Tarkib nazariyasi - Content theory

Ushbu maqolada bir nechta muammolar mavjud. Iltimos yordam bering uni yaxshilang yoki ushbu masalalarni muhokama qiling munozara sahifasi. (Ushbu shablon xabarlarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) Bu maqola uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang tomonidan ishonchli manbalarga iqtiboslarni qo'shish. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan material shubha ostiga olinishi va olib tashlanishi mumkin. Manbalarni toping: "Tarkib nazariyasi"  – Yangiliklar  · gazetalar  · kitoblar  · olim  · JSTOR (2020 yil yanvar) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) Bu maqola ehtimol o'z ichiga oladi original tadqiqotlar. Iltimos uni yaxshilang tomonidan tasdiqlash qilingan va qo'shilgan da'volar satrda keltirilgan. Faqat asl tadqiqotlardan iborat bayonotlar olib tashlanishi kerak. (2013 yil mart) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Tarkib nazariyasi ning pastki qismi motivatsion nazariyalar odamlarni nimaga undashini aniqlashga harakat qiladigan. Motivatsiya tarkibidagi nazariyalar ko'pincha odamlarning harakatlarini rag'batlantiradigan ehtiyojlar tizimini tavsiflaydi. Motivatsiya jarayonlari nazariyalari bizning motivlarimiz xatti-harakatlarimizga qanday va nima uchun ta'sir qilishini tushuntirishga harakat qilsa, motivatsiya mazmuni nazariyalari ushbu motivlar yoki ehtiyojlar nima ekanligini aniqlashga harakat qiladi. Tarkib nazariyasi ishini o'z ichiga oladi Devid Makklelland, Ibrohim Maslou va boshqa psixologlar.^[1]

Makgregorning X nazariyasi va Y nazariyasi

Duglas Makgregor ikki xil motivatsion nazariyani taklif qildi.^[2] Menejerlar u yoki bu narsaga ishonishadi va o'z xodimlariga tegishli munosabatda bo'lishadi. X nazariyada ta'kidlanishicha, xodimlar ishdan nafratlanishadi va undan qochishga harakat qilishadi, shuning uchun ularni majburan majburan bajarish kerak. Ko'pgina ishchilar mas'uliyatni xohlamaydilar, ambitsiyalar va qadr-qimmatga ega emaslar ish xavfsizligi hamma narsadan ko'proq.^[3]

Makgregor shaxsan Y ni optimistik nazariya yanada asosli deb hisoblagan. Ushbu nazariya xodimlar ishni tabiiy deb bilishi, ijodiy, o'z-o'zini rag'batlantirishi va mas'uliyatni qadrlashi mumkin deb hisoblaydi. Fikrlashning bunday turi hozirgi kunda ommalashib bormoqda, odamlar o'z-o'zini quvvatlaydigan mehnat jamoalarining samaradorligi to'g'risida ko'proq ma'lumotga ega bo'lishmoqda.^[4]

ERG nazariyasi

ERG nazariyasi tomonidan kiritilgan Kleyton Alderfer mashhurlarga qo'shimcha sifatida Maslowning ehtiyojlar iyerarxiyasi.^[5] Mavjudlik yoki fiziologik ehtiyojlar asosda. Bularga oziq-ovqat, ichimlik, yashash joyi va xavfsizlik kabi narsalarga bo'lgan ehtiyoj kiradi. Keyingi narsa Qarindoshlik ehtiyojlari, boshqa shaxslar yoki guruh bilan aloqani his qilish zarurati. Ushbu ehtiyojlar munosabatlarni o'rnatish va saqlash orqali amalga oshiriladi.

Ierarxiyaning yuqori qismida o'sish ehtiyojlari, shaxsiy yutuqlar va o'zini o'zi anglash uchun ehtiyojlar mavjud. Agar odam o'sish ehtiyojlarini qondirishga urinishda doimo ko'ngli qolsa, qarindoshlik ehtiyojlari yana paydo bo'ladi. Ushbu hodisa umidsizlik-regressiya jarayoni sifatida tanilgan.

Gertsbergning motivatsiya-gigiena nazariyasi (Ikki faktorli nazariya)

Frederik Gertsberg buni sezdi ishdan qoniqish va norozilik bir xil davomiylikda emas, balki ikki tomonlama miqyosda mavjud. Boshqacha qilib aytganda, Gertsberg gigiena omillari deb atagan ba'zi narsalar odamning o'z ishidan norozi bo'lishiga olib kelishi mumkin. Bu narsalar, shu jumladan ish haqi, ish xavfsizligi va jismoniy mehnat muhiti hech qachon ishdan qoniqish hosil qila olmaydi. Motivatsiya qiluvchi omillar esa ishdan qoniqishni oshirishi mumkin. Xodimlarga tan olish, mas'uliyat yoki yutuq hissi kabi narsalarni berish mamnuniyat keltirishi mumkin.^[6]

Nazariya kerak

Devid Makklelland motivatsiya va xatti-harakatlarni tushunishda muhim ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan odamlarning ehtiyojlarini tushunish uchun kontekstni taklif qildi. U uchta toifaga bo'linadi: yutuqqa ehtiyoj, mansublik va kuchga ehtiyoj.^[7]

Muvaffaqiyatga bo'lgan ehtiyoj oldinga intilish va muvaffaqiyatga erishish tushunchasini anglatadi. Affiliatsiyaga bo'lgan ehtiyoj - bu odamlar orasida bo'lish va ijtimoiy jihatdan yaxshi kutib olish istagi. Bu shuningdek, guruhga a'zo bo'lish istagini va muvofiqlikni o'z ichiga oladi. Quvvatga bo'lgan ehtiyoj - bu boshqalarni va o'zingiz ustidan nazorat qilish istagi. Bu sizni o'rab turgan dunyoda yo'nalishni boshqarish va voqealar sodir bo'lishiga sabab bo'lish zarurligini tug'diradi. Yutuqqa bo'lgan ehtiyojlari yuqori bo'lgan shaxslar ushbu istakni bajarish uchun raqobatbardosh faoliyat bilan shug'ullanishadi. O'zlarini birodarligini his qilishi kerak bo'lgan shaxslar istaganlarini qondirish uchun klublarga, guruhlarga va jamoalarga qo'shilishadi. Hokimiyatga ehtiyoj sezgan shaxslar shu kabi ehtiyojni qondiradigan faoliyatni izlaydilar, masalan, tashkilotlarda yuqori lavozimlarga intilish va bu ustunlikni amalga oshirish uchun imkoniyatlarni izlash.

Bir kishining uchta toifani qamrab oladigan ehtiyojlari bo'lmaydi degani emas. Biror kishi kuchga muhtoj bo'lgan bir vaqtning o'zida birlashishga muhtoj bo'lishi mumkin. Dastlab bu qarama-qarshi bo'lib ko'rinishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, ikkala ehtiyojni ham qondirish mumkin bo'lgan holatlar mavjud. Shuningdek, vaqt har xil vaqtda ehtiyojlarning har xil kuchli tomonlarini anglatishi mumkin. Shunday qilib, odam yolg'izlik paytida sheriklik qilish zarurligini qattiq his qilishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, boshqa bir paytda tadbirni tashkil qilish uchun ko'rsatma berilganda kuchga bo'lgan ehtiyojni his qilishi mumkin. Kontekst o'zgarishi sababli ehtiyojlar paydo bo'lishi va o'zgarishi mumkin.

Maslowning ehtiyojlar iyerarxiyasi

Maslowning ehtiyojlari iyerarxiyasi, pastki qismida asosiy ehtiyojlar bilan piramida sifatida ifodalanadi

Tarkib nazariyasi inson motivatsiyasi ikkalasini ham o'z ichiga oladi Ibrohim Maslou "s ehtiyojlar ierarxiyasi va Gertsberg Ikki faktorli nazariya. Maslou nazariyasi motivatsiya nazariyalarining eng ko'p muhokama qilinganlaridan biridir. Ibrohim Maslou inson tabiatan yaxshi ekanligiga ishongan va shaxslar doimo rivojlanib boradigan ichki potentsialga ega, bu katta imkoniyatlarga ega. Ehtiyojlar iyerarxiyasi tizimi inson motivlarini tasniflash uchun keng tarqalgan sxemadir.^[8]

Amerikalik motivatsiya psixologi Avraam H. Maslou (1954) beshta ierarxik sinflardan iborat ehtiyojlar iyerarxiyasini ishlab chiqdi. Maslou fikricha, odamlarni qoniqtirilmagan ehtiyojlar rag'batlantiradi. Asosiy (eng qadimgi) dan eng murakkabgacha (eng so'nggi va eng so'nggi) qadar ro'yxatlangan ehtiyojlar quyidagicha:^[9]

• Fiziologiya (ochlik, chanqash, uxlash, va boshqalar.)
• Xavfsizlik /Xavfsizlik /Boshpana /Sog'liqni saqlash
• Ijtimoiy /Sevgi /Do'stlik
• O'z-o'zini hurmat /E'tirof etish /Muvaffaqiyat
• O'zini realizatsiya qilish / to'liqlikka erishish salohiyat

Asosiy talablar piramidaning birinchi qadamiga asoslanadi: fiziologiya. Agar ushbu darajadagi kamchiliklar mavjud bo'lsa, barcha xatti-harakatlar ushbu defitsitni qondirishga qaratilgan bo'ladi. Aslida, agar siz etarli darajada uxlamagan bo'lsangiz yoki ovqatlanmagan bo'lsangiz, o'zingizni qadrlash istaklaringiz sizni qiziqtirmaydi. Keyinchalik, bizda ikkinchi darajaga ega, bu esa xavfsizlikka bo'lgan ehtiyojni uyg'otadi. Ushbu ikki darajani ta'minlagandan so'ng, motivlar uchinchi darajaga, ijtimoiy sohaga o'tadi. Psixologik talablar to'rtinchi darajani, iyerarxiyaning yuqori qismi o'zini anglash va o'zini o'zi anglashdan iborat.

