Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoylik kanadaliklar - Chinese Canadians in British Columbia

Tarixi Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoylik kanadaliklar tomonidan birinchi yozilgan tashrif bilan boshlandi Xitoy 1788 yilda Shimoliy Amerikaga odamlar. 30-40 kishi kemasozlik sifatida ishlagan Nootka tovushi hozirda Britaniya Kolumbiyasi, da birinchi Evropa tipidagi kemani qurish Tinch okeanining shimoli-g'arbiy qismi, deb nomlangan Shimoliy G'arbiy Amerika. Xitoylarning keng ko'lamli ko'chishi etmish yil o'tgach, paydo bo'lishi bilan boshlandi Fraser Canyon Gold Rush 1858 yil. Oltin shovqini paytida xitoyliklarning yashash joylari o'sdi Viktoriya va Yangi Vestminster va "Karibu poytaxti" Barkervil va boshqa ko'plab shaharlarda, shuningdek butun koloniyada joylashgan ichki makon, bu erda ko'plab jamoalar asosan xitoylar bo'lgan. 1880-yillarda Xitoy ishchilarini qurish uchun shartnoma tuzildi Kanadalik Tinch okean temir yo'li. Buning ortidan ko'plab xitoyliklar tashkil topib, sharqqa qarab harakatlana boshladilar Xitoy shaharlari Kanadaning yirik shaharlaridan bir nechtasida.

Tarix

Eng erta kelish

Ning ishga tushirilishi Shimoliy-G'arbiy Amerika Nootka Sound-da, 1788

Afsonaviy mamlakat afsonasi esa Fusang milodiy 6-asrda Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoylik rohiblarga murojaat qilgani ba'zan da'vo qilingan, faqat 1780-yillarning oxiriga kelib, miloddan avvalgi xitoyliklar kelib tushgan. 120 ga yaqin xitoylik shartnoma asosida ishchilar kelishdi Nootka tovushi, Vankuver oroli.[1]:312 Britaniyalik mo'yna savdogari John Meares Kantondan 50 ga yaqin dengizchilar va hunarmandlardan iborat dastlabki guruhni jalb qildi (Guanchjou ) va Makao. Nootka Sound-da xitoylik ishchilar bort quradigan bino, qal'a va yelkanli kema qurdilar Shimoliy-G'arbiy Amerika. Ushbu sayohat va Xitoyning mustamlaka Shimoliy Amerikada istiqomat qilish istiqbollari to'g'risida Meares shunday deb yozgan edi:

Xitoyliklar, shu munosabat bilan, eksperiment sifatida jo'natildi: ular odatda mehnatsevar va mehnatsevar, shuningdek, zukko odamlar irqiga hurmat ko'rsatdilar; ular baliq va guruch bilan kun kechirishadi, ammo kam ish haqi talab qilinadigan bo'lsa, ularni ish bilan ta'minlash iqtisodiy nuqtai nazardan kelib chiqardi; va butun safar davomida ularning xizmatlaridan qoniqish uchun barcha asoslar bor edi. Agar bundan keyin Amerika qirg'og'ida savdo punktlari tashkil etilishi kerak bo'lsa, bu odamlarning mustamlakasi juda qimmatli sotib olish bo'ladi.

— John Meares, 1788 va 1789 yillarda qilingan sayohatlar, Xitoydan Amerikaning Shimoliy G'arbiy sohiligacha.[2]:2

Keyingi yil, Mearesda Kantondan yana 70 nafar xitoylik hunarmandlar olib kelingan edi, ammo bu ikkinchi guruh kelganidan ko'p o'tmay, turar-joy ispaniyaliklar tomonidan tortib olinib, " Nootka inqirozi, xitoyliklar Meresning mulkini tortib olish jarayonida ispanlar tomonidan qamoqqa olinishi bilan, bu Angliya va Ispaniyani global urush yoqasiga olib keldi. Ulardan nima bo'lganligi noma'lum[1]:312 Ehtimol, ba'zilari Xitoyga qaytib kelgan, boshqalari esa yaqin atrofdagi konga ishga joylashtirilgan[3]:196 va keyinchalik Meksikaga olib kelingan.[4]:106 G'arbiy Shimoliy Amerikaga boshqa hech bir xitoylik 1858 yilgi Freyzer oltin zarbasiga qadar etib kelmaganligi ma'lum emas.

Oltin shoshqaloqlik davri

Xitoyliklar San-Frantsisko va undan 30000 oltin izlovchilar va savdogarlarning katta va to'satdan ko'chib o'tishlari bilan kelishdi Kaliforniyadagi oltin konlari bilan Fraser Gold Rush ning yadrosini tashkil etgan 1858 y Viktoriya Chinatown va boshqalarni tashkil etishga olib keladi Yangi Vestminster, Yel va Lillooet garchi aksariyat xitoylik oltin izlovchilar yangi paydo bo'lgan shaharlarda emas, balki oltin konlarini qidirish va ishlash bilan band edilar. Hisob-kitoblar shuni ko'rsatadiki, Freyzer oltin konlarining mahalliy bo'lmagan aholisining 1/3 qismi xitoylar bo'lgan.[5][sahifa kerak ][6][sahifa kerak ] Ko'proq oltin konlari topilgach, xitoyliklar butun koloniyada tarqalib ketishdi va qarama-qarshiliklar Rok-Krik va Wild Horse Creek asosan amerikalik konchilar bilan, ammo mustamlakachilik hukumati xitoylar tomoniga aralashdi (boshqa shunga o'xshash vaziyatlar temir yo'l davriga qadar juda kam uchragan).[iqtibos kerak ]

Xitoylik konchilar yaqin o'n yilliklarda oltin shoshilinch harakatlarning ko'pchiligida, shu jumladan uzoqdan boshqarishda ham ajralib turardi Omineka va Tinchlik daryosi oltin shoshilib 1860-yillarning Cassiar Gold Rush 1870-yillarning. Xitoylar haydab chiqarilgan paytda Similkameen Gold Rush 1880-yillarda Cayoosh Gold Rush da Lillooet o'sha o'n yil ichida butunlay Xitoy edi. Oltin konlari bo'lgan shaharlarning aksariyatida aniq Chinatownslar bo'lmagan va ko'plab shaharlarda va oltin lagerlarda xitoylik konchilar va savdogarlar ko'pincha ko'pchilikni tashkil qilganlar, shuning uchun ularga "Chinatown" atamasi mos kelmagan. Barkervil "rasmiy" Chinatown bo'lgan, ammo shaharning butun hududida xitoyliklar hukmronlik qilgan va ko'plab xitoyliklar "rasmiy" Chinatownda yashagan; yaqin Richfield shaharlarning aksariyati singari deyarli butunlay xitoy edi Cariboo oltin konlari. Xitoylik bo'lmagan tog'-konchilar tobora sabrsizlanib borar ekan, xitoyliklar qazishni o'z zimmalariga oldilar, ko'pincha rivojlangan plaser qazib olish texnikasi tufayli ko'proq qazib olishdi, shuningdek, fermer xo'jaliklari va xitoylik chakana savdo subyektlari ko'pincha tobora kamayib borayotgan oltin maydonlarida savdo-sotiqning asosiy tayanchiga aylandilar. .[7][sahifa kerak ] Viktoriyada ushbu shahar uchun birinchi soliq reestri shaharning o'nta boy odamidan sakkiztasi xitoylik ekanligini ko'rsatdi (gubernator bilan va Jeyms Dunsmuir faqat ro'yxatda ulardan oldinda).[8][sahifa kerak ]

Xitoylik savdogarlar Yangi Vestminster do'konni birinchilardan bo'lib tashkil etishdi Gastown, yonida paydo bo'lgan shaharcha Xastings Mill Vankuver shahriga aylanadigan tarixiy yadro bo'lgan mulk. Ba'zilari suv ko'chasida edi, ammo aksariyat xitoylik biznes (asosan bordellos va afyun uyalari) hozirgi G'arbiy Xastings ko'chasining 100-kvartalida joylashgan. Xitoyni ishchi kuchini tozalashda foydalanish West End 1885 yilgi qishki g'alayonlarga olib keldi va xitoyliklar o'sha paytning janubi-sharqiy uchi atrofidagi soylikdagi jarlikka qochib ketishganini ko'rdilar. Yolg'on Krik, keyinchalik "China Creek" nomi bilan tanilgan. 1890-yillarga kelibgina xitoylik korxonalar Dupont ko'chasi (hozirgi Sharqiy Pender ko'chasi) bo'ylab o'sib borayotgan shaharga qaytib, o'zlarining yadrosini tashkil eta boshladilar. Chinatown.[9][sahifa kerak ][10][sahifa kerak ] Vankuver Kanadada eng ko'p xitoylik aholi bo'lgan, 1980 yilgacha, Torontoning xitoylik aholisi eng ko'p bo'lgan.[11]

Kaliforniyadagi bir guruh xitoyliklar o'zlarining sonlaridan birini Ah Xongni so'rov o'tkazish uchun yuborishdi Fraser kanyoni u erda oltin topilganligini eshitgandan so'ng. Ah Xong oltin shovqin sodir bo'lganligini tasdiqladi va buni 1858 yil may oyida qaytib kelganda aytdi.[12] Xitoyliklar birinchi bo'lib ko'p sonlarda paydo bo'lgan Vankuver orolining mustamlakasi dan 1858 yilda katta migratsiya qismi sifatida Kaliforniya yangi e'lon qilingan Fraser Canyon Gold Rush paytida Materik koloniya. To'satdan uchdan bir qismiga, ommaviy immigratsiya xitoylarga to'g'ri keldi.[8][sahifa kerak ][13][14] Birinchi to'lqin may oyida Kaliforniyadan kelgan bo'lsa-da, shoshqaloqlik haqidagi xabar oxir-oqibat Xitoyning o'zida ko'plab xitoyliklarni jalb qildi.[8][sahifa kerak ][13] San-Frantsiskodagi Hop Kee & Co kompaniyasi 1858 yil 24-iyun kuni 300 ta xitoylik oltin qazib oluvchilar va savdogarlarning safarini buyurdi; Kaliforniyadan qo'shimcha migratsiya keyinchalik 1858 yilda va 1859 yil davomida davom etdi.[15]

Ko'pgina xitoyliklar oltin qazib olishdi, ammo ingliz rasmiylari katta "qora toshlar" nima ekanligini aniqlaguncha nefrit qazib olib, uni soliqsiz eksport qildilar.[16][17] Oltin shovqini davrida ko'mir konlari Vankuver oroli yollangan xitoylik ishchilar.[18] Orolda joylashgan ko'mir konlari keyinchalik xitoylik ishchilarni qoraqo'tir sifatida yollashi kerak edi, xususan Cumberland bu erda xitoylik ishchilar posyolkasini kasaba uyushma ishchilarining zo'ravonligi sababli tikilgan simlar bilan to'siqlar va qo'riqlash minoralari bilan himoya qilingan.[iqtibos kerak ]

Omineca Miner Ah Hoo Germansens Landing 1913 yilda. Oltin shoshilgandan ko'p vaqt o'tgach, ko'plab xitoyliklar viloyatning ichki va shimoliy qismida qolishdi. Kabi ba'zi shaharlar Stenli ko'p yillar davomida asosan xitoylar bo'lgan Fraser kanyoni Omineka singari yanada uzoqroq hududlar, xitoylik konchilar cho'l zonalarida o'zlarining da'volarini davom ettirdilar.

