Edgar S. Gorrell - Edgar S. Gorrell

Edgar S. Gorrell
1-aerokoskadra - Meksikadagi uchuvchilar (qisqartirilgan) .jpg
Gorrell Kasas Grandes yaqinidagi dala shtab-kvartirasida, Meksika, 1916 yil aprel
Tug'ilgan kunning ismiEdgar Steyli Gorrell
Taxallus (lar)"Tush"
Tug'ilgan(1891-02-03)1891 yil 3-fevral
Baltimor, Merilend
O'ldi1945 yil 5-mart(1945-03-05) (54 yoshda)
Vashington, Kolumbiya
Dafn etilgan joy
Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari harbiy akademiyasi
Sadoqat Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari
Xizmat /filialAQSh - Armiya piyodalari Insignia.png Piyoda askarlari, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari armiyasi
Insignia signal.svg Aviatsiya bo'limi, Signal Corps
Prop va wings.svg Havo xizmati, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari armiyasi
Xizmat qilgan yillari1912–1920
RankUS-O6 insignia.svg Polkovnik
Birlik1-aerokoskadra
Buyruqlar bajarildiYo'q
Janglar / urushlarJazo ekspeditsiyasi
Birinchi jahon urushi
MukofotlarArmiyada xizmat ko'rsatganligi uchun medal
Boshqa ishlarPrezident, Stutz motor kompaniyasi
Prezident, Amerikaning havo transporti assotsiatsiyasi

Edgar Steyli Gorrell (1891 yil 3 fevral - 1945 yil 5 mart) amerikalik harbiy ofitser, aviatsiya kashshofi, tarixchi, ishlab chiqarish bo'yicha tadbirkor va advokat edi. aviakompaniya sanoati. U sakkiz yil xizmat qildi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari armiyasi, ularning aksariyati Havo xizmati, bo'lish a polkovnik davomida 27 yoshida Birinchi jahon urushi. U armiyani 1920 yilda xususiy biznesga kirish uchun tark etdi avtomobilsozlik, keyin xususiy uylarning ommaviy qurilishini moliyalashtirish uchun qisqa vaqt ichida o'zining investitsiya kompaniyasini boshqaradi. Umrining so'nggi to'qqiz yilida u birinchi prezident bo'lgan Amerikaning havo transporti assotsiatsiyasi (ATA), a savdo uyushmasi bag'ishlangan aviakompaniya xavfsizligi va sanoatning iqtisodiy o'sishi.

1912 yil bitiruvchisi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari harbiy akademiyasi, Gorrell piyoda askarlarda majburiy ravishda ikki yil xizmat qildi Aviatsiya bo'limi, Signal Corps 1915 yilda u harbiy aviatorga aylandi. Uning yagona uchish vazifasi 1-aerokoskadra, armiyaning birinchi aviatsiya bo'limi, u tarkibida Meksikaga borgan Jazo ekspeditsiyasi. Kampaniya davomida fosh etilgan Amerika harbiy aviatsiyasidagi kamchiliklar Gorrellning tayinlanishiga olib keldi MIT, u erda aviatsiya muhandisligi bo'yicha yuqori darajaga erishdi. Uning texnik tajribasi uning tarkibiga kiritilishiga olib keldi Bolling missiyasi AQShning ochilish oylarida Birinchi jahon urushi, keyin bilan xodimlarning vazifalari Amerika ekspeditsiya kuchlari. U 1916 yil iyul va 1918 yil oktyabr oylari orasida birinchi leytenantdan polkovnik darajasiga qadar urush davridagi aviator sifatida tezda ko'tarildi.

Gorrell kontseptsiyasining dastlabki advokati edi strategik bombardimon, 1917 yil noyabr oyida nemis qurol-yarog 'sanoatiga qarshi doimiy kecha-kunduzgi kampaniyani taklif qiladigan xodimlar ishini topshirdi. Qog'oz ilgari ingliz rejalashtiruvchilari tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan tushunchalarga juda qarzdor edi, ammo u hech qachon urush paytida amalga oshirilmadi. "Amerikaning havo kuchlarini ishga solish kontseptsiyasining eng qadimgi, aniq ... bayonoti" deb ta'riflangan[1] tomonidan qabul qilingan strategik bombardimon qilish doktrinasi uchun asos bo'ldi Havo korpusi 20 yil o'tib, va nihoyat yaratilish asoslari Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari havo kuchlari alohida harbiy xizmat sifatida.[2] Urush harakatlarining yakunida Gorrell shtab boshlig'ining yordamchisi etib tayinlandi AEF havo xizmati rasmiy shaxsni tuzish va to'ldirish uchun javobgarlik bilan Havo xizmati tarixi, AEF, urush paytida uning barcha tashkiliy, operatsion va texnik faoliyatini qamrab olgan. Tarix oxir-oqibat 280 indekslangan jildni tashkil etdi va odatda "Gorrell tarixi" nomi bilan mashhur bo'ldi.