Maslowning ehtiyojlar nazariyasi iyerarxiyasini quyidagicha umumlashtirish mumkin:

• Odamlarda istaklar va istaklar mavjud bo'lib, ular qoniqtirmasa, xulq-atvorga ta'sir qilishi mumkin.
• Inson hayoti uchun har xil ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan darajalar ehtiyojlarning ierarxik tarkibida aks etadi.
• Ierarxiyadagi yuqori darajadagi ehtiyojlar quyi darajadagi ehtiyojlar kamida minimal darajada qondirilgunga qadar saqlanib qoladi.
• Ierarxiyaning yuqori darajalaridagi ehtiyojlari individuallik, insonparvarlik va psixologik salomatlik bilan bog'liq.

Jinsiy aloqa, Gedonizm va evolyutsiya

Gedonizm mavzusini muhokama qilgan birinchi nufuzli shaxslardan biri Suqrot bo'lgan va u buni qadimgi Yunonistonda miloddan avvalgi 470-399 yillarda qilgan. Gidonizm, Suqrot ta'riflaganidek, odamning zavqlanishni maksimal darajada oshiradigan va og'riqni minimallashtiradigan tarzda o'zini tutishi. Odam o'zini zavqdan ko'ra ko'proq og'riq keltiradigan tarzda tutishi mumkin bo'lgan yagona holat - bu xatti-harakatlar ta'siri haqida bilim etishmasligi. Jinsiy aloqa - odamlar izlayotgan zavqlardan biridir.^[10][11]

Jinsiy aloqa Maslowning ehtiyojlar ierarxiyasining birinchi darajasida. Bu havo, iliqlik yoki uxlash kabi zarur fiziologik ehtiyoj bo'lib, tanada etishmasa, u yaxshi ishlamaydi. Jinsiy aloqada keladigan orgazmsiz, odam "og'riqni" boshdan kechiradi va gidonizm bashorat qilganidek, jinsiy aloqada bo'lish orqali odam bu og'riqni minimallashtiradi. Aytish joizki, jinsiy aloqa asosiy ehtiyoj sifatida Maslou ierarxiyasida uchinchi darajada joylashgan jinsiy yaqinlik ehtiyojidan farq qiladi.^[10]

Jinsiy aloqaning nima uchun kuchli turtki ekanligi to'g'risida ko'plab nazariyalar mavjud va ko'pchilik evolyutsiya nazariyasiga kiradi. Evolyutsion darajada, jinsiy aloqa uchun turtki, ehtimol, turning ko'payish qobiliyatiga bog'liq. Ko'proq ko'payadigan, tirik qolgan va genlarini uzatadigan turlar. Shuning uchun, turlar ko'proq nasl yaratish vositasi sifatida jinsiy aloqaga olib keladigan jinsiy istakka ega. Ushbu tug'ma turtki bo'lmasa, tur jinsiy aloqada bo'lish kuch, energiya va xavf jihatidan juda qimmatga tushishini aniqlay oladi.^[10][12]

Jinsiy istakdan tashqari, ishqiy muhabbat turtki, turni saqlab qolish uchun evolyutsion funktsiyaga ega bo'lish bilan parallel ravishda harakat qiladi. Hissiy darajada romantik sevgi, tegishli bo'lishning psixologik ehtiyojini qondiradi. Shuning uchun, bu lazzatlanishning yana bir hedonistik izlanishidir. Evolyutsion nuqtai nazardan, romantik sevgi avlodlarning ota-onalari bilan aloqalarni yaratadi. Ushbu rishta ota-onalarning birga bo'lishlari va mustaqil bo'lguncha naslni parvarish qilishlari va himoya qilishlari uchun amalga oshiriladi. Bolani birgalikda tarbiyalash orqali, bu naslning tirik qolish va uning genlarini o'zlariga etkazish imkoniyatini oshiradi, shuning uchun turlarning hayotini davom ettiradi. Romantik muhabbat rishtasi bo'lmasdan, erkak o'z xohish-irodasini iloji boricha ko'proq turmush o'rtoqlar bilan to'ldirishga intilib, ayolni orqada qoldirib, avlodni o'zi tarbiyalaydi. Bitta ota-ona bilan bolani tarbiyalash qiyinroq va zurriyotning tirik qolishiga ikki ota-onaga qaraganda kamroq ishonch hosil qiladi. Shunday qilib, romantik muhabbat ota-onalarning birga bo'lishlari kerak bo'lgan majburiyat muammosini hal qiladi; bir-biriga sodiq va sodiq bo'lgan shaxslar o'zaro tirik qolish manfaatlariga ega bo'ladilar.^[10][13][14]

Bundan tashqari, evolyutsiya soyasida Darvinning jinsiy tanlanish atamasi mavjud. Bu ayol ko'payish uchun erkakni qanday tanlashini anglatadi. Erkak yuqorida aytib o'tilgan barcha sabablarga ko'ra jinsiy aloqada bo'lishga undaydi, ammo u qanday qilib uning fazilatlariga qarab o'zgarishi mumkin. Ba'zi urg'ochilar uchun ular asosan omon qolish irodasiga asoslanib, o'zini jismoniy himoya qila oladigan yoki (odamlar orasida) moddiy ta'minlaydigan turmush o'rtog'ini afzal ko'rishadi. Ba'zi urg'ochilar jozibaga ko'proq jalb qilinadilar, chunki bu yaxshi sodiq sevgilining ko'rsatkichi bo'lib, bu o'z navbatida ishonchli bola tarbiyasi sherigiga aylanadi. Umuman olganda, jinsiy aloqa - bu jismoniy va psixologik ehtiyojlarni qondiradigan va instinktiv ravishda evolyutsiya tamoyillari asosida boshqariladigan, zavq olishga intiladigan hedonistik xatti-harakatlardir.^[10][15]

O'zini o'zi belgilash nazariyasi

1970 yillarning boshlaridan beri Deki^[16] va Rayan o'z taqdirini aniqlash nazariyasini (SDT) ishlab chiqdi va sinovdan o'tkazdi. SDT uchta tug'ma ehtiyojni aniqlaydi, agar ular qondirilsa, optimal ishlash va o'sishga imkon beradi: vakolat,^[17][18] qarindoshlik,^[19] va muxtoriyat.^[20][21] Ushbu uchta psixologik ehtiyoj psixologik salomatlik va farovonlik uchun muhim va xatti-harakatni rag'batlantirish uchun tavsiya etiladi.^[22] Nazariyaning uchta muhim elementi mavjud:^[23]

• Odamlar o'zlarining potentsiallari va ichki kuchlarini (masalan, harakatlanish va hissiyotlarni) egallashlari bilan tabiatan faoldirlar.
• Odamlar o'sish, rivojlanish va yaxlit ishlashga xos tendentsiyaga ega.
• Optimal rivojlanish va harakatlar odamlarga xosdir, lekin ular o'z-o'zidan bo'lmaydi.