Xitoyliklar tez-tez oq konchilar tashlab yuborgan mavjud konlarga kirib borar edi, chunki ular uchun yangi maydonga da'vo olish o'rniga, ushbu konlarga bo'lgan da'volarni olish osonroq edi. Ko'pgina hollarda, yangi qazib olinadigan konlarga nisbatan da'volar arzonroq edi. Keyinchalik xitoylik konchilar tashlandiq joylarni qayta ishlashdi.[19] Oltin konlarida Xitoy qazib olish texnikasi va bilimlari boshqalarga nisbatan ko'p jihatdan yaxshiroq bo'lib chiqdi, shu jumladan gidravlik texnikasi, "rokchilar "va alyuminiy qum uchun filtr sifatida adyol ishlatilib, so'ngra oltinga o'tin ichida erishi bilan oltin yoqib yuborilgan usul. Xitoy qazib olish operatsiyalari natijasida olingan oltin miqdori aniqlangan ma'lumotlarning orasidagi farq tufayli aniq ma'lum emas. The Oltin komissarlar va boshqa muammo bo'lmagan, oltin konlarida boshqa xalqlarning konchilariga ham tegishli bo'lgan muammo:

biz xitoyliklar tomonidan banklarga sotiladigan narsalardan oltindan chiqarilgan oltin miqdorini taxmin qilishimiz mumkin va biz ularning kompaniyalariga yuborilgan yoki shaxsiy qo'llarda saqlanadigan miqdor haqida hech qanday ma'lumotga ega emasmiz. Biz bilganimiz shuki, ular eng mehnatsevar va agar kimdir nima qilayotganini so'rasangiz, u sizga "oltita komitet" deb javob berishi mumkin. Ammo uning rokeridan yuvinishini tomosha qiling va u kunlik ishi uchun 10 dollar (2 funt) olib chiqishi mumkin.

— Britaniyaning Kolumbiyadagi oltin konlari: Liverpul geologik assotsiatsiyasi oldida o'qigan qog'oz, p. 10, Genri Xolbruk, B. Haram, "Liverpul", Angliya, 1884 yil

Freyzer Kanyonida xitoylik konchilar boshqalar Cariboo Gold Rushga yoki miloddan avvalgi boshqa mamlakatlarga yoki Qo'shma Shtatlarning boshqa oltin konlariga jo'nab ketgandan keyin uzoq vaqt qolishdi va gidravlik va dehqonchilikni davom ettirdilar, ko'pchilik uchun Freyzer va Tompson kanyonlarida erlarning katta qismiga egalik qildilar. yillar o'tib. Cariboo shahridagi Barkervilda shahar aholisining yarmidan ko'prog'ini xitoyliklar deb taxmin qilishgan va Richfield, Stenli, Van Uinkl, Kuesnellemout (zamonaviy Kuesnel), Antler va Kuesnelle Forks kabi muhim shaharlar bor edi (Lillooet 1930 yillarga qadar yashagan). ) va muvaffaqiyatli xitoylik konchilar etishmovchiligi yo'q edi.[8][sahifa kerak ][20][sahifa kerak ][21][sahifa kerak ]

Xitoyliklar tog'-kon ishlaridan tashqari, sabzavotchilik fermalari, restoranlar va kir yuvish korxonalarini ham o'z ichiga olgan yordamchi korxonalarni ochdilar.[18] Xitoyliklar viloyat markaziga yaqin joyda baliq ovlash kompaniyasini ochdilar.[17] 1870 yillarda baliq konservalari ochilganda xitoylik ishchilar yollangan. Xitoyliklar ham ishlagan Western Union Nyu-Vestminster va Kuesnel o'rtasida telegraf liniyasini o'rnatish. Western Union 1866 yilda bu ish uchun 500 xitoylikni yollagan.[18]

Dastlab britaniyalik kolumbiyaliklar ko'proq bag'rikenglik ko'rsatgan va xitoyliklardan unchalik qo'rqmagan va bu Kaliforniyadan farq qilar edi. Viloyat xitoyliklarga boshqa etnik guruhlar foydalangan huquqiy himoyani taqdim etgan edi.[15]

Xitoylik bo'lmaganlar vahima bilan xafa bo'lishdi, chunki xitoyliklar oq tanlilarga qaraganda ish haqidan pastroq ish haqi bilan ishlashga tayyor edilar.[22] Xitoylik bo'lmagan ishchilar va keyinchalik uyushgan mehnat guruhlari xitoyliklarni ish haqini olishlariga to'sqinlik qilib, ish haqidan pastroq pul ishlashini tanqid qildilar. Oq tanlilar o'zlarini jismoniy holati va axloqi xitoylarga nisbatan yuqori deb bilgan va xitoyliklar ko'plab kasalliklarga chalingan deb hisoblashgan.[23] Xitoyliklar tez-tez mahalliy sarmoyalarni amalga oshirish o'rniga Xitoyga pul yuborishgan.[23] Bundan tashqari, xitoyliklar kerak bo'lganidan ko'proq pul olishgani kuzatilgan, chunki xitoyliklar oddiy turmush tarziga ega edilar va ular bilan birga oilalari yo'q edi.[24] Shu sababli, xitoylik bo'lmaganlar xitoyliklar bu erdan resurslarni olib ketayotganda bu erga hech qanday hissa qo'shmaydilar, deb hisoblashadi.[25]

"Xitoyliklar boshqa har qanday ishchilar sinfiga qaraganda arzonroq ishlaydi, kam pul bilan ishlaydi va mamlakatdan ko'p pul yuboradi. Boshqa tomondan ular mehnatsevar, hushyor va ishonchli"

— Rosalind Uotson Yang va Mariya Louson, [26]

"Shunga qaramay, minglab xitoyliklarning oltin shov-shuvga boylik izlayotgani tasviri bugungi kungacha odamlarning tasavvurida hukmronlik qilmoqda. Shu sababli xitoyliklar erni olib ketishda mahalliy iqtisodiyotga ozgina hissa qo'shgan deb qaraldi." va xitoyliklar iqtisodiy o'sishni oldini olishgan.[23] Inglizlar va amerikaliklar Xitoyni past darajadagi mamlakat va Evropa madaniyati boshqalardan ustun deb hisoblashgan.[24] Britaniyalik kolumbiyaliklar ham xitoyliklar qachonlardir oqlardan ko'ra ko'proq bo'lishidan qo'rqishgan.[27]

Oqlar xitoyliklarga qarshi zo'ravonlik harakatlarini amalga oshirgan va shu sababli xitoyliklar oq tanlilar yangi oltin topgan joylardan qochishgan.[19] Kanadalik evropaliklar xitoyliklarga qarshi munosabatda bo'lishdi va xitoyliklarga qarshi bayonotlar berishdi. Evropada Kanadada hukmron bo'lgan gazetalar siyosatchilar bilan birga Xitoyga qarshi bayonotlar berishdi.[23] The Kanada kutubxonasi va arxivlari Xitoylarni iqtisodiy tanazzulda ayblash oq tanlilarning ustunligini targ'ib qilish va oq tanlilarga birdamlik tuyg'usini berish usuli ekanligini ta'kidladi.[24] Britaniyalik kolumbiyaliklar xitoylik immigratsiya miqdorini cheklaydigan va xitoylik faoliyatiga cheklovlar qo'yadigan qonunlarni talab qilish uchun ommaviy harakatlarni amalga oshirdilar.[23]

Oltin shovqin davri Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoylar aholisi 1860-yillarda 60000-7000 atrofida edi. Bir marta Gold Rush[qaysi? ] Kanadada ko'plab xitoyliklar Qo'shma Shtatlarga ko'chib o'tdilar. 1871 yilgi Kanada aholini ro'yxatga olish ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, viloyatda 1548 xitoylik bo'lgan.[17] 1878 yilda viloyatda 3000 ga yaqin xitoylar bor edi.[23]

