]

Evropada, mineral jun va shisha jun are the main insulators in houses.

Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as "Eternit " and another "Everite" now use "Nutec " fibers which consist of organic fibers, portland tsement va kremniy. Tsement bilan bog'langan yog'och tolasi is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.

Another potential fiber is polibenzimidazol or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber a sintetik tola yuqori bilan erish nuqtasi of 760 °C (1,400 °F) that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by o't o'chirish bo'limlari va kosmik agentliklar.

Qayta ishlash va yo'q qilish

Wailuku, Gavayi pochta sealed off for asbestos removal

In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as xavfli chiqindilar in designated poligon joylari.

The buzish of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. Bunday misollardan biri Red Road Flats yilda Glazgo, Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed in specially adapted vehicles and taken to a landfill site with an appropriate permit to accept asbestos, via an approved route, at certain times of the day.

In the United States, the EPA governs the removal and disposal of asbestos strictly. Companies that remove asbestos must comply with EPA licensing. These companies are called EPA licensed asbestos contractors. Anytime one of these asbestos contractors performs work a test consultant has to conduct strict testing to ensure the asbestos is completely removed.

Asbestos can be destroyed by ultra-high-temperature yoqish va plazma melting process. A process of termal parchalanish at 1,000–1,250 °C (1,800–2,300 °F) produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicon-based wastes, and at temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,300 °F) it produces silikat shisha.[134] Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.[135]

Ning birikmasi oksalat kislotasi bilan ultratovush fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers.[136]

Abbreviations associated with asbestos

Shuningdek qarang

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