O'z-o'zini aniqlash nazariyasi doirasida Deki va Rayan^[24] tashqi turtki berishning turlicha turlarini ajratib ko'ring, ularning idrok qilingan muxtoriyat darajalari bilan ajralib turing:

• Tashqi tartibga solish: Bu to'rttadan eng kam avtonom va tashqi jazo yoki mukofot bilan belgilanadi.
• Introjected regulation: Tashqi turtki berishning bu shakli, shaxs bir oz ichki tartibga solingan bo'lsa-da, ularni o'zlariga xos tarzda to'liq qabul qilmasa paydo bo'ladi. Ular o'z-o'zini hurmat qilish sabablari yoki ijtimoiy maqbulligi bilan mos kelishi mumkin - asosan ichki sabablarga ko'ra, lekin tashqi ta'sirga bog'liq.
• Belgilangan tartibga solish: Bu ko'proq avtonom tarzda boshqariladi - agar shaxs ongli ravishda harakatlarni qimmatli deb bilsa.
• Integratsiyalashgan tartibga solish: Bu turtki berishning eng avtonom shakli va harakat ichki xususiyatga ega bo'lib, shaxsning qadriyatlari, e'tiqodlari bilan mos keladi va ularning farovonligi uchun zarur deb hisoblanadi. Biroq, bu hali ham tashqi motivatsiya deb tasniflanadi, chunki u hali ham vazifaning o'ziga xos lazzatlanishiga emas, balki tashqi jarayonlarga bog'liq.

"16 asosiy istaklar" nazariyasi

6000 dan ortiq odamni qamrab olgan tadqiqotlardan boshlab, Reys 16 ta asosiy istaklar odamlarning deyarli barcha xatti-harakatlarini boshqarishini taklif qildi.^[25] Ushbu modelda bizning harakatlarimizga turtki beradigan va shaxsiyatimizni aniqlaydigan asosiy istaklar quyidagilardan iborat:

Tabiiy nazariyalar

Tabiiy tizim odamlarning yuqori darajadagi ehtiyojlari borligini taxmin qiladi, bu esa odamlarga ishni yoqtirmaslik va faqat mukofotlar va jazolarga javob berishni taklif qiladigan oqilona nazariyaga ziddir.^[26] Ga binoan Makgregorniki Nazariya Y, inson xulq-atvori ehtiyojlar iyerarxiyasini qondirishga asoslangan: fiziologik, xavfsizlik, ijtimoiy, ego va o'zini o'zi bajarish.^[27]

Fiziologik ehtiyojlar eng past va eng muhim darajadir. Ushbu asosiy talablarga oziq-ovqat, dam olish, turar joy va jismoniy mashqlar kiradi. Fiziologik ehtiyojlar qondirilgandan so'ng, xodimlar diqqatni "xavf, tahdid va mahrumlikdan himoya" ni o'z ichiga olgan xavfsizlik ehtiyojlariga qaratishi mumkin.^[27] Ammo, agar rahbariyat o'zboshimchalik bilan yoki xolisona ish bilan ta'minlash to'g'risida qaror qabul qilsa, u holda xodimning xavfsizlik talablari bajarilmaydi.

Ehtiyojlarning navbatdagi to'plami ijtimoiy, bu qabul qilish, qo'shilish, o'zaro do'stlik va muhabbat istagini anglatadi. Shunday qilib, boshqaruvning tabiiy tizimi yaqin mehnat jamoalari samarali bo'lishini taxmin qiladi. Shunga ko'ra, agar xodimning ijtimoiy ehtiyojlari qondirilmagan bo'lsa, unda u itoatsiz harakat qiladi.^[27]

Egoistik ehtiyojlarning ikki turi mavjud, bu ehtiyojlarning ikkinchi darajali tartibi. Birinchi tur o'ziga ishonch, mustaqillik, yutuq, qobiliyat va bilimni o'z ichiga olgan o'z qadr-qimmatini anglatadi. Ehtiyojlarning ikkinchi turi obro'-e'tibor, maqom, e'tirof va hamkasblarning hurmati bilan bog'liq.^[27] Egoistik ehtiyojlarni qondirish ancha qiyin.

Ehtiyojlarning eng yuqori tartibi - bu o'z-o'zini qondirish, shu jumladan o'z imkoniyatlarini to'liq anglash, o'z-o'zini rivojlantirish sohalari va ijod uchun imkoniyat. Bu odamlar ijodkorlikdan ko'ra odatiy va xavfsizlikni afzal ko'rishlarini nazarda tutadigan ratsional tizimdan farq qiladi.^[26] Odamlar ushbu yuqori darajadagi ehtiyojlar haqida qayg'urmaydi deb taxmin qiladigan oqilona boshqaruv tizimidan farqli o'laroq, tabiiy tizim motivatsiya vositasi sifatida ushbu ehtiyojlarga asoslanadi.

Reduksionistik motivatsiya modeli muallifi Zigmund Freyd. Modelga ko'ra, fiziologik ehtiyojlar taranglikni kuchaytiradi va shu bilan odamni ushbu ehtiyojlarini qondirish orqali chiqish yo'lini izlashga majbur qiladi Ziegler, Daniel (1992). Shaxsiyat nazariyalari: asosiy taxminlar, tadqiqotlar va qo'llanmalar.

Jamoa bilan ishlash orqali o'zini o'zi boshqarish

Xodimlarni muvaffaqiyatli boshqarish va rag'batlantirish uchun tabiiy tizim guruhning bir qismi bo'lish zarurligini ta'kidlaydi.^[28] Ijtimoiy buyurtmada tarkibiy o'zgarishlar yuz berganligi sababli, ish joyi ko'ra suyuq va moslashuvchan bo'ladi Mayo. Natijada, ayrim xodimlar barqarorlik va xavfsizlik tuyg'usini yo'qotdilar, bu guruhga a'zolik bilan ta'minlanishi mumkin. Ammo, agar jamoalar doimiy ravishda ish joylarida o'zgarib tursa, u holda xodimlar bezovtalanadi, bo'sh va mantiqsiz bo'lib, ular bilan ishlash qiyinlashadi.^[28] Odamlarning doimiy assotsiatsiyasi va boshqaruviga bo'lgan tug'ma istak "yolg'iz ishchilar bilan emas, balki har doim ishchi guruhlar bilan bog'liq".^[28] Guruhlarda xodimlar o'zlarini boshqaradilar va tegishli urf-odatlar, bojlar va an'analarni shakllantiradilar.

Ish haqini rag'batlantirish

Odamlarni ish haqini rag'batlantirishdan tashqari qo'shimcha omillar ham rag'batlantiradi.^[29] Rag'batlantirishning ratsional nazariyasidan farqli o'laroq, odamlar tabiiy tizim bo'yicha iqtisodiy manfaatlarga intilmaydi. Masalan, to'g'ri parcha-parcha tizimi xodimlarga ishlab chiqarishning har bir birligiga qarab ish haqi to'laydi. Bankning elektr o'tkazgichlarini kuzatish xonasi kabi tadqiqotlar asosida stavkani rag'batlantirish tizimidan foydalanish ishlab chiqarishni ko'payishiga olib kelmaydi.^[29] Xodimlar aslida har bir kishining kunlik mahsuloti uchun yuqori chegaralarni belgilaydilar. Ushbu harakatlar "jismoniy imkoniyatlardan tashqari ishlashning yuqori chegarasini hisobga olmagan holda, ularni moddiy rag'batlantirish tizimining asosidagi g'oyalarga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qarshi turadi".^[29] Shu sababli, iqtisodiy mukofotlar va jazolarga bog'liq bo'lgan oqilona tizimdan farqli o'laroq, tabiiy boshqaruv tizimi odamlarni ham iqtisodiy bo'lmagan omillar turtki beradi deb taxmin qiladi.

Muxtoriyat: avtonom vazifalar uchun motivatsiyani oshirish

Xodimlar o'zlarining ishlarida boshqaruvning oqilona nazariyasining taxminlaridan farqli o'laroq avtonomiya va mas'uliyatni izlaydilar. Nazoratchilar xodimlar ustidan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri vakolatga ega bo'lganligi sababli, ular xodimning harakatlari samarali xulq-atvor standartlariga muvofiqligini ta'minlashi kerak.^[29] Bu ishchini cheklash tuyg'usini vujudga keltiradi va bu cheklovlar "bezovta qiluvchi va ko'rinishda faqat bo'ysunuvchi yoki farqlovchi mexanizmlar sifatida ishlaydi" deb qaraladi.^[29] Shunga ko'ra, tabiiy boshqaruv tizimi xodimlar ishda avtonomlik va javobgarlikni afzal ko'rishlarini va o'zboshimchalik qoidalari va katta nazoratni yoqtirmasliklarini taxmin qilishadi. Vazifa avtonom bo'lganda, shaxsning topshiriqni bajarishga bo'lgan turtki kuchayadi. Vazifani bajarish uchun turtki "tashqi bosim" dan kelib chiqsa, u holda bosim odamning motivatsiyasini "susaytiradi" va natijada odamning vazifani bajarish istagi pasayadi.^[30]

Ratsional motivatsiya

Odamlar aqlli va insonning xulq-atvori aql bilan boshqariladi eski. Biroq, so'nggi tadqiqotlar (bo'yicha qoniqarli masalan) g'oyasini sezilarli darajada susaytirdi homo iqtisodiy yoki ning mukammal ratsionallik ko'proq foydasiga cheklangan ratsionallik. Maydon xulq-atvor iqtisodiyoti ayniqsa, iqtisodiy agentlardagi ratsionallik chegaralari bilan bog'liq.^[31]

Rag'batlantiruvchi nazariyalar: ichki va tashqi motivatsiya

Motivatsiyani ikki xil nazariyalarga bo'lish mumkin ichki (ichki yoki o'ziga xos) turtki va tashqi (tashqi) motivatsiya.