Viloyat Avstraliyadagi shu kabi xitoylarga qarshi qonunlar asosida ishlab chiqarilgan soliq va litsenziyalash to'g'risidagi qonun loyihalarini qabul qilishga urinishni boshladi.[27] 1878 yilda viloyat hukumati xitoyliklarga viloyat jamoat ishlarida qatnashishni taqiqlovchi qonun qabul qildi.[14] Har yarim yilda bir boshiga 30 AQSh dollaridan litsenziya to'lovini to'lashni talab qiluvchi qonun loyihasi 1878 yilda viloyat qonun chiqaruvchi organida qabul qilingan va bu Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi birinchi xitoylarga qarshi qonun edi. Qonun xitoylik ishchilarning ish tashlashiga turtki berdi, bu provintsiyada amalga oshirilgan birinchi xitoylik fuqarolik huquqlari harakati edi. 1884 yilda qabul qilingan "Xitoy aholisini tartibga solish to'g'risidagi qonun" barcha xitoyliklarga, shu jumladan kelib chiqishi Gonkongga tegishli bo'lib, "har qanday xitoylik nasl" 15 yosh va undan katta bo'lganlar uchun boshiga 100 dollar to'lashi kerakligini aytgan.[27] Keyinchalik bu yiliga boshiga $ 10 miqdorida o'zgartirildi.[28] Xuddi shu davrda federal hukumat London yo'nalishi bo'yicha harakat qilib, miloddan avvalgi hukumat tomonidan qabul qilingan ko'plab xitoylarga qarshi qonunlarni to'sib qo'ydi, ya'ni viloyat soliq va federal masaladan tashqarida bo'lgan bosh soliqqa urinishlar.[23] Masalan, 1878 yilgi qonun konstitutsiyaviy sabablarga ko'ra bekor qilindi, xuddi shu tarzda 1884 yilda boshqa qonun bloklandi.[27]

Xitoylik immigrantlarning kelib chiqish joylari Kanadadagi aholini ro'yxatga olish yozuvlarida qayd etilmagan. 1800-yillarning oxirlarida Britaniya Kolumbiyasiga ko'chib kelganlarning aksariyati Guandun,[29] ko'plab boshqalar bilan Fujian. Guandun aholisining aksariyati kelgan Siyi (Sze-yap), to'rtta okrugdan iborat guruh.[30]

1862 yilga kelib Barkervil 5000 dan ortiq xitoylik bo'lgan.[31] Xuddi shu yili Viktoriyada 300 xitoylik bor edi, bu shahar aholisining 6 foizini tashkil etdi; Viktoriya o'sha yili qo'shildi.[15]

Temir yo'l uchun immigratsiya

Ustida ishlaydigan xitoylik ishchilar Kanadalik Tinch okean temir yo'li milya qismlari Kanadalik Tinch okean temir yo'li Tinch okeanidan to Kreygellaxi ichida Eagle Pass Britaniya Kolumbiyasida. Vankuverdan Kreygelachiga boradigan temir yo'l shu kabi 28 ta uchastkadan iborat bo'lib, ularning 2% evropalik ishchilar tomonidan qurilgan.

Britaniya Kolumbiyasi 1871 yilda Konfederatsiyaga qo'shilishga rozilik berganida, uning shartlaridan biri Dominion hukumati miloddan avvalgi temir yo'lni qurishi edi. 10 yil ichida sharqiy Kanada bilan. Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi siyosatchilar va ularning saylovchilari immigratsiya dasturini qo'zg'ashdi Britaniya orollari ushbu temir yo'l ishchilarini ta'minlash,[iqtibos kerak ] lekin Kanadada birinchi Bosh Vazir, Janob Jon A. Makdonald, o'z saylov okrugining istaklariga xiyonat qildi, Viktoriya va temir yo'lni qurish uchun xitoyliklarni jalb qilish orqali loyiha xarajatlarni kamaytirishni talab qildi. U vaziyatni 1882 yilda parlamentga qisqacha bayon qildi: "Bu shunchaki muqobil masalalar haqida: yoki sizda bu mehnat bo'lishi kerak yoki siz temir yo'lga ega bo'lishingiz mumkin emas".[32] (Britaniya Kolumbiyasi siyosatchilari Britaniya orollari ishchilari uchun kelishuv-immigratsiya rejasini istashgan, ammo Kanadalik siyosatchilar va investorlar bu juda qimmatga tushishini aytishgan).[8][sahifa kerak ]

1880 yilda, Endryu Onderdonk, Kanadalik Tinch okeani temir yo'lining Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi asosiy qurilish pudratchilaridan biri bo'lgan amerikalik, dastlab Kaliforniyadan xitoylik ishchilarni yollagan. Ularning aksariyati oltin konlari uchun temir yo'l ishlarini tashlab ketishganida, Onderdonk va uning agentlari Xitoyda Xitoy pudratchilari bilan bir nechta shartnomalar imzoladilar. Guandun viloyat, Tayvan, shuningdek, Viktoriya shahridagi xitoylik kompaniyalar orqali. Ushbu shartnomalar orqali 5000 dan ortiq mardikorlar kemadan Xitoydan "mehmon ishchi" sifatida yuborilgan. Onderdonk shuningdek Kaliforniyadan 7000 dan ortiq xitoylik temir yo'l ishchilarini jalb qildi. Ushbu ikki ishchi guruh Onderdonk temir yo'lining yetti foiz masofasini qurish uchun asosiy kuch edi. Xitoylik bo'lmagan ishchilar bilan bo'lganidek, ularning ba'zilari qurilish paytida kasal bo'lib qolishgan yoki portlovchi moddalar qo'yish paytida vafot etganlar, ammo ko'pchilik viloyatning turli xil oltin konlari uchun temir yo'llarni tashlab ketishgan. 1881 yil oxiriga kelib, ilgari 5000 ga teng bo'lgan xitoylik mardikorlarning birinchi guruhida 1500 tadan kam qolgan edi. Onderdonk ko'proq ishchilarga muhtoj edi, shuning uchun u Kanadaga yana ko'plab ishchilarni yuborish uchun Viktoriya, Kaliforniya va Xitoydagi xitoylik ishbilarmonlar bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri shartnoma tuzdi.[8][sahifa kerak ] 17000 xitoylik, ularning aksariyati temir yo'l xodimi bo'lib, Kanadaga 1881 va 1885 yillarda kelgan.[18]

Qishki sharoitlar va xavfli mehnat sharoitlari, dinamit portlashlari, sifatsiz tibbiy yordam va ovqatlanish, ko'chkilar ko'plab temir yo'lchilarni o'ldirdi. Pol Yee, muallifi Tuzli suv shahri: Vankuverdagi xitoylar jamoasining hikoyasi, "[c] onservative taxminlar" o'ldirilgan Xitoy temir yo'lchilarining umumiy soni 600 kishini tashkil etganligini yozgan.[18]

Onderdonk xitoylik mehnat pudratchilarini jalb qildi, ular faqat qabul qilishni istagan xitoylik ishchilarni jalb qildilar $ Kuniga 1; oq, qora va mahalliy ishchilarga uch baravar ko'p maosh to'langan. Xitoylik temir yo'lchilar Kanadadagi Tinch okean temir yo'lining loyihalashtirilayotgan temir yo'lning eng qiyin bo'laklari qatoriga kiradigan 200 milya yollandi, xususan Fraser kanyoni.[8][sahifa kerak ]

Temir yo'l qurib bo'lingandan so'ng, temir yo'lda ishlagan ba'zi xitoyliklar Xitoyga qaytib kelishdi.[23] Ko'plab xitoyliklar bu erda qolishdi Britaniya Kolumbiyasining ichki qismi temir yo'l qurib bo'lingandan so'ng, ba'zilari uning o'rniga Nyu-Vestminster va Viktoriyaga ko'chib ketishgan.[33] Kanadada qolgan boshqa odamlar Vankuverga va Preriya provinsiyalari.[23]

1800 yillarning oxirlarida yashash

1881 yilda Britaniya Kolumbiyasida 4350 xitoy yashab, butun Kanadadagi xitoyliklarning 99,2 foizini tashkil etdi.[25] Britaniyadagi Kolumbiyadagi 1881 yilgi xitoylik aholi punktida 28 erkak va 1 ayol nisbati bo'lgan.[29] Jinslar nomutanosibligi u qadar yuqori bo'lmagan Yangi Vestminster va Viktoriya,[34] ammo Fraser va Tompson kanyonlarida jiddiyroq jinslar o'rtasidagi tafovut mavjud edi, Barkervil, Kassiar, Nanaimo va Viktoriya yaqinidagi bozor bog'lari.[35] 1883 yilda viloyatda deyarli 1500 xitoylik oltin qazib oluvchilar bor edi.[19]

1882 yilda Kanadaga 8000 xitoylik keldi. Viloyat o'z immigratsiya qonunini qabul qila olmadi, shuning uchun federal hukumatdan chora ko'rishni so'radi.[24] 1800-yillarning oxirida viloyat federal hukumat tomonidan a bosh soliq[36] xitoyliklarning Kanadaga ko'chib kelishiga yo'l qo'ymaslik.[36] The 1885 yildagi Xitoy immigratsiya to'g'risidagi qonun Bosh soliqni o'z ichiga olgan temir yo'l qurilishi to'xtatilganidan ko'p o'tmay qabul qilindi. Immigratsiya paytida boshqa hech bir etnik guruhga soliq solinmagan.[24] Dastlab soliq $ 50 edi.[37] Ilgari mustamlakachilik davri bosh soliqqa tortish uchun 10 AQSh dollari evaziga 1865 yil 15 iyunda Vankuver orolidagi Assambleya uyida mag'lubiyatga uchradi va uni aniq qo'llab-quvvatlamadi Times-ColonistVankuver orolidagi oltin konlarida xitoyliklarga nisbatan dushmanlikning ba'zi sabablarini keltirgan tahririyati:

Chinaman mamlakatga etib kelib, Orol konlariga borganida, unga xuddi oq tanli kabi munosabatda bo'lsin; unga litsenziya va boshqa to'lovlarni to'lasin va xuddi shu tarzda himoyalangan. Bu litsenziyalarni yig'maslik, qo'shni koloniyada unga qarshi shiddatli antipatiyani keltirib chiqardi.

Hozirgi kunda Assambleya palatasi oldida konchilik to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi har bir odam uchun 50 dollar miqdorida jarima ostida majburiy ravishda qazib olish uchun litsenziyani chiqarib tashlashni talab qiladi va bu faqat Oltin Komissar tomonidan har bir Chinamenga ega bo'lishini talab qiladi. Crooke daromadiga maqbul hissa qo'shadigan odamni sotib oling. Hitoyliklarga o'z ulushini to'lamasdan ishlashga ruxsat berilgan har qanday remissiya, Crown kvitansiyalariga shikast etkazish bilan birga, boshqa konchilar tomonidan ularga nisbatan katta dushmanlik tuyg'usini keltirib chiqaradi. Buning oldini olish kerak bo'lgan barcha usullar bilan.

Biz osmonlarga qarshi asosiy e'tirozlar deb o'ylagan narsalarimizni berdik; ammo rasmning boshqa tomoni ham bor. Aholimizning barcha toifalari orasida xitoyliklar eng tartibli va eng hushyor. Ular politsiya va sud bo'limida mamlakatga kamroq xarajat qilishadi. Oq tanli aholidan sotib olayotganda, ular pulni peshtaxtaga qo'yishdi va eng yengilroq birodarlari ularning barcha xususiyatlarini eng yaxshi baholaganlar - ular hech qachon "o'ralashib" o'tirishmaydi.

— Britaniyalik Kolumbiyada xitoylik taniqli soliq boshlandi, TW Paterson, 2014 yil 16-iyun

Davrdagi eng xavfli xitoyliklarga qarshi harakatlar 1883 yil 10-mayda Lytton yaqinidagi CPR qurilish lagerida 37, avvalgi zo'ravonliklardan keyin qayta tiklangan va to'daga rahbarlik qilgan xitoylik ishchidan keyin oq tanli ustaga hujum qilib o'ldirishda sodir bo'lgan. xitoylik xo'jayin uni qayta ishga olishga ishontirdi. Qotillik uchun qasos sifatida, g'azablangan 20 oq temir yo'l ishchilari guruhi lagerning xitoy qismiga hujum qilib, bir xitoylik o'lgan va bir necha kishi jarohat olgan tartibsizlikda uyni yoqib yuborishdi.[38]

Kuesnelle Forks 1885 yilda

1884 yilga kelib Nanaimo, Yangi Vestminster va Viktoriya viloyatida eng ko'p xitoylik aholi bo'lgan. Shu vaqtda Kuesnelle vilkalar aksariyat xitoylar edi, xitoyliklar ham bor edi Cumberland va Yel.[39]

XIX asrning oxirlarida Britaniyaning Kolumbiyasida temir yo'lda ishlashdan tashqari, aksariyat xitoyliklar boshqa xitoyliklar orasida yashab, bozor bog'larida, ko'mir konlarida, arra zavodlarida va qizil ikra konservalarida ishladilar.[29][34]

Viloyat 1872 yilda qabul qilingan "Saylovchilarning malakasi to'g'risida" gi qonunni o'zgartirib, viloyat va federal saylovlarda xitoylik va birinchi millat vakillariga ovoz berishni taqiqladi.[37] Federal saylovlarda qatnashish huquqi viloyatdagi ovoz berish ro'yxatlaridan kelib chiqqanligi sababli, kelib chiqishi xitoylik bo'lganlar federal saylovlarda ovoz bera olmadilar.[40] O'sha paytda Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi ba'zi saylov okruglari aksariyat xitoyliklar edi.[24]

Vankuver shahri 1886 yil aprelda birlashtirilgan[41] va o'sha paytda shaharda ilgari mavjud bo'lgan xitoyliklar mavjud edi.[42] Davrdagi gazetalarda, muallif Jeyms Mortonning so'zlariga ko'ra Steril tog'lar dengizida, Vankuverning dastlabki tarixida "Xitoyga qarshi kayfiyat bir ovozdan paydo bo'lgan".[43] Mortonning so'zlariga ko'ra, 1800 yillarning oxirlarida oq tanli Viktorianlar o'z jamoalarida etnik xitoylar bilan "juda qulay" munosabatda bo'lishgan.[44]

1887 yilda Kanadaga 124 xitoy kelib, keskin kamaygan. Xitoyliklar soni 1900 yilga kelib ko'payishni boshladi.[24] 1900 yilda ushbu soliq 100 dollarga oshdi va 1903 yilda 500 dollarga etdi,[37] yana xitoyliklarning immigratsiya darajasini pasaytirish. O'rtacha bir ishchining yillik ish haqi 500 dollardan past edi.[24] Bosh soliq Britan Kolumbiyasiga xitoylik immigratsiyani sezilarli darajada kamaytirmadi va bu Britaniya Kolumbiyasi qonunchilik organi a'zolarini xitoyliklarga nisbatan ko'proq cheklovlarni chaqirishga majbur qildi.[45]

R.G. Britaniya Kolumbiyasi qonun chiqaruvchisi Vankuver a'zosi Tatlov "Britaniya Kolumbiyasiga immigratsiyani tartibga solish to'g'risidagi qonun" ni yoki Natal akti.[46] Ushbu qonun loyihasi Xitoy va Yaponiyadan immigratsiyani kamaytirishga qaratilgan edi.[46][47] Qonun loyihasiga ko'ra, odam viloyatga kirish uchun Evropa tilidagi anketani to'ldirishi kerak edi. Qonun loyihasiga qo'shilgan tuzatish uning kiritilishini Kanada parlamenti tomonidan nazorat qilingan shaxsga nisbatan qo'llanilishiga yo'l qo'ymadi va bu qonun loyihasi endi xitoyliklarga taalluqli bo'lmadi.[46] 1901 yil sentyabrda federal hukumat qonun loyihasini to'sib qo'ydi.[48]

Hududida Lak La Xache ichida Janubiy Karibu, Ichki ishlar vazirligining boshqa joylarida bo'lgani kabi, xitoyliklar ham fermer va yuk tashuvchi bo'lib ishladilar:

Xitoyliklar ko'pincha sariyog 'ishlab chiqaruvchilar bilan bir qatorda oddiy fermerlar hamdir. Ular qadimgi aholi, chunki ular Kaliforniyadan oq konchilar kelganda oltin topilganligini bilib, kelganlar. Ular nafaqat qazib olishadi va dehqonchilik qiladilar, balki "yuk tashiydilar". Temir yo'l yo'qligi sababli, mollarni yuk vagonlari, oltita yoki etti otlar chizgan, kanvas bilan qoplangan katta furgonlar etkazib berish kerak. Shunday qilib katta va foydali biznes hech qanday tarzda xitoyliklarning qo'lida emas. Ular faqat o'z yurtdoshlari uchun yuk tashiydilar

— [49]

20-asr

Vankuverdagi 1907 yil sentyabrdagi g'alayondan keyingi zarar

1907 yilda Osiyo Chetlatish Ligasi Vankuverda Osiyo kelib chiqishiga qarshi chiqadigan paradni homiylik qildi. Ushbu parad rivojlandi Vankuverdagi Chinatown va Japantown shaharlariga zarar etkazgan g'alayon.[25]

1911 yilgi aholini ro'yxatga olishda Vankuverda 3559 xitoylik borligi, bu unga butun Kanadadagi eng katta xitoylik aholi ekanligi aytilgan. O'sha yili Viktoriyada 3458 xitoylik bor edi. Viktoriya Kanadadagi ikkinchi yirik Chinatownga ega edi.[50]

The Xitoy immigratsiya to'g'risidagi qonun, 1923 yil xitoyliklarni olish taqiqlangan Crown land va bu Kanadada tug'ilganlar bo'lmagan diplomatlar, ishbilarmonlar va universitet talabalari bo'lmagan xitoyliklarning Kanadaga ko'chib o'tishiga to'sqinlik qildi.[37] Kanada entsiklopediyasi ushbu xatti-harakat "Xitoy immigratsiyasini samarali ravishda tugatgan" deb yozgan.[51] Ushbu immigratsiya harakati Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoylik shaharchalarni yangi kelganlarni och qoldirdi.[31]

Ning bir qismi sifatida Katta depressiya ko'plab xitoyliklar kichik shaharlarni tark etib, Vankuver va Viktoriyada joylashishni boshladilar.[31] 1931 yilda Vankuver va Viktoriyaning xitoylik aholisi Britaniyaning Kolumbiyadagi boshqa joylarida xitoyliklarga qaraganda ancha ko'paygan.[52]

Immigratsiya akti 1947 yilda bekor qilingan.[37] Natijada, Britan Kolumbiyasidagi aksariyat keksa erkaklarning xitoylik aholisi bo'lgan kichik joylari nihoyat ayollar va bolalarni qabul qila boshladilar.[31] 1947 yilda Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi Xitoy fuqarolariga ovoz berish huquqi berildi va[51] 1951 yilda Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoylarga qarshi yakuniy qonunlar bekor qilindi.[53]

20-asr o'rtalarida xitoyliklar Britaniya Kolumbiyasining kichik qishloqlaridan Vankuver va Sharqiy Kanadaga ko'chishni boshladilar, chunki Britaniya Kolumbiyasining ba'zi qishloq xo'jaligi sanoatlari qulab tushdi.[31] 1950-yillarda AQShda bozorda qishloq xo'jaligi operatsiyalarining kuchayishi Britaniyaning Kolumbiyadagi mahalliy bozorini bog'dorchilikni foydasiz holga keltirdi va bu provintsiyaning ichki qismida qolgan xitoyliklarni tirikchilikdan mahrum qildi.[54] Natijada o'sha o'n yillikda boshlangan xitoylik kichik shaharlar aholisining kamayishi bo'ldi.[31]

1961-1962 yillarda Vankuver, Viktoriya va Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi 60 ga yaqin aholi punktlarida jami 24000 xitoylik bor edi. Taxminan 18000 kishi Vankuver hududida, 2000 kishi Viktoriya shtatida va 4000 kishi boshqa joylarda istiqomat qilgan.[31]

1980-yillarda Gonkongdan xitoyliklarning to'lqini Vankuverga keldi. Gonkongdan kelgan xitoylar saviyasi pasaygan Gonkongni topshirish 1997 yilda.[55] Vivienne Poy xitoyliklarga qarshi ziddiyatlar va xitoyliklarga qarshi irqiy nafrat hodisalari 1980 yillarning oxirlarida sodir bo'lganligini yozgan.[56]

1983 yilda cheklovlar engillashtirildi va Xitoy emigratsiyasi ko'pchilik odamlar chet elda o'qish, vaqtincha ishlash yoki immigratsiya uchun Xitoydan chiqib ketishni tanlagani sababli keng tarqaldi.