Ichki motivatsiya

Ichki motivatsiya 70-yillarning boshlaridan beri o'rganilib kelinmoqda. Ichki motivatsiya - bu ichki mukofotlarni qondirish bilan boshqariladigan xatti-harakatdir. Masalan, sportchi mukofot uchun emas, balki tajriba uchun futbol o'ynashni yoqtirishi mumkin.^[32] Bu vazifaning o'ziga qiziqish yoki lazzatlanishdir va tashqi bosimlarga yoki ko'rib chiqish istagiga emas, balki shaxs ichida mavjud. Deci (1971) ba'zi bir faoliyat o'zlarining o'ziga xos mukofotini beradi, ya'ni ba'zi faoliyat tashqi mukofotlarga bog'liq emasligini tushuntiradi.^[33] Ichki motivatsiya hodisasi birinchi marta hayvonlarning xatti-harakatlarini eksperimental tadqiqotlar davomida tan olingan. Ushbu tadqiqotlarda organizmlar mavjud bo'lmagan taqdirda o'ynoqi va qiziquvchan harakatlarga kirishishi aniq edi. sovrin. Ichki motivatsiya tabiiy motivatsion tendentsiyadir va kognitiv, ijtimoiy va jismoniy rivojlanishning hal qiluvchi elementidir.^[34] Ichki motivatsiya uchun zarur bo'lgan ikkita element o'z taqdirini o'zi belgilash va qabul qilinadigan vakolatlarning oshishi.^[35] Xulosa qilib aytganda, xatti-harakatning sababi ichki bo'lishi kerak, sababning ichki lokusi deb nomlanadi va xatti-harakatni amalga oshiradigan shaxs bu vazifa ularning vakolatlarini oshirishini tushunishi kerak.^[36] 1971 va 1972 yillarda Deci tomonidan e'lon qilingan topilmalar tomonidan e'lon qilingan turli xil tadqiqotlarga ko'ra, aniq mukofotlar, aslida kollej o'quvchilarining ichki motivatsiyasiga putur etkazishi mumkin. Biroq, ushbu tadqiqotlar nafaqat kollej talabalariga ta'sir qilmadi, Kruglanski, Fridman va Zevi (1971) ushbu tadqiqotni takrorladilar va ramziy va moddiy mukofotlar nafaqat o'rta maktab o'quvchilariga, balki maktabgacha yoshdagi o'quvchilarga ham zarar etkazishi mumkinligini aniqladilar.

Ichki motivatsiyaga ega bo'lgan talabalar topshiriqni bajonidil bajara olishlari bilan birga, ularning malakalarini oshirish ustida ishlashadi, bu esa ularning imkoniyatlarini oshiradi.^[37] Talabalar ichki motivatsiyaga ega bo'lishlari mumkin, agar ular ...

• o'zlarining ta'lim natijalarini o'zlarining nazorati ostidagi omillarga, ya'ni avtonomiya yoki nazorat qilish joyi
• deb nomlanuvchi, kerakli maqsadlarga erishishda samarali agent bo'lish qobiliyatiga ega ekanligiga ishonaman o'z-o'zini samaradorligi e'tiqodlar
• nafaqat yaxshi ko'rsatkichlarga erishishdan, balki mavzuni o'zlashtirishdan manfaatdor
• bosimdan emas, balki qiziqishdan harakat qil

Ichki motivatsiyaning misoli, xodimning IT-mutaxassisiga aylanishi, chunki u kompyuter foydalanuvchilari kompyuter tarmoqlari bilan o'zaro aloqalarini o'rganishni xohlaydi. Xodim ko'proq bilim olish uchun ichki motivatsiyaga ega va muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchragan taqdirda ham o'rganishni istaydi.^[38] San'at uchun san'at san'at sohasidagi ichki motivatsiyaning namunasidir.

An'anaga ko'ra, tadqiqotchilar kompyuter tizimlaridan foydalanish motivlari, asosan, tashqi maqsadlar tomonidan boshqarilishi haqida o'ylashdi; ammo, zamonaviy tizimlarning ko'pchiligida ulardan foydalanish asosan ichki motivlar asosida amalga oshiriladi.^[39] Bunday tizimlarga, asosan, foydalanuvchilarning ichki motivatsiyasini bajarish uchun foydalaniladi, jumladan on-layn o'yinlar, virtual olamlar, onlayn xaridlar,^[40] ta'lim / ta'lim, onlayn tanishuv, raqamli musiqa omborlari, ijtimoiy tarmoq, onlayn pornografiya, o'yin tizimlari va umumiy gamifikatsiya. Hatto an'anaviy boshqaruv axborot tizimlari (masalan, ERP, CRM) ham tashqi, ham ichki turtki sifatida ko'rib chiqilishi kerak bo'lgan "o'yin" bo'lib kelmoqda. Decining topilmalari munozarasiz o'tmadi. Xulq-atvor nazariyasi nuqtai nazaridan 25 yil davom etgan maqolalarda ichki motivatsiyani tushuntirish uchun etarli dalillar yo'qligi va bu nazariyaning "ilmiy taraqqiyot" ga to'sqinlik qilishi ta'kidlangan. Yuqorida ta'kidlab o'tilganidek, biz hozirda kompyuter tizimlarining turli shakllari kabi juda yuqori texnologiyani ko'rishimiz mumkin.^[33]

Ichki turtki nafaqat shaxsiy sharoitda, balki ijtimoiy muhitda ham amalga oshirilishi va ishlatilishi mumkin. O'z-o'zidan erishish mumkin bo'lgan yuqorida ko'rsatilgan Internet kabi istaklarga erishish o'rniga, ichki motivatsiya maqsadga erishish uchun tashqi motivatsiyaga yordam berish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin. Masalan, 4 yoshli autizm bilan kasallangan Eli, o'yinchoq poyezdi bilan o'ynash maqsadiga erishmoqchi.^[41] O'yinchoqni olish uchun u avval terapevtiga o'zi xohlagan narsani etkazishi kerak. Uning o'ynash istagi ichki motivatsiya deb hisoblash uchun etarlicha kuchli, chunki bu tabiiy tuyg'u, va uning terapevti bilan poezdga borish uchun muloqot qilish istagi tashqi motivatsiya deb hisoblanishi mumkin, chunki tashqi ob'ekt mukofotdir (rag'batlantirish nazariyasiga qarang). Terapevt bilan muloqot birinchi bo'lib, poezd bilan o'ynashning katta maqsadiga erishish yo'lida turgan biroz qiyinroq maqsaddir. Ushbu maqsadlarga erishish mumkin bo'lgan qismlarga erishish, shuningdek, deb nomlanadi maqsadlarni belgilash nazariyasi. Maqsadni belgilash (STD) ning uchta elementi aniq, vaqt bilan chegaralangan va qiyin. Xususan, maqsadlar qiyinchiliklarning 90 foizida belgilanishi kerak.^[42]

Ichki motivatsiya maqsadga erishish yoki unga erishish istagidan kelib chiqadi.^[32] Muammolarni va maqsadlarni ta'qib qilish osonroq va yoqimli bo'ladi, chunki ma'lum bir maqsadni bajarish uchun ichki motivatsiya mavjud, chunki shaxs maqsadga erishishdan ko'ra ko'proq o'rganishga qiziqadi.^[36] Edvard Deci va Richard Rayanning ichki motivatsiya nazariyasi asosan ushbu hodisani "keltirib chiqaradigan va qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan" shartlarni o'rganib chiqadi.^[43] Detsi va Rayan malaka va muxtoriyat ehtiyojlariga yo'naltirilgan "bilimlarni baholash nazariyasi" atamasini ishlab chiqdilar. CET, asosan, teskari aloqa va mustahkamlash kabi ijtimoiy-kontekstli voqealar vakolatli tuyg'ularni keltirib chiqarishi va shuning uchun ichki motivatsiyani oshirishi mumkinligini ta'kidlaydi. Biroq, muxtoriyat hissi bo'lmasa, vakolatli tuyg'ular ichki motivatsiyani kuchaytirmaydi. Tanlovlar, hissiyotlar va imkoniyatlar mavjud bo'lgan vaziyatlarda ichki motivatsiya kuchayadi, chunki odamlar ko'proq avtonomiyalarni his qilishadi.^[43] Odamlarni tanlashga taklif qilish, ularning his-tuyg'ulariga javob berish va o'z-o'zini boshqarish uchun imkoniyatlar avtonomiyalarni oshirish orqali ichki motivatsiyani kuchaytirishi haqida xabar berilgan (Deci & Ryan, 1985).^[44][45]