Hozirda Britaniya Kolumbiyasida xitoylik immigrantlar oqimi mulk ko'chirish solig'i kabi qonunlar qabul qilinishiga olib keldi [57]

Geografiya

Xitoy shaharlari va xitoy jamoalari

Viktoriya Chinatown

2002 yildan boshlab butun viloyatdagi yagona yirik Chinatowns Vankuver va Viktoriyada bo'lgan,[25] Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi aksariyat xitoylik kanadaliklar an'anaviy Chinatowns-dan boshqa joyda yashaydilar.[iqtibos kerak ]

Taxminan 1860 va 1870 yillarda Xitoy shaharlari bor edi Barkervil, Keytli Kriki, Lytton, Nanaimo, Kuesnellemouth, Vellington, Yel, va boshqa konchilar shaharlari.[58] Davomida 1800 yillarning oltin shoshqaloqliklari konlarning qazib olinadigan hududlarida bir qancha xitoycha aholi punktlari paydo bo'ldi, ayniqsa Karibu va bularning umri qisqa edi.[59] 1880-yillarda miloddan avvalgi eng kattasi, tartibda Viktoriya, Yangi Vestminster, Nanaimo va Kuesnellemouth. Dog Creek, Lytton, Kuesnelle Forks va boshqa bir qator joylarda xitoyliklar yashagan.[60]

Vankuver va Viktoriyadan tashqari, 20-asr o'rtalarida xitoylar joylashgan Xitoy shaharlari va / yoki hududlari bo'lgan jamoalar Ashkroft, Dunkan, Kamloops, Kelowna, Nanaimo, Nelson, Port Alberni, Shahzoda Jorj, Shahzoda Rupert va Vernon.[31][33] Ushbu jamoalar, shuningdek Kuesnel va Iz "kichikroq shaharlardagi o'n ikki yirik xitoy jamoalari" edi.[33] Xitoy restoranlari korxonalarning aksariyat qismini tashkil etdi va umuman, umumiy biznesning taxminan 25 foizini oziq-ovqat do'konlari tashkil etdi; xitoyliklar, shuningdek, taksichilikdan tashqari, poyabzallarni ta'mirlash ustaxonalari va quruq mahsulotlar do'konlarini ham boshqargan. Ba'zi kir yuvish do'konlari bor edi, ammo mexanik yuvish jarayonlari an'anaviy kir yuvish sonini kamaytirdi.[61]

Vankuver oroli

Viktoriya, 1800-yillarda, sifatida tanilgan Dabu (Katta port yoki birinchi port) chunki uning Chinatown viloyatning eng kattasi edi.[62] Victoria's Chinatown "teatr va restoranlardan tortib, qimor o'ynash joylariga qadar o'z ichiga olgan xiyobonlar va hovlilar labirinti bilan mashhur edi."[63]

Bor edi Nanaimodagi xitoy shaharlari o'sha shahar tarixi davomida.[64] Xitoy Cumberland, Kengaytma, Shimoliy maydon, Janubiy Vellington va Vellington ikkinchi Chinatown-ga homiylik qildi.[65] 1960 yil 30 sentyabrda uchinchi Chinatown yong'in natijasida vayron bo'ldi.[64]

Xitoy hamjamiyati Cumberland dastlab yashagan Ittifoq, yaqin atrofdagi yana bir tog'-kon jamoasi.[66] Cumberlandning Chinatown shahri birinchi marta 1888 yilda ochilgan va uning eng yuqori nuqtasida 2500 kishi yashagan va bu o'sha paytda butun Shimoliy Amerikadagi ikkinchi yirik Xitoy aholi punktiga aylangan.[67] 1920 yilga kelib 540 ga yaqin xitoylik konchilar sifatida ishlaydi.[66][67] Jamiyat ushbu bo'limga ega edi Xitoy millatchilar ligasi va boshqa Hongmen Jamiyati Dart Coon Club. Cumberlandda 80 ta xitoylik biznes, jumladan pansionatlar, ibodatxona, qimor biznesi Lum Yung Club, ikkita teatr, to'rtta restoran, 24 ta oziq-ovqat do'konlari va to'rtta dorixonalar mavjud edi. Xitoy aholisi susayib, so'ngra qulab tushish ikki omil tufayli yuz berdi: 1920-yillarda Ittifoqdagi konlarning yopilishi va 1936 yong'inida shaharning katta qismi vayron bo'ldi, xitoy tijoratining barcha izlari yoki 1968 yilga kelib aholisi yo'q bo'lib ketdi.[66] 2010 yilda aka-uka May Gee, Jon Leung va Joys Lou 400 kvadrat metrga (37 m) ega edilar.2) sobiq Chinatown o'rnida, atrofdan yog'ochdan qurilgan pavilon. U dastlabki kotirovka qilingan qiymati 35000 AQSh dollaridan pastroq qiymatga qurilgan bo'lib, uning yakuniy narxi atigi 17000 dollarni tashkil etadi.[67] Da joylashgan yana bir Chinatown bor edi Bevan, yaqin atrofning sharqiy qismidan shimolga joylashgan joy Komoks ko'li.[66][68]

Ichki ishlar

Barkervilning yirik Chinatown bu shaharning 1868 yil 16-sentabrdagi katta yong'inida vayron bo'lgan va xitoylik konchilar Barkervilni tark etganligi sababli, yong'in tugagandan so'ng tashkil etilgan keyingi Chinatown.[69] 1878 yilda Barkervil 142 xitoylik oltin qazib oluvchilar, o'nta xitoylik ayollar, beshta xitoylik omborchilar va ikkita xitoylik yuvuvchilar jami 159 kishini tashkil qilishgan.[59]

Kamloops tarixiy jihatdan "haqiqiy Chinatown" ga ega emas edi, aksincha shaharning aksariyat xitoylar yashaydigan Viktoriya ko'chasi bo'ylab chiziq bor edi, u erda xitoylik korxonalar birinchi bo'lib 1887 yilda tashkil etilgan edi.[70][71] Kamloops hududida 1885 yilda 500 ga yaqin xitoylik aholi yashagan.[54] 1890 yilga kelib jamiyatda 400 ga yaqin xitoylar bor edi.[71] 1890-yillarga kelib Kelownadan biri xitoylik edi.[72] Kamloopsdagi iqtisodiy o'zgarishlar xitoyliklarning shaharni tark etishiga sabab bo'ldi: 1892 va 1893 yillarda ikkita yong'in va 1911-1914 yillarda vayron qilingan, shaharning Chinatowndagi qolgan binolari demontaj qilingan.[73] Tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Kamloopsdagi xitoylik qabriston Xitoy geomantiyasi va bu provintsiyadagi eng yirik xitoy qabristonlaridan biri bo'lgan va eng qadimgi xitoylik kashshoflarga bag'ishlangan yagona qabriston bo'lgan.[72][74] Bu oxirgi marta 1960-yillarda ishlatilgan,[74]

Kelowna Chinatown, bugungi kunda ushbu shaharning shahar markazida va Siti Parkning qarshisida joylashgan Abbeydan sharqda va 97-sonli magistral / Garvi prospektining g'arbiy qismida, Xarvi avenyu va Leon avenyu o'rtasida bir kvadrat maydonda yotar edi.[75] Chinatown, qaysi Sun Yatsen 1911 yilda mablag 'yig'ish kampaniyasida tashrif buyurgan,[76] Kelowna 1905 yilda qo'shilganida allaqachon mavjud edi.[54] 1909-1911 yillarda Kelowna aholisining 15% xitoylar edi.[75] 1930 yilga kelib, Chinatownda hali ham 400-500 xitoylik yashagan, keyinchalik kamayib ketgan, 1960 yilga kelib ular atigi 50 taga yetgan.[54] 2006 yilda shahar aholisining 1,2% (106707 kishidan 1235 kishi) xitoylar,[77] 2010 yilga kelib bu ko'rsatkich Kellowna aholisining 1 foiziga kamaygan.[76] 1978 yilda yakuniy qolgan an'anaviy xitoylik biznes o'z faoliyatini to'xtatdi.[75] Chinatownda joylashgan do'kon fasadining qayta tiklangan qismi endi Kellowna muzeyida joylashgan.[78]

Pentikton ilgari "Shanxay xiyoboni" deb nomlangan Xitoy shaharchasi bo'lgan. U erda ikkita kirxona, xonalar va restoranlar mavjud edi. Uning eng yuqori aholisi 60 kishini tashkil qildi. 1960 yil atrofida Chinatown bekor qilindi.[54] 2011 yilga kelib, ushbu Chinatown o'rnida to'xtash joyi bo'lgan.[79] There is a Chinatown monument on Westminster Avenue West.[80] There is a mural on the Guerard Furniture Co. building which commemorates this Chinatown. An archival photograph of the Chinatown served as the inspiration for the mural.[79]

Vernon at one time had a Chinatown in its downtown area, and its Chinese population was the largest in an area east of Vancouver and west of Kalgari.[81] According to Oram about 1,000 Chinese resided in Vernon in 1885. A Chinese clubroom opened in 1919; that year there were 500 Chinese in Vernon.[54] The Chinese Masonic Lodge, constructed in 1952, is now the Gateway Men and Women's Shelter. It is one of the final remaining buildings of the Vernon Chinatown.[81]

Several hundred Chinese resided in Armstrong in 1885 with additional Chinese coming to work on celery gardens in 1906 and 1907. The population declined, and in 1947 there were 60 Chinese farmworkers remaining with 1,400 Chinese in the area involved in agricultural operations by 1949. Celery was an area of specialty of Chinese agriculture in the area, with about one-third of their total lands dedicated to celery and about 1,000 tons each year shipped each year.[54]

Keremeos had a Chinatown that was established by the early 20th century. In it, there were two laundries, one restaurant, and one store. A Similkameen Valley settler, Gint Cawston, wrote an account that stated that Chinese in the community maintained their culture. Chinese in Keremeos worked in canning plants, on railroads, and in vegetable gardens.[54]

Quyi materik

Yel 's Chinatown was on Front Street, which was adjacent to the steamboat docks on the Fraser River, similarly to New Westminster's in commercial purpose, and was the oldest Chinatown on the Mainland. There were 100 Chinese residents in 1861, 500 in 1865, and about 300 by the 1870s.[59]

New Westminster's Chinatown was the second largest in the province and the largest on the British Columbia mainland prior to the development of Vancouver.[82] In 1881 Yangi Vestminster had 485 Chinese. Chinese people of the era referred to New Westminster as Erbu,[62] yoki Yifao,[83] meaning "second port," because the city had the province's second largest Chinatown.[62] After Vancouver became a prominent centre and began to be called Erbu, Chinese disambiguated New Westminster by referring to it as Danshui Erbu, or "the Second Port on Fresh Water," but the usage reverted to Erbu, which persists as of 2007.[84] Due to an increase in the use of Chinese labour by the city's industries, there were over 1,455 Chinese in New Westminster by 1884. Of the two Chinatowns at the time of the fire, only one was rebuilt after the city's Great Fire of 1898, with new buildings housing The Chinese Reform Society and the Chinese Methodist Church being among those first built. A third Chinatown, so-called, was the Riverside Apartments near to where the second Chinatown had been.

Reinforced concrete structures were established in the 1910s and the area of Carnarvon Street and Columbia Street became the Chinese community's commercial centre. The concentration of Chinese in the city was centred around the intersection of Columbia and McInnes streets by the 1920s,[82] with a total Chinese population in the city being 750 by the time of the 1921 census.[85] The population and scope of the Chinatown was damaged by the 1923 Chinese Immigration Act (often incorrectly known as the Xitoyni istisno qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, which is a similar piece of historical legislation in the United States),[82] and due to a supply of jobs in Vancouver many Chinese moved to that city. There were 600 Chinese in the city in 1931,[85] and by the 1930s there were only a few Chinese businesses still in operation.[82] The Chinese in New Westminster had no particular area of concentration by the 1940s; at that time the Chinatown was nonexistent.[85]

Geography of the Vancouver area

Asosiy maqola: Chinese Canadians in Greater_Vancouver § Geography
Vancouver Chinatown

As of 2011 there are over 450,000 Chinese in Greater Vancouver.[86] Vancouver received the title of being, outside of Asia, the "most Asian city" due to its large Chinese population.[87] Vancouver had Chinese residents when the city was incorporated in 1886 and Chinese merchants were among the first handful of stores on Suv ko'chasi, the city's original core, which was founded in 1867.[88] People with origins from Gonkong "have been especially notable in the flow of international migrants to British Columbia which, for all intents and purposes, has meant the Vancouver region."[89]

Significant Chinese populations are located in all Greater Vancouver neighbourhoods.[90] Richmond, in Greater Vancouver, had more Chinese residents than Evropa kanadalik residents in 2013, and has been described as "the most Chinese city in North America."[91]

Demografiya

As of 2001, 374,000 Chinese resided in British Columbia, and 348,000 of them resided in the Vancouver metropolitan area. Chinese in British Columbia made up 34% of the total Chinese population in Canada, and 10% of the total population of British Columbia. As of 2001, 18% of the residents of the Vancouver area and 4% of the residents of the Viktoriya area were Chinese.[92] In 2006, 168,210 persons in Vancouver proper were Chinese,[93] as were 75,730 in Richmond,[94] and 3,085 people in Victoria.[95]

In 1961–62 Canada had about 24,000 Chinese, including 18,000 in the Vancouver area, 2,000 in Victoria,[31] 286 in Port Alberni, 254 in Shahzoda Rupert, 240 in Nanaimo, 230 in Nelson according to the area Chinese, 200 in Dunkan according to the area Chinese, 196 in Shahzoda Jorj, 191 in the Kamloops area, 145 in Vernon, 85 in Kuesnel according to the Chinese residents, 80 in Ashkroft according to the Chinese residents, 69 in the Iz -Rossland area, 62 in Kelowna,[96] as well as about 1,962 persons in other places in the province.[31] At the time, in the communities other than Vancouver, Victoria, and Nanaimo, the sex ratios between males and females ranged from four men per woman to ten men per woman, and older males were the majority of the Chinese populations of these towns at the time.[33] The majority of the non-Vancouver, non-Victoria Chinese populations at the time were employees of small businesses. The working class populations outside of Vancouver and Victoria mainly consisted of sawmill workers in Duncan and stevedores in Port Alberni.[61]

The 2006 Chinese populations of the towns not in the Vancouver nor Victoria areas were as follows: 1,235 in Kelowna,[97] 1,065 in Kamloops,[98] 810 in Prince George,[99] 330 in Vernon,[100] 285 in Prince Rupert,[101] 120 in Port Alberni,[102] 120 in Quesnel,[103] 90 in Nelson,[104] 65 in Duncan,[105] 45 in Rossland,[106] and 15 in Trail.[107]

Til

In the 19th Century until the influx of the 1980s, multiple dialects of Kanton were spoken in British Columbia. Buning sababi Guandun province itself, the source of much Chinese immigration, had multiple dialects of Cantonese and the Hakka language spoken within its borders.[108] Most railway workers were from Tayshan and spoke the Taishanese dialect of Cantonese.[8][sahifa kerak ][109]

Historically Cantonese was the dominant language in Greater Vancouver. Cantonese was the language used in radio and television programming involving that community.[110] As of 1970 there were fewer than 100 Hakka Chinese speakers in Vancouver.[111] By 2003, Mandarin began to have a presence, including in the media, due to an increase in immigrants from mainland China.[110] By 2012 Mandarin was displacing Cantonese in Greater Vancouver.[55] Cantonese and Mandarin are commonly spoken in Richmond.[112]

Institutlar

In 1863 the first Chinese association in Canada, located in Barkervil, tashkil etilgan. Bu edi Zhi-gong Tang (Chi Kung T'ong), translated into English as the "Chinese Freemasons." Bu a Masonik uy but did not have formal ties to European-origin Masons.[113]

Institutions in Victoria

1884 yilda Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA)[eslatma 1] was formed in Victoria.[114] The organization initially acted as an unofficial consulate of the Chinese government; the San Francisco consulate gave permission to Chinese businesspersons in Vancouver to establish the CCBA in the spring of that year.[114] This function continued until the 1908 opening of the Chinese Embassy in Ottawa.[12] The purpose of the CCBA became broader and it in general became a Chinese advocacy organization.[115] As the British Columbia Chinese population shifted to Vancouver, the CCBA moved to Vancouver in the 1930s.[116]

In Victoria the Woman's Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, Canada had established the Oriental Home and School,[117] a mission to prevent child prostitution.[118] The institution served its original mission and also became a women's shelter.[119] It was established as the Chinese Girls' Rescue Home in December 1887,[118] and it received its new name on December 30, 1908.[119] It closed in May 1942.[120]

In 1967 the Victoria Chinese Canadian Veterans Association, which organizes Xotira kuni voqealar va Viktoriya kuni parades involving the Chinese community, was established.[121]

Institutions in Greater Vancouver

Asosiy maqola: Chinese Canadians in Greater_Vancouver § Institutions

Prior to the 1960s, many Chinese in Vancouver established associations based on their clan origins and districts in addition to educational and recreational organizations.[122] The Chinese Benevolent Association of Vancouver (CBA), as of 2006, has 2,000 members and serves as a federation of various Vancouver-based Chinese organizations.[123] Douglas Aitken of To'g'ri Gruziya stated that the CBA was the most important organization operating in the Vancouver Chinatown 20-asrning birinchi yarmida.[124] The Vankuver Quyoshi wrote "They were, for all intents and purposes, the government of Chinatown."[123] It was first established in 1896,[50] and it was registered as a nonprofit organization ten years later.[125]

Institutions in other cities

As of 1968 Dunkan had an office for persons with the name Zheng/Cheung, and this served as the city's sole clan association.[126]

1977 yilda Kamloops Chinese Cultural Association (KCCA)[127] kiritilgan.[128] In addition to the cultural association, Kamloops also hosts a Chinese Freemasons group and a Taiwanese cultural society.[129]

The Okanagan Chinese Canadian Association is headquartered in Kelowna.[130] In addition in the 1960s Kelowna had a boarding house for men named Xuang /Vong, and this functioned as the city's sole clan association.[126]

The Freemasons served as the sole community organization of the Chinese in Nanaimo since the 1959 fire.[131] Prior to 1959 Nanaimo had multiple Chinese associations. The Rising China Holding Company, the owner of the third Chinatown, in a period prior to 1959 served as the amalda government of the area. It had several locality associations,[132] shu jumladan Yu-shan Hui-guan,[2-eslatma] xizmat qilgan Guanchjou (Canton)-origin Chinese.[126] It also housed clan and fraternal associations. The Rising China company lost influence after the Chinese began to integrate into the town by moving outside of Chinatown and learning the English language. The 1959 fire destroyed the remaining power held by the group,[132] and in the fire's aftermath the other organizations "gone into eclipse."[133] Of all of the organizations present in the third Chinatown, the Freemasons were the only one that rebuilt within the Chinatown.[132]

1960-yillarda Port Alberni had a locality association, also called the Yu-shan Hui-guan with the same Cantonese name and with the same purpose as the Nanaimo organization.[126]

Prior to 1945 the Shahzoda Jorj Chinese Benevolent Association was established[130] to raise support for China during World War II.[132] In the 1960s Prince George also had a clan association, Zhi-de Tang (Chi Tak T'ong), described as the sole "significant political grouping" in the smaller British Columbia towns.[126]

In the 1940s a benevolent association in Shahzoda Rupert tashkil etildi; it was, like the one in Prince George, created in order to give China support during the war.[132]

Employment and commerce

Historically Chinese people in British Columbia, by the early 20th century, worked in canneries, logging operations, sawmills, shingle mills, and other extractive jobs. This employment profile differed from that of ethnic Chinese in other parts of Canada, who often only took employment in restaurants and laundries.[134]

The tax registers of the City of Victoria[iqtibos kerak ] show that Chinese businessmen were, after the Governor and coal-baron Robert Dunsmuir, the wealthiest men in the new city. Many of these were labour-contractors, a sector which would grow exponentially in the railway era, and opium merchants.[135][sahifa kerak ]

View of fishing boats moored near the North Pacific Cannery.