Afzallik (tashqi motivatsiyaga nisbatan) ichki motivatorlar uzoq muddatli, o'zini o'zi ta'minlaydigan va qoniqtiradigan bo'lishi mumkin.^[34] Shu sababli, ta'limdagi sa'y-harakatlar ba'zan ichki motivatsiyani kelajakdagi talabalarning o'rganish samaradorligini, ijodkorligini va uzoq muddatli modifikatsiyalari orqali o'rganishni rivojlantirish maqsadida o'zgartirishga harakat qiladi. manfaatlar.^[32] Ichki motivatorlar taklif etiladi^{[kim tomonidan? ]} mukofotlash tuyg'usini kuchaytirishi va shu bilan qo'llab-quvvatlanishi mumkin sub'ektiv farovonlik.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Aksincha, ichki motivatsiyani o'zgartirish qiyinligi aniqlandi va mavjud ichki motivatorlarni jalb qilishga urinishlar unchalik ahamiyatli bo'lmagan individual yondashuvni talab qiladi, har xil talabalarni turtki berish uchun zarur bo'lgan turli xil motivatorlarni aniqlash va tegishli qilish;^[32] ehtimol o'qituvchidan qo'shimcha ko'nikmalar va ichki motivatsiyani talab qiladi.^[46]

Tashqi motivatsiya

Tashqi motivatsiya shaxsdan tashqaridagi ta'sirlardan kelib chiqadi. Tashqi motivatsiyada, odamlarning qayerdan turtki olishlari va qat'iylik bilan turtki berishni davom ettirishlari qiyinroq savolga javob berish qiyinroq. Odatda, tashqi motivatsiya insonning ichki motivatsiyasidan kelib chiqmaydigan natijalarga erishish uchun ishlatiladi.^[34] Umumiy tashqi motivlar mukofotlar (masalan, pul yoki baholar) kerakli xatti-harakatni ko'rsatgani uchun va noto'g'ri xatti-harakatlardan keyin jazo tahdidi. Raqobat tashqi motivator hisoblanadi, chunki u ijrochini g'alaba qozonishga va boshqalarni mag'lub etishga undaydi, shunchaki faoliyatning ichki mukofotlaridan bahramand bo'lish uchun emas. Quvnoq olomon va sovrin yutish istagi ham tashqi rag'batdir.^[47] Masalan, agar kimdir mukofot olish uchun sport tennisida o'ynasa, bu tashqi motivatsiya bo'ladi. VS. Shaxsiy o'yin, chunki u o'yinni yoqtiradi, bu ichki motivatsiya bo'ladi.^[32]

Tashqi va ichki motivatsiya o'rtasidagi eng oddiy farq bu harakatga olib keladigan sabablar yoki maqsadlarning turidir. Ichki motivatsiya biron bir narsani bajarishni tabiiy ravishda qiziqarli yoki yoqimli va qoniqarli bo'lganligi sababli anglatadi, tashqi motivatsiya, biron bir ishni bajarishni anglatadi, chunki bu ajralib turadigan natijaga olib keladi.^[34] Shunday qilib, tashqi motivatsiya ichki motivatsiyaga qarama-qarshi bo'lib, u bu ishni vositaviy ahamiyati uchun emas, balki shunchaki o'zi uchun lazzatlanish uchun amalga oshiradi.^[32]

Ijtimoiy psixologik tadqiqotlar tashqi mukofotlar olib kelishi mumkinligini ko'rsatdi haddan tashqari asoslash va keyinchalik ichki motivatsiyani kamaytirish. Ushbu effektni namoyish etgan bir tadqiqotda, rasmlarni chizish uchun lenta va oltin yulduz bilan mukofotlanishini kutgan (va) mukofotlangan bolalar kutilmagan mukofot shartiga tayinlangan bolalarga qaraganda keyingi kuzatuvlarda rasm materiallari bilan o'ynashga kam vaqt sarfladilar.^[48] Bu shuni ko'rsatadiki, agar shaxs mukofotni kutsa, ular natijasi haqida qayg'urmaydi. VS. agar biron bir kishi mukofot kutmasa, bu vazifa haqida ko'proq qayg'uradi.^[34] Ammo, yana bir tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, kitob bilan mukofotlangan uchinchi sinf o'quvchilari kelajakda ko'proq o'qish xatti-harakatlarini ko'rsatmoqdalar va ba'zi mukofotlar ichki motivatsiyaga putur etkazmasligini anglatadi.^[49] Tashqi mukofotlar berish faoliyatni maqsadga muvofiqligini kamaytirishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, faoliyatni amalga oshirishga qarshi jazo tahdidi kabi tashqi cheklovlardan foydalanish aslida ushbu faoliyatga ichki qiziqishni kuchaytirishi aniqlandi. Bir tadqiqotda, bolalarga jozibali o'yinchoq bilan o'ynashga nisbatan engil tahdidlar qilinganida, bu tahdid aslida o'yinchoqqa bo'lgan qiziqishini oshirishga xizmat qilganligi aniqlandi, bu tahdid bo'lmaganda bolaga ilgari nomaqbul bo'lgan.^[50]

Tashqi motivatorlarning afzalliklari shundaki, ular mehnat motivatsiyasini osonlikcha rag'batlantiradi va maqsadni bajarishda davom etadi. Mukofotlar aniq va foydalidir.^[34] Tashqi motivatorlarning ichki tomonga nisbatan kamchiliklari shundaki, tashqi mukofotlar olib tashlanganidan keyin ish uzoq davom etmaydi. Vazifani bajarish uchun topshiriq bajarilganligi sababli ish sifatini nazorat qilish kerak bo'lishi mumkin,^[32] va tashqi motivatorlar vaqt o'tishi bilan qiymatini pasaytirishi mumkinligi aytilgan.^[34]

Oqim nazariyasi

Oqim nazariyasi deganda, shaxs mahoratiga mos keladigan ba'zi bir qiyin mashg'ulotlarda to'liq qatnashganda, boshdan kechiriladigan kerakli sub'ektiv holat tushuniladi.^[51]

Mixali Csikszentmihalyi Oqim nazariyasini "insonlar shu qadar mashg'ul bo'ladiki, ular boshqa hech narsa ahamiyatli emasdek tuyuladi; tajriba shu qadar yoqimli bo'ladiki, odamlar buni amalga oshirish uchun juda katta xarajat evaziga buni davom ettirishadi".^[52]

Oqim nazariyasi g'oyasi birinchi marta Tsikszentmihalyi tomonidan kontseptsiya qilingan. Motivatsiya kontekstidagi oqim juda qiyin, asabiylashtiradigan yoki aqldan ozmaydigan yoki juda oson zerikarli va juda tez bajariladigan faoliyat sifatida qaralishi mumkin. Agar kishi mukammal oqimga erishgan bo'lsa, unda faoliyat maksimal potentsialga erishgan.^[52]

Oqim - bu baxt psixologiyasining ijobiy psixologiyasi deb ataladigan narsaning bir qismidir. Ijobiy psixologiya insonni baxtli qiladigan narsalarga qaraydi. Oqimni baxtga erishish yoki hech bo'lmaganda ijobiy his-tuyg'ularga erishish deb hisoblash mumkin. Jurnalda chop etilgan tadqiqot Hissiyot kollej talabalarining o'ynagan tajribasiga qaradi Tetris. Tashqi ko'rinishiga qarab baholanadigan talabalar kutib turing va Tetrisni o'ynang, deyishdi. Uch toifa mavjud edi; Oson, oddiy va qiyin. Tetrisni normal darajada o'ynagan talabalar oqimni boshdan kechirdilar va baho berishdan unchalik xavotirda edilar.^[53]

Csikszentmihalyi oqimning 8 xususiyatini vazifada to'liq kontsentratsiya, maqsadlar ravshanligi va mukofotni yodda tutish va zudlik bilan qayta aloqa, vaqtni o'zgartirish (vaqtni tezlashtirish / sekinlashtirish), tajriba ichki jihatdan foydali, osonlik va osonlik deb ta'riflaydi. qiyinchilik va ko'nikmalar, harakatlar va xabardorlik o'rtasidagi muvozanat birlashtirilib, o'z-o'zini anglashdan mahrum bo'lishni yo'qotadi, vazifani boshqarish hissi paydo bo'ladi.^[52]