Pacific Salmon-Canning Industry

Salmon-canning on British Columbia's (BC) west coast was a key factor in the Sanoatlashtirish viloyat.[136] The industry's rapid expansion over the turn of the nineteenth century was sustained by the contributions of Chinese labourers.[137] In the 1850s, the industrial development of British Columbia offered young migrant Chinese men the opportunity to seek work away from the desperation ravaging their communities as a result of Western imperialist expansion.[138] By 1900, roughly six thousand Chinese men were employed in canneries across the province.[137]

In 1885, the Hindiston ishlari bo'limi noted Indigenous agitation over labour displacement due to increased competition with Chinese men for employment in cannery plants and private maishiy xizmatlar.[139] Chinese workers were preferred labourers because unlike the Indigenous workers who had a limited means to tirikchilik and close community engagement, the Chinese were more easily subordinated in their isolation from home and family, with little assurance as to when they will return.[140] This shift was felt less on the North Coast as Indigenous communities still lived in close proximity to the canneries and it was expensive to transport workers from the south of the province.[140]

"China Bosses" and "Chinese Contracts"

The subordination felt by Chinese Labourers was partly facilitated by the system used to contract and manage Chinese crews. Chinese middlemen called “China Bosses” were in charge of contracting out Chinese labour to the canneries.[141] This specific type of relationship between contractor and labourer originated in Xitoy, specifically from the region of Kanton where the majority of workers migrated.[141]

These Chinese bosses often worked out of employment agencies in Vancouver.[142] They organized Chinese labour and supervised the workers on the job; the bosses also began to contract female Indigenous work in the canning plants.[143] Once passages, food, and overhead were taken care of, the crews were paid in accordance with the number of cans produced, the amount of fish butchered, and the type of piece-work assigned.[143] In this way, the contractors alleviated the cannery management of any burden of financial loss as a result of poor runs and short seasons.[144] Similarly, the contractor rarely incurred financial loss as unexpected expenses could be mitigated by restricting spending in other areas such as food.[141]

Salmon Catch on floor of cannery with Chinese sorter,1900 (WA).

Canning Plants

"Everything,” was the reply of local New Westminster baliqchi, David Melville, when asked in front of the British Columbia Fishery Commission what kinds of jobs the Chinese performed for the canneries.[145] The Chinese workers both opened and closed the fishing season: crews were transported up the rivers when the ice started to melt around April to make cans and prepare for the pack; the same crews marked the season end by casing the pack for shipment.[146] During the season, Chinese men and boys and native women and children worked in the plants processing the fish.[147]

The ajratish of cannery labour was an imperative of the industry as racially distinct groups of labourers were assigned biologik va madaniy predispositions that determined the type of labour they were meant to perform.[147] The duties of cutting and packing the fish were seen as befitting Chinese men and Indigenous women's predispositions; whereas, Indigenous, European, and Japanese men were seen as conditioned to the job of fishing.[147] Bu feminizatsiya of Chinese labour was consistent with dominant colonial perceptions of erkaklik, where whiteness was synonymous with maleness and the racial Other was feminized.[148] Japanese men were seen to possess the necessary skills and strengths that the role of fisherman necessitated.[148]

"The Iron Chink" pictured in salmon cannery in BC early 20th c.
Mexanizatsiya

Competition for labour in the cannery plants resulted in increased wages for individual Chinese labourers.[149] This labour shortage was exasperated over the years as restrictive immigration policy and anti-Asiatic sentiment mounted. In 1885, the Federal government restricted Chinese immigration to Canada through the exorbitant Chinese Head Tax. Similarly, in 1907, the Asiatic Exclusion League was created in BC to resist what some saw as an Asian takeover of white jobs.[150]

Mexanizatsiya in the canning industry was viewed by operators as a possible means through which to resolve the increasing cost of Chinese labour.[149] By 1907, the only machine produced specifically for the canning industry was in full operation: The “Iron Chink.” [151] This mechanized fish processing line was employed to replace the skilled hands of Chinese butchers. More than this, and as its derogatory name implies, the mechanical butcher emphasized a tension in an industry where profit necessitated an irqlararo labour system, while the mustamlaka ideal of the expanding European ko'chmanchi population called for racial homogeneity.[152]

Mechanization in BC's salmon canning-industry had a marginal effect on the Chinese labour force. The desire for a quality product, paired with the remoteness of many northern canneries, ensured the persisting requirement for hand packed salmon in BC.[153]

Unionization

Oldin Ikkinchi jahon urushi, resistance against the unfair treatment of marginallashgan labour forces in the industry was localized and contained.[154] After the War, Fishermen pushed for an industrywide birlashma, which required the participation of plant workers.[154] This is not to say that Chinese labourers were incapable of unionizing independently, as evinced by the formation of the Chinese Cannery Employees’ Union in 1904, to battle unethical contractors.[144]

The United Fishermen and Allied Workers Union (UFAWU) was founded in 1945 by fishermen and Kommunistik partiya tashkilotchilar. In 1947 the first agreements covering Chinese cannery workers were signed.[155] The Chinese Cannery Workers’ supplement of the union agreements reflected the lower end of the pay grade.[156] In addition, UFAWU's call to eradicate the Chinese contract system resulted in the effective elimination of Chinese from the industry.[156] The severity of this consequence was aided by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 which prevented Chinese from entering Canada.[156]

Xulosa

Chinese labourers were essential to the realization of BC's emerging industrial economy and Chinese contributions to the salmon-canning industry were indispensable to its success. Prior to the beginning of World War II, Chinese cannery workers found employment through a system managed by contract bosses, which left the workers vulnerable to abuses and financial loss. These workers were also subject to oppression and racism as reflected in the racially segregated work environment and the poor wages offered. Union agreements which developed after the Second World War did not resolve these issues, rather they worked concurrently with racist, government immigration policy to effectively remove the Chinese from the very industry they made possible.

OAV

The Chinese Reform Gazette (Rixin Bao), published by the Vancouver branch of the Chinese Empire Reform Association, was Canada's first ever Chinese language newspaper. It argued in favor of Kang Youwei 's ideas of governance.[157]

The Xinminguo Bao (the New Republic) of Victoria, a daily newspaper first published in 1912,[158] was the first pro-1911 inqilobi newspaper published in Canada. It was published after Sun Yatsen ordered its creation;[159] a'zolari Tongmenxui Victoria office took the Jijishe ("Striking Oar Society"[160]), a newsletter published on an irregular basis, and converted it into the Xinminguo Bao.[158] Jijishe was previously published by the organization of the same name; that organization had collapsed in 1909.[160]

As of 2009, of all of the major ethnic categories in Vancouver, the Chinese had the second-highest number of media products.[161] Three Chinese language daily newspapers, Ming Pao, Sing Tao va Jahon jurnali cater to the city's large Cantonese and Mandarin-speaking population.

The Vankuver Quyoshi ishlaydi Taiyangbao (soddalashtirilgan xitoy : 太阳报; an'anaviy xitoy : 太陽報; pinyin : Tàiyáng Bào), a Mandarin-language version of their regular newspaper.[55] The English language edition of the Epoch Times, a global newspaper founded by Chinese emigres, is distributed through free boxes throughout the metropolis.

Historical Chinese-language papers in Vancouver include the Chinese Times, Chinese Voice va Yangi respublika.[162]

Siyosat

When Vancouver was founded in 1886, its charter stated that municipal elections would not have First Nations and Chinese voters. R. H. Alexander, the operator of the Hastings Mill, asked his Chinese employees to vote anyway but they were chased away from the polls by whites.[163] These men were supporters of Devid Oppengeymer, a rival candidate who was to become the city's second mayor.[iqtibos kerak ] Alexander, at the time, was making an unsuccessful bid for the Vankuver meri.[163]

In the early 20th century, Chinese politicians opposing the Tsin sulolasi status quo, including Sun Yatsen, Kang Youwei va Liang Qichao, visited British Columbia to obtain support for their respective political movements.[164] The Chinese Empire Reform Association (CERA[3-eslatma]), an organization asking for reform of the Chinese political system, was established on July 20, 1899 by businesspersons Lee Folk Gay and Chue Lai and officially opened by Kang Youwei. The Vancouver branch opened on July 24 of that year; Won Alexander Cumyow was one of the people who opened that branch. In 1906 Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao changed the name of CERA after the Tsin sulolasi government announced that it would establish a konstitutsiyaviy monarxiya. The new name was Constitutional Party[4-eslatma]).[157] In the early 20th century Chinese political activity shifted to Vancouver as its Chinese population became larger than those of other cities. Victoria, which prior to the early 20th century had a larger Chinese population than Vancouver, was no longer the centre of the Chinese political movements, but for a period political leaders in Vancouver were also active in Victoria. According to "Chinese and Canadian Influence on Chinese Politics in Vancouver, 1900-1947" author Edgar Wickberg, Victoria maintained "a kind of "associate" status" in the Chinese Canadian political arena until 1947.[164]

The Jijishe, a pro-Sun Yatsen organization in Victoria, had been established by young people in 1907 and collapsed in 1909 when the founders departed to Victoria to look for employment. The founders of Jijishe included Seto Ying Sek, Wu Shangying, and Wu Zihuan. It published a newsletter of the same name.[160]

The Tongmenxui (Revolutionary Alliance)'s Victoria branch was first established by Sun Yat-sen in 1910, and Sun had established branches in other cities in Canada. Keyin 1911 yilgi inqilob, the Tongmenghui became the Gomintang, and accordingly, the Victoria office became the KMT Victoria District. In 1919 the Chinese Nationalist League of Canada, another pro-Sun Yat-sen organization, had branches in Victoria and Vancouver.[158] The KMT's influence in British Columbia dwindled after the end of the Xitoy fuqarolar urushi 1949 yilda.[113] The international headquarters of the Xitoy Kommunistik partiyasi was located in Victoria's Chinatown.