Faoliyat endi maqsadga erishish vositasi sifatida qaraladigan narsaga aylanib qolmaydi va u shaxs xohlagan narsaga aylanadi. Buni yugurishdan juda katta quvonch uchun yugurishni yoqtiradigan kishi sifatida ko'rish mumkin, chunki ular buni jismoniy mashqlar uchun qilishlari kerakligi yoki ular bilan maqtanishni istashlari uchun emas. Har bir inson uchun eng yuqori oqim har xil bo'lishi mumkin. Oqimga erishish uchun faqat bir necha yil kerak bo'lishi mumkin yoki faqat bir lahzaga. Agar biron bir shaxs faoliyatni juda yaxshi bilsa, u zerikishi mumkin. Agar qiyinchilik juda qiyin bo'lsa, unda odam tushkunlikka tushib, uni tark etishni xohlaydi.^[54]

Behaviouristik nazariyalar

Motivatsiya bo'yicha ko'plab nazariyalar a mentalistik istiqbol, bixevioistlar faqat kuzatiladigan xatti-harakatlarga va eksperimental dalillarga asoslangan nazariyalarga e'tibor qarating. Bixeviorizm nuqtai nazaridan motivatsiya har xil xatti-harakatlarni keltirib chiqaradigan, oldini oladigan yoki ushlab turadigan omillar haqidagi savol sifatida tushuniladi, masalan, ongli motivlar masalasi e'tiborga olinmaydi. To'g'ridan-to'g'ri kuzatilmasligi mumkin bo'lgan qadriyatlar, disklar yoki ehtiyojlar kabi narsalar haqida boshqalar taxmin qilsa, bixevioistlar kuzatiladigan xatti-harakatlarning turiga, intensivligiga, chastotasiga va davomiyligiga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan kuzatiladigan o'zgaruvchilar bilan qiziqishadi. Kabi olimlarning asosiy tadqiqotlari orqali Pavlov, Vatson va Skinner, xulq-atvorni boshqaradigan bir necha asosiy mexanizmlar aniqlandi. Ulardan eng muhimi klassik konditsioner va operantli konditsionerdir.

Klassik va operatsion konditsioner

Yilda klassik (yoki javob beradigan) konditsioner, xulq-atvor ma'lum atrof-muhit yoki jismoniy ogohlantirishlar keltirib chiqaradigan javoblar sifatida tushuniladi. Ular bo'lishi mumkin shartsiz, masalan, tug'ma reflekslar yoki shartsiz stimulni boshqa turtki bilan juftlashtirish orqali o'rganilib, keyinchalik shartli stimulga aylanadi. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations.^[55][56] For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist.

Yilda operatsion konditsionerligi, the type and frequency of behaviour are determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behaviour, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a mustahkamlovchi ), the emitted behaviour will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behaviour (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behaviour is followed by something undesirable (a jazolaydigan ), the behaviour is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, the removal of a stimulus directly following the behaviour might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behaviour in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment).^[55][56] For instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future (ijobiy mustahkamlash ); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future (salbiy jazo ). If a student starts to cause trouble in the class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention (ijobiy jazo ), that behaviour would decrease in the future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention (salbiy mustahkamlash ).

The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on jadval and timing. A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behaviour most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behaviour. A behaviour that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to one that is reinforced every time the behaviour is performed.^[55][56] For example, if the misbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after the troublesome behaviour, that might not affect future behaviour.

In addition to these basic principles, environmental stimuli also affect behavior. Behaviour is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behaviour was performed, which means that a particular behaviour might not be affected in every environmental context, or situation, after it is punished or reinforced in one specific context.^[55][56] A lack of praise for school-related behaviour might, for instance, not decrease after-school sports-related behaviour that is usually reinforced by praise.

The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviours by examining what happens just after the behaviour (the consequence), in what context the behaviour is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators).^[55][56]

Incentive motivation

Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation. Compensation can be tangible or intangible, It helps in motivating the employees in their corporate life, students in academics, and inspire them to do more and more to achieve profitability in every field. Studies show that if the person receives the sovrin immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

"Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behaviour differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intention that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract" a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.^[57]

Motivating operations

Motivating operations, MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behaviour that are not covered by operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence future behavior. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behaviour of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affect the current behaviour of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation.

Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behaviour in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behaviour that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.^[55]

When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer or amplifies a learned behaviour in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration, or speed of the behaviour), it functions as an establishing operation, EO. A common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviours previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviours would be especially strongly reinforced.^[55] For instance, a fast-food worker earning minimal wage, forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated by a pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishing operation). The worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting the raise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behaviour.

Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behaviour related to the reinforcer, functions as an abolishing operation, AO. Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviours, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food.^[55] Consider the board of a large investment bank, concerned with a too small profit margin, deciding to give the CEO a new incentive package in order to motivate him to increase firm profits. If the CEO already has a lot of money, the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because he would be satiated on the money. Getting even more money wouldn't be a strong reinforcer for profit-increasing behaviour, and wouldn't elicit increased intensity, frequency, or duration of profit-increasing behaviour.

Motivation and psychotherapy

Motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. A person with autism-spectrum the disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviours – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people. Depressiya is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to the extinction of behavior in the depressed individual. A patient with o'ziga xos fobiya is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement). In accordance, therapies have been designed to address these problems, such as EIBI va KBT for major depression and specific phobia.

Ijtimoiy-madaniy nazariya

Sociocultural theory (also known as Social Motivation) emphasizes the impact of activity and actions mediated through social interaction, and within social contexts. Sociocultural theory represents a shift from traditional theories of motivation, which view the individual's innate drives or mechanistic operand learning as primary determinants of motivation. Critical elements to socio-cultural theory applied to motivation include, but are not limited to, the role of social interactions and the contributions from culturally-based knowledge and practice.^[42] Sociocultural theory extends the social aspects of Cognitive Evaluation Theory, which espouses the important role of positive feedback from others during the action,^[34] but requires the individual as the internal locus of causality. Sociocultural theory predicts that motivation has an external locus of causality, and is socially distributed among the social group.^[42]

Motivation can develop through an individual's involvement within their cultural group. Personal motivation often comes from activities a person believes to be central to the everyday occurrences in their community.^[58] An example of socio-cultural theory would be social settings where people work together to solve collective problems. Although individuals will have internalized goals, they will also develop internalized goals of others, as well as new interests and goals collectively with those that they feel socially connected to.^[59] Oftentimes, it is believed that all cultural groups are motivated in the same way. However, motivation can come from different child-rearing practices and cultural behaviors that greatly vary between cultural groups.

In some indigenous cultures, collaboration between children and adults in the community and household tasks is seen as very important^[60] A child from an indigenous community may spend a great deal of their time alongside family and community members doing different tasks and chores that benefit the community. After having seen the benefits of collaboration and work, and also have the opportunity to be included, the child will be intrinsically motivated to participate in similar tasks. In this example, because the adults in the community do not impose the tasks upon the children, the children therefore feel self-motivated and a desire to participate and learn through the task.^[61] As a result of the community values that surround the child, their source of motivation may vary from a different community with different values.

In more Westernized communities, where segregation between adults and children participating in work-related tasks is a common practice. As a result of this, these adolescents demonstrate less internalized motivation to do things within their environment than their parents. However, when the motivation to participate in activities is a prominent belief within the family, the adolescents autonomy is significantly higher. This therefore demonstrating that when collaboration and non-segregative tasks are norms within a child's upbringing, their internal motivation to participate in community tasks increases.^[62] When given opportunities to work collaboratively with adults on shared tasks during childhood, children will therefore become more intrinsically motivated through adulthood.^[63]

Social motivation is tied to one's activity in a group. It cannot form from a single mind alone. For example, bowling alone is naught but the dull act of throwing a ball into pins, and so people are much less likely to smile during the activity alone, even upon getting a strike because their satisfaction or dissatisfaction does not need to be communicated, and so it is internalized. However, when with a group, people are more inclined to smile regardless of their results because it acts as a positive communication that is beneficial for pleasurable interaction and teamwork.^[59] Thus the act of bowling becomes a social activity as opposed to a dull action because it becomes an exercise in interaction, competition, team building, and sportsmanship. It is because of this phenomenon that studies have shown that people are more intrigued in performing mundane activities so long as there is company because it provides the opportunity to interact in one way or another, be it for bonding, amusement, collaboration, or alternative perspectives.^[59] Examples of activities that one may not be motivated to do alone but could be done with others for the social benefit are things such as throwing and catching a baseball with a friend, making funny faces with children, building a treehouse, and performing a debate.