In 1957 Douglas Jung, from Vancouver,[165] was first elected to the Kanada parlamenti;[166] he was the first Chinese Canadian to serve on the parliament. In 1962 Jung lost his election. Art Lee, also from Vancouver and elected in 1974, was the second Chinese Canadian in Parliament.[165]

Peter Wing, the first North American mayor of Chinese ancestry,[167] was elected Mayor of Kamloops 1958 yilda.[168]

Ta'lim

The Victoria Chinese Public School (CPS[5-eslatma]) was established as the Imperial Chinese School [6-eslatma]) in 1909. Xu Jianzhen, the Consul-General of China in San Francisco, had officially opened the school.[170] The Victoria School Board had a policy denying enrollment to China-born pupils that was enacted in 1908 and other schools for China-born students were overcrowded.[171] In 1913 the school began offering classes during the daytime for Chinese students according to an agreement with the Victoria School Board, and it officially changed its name at the same time. The new daytime classes served students who were segregated in public schools.[170]

In the early 20th century, the Chinese-language schools in Victoria were the CPS, the Oi-kwok Hok-tong School, and the Jing'e School.[172] In Vancouver there were several schools: the Wenhua Xuexiao, the Chinese Public School of Vancouver, the Jinhua School, the Kwong Chi School, the Canton School (Guangdong Xuexiao), and two other schools. There was also the Oi-kwok Hok-tong School in New Westminster.[173]

Chinese parents and the Victoria CBA organized a system of alternative schools and started boycotting when, in 1922, the Victoria public school system announced plans to segregate Chinese students. The protests forced the Victoria school board to withdraw its segregation plans.[174]

Madaniyat

British Columbia cities which host Chinese cemeteries include Cumberland, Dunkan, Kamloops, Nanaimo, Shahzoda Jorj, Vernon va Viktoriya. 1880-yillarda Kamloops' Chinese Cemetery ochildi. Victoria's cemetery at Harling Point, first established in 1902 and containing the graves of over 1,000 people, was in 1996 declared a National Historic Site.[175]

In 1913 the Han Yuen Club, a recreational club founded by members of the Gomintang Victoria district, was established.[158]

Chinese British Columbians used the term Gold Mountain, normally used for and coined in relation to the California goldfields, for British Columbia. The Chinese Benevolent Association's records in Barkervil used "the Colonies of T'ang [China]" in their documents and correspondence.[iqtibos kerak ]

Notable Chinese from BC

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: List of Chinese Canadians
  • Need more references on female Chinese Canadians on this list.
  • Caleb Chan, businessman and son of the late Chan Shun. Donated $10 million to fund UBC "s Chan sahna san'ati markazi
  • Christian Chan, son of Caleb Chan. Philanthropist. Board of Trustee of the Vancouver Art Gallery.
  • Tom Chan, Vancouver based real estate entrepreneur, brother of Caleb Chan and son of the late Chan Shun. Donated $10 million to fund UBC "s Chan sahna san'ati markazi.
  • Tung Chan, former CEO of S.U.C.C.E.S.S. and Vancouver city councillor
  • Denise Chong, economist and non-fiction writer; best-selling memoir Kanizakning bolalari
  • Vayson Choy, award-winning novelist and memoirist
  • Jim Chu, Chief Constable of the Vankuver politsiya boshqarmasi
  • Chu Lai, businessman and one of the earliest Chinese-Canadian merchants in British Columbia
  • Won Alexander Cumyow, civil servant and lawyer, the first Chinese to be born in Canada
  • Thomas Fung, asoschisi Fairchild Group
  • Devid Xo, businessperson
  • Chow Dong Hoy aka C.D. Hoy, a Quesnel photographer, commemorated on a stamp from Canada Post.[176]
  • Terry Hui, Concord Pacific Group
  • Douglas Jung, first Chinese MP
  • Jenni Kvan, activist, politician and former provincial cabinet minister
  • Larissa Lai, writer and literary critic
  • David Lam, philanthropist and later Lieutenant Governor of BC
  • Evelyn Lau, yozuvchi; best-selling memoir Qochib ketish turned into a film starring Sandra Oh
  • Art Lee, MP
  • Richard Li, member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia
  • Robert H. Lee, Vancouver-based businessman, Chairman and Founder of Prospero. Robert H. Lee Graduate School is named in honor of his philanthropy.
  • Sky Lee, writer and artist; roman Yo'qolib borayotgan Oy kafesi often cited as first Chinese-Canadian novel
  • Sook-Yin Li, broadcaster, musician, actor, director
  • Shin Lim, card magician
  • Linda Ann Loo, Judge of the Supreme Court of British Columbia
  • David Y.H. Lui (OC ), Canadian-born arts impresario and producer, well known for developing the arts in Vancouver.[177]
  • Sid Chow Tan, long time Chinese Head Tax redress campaign leader. President of the Head Tax Families Society. Media producer and director.
  • Madelein Tien, internationally acclaimed novelist; Do Not Say We Have Nothing won the Governor-General's Award and Giller Prize, shortlisted for Booker Prize; born and raised in Vancouver, lives in Montreal
  • Fred Vax, poet, critic, editor, and writer of short fiction; Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate.
  • Chow Shong "C.S." Qanot, the first professional photographer in Kuesnel[178]
  • Peter Wing, the first Chinese mayor in North America,[167] served as the Mayor of Kamloops.[168]
  • Wong Foon Sien, journalist and social activist
  • Meena Wong, the first female Chinese Canadian mayoral candidate in Vancouver. The only female mayoral candidate of Vancouver during the 2014 municipal election whose platform included the controversial but popular Vacant Property Tax, which has since been adopted in various forms by municipal, provincial and federal governments. Candidate for Member of Parliament during the 2011 federal election. An environmentalist and a long time community activist. President of West Coast Mental Health Network Society. Founder and convener of Civic Engagement Network.
  • Rita Wong, shoir
  • Jim Wong-Chu, pioneering editor, poet, cultural organizer, and champion of Asian-Canadian literature; co-founded the Asian Canadian Writers' Workshop Society
  • Pol Yi, writer and archivist
  • Gabriel Yiu, siyosatchi

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ in Chinese: Xitoy : 中華會館; pinyin : Zhōnghuá Huìguǎn)
  2. ^ in Chinese: (Xitoy : 禺山會館; Cantonese: Ue-Shaan Ooi-koon)
  3. ^ In Chinese: 保救大清光緒皇帝會 Bǎo Jiù Dà Qīng Guāngxù Huángdì Huì "Protecting and Saving Great Manchu Guangxu Emperor Association", or Baohuanghui 保皇會 Bǎo Huáng Huì in short)[157]
  4. ^ In Chinese: Digu Xianzhengdang[157]
  5. ^ Xitoy : 域多利華僑公立學校; pinyin : Yùduōlì Huáqiáo Gōnglìxuéxiào[169]
  6. ^ Xitoy : 大清公立學校; pinyin : Dà Qīng Gōnglìxuéxiào

Adabiyotlar

Ma'lumotnomalar

  1. ^ a b Laurence J. C. Ma; Carolyn L. Cartier (2003). Xitoy diasporasi: makon, joy, harakatchanlik va o'ziga xoslik. Rowman va Littlefield. ISBN  978-0-7425-1756-1.
  2. ^ John Meares (1790). 1788 va 1789 yillarda Xitoydan Amerikaning Shimoliy G'arbiy qirg'og'igacha bo'lgan sayohatlar: Bunga 1786 yilda, Bengaliyadan, Ship Nootka-da amalga oshirilgan sayohatning kirish hikoyasi prefiks qilingan; Shimoliy G'arbiy dovonning taxminiy mavjudligiga oid kuzatishlar; va Amerikaning Shimoliy G'arbiy sohillari va Xitoy o'rtasidagi savdo-sotiqning ba'zi hisoblari; Oxirgi mamlakat va Buyuk Britaniya.
  3. ^ Arnold J. Meagher (2008). Coolie savdo-sotiq: Lotin Amerikasiga Xitoy mardikorlarining harakati 1847-1874. Arnold J Meagher. ISBN  978-1-4363-0943-1.
  4. ^ Artur Lower (2011 yil 1-noyabr). Taqdir okeani: Shimoliy Tinch okeanining qisqacha tarixi, 1500-1978. UBC Press. ISBN  978-0-7748-4352-2.
  5. ^ Erni da'vo qilish, Dan Marshall, UBC nomzodlik dissertatsiyasi, 2002 yil (nashr qilinmagan).
  6. ^ Makgovan urushi, Donald J. Xauka, Yangi yulduzli kitoblar, Vankuver (2000) ISBN  1-55420-001-6
  7. ^ Britaniya Kolumbiyasining ko'chirilishi, Koul Xarris
  8. ^ a b v d e f g h Steril tog'lar dengizida: Britaniya Kolumbiyasidagi xitoyliklar, J. Morton, 1974 yil
  9. ^ [Erta Vankuver, I tom, Mayor J.S. "Skit" Mathews, Vankuver Archives nashriyoti. 1939 yil
  10. ^ Milltaundan Metropolgacha, Alan Morley
  11. ^ Ng, p. 7.
  12. ^ a b Lay, "Viktoriya shahridagi Xitoyning xayrixoh birlashmasi, "53-bet.
  13. ^ a b Erni talab qilish, Dan Marshall, Britaniya Kolumbiyasi universiteti, doktorlik dissertatsiyasi, 2002 yil (nashr qilinmagan)
  14. ^ a b Per Berton, Oxirgi boshoq. Dubleday Kanada, 22-dekabr, 2010 yil. ISBN  038567354X, 9780385673549, bet 194
  15. ^ a b v Chung, doktor Tsu-I. "Transpacific Xitoy sayohatchilari va bugungi Britaniya Kolumbiyasi " (Arxiv ). Miloddan avvalgi qirollik muzeyi. 2015 yil 26-yanvarda olingan.
  16. ^ Lillooet-ga qisqa portage, Irene Edvards, o'zini o'zi nashr etish. 1976 va boshqa turli xil manbalar
  17. ^ a b v Guo, p. 42.
  18. ^ a b v d e Yee, p. 11.
  19. ^ a b v Yee, p. 10.
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