Push and pull

Durang

Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction.^[64]

However, with push motivation, it's also easy to get discouraged when there are obstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation acts as a willpower and people's willpower is only as strong as the desire behind the willpower.^[65]

Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and its push and pull effects. One thing that is mentioned is "Regret and dissatisfaction correspond to push factors because regret and dissatisfaction are the negative factors that compel users to leave their current service provider."^[66] So from reading this, we now know that Push motivations can also be a negative force. In this case, that negative force is regret and dissatisfaction.

Torting

Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much stronger. "Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity to travel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation facilities, and cultural attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation, such as novelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image."^[64] Pull motivation can be seen as the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the goal is pulling us toward it. That is why pull motivation is stronger than push motivation. It is easier to be drawn to something rather than to push yourself for something you desire.It can also be an alternative force when compared to negative force. From the same study as previously mentioned, "Regret and dissatisfaction with an existing SNS service provider may trigger a heightened interest toward switching service providers, but such a motive will likely translate into reality in the presence of a good alternative. Therefore, alternative attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret and dissatisfaction with switching intention"^[66] And so, pull motivation can be an attracting desire when negative influences come into the picture.

O'zligini boshqara olish

The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of hissiy aql;^[67] it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as measured by many traditional razvedka sinovlari ), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavours. Vroom's "expectancy theory " provides an account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a particular goal.

Drayvlar

A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.^[68] These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.

Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival.^[69] The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire.^[69] The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called Dehidroepiandrosteron (DHEA).^[69] The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone.^{[69][tekshirish uchun kotirovka kerak ]} Men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than women to think about sex.^{[69][tekshirish uchun kotirovka kerak ]}

Drive-reduction theory

Drayv nazariyasi grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. Tomonidan yaratilgan Klark Xall va undan keyingi tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Kenneth Spence, the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull's original theory or were focused on providing alternatives to the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach.^[70]

Drive theory has some intuitive validity. For instance, when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger.^[71] There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate^{[qaysi? ]}.

Cognitive dissonance theory

As suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} For example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves.

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. The cognitive miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in ijtimoiy psixologiya.

Temporal motivation theory

A recent approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is temporal motivation theory.^[72] Introduced in a 2006 Menejmentni ko'rib chiqish akademiyasi maqola,^[73] it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects of several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. It simplifies the field of motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated into terms of another. Another journal article that helped to develop the Temporal Motivation Theory, "The Nature of Procrastination,^[74] " received American Psychological Association's Jorj A. Miller award for outstanding contribution to general science.

${displaystyle mathrm {Motivation} ={frac {mbox{Expectancy × Value}}{mbox{1 + Impulsiveness × Delay}}}}$

qayerda Motivatsiya is the desire for a particular outcome, Kutish yoki o'z-o'zini samaradorligi is the probability of success, Qiymat is the reward associated with the outcome, Impulsiveness is the individual's sensitivity to delay and Kechiktirish is the time to realization.^[74]

Yutuq motivatsiyasi

Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise that performance motivation results from the way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches as yutuqqa bo'lgan ehtiyoj^[75] with, for example, social motives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance and achievement motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and others.^[76][77]

Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement Motivation Inventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and attributing success to effort.^[78]

Achievement motivation was studied intensively by Devid C. Makklelland, Jon V. Atkinson and their colleagues since the early 1950s.^[79] This type of motivation is a drive that is developed from an emotional state. One may feel the drive to achieve by striving for success and avoiding failure. In achievement motivation, one would hope that they excel in what they do and not think much about the failures or the negatives.^[80] Their research showed that business managers who were successful demonstrated a high need to achieve no matter the culture. There are three major characteristics of people who have a great need to achieve according to McClelland's research.

1. They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assume responsibility for solving problems.
2. They would take a calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.
3. They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for them to know how well they are doing.^[81]

Cognitive theories

Kognitiv theories define motivation in terms of how people think about situations. Cognitive theories of motivation include goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.

Maqsadlarni belgilash nazariyasi

Goal-setting theory is based on the idea that individuals have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a sovrin o'z-o'zidan. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty, and specificity. One common goal setting methodology incorporates the SMART criteria, in which goals are: specific, measurable, attainable/achievable, relevant, and time-bound. Time management is an important aspect, when regarding time as a contributing factor to goal achievement. Having too much time allows for distraction and procrastination, which also serves as a distraction to the subject by steering their attention away from the original goal. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the beginning of the effort and the end state is close.^[82] With an overly restricting time restraint, the subject could potentially feel overwhelmed, which could deter the subject from achieving the goal because the amount of time provided is not sufficient or rational.^[83] This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard, or too easy to complete.^[83]

Most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time, people want to feel that there is a substantial ehtimollik that they will succeed. The goal should be objectively defined and understandable for the individual.^[82] Xuddi shunday Maslow 's Hierarchy of Needs, a larger end goal is easier to achieve if the subject has smaller, more attainable yet still challenging goals to achieve first in order to advance over a period of time.^[83] A classic example of a poorly specified goal is trying to motivate oneself to run a marafon when s/he has not had proper training. A smaller, more attainable goal is to first motivate oneself to take the stairs instead of an elevator or to replace a stagnant activity, like watching television, with a mobile one, like spending time walking and eventually working up to a jog.^{[eslatma 1]}

Kutish nazariyasi

Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theory explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal.

There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows:

${displaystyle { ext{M}}={ ext{E}} imes { ext{I}} imes { ext{V}}}$ yoki

${displaystyle { ext{Motivation}}={ ext{Expectancy}} imes { ext{Instrumentality}} imes { ext{Valence}}}$^[84]

• M (Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the condition or environment they placed themselves in. Which is based on the following hence the equation.
• E (Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, it's the person's assessment of how well and what kind of effort will relate to better performance.
• I (Instrumentality) is the person's perception that performance will be rewarded or punished.
• V (Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance."^[84]

Keyinga qoldirish; kechiktirish

Procrastination is the act to voluntarily postpone or delay an intended course of action despite anticipating that you will be worse off because of that delay.^[51] While procrastination was once seen as a harmless habit, recent studies indicate otherwise. In a 1997 study conducted by Dianne Tice and William James Fellow Roy Baumeister at Case Western University, college students were given ratings on an established scale of procrastination and tracked their academic performance, stress, and health throughout the semester. While procrastinators experienced some initial benefit in the form of lower stress levels (presumably by putting off their work at first), they ultimately earned lower grades and reported higher levels of stress and illness.^[85]

Procrastination can be seen as a defense mechanism.^[86] Because it is less demanding to simply avoid a task instead of dealing with the possibility of failure, procrastinators choose the short-term gratification of delaying a task over the long-term uncertainty of undertaking it. Procrastination can also be a justification for when the user ultimately has no choice but to undertake a task and performs below their standard. For example, a term paper could be seen as a daunting task. If the user puts it off until the night before, they can justify their poor score by telling themselves that they would have done better with more time. This kind of justification is extremely harmful and only helps to perpetuate the cycle of procrastination.^[87]

Over the years, scientists have determined that not all procrastination is the same. The first type is chronic procrastinators whom exhibit a combination of qualities from the other, more specialized types of procrastinators. "Arousal" types are usually self-proclaimed "pressure performers" and relish the exhilaration of completing tasks close to the deadline. "Avoider" types procrastinate to avoid the outcome of whatever task they are pushing back - whether it be a potential failure or success. "Avoider" types are usually very self-conscious and care deeply about other people's opinions. Lastly, "Decisional" procrastinators avoid making decisions in order to protect themselves from the responsibility that follows the outcome of events.^{[88][tekshirib bo'lmadi ]}

Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and iroda. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral niyatlar. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in orkestratsiya to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived o'z-o'zini samaradorligi. Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action.

Jon V. Atkinson, David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of "Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies toward specific actions.^[89][90] The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when the tendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendency currently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as performing an action. In this theory, there are three causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior:

1. Instigation (Ts) – increases tendency when an activity has an intrinsic ability to satisfy;
2. Inhibition (Taf) – decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing an activity; va
3. Consummation – decreases a tendency as it is performed.^[91][92]

Thematic apperception test

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by American psychologists Genri A.Murrey and Christina D. Morgan at Harvard during the early 1930s. Their underlying goal was to test and discover the dynamics of personality such as internal conflict, dominant drives, and motives. Testing is derived from asking the individual to tell a story, given 31 pictures that they must choose ten to describe. To complete the assessment, each story created by the test subject must be carefully recorded and monitored to uncover underlying needs and patterns of reactions each subject perceives. After evaluation, two common methods of research, Defense Mechanisms Manual (DMM) and Social Cognition and Object Relations (SCOR), are used to score each test subject on different dimensions of the object and relational identification. From this, the underlying dynamics of each specific personality and specific motives and drives can be determined.

Atribut nazariyasi

Attribution theory describes individual's motivation to formulate explanatory attributions ("reasons") for events they experience, and how these beliefs affect their emotions and motivations.^[93] Attributions are predicted to alter behavior, for instance attributing failure on a test to a lack of study might generate emotions of shame and motivate harder study. Important researchers include Fritz Xayder va Bernard Vayner. Weiner's theory differentiates intrapersonal and interpersonal perspectives. Intrapersonal includes self-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonal perspective includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and emotions directed at other people, for instance attributing blame to another individual.^[94]

Approach versus avoidance

Approach motivation (i.e., rag'batlantirish ) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is mukofotlandi or results in a positive or desirable outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation (i.e., aversive salience ) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a negative or undesirable outcome.^[95][96] Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations. Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain.^[95]

Conditioned taste aversion.

“A strong dislike (nausea reaction) for food because of prior Association with of that food with nausea or upset stomach.”^[10]

Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.^[10]

Unconscious Motivation

Uning kitobida A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud explained his theory on the conscious-unconscious distinction.^[97] To explain this relationship, he used a two-room metaphor. The smaller of the two rooms is filled with a person's preconscious, which is the thoughts, emotions, and memories that are available to a person's consciousness. This room also houses a person's consciousness, which is the part of the preconscious that is the focus at that given time. Connected to the small room is a much larger room that houses a person's unconscious. This part of the mind is unavailable to a person's consciousness and consists of impulses and repressed thoughts. The door between these two rooms acts as the person's mental censor. Its job is to keep anxiety-inducing thoughts and socially unacceptable behaviors or desires out of the preconscious. Freud describes the event of a thought or impulse being denied at the door as repression, one of the many defense mechanisms. This process is supposed to protect the individual from any embarrassment that could come from acting on these impulses or thoughts that exist in the unconscious.

In terms of motivation, Freud argues that unconscious instinctual impulses can still have great influence on behavior even though the person is not aware of the source.^[98] When these instincts serve as a motive, the person is only aware of the goal of the motive, and not its actual source. He divides these instincts into sexual instincts, death instincts, and ego or self-preservation instincts. Sexual instincts are those that motivate humans to stay alive and ensure the continuation of mankind. On the other hand, Freud also maintains that humans have an inherent drive for self-destruction, or the death instinct. Similar to the devil and angel that everyone has on their should, the sexual instinct and death instinct are constantly battling each other to both be satisfied. The death instinct can be closely related to Freud's other concept, the id, which is our need to experience pleasure immediately, regardless of the consequences. The last type of instinct that contributes to motivation is the ego or self-preservation instinct. This instinct is geared towards assuring that a person feels validated in whatever behavior or thought they have. The mental censor, or door between the unconscious and preconscious, helps satisfy this instinct. For example, one may be sexually attracted to a person, due to their sexual instinct, but the self-preservation instinct prevents them to act on this urge until that person finds that it is socially acceptable to do so. Quite similarly to his psychic theory that deals with the id, ego, and superego, Freud's theory of instincts highlights the interdependence of these three instincts. All three instincts serve as checks and balances system to control what instincts are acted on and what behaviors are used to satisfy as many of them at once.

Astarlash

Priming is a phenomenon, often used as an experimental technique, whereby a specific stimulus sensitizes the subject to later presentation of a similar stimulus.^[99]

“Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli, resulting from prior exposure to related visual or audio messages. When an individual is exposed to the word “cancer,” for example, and then offered the choice to smoke a cigarette, we expect that there is a greater probability that they will choose not to smoke as a result of the earlier exposure.”^[100]

Priming can affect motivation, in the way that we can be motived to do things by an outside source.

Priming can be linked with the mere exposure theory. People tend to like things that they have been exposed to before. Mere exposer theory is used by advertising companies to get people to buy their products. An example of this is seeing a picture of the product on a sign and then buying that product later. If an individual is in a room with two strangers they are more likely to gravitate towards the person that they occasionally pass on the street, than the person that they have never seen before. An example of the use of mere exposure theory can be seen in product placements in movies and TV shows. We see a product that our is in our favorite movie, and we are more inclined to buy that product when we see it again.^[101]

Priming can fit into these categories; Semantic Priming, Visual Priming, Response Priming, Perceptual and Conceptual Priming, Positive and Negative Priming, Associative and Context Priming, and Olfactory Priming. Visual and Semantic priming is the most used in motivation. Most priming is linked with emotion, the stronger the emotion, the stronger the connection between memory and the stimuli.^[100]

Priming also has an effect on drug users. In this case, it can be defined as, the reinstatement or increase in drug craving by a small dose of the drug or by stimuli associated with the drug. If a former drug user is in a place where they formerly did drugs, then they are tempted to do that same thing again even if they have been clean for years.^[10]

Conscious Motivation

Freud relied heavily upon the theories of unconscious motivation as explained above, but Allport (a researcher in 1967) looked heavily into the powers of conscious motivation and the effect it can have upon goals set for an individual. This is not to say that unconscious motivation should be ignored with this theory, but instead, it focuses on the thought that if we are aware of our surroundings and our goals, we can then actively and consciously take steps towards them.^[102]

He also believed that there are three hierarchical tiers of personality traits that affect this motivation:^[102]

1. Cardinal traits: Rare, but strongly determines a set behavior and can't be changed
2. Central traits: Present around certain people, but can be hidden
3. Secondary traits: Present in all people, but strongly reliant on context- can be altered as needed and would be the focus of a conscious motivation effort.

Ruhiy charchoq

Ruhiy charchoq is being tired, exhausted, or not functioning effectively. Not wanting to proceed further with the current mental course of action is in contrast with physical fatigue, because in most cases no physical activity is done.^[103] This is best seen in the workplace or schools. A perfect example of mental fatigue is seen in college students just before finals approach. One will notice that students start eating more than they usually do and care less about interactions with friends and classmates. Mental fatigue arises when an individual becomes involved in a complex task but does no physical activity and is still worn out, the reason for this is because the brain uses about 20 percent of the human body's metabolic heart rate. The brain consumes about 10.8 calories every hour. Meaning that a typical human adult brain runs on about twelve watts of electricity or a fifth of the power need to power a standard light bulb.^[104] These numbers represent an individual's brain working on routine tasks, things that are not challenging. One study suggests that after engaging in a complex task, an individual tends to consume about two hundred more calories than if they had been resting or relaxing; however, this appeared to be due to stress, not higher caloric expenditure. ^[104]

The symptoms of mental fatigue can range from low motivation and loss of concentration to the more severe symptoms of headaches, dizziness, and impaired decision making and judgment. Mental fatigue can affect an individual's life by causing a lack of motivation, avoidance of friends and family members, and changes in one's mood. To treat mental fatigue, one must figure out what is causing the fatigue. Once the cause of the stress has been identified the individual must determine what they can do about it. Most of the time mental fatigue can be fixed by a simple life change like being more organized or learning to say no.^[105] Tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra: simpatik giperaktivlik bilan bog'liq bo'lgan uzoq muddatli bilim yukidan kelib chiqadigan ruhiy charchoq, "parasempatik faollikning pasayishi va nisbiy simpatik faollikning oshishi sog'lom kattalardagi uzoq muddatli bilim yukidan kelib chiqadigan aqliy charchoq bilan bog'liq.^[106]”Bu shuni anglatadiki, hech qanday jismoniy faollik qilinmagan bo'lsa-da, simpatik asab tizimi ishga tushirildi. Ruhiy charchoqni boshdan kechirayotgan kishi o'zini tinch his qilmaydi, balki stressning jismoniy alomatlarini his qiladi.

Mehnatsevarlikni o'rgangan

Mehnatsevarlikni o'rgandi nazariya - bu jismoniy yoki aqliy harakatni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun erishilgan qobiliyat haqida nazariya. Bundan tashqari, sub'ektiv charchoqni kuchaytirganiga qaramay, uni qat'iy deb ta'riflash mumkin.^[103] Bu katta yoki katta mukofot uchun oxirigacha o'tish qobiliyati. Rag'batlantirish qanchalik ahamiyatli yoki foydaliroq bo'lsa, shaxs vazifani oxiriga etkazish uchun shuncha ko'p qilishga tayyor.^[107] Bu kollej o'quvchilarining aspiranturada o'qishining sabablaridan biridir^{[iqtibos kerak ]}. Talabalar eskirgan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo ular maktabdan tashqarida ko'proq maoshli ish topish uchun ko'proq maktabni o'qishga tayyor.

Manbalar

• McGregor, D. (1960). Korxonaning insoniy tomoni. Nyu York, 21.

Izohlar

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