ATA boshlig'i sifatida Gorrell barqaror o'sishni ta'minlash uchun aviakompaniyalarni tartibga solishni qo'llab-quvvatladi va shuningdek, urush davrida aviakompaniyalardan foydalanish uchun strategiyani ishlab chiqdi harbiy havo transporti harakat. Uning butun dunyo bo'ylab havo transportini ta'minlash uchun hukumat shartnomasi bo'yicha aviakompaniyalardan foydalanish haqidagi g'oyalari Prezidentni fikridan qaytarish uchun etarli edi Franklin D. Ruzvelt dan milliylashtirish Amerikaning ishtiroki boshlanishida mamlakatning rejalashtirilgan aviakompaniyalari Ikkinchi jahon urushi.[3]

Ta'lim va oilaviy munosabatlar

Gorrell Charlz Edgar Gorrell va Pameliya Stivenson Smitning o'g'li edi. Uning otasi duradgor bo'lgan Baltimor, Merilend. Uning boshlang'ich ta'limi Baltimor shahridagi maktablarda bo'lgan va u o'rta maktabda tahsil olgan Baltimor shahar kolleji 1904 yildan 1908 yilgacha. Gorrell tanlov uchun imtihonlarni topshirdi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari harbiy akademiyasi West Point, Nyu-Yorkda va tomonidan tayinlangan AQSh senatori Isidor Rayner 1912 yil sinfiga. Harbiy xizmat paytida u shuningdek aspiranturani tugatgan aviatsiya muhandisligi da Massachusets texnologiya instituti 1916 yil sentyabrdan 1917 yil aprelgacha a Ilmiy magistr 1917 yil iyulda diplom. Shuningdek, u faxriy mukofotga sazovor bo'ldi Fan doktori dan Norvich universiteti va uning vasiylik kengashida ishlagan.[4]

1920 yilda fuqarolik hayotiga qaytganidan so'ng, u uzoq vaqtdan beri tanish bo'lgan Rut Maurisga uylandi Nyu-York, Nyu-York, 1921 yil 10-dekabrda. Uning rafiqasi kimyo bo'yicha imtiyozli diplomni oldi Shirin Briar kolleji va aspiranturada ishlagan Kornell universiteti tibbiyot kolleji, bo'lish a klinik patolog. Ularning 1931 yilda Edgar Steyli Gorrell, kichik o'g'li bor edi. Gorrell 1945 yil 5 martda Vashingtonda to'satdan vafot etishidan biroz oldin, ikkinchi marta uylandi, yurak xurujidan,[5] Meri O'Dowd Weidmanga.[4]

Harbiy martaba

G'arbiy nuqta

Gorrell va 1912 yilgi USMA sinfining asosiy qismi akademiyaga 1908 yil 2 martda "yangi kursantlar sinfi" sifatida qabul qilindi. Gorrell bir oy oldin 17 yoshga to'lgan edi. Ularning dastlabki o'qitish kurslari 10 iyungacha davom etdi. 1908 yil Rasmiy registr 1 iyuldan boshlab o'quv yili uchun to'rtinchi sinfga o'tib ketgan 112 yangi kursantlar orasidan umumiy ko'rsatkichlari bo'yicha 34-o'rinni egallab, ro'yxati bo'yicha 3-o'rinni egallab, dastlabki davrda atigi 2 ta kamchilikni hisoblab chiqdi. U matematikadan sinfining yuqori yarmida bo'lgan va ingliz tilida 23-o'rinni egallagan. Gorrell Kadetlar Korpusining S kompaniyasiga tayinlangan.[6]

Akademiyada to'rt yil davomida Gorrell o'zining nisbiy sinfini saqlab qoldi va akademiklarning yuqori yarmini doimiy ravishda yakunladi. U o'quv dasturining barcha harbiy jihatlaridan ustun bo'lib, birinchi bo'lib ikki marotaba yakunlandi[7] (va birinchi bo'lib USMA-da to'rt yil davomida) va uning davrida bo'lgan 7-dan past bo'lmagan plebe yili.[8] U, shuningdek, burg'ulash qoidalari bo'yicha birinchi o'rinni egalladi.[9] U har bir sinf yilida kadetlar safida o'sdi,[10] u "S" kompaniyasining kapitani bo'lishga da'vo qilgan va'dasini bajarib.[11] U 1912 yil 12-iyunda bitirgan va 95 sinfdoshi orasida 32-o'rinni egallagan.[9]

Balandligi kichkina, ozg'in va bolalarga o'xshab ko'rinadigan unga "Nap" ("lotin") laqabini berishdi.Napoleon ") sinfdoshlari tomonidan uning harbiy qobiliyatini e'tirof etish uchun. Gorrell o'zini engil atletika bilan mashg'ul qildi futbol, yengil atletika va kurash yuqori sinf o'quvchisi sifatida joylashishdan oldin jamoalar keng so'z u ham uch yil davomida boshqargan tarkib. Kabi "birinchi "U individual so'zlashuvlar chempionatida g'olib bo'ldi.[11][n 1]

Gorrell hayotidagi eng shakllantiruvchi voqealardan biri uning "bir yillik" yilining oxirlarida sodir bo'lgan. 1910 yil 29 may kuni ertalab soat o'nlarda, kursant kapital Gorrell tarixdagi voqeani ko'rishga harakat qilayotgan ko'plab kursantlarga qo'shildi. Kashshof aviator Glenn Kurtiss o'rtasida AQShda birinchi haqiqiy parvozni amalga oshirmoqchi bo'lgan Albani va Nyu-York shahri.[n 2] Bir soat oldin, akademiya xodimlarining birortasi yonilg'i quyish to'xtagan paytda Kurtissga qo'ng'iroq qildi Poughkeepsie kursantlar hunarmandchilikni tekshirishi uchun uni parad maydonchasiga qo'nishga undaydi, ammo rad etildi. Keyin korpus yig'ilgan edi Trophy Point.[12]

Kurtiss yaqinlashdi Bo'ron King tog'i akademiyadan shimolga (6,4 km) to'rt mil (610 m) masofada, daradagi shamol oqimlaridan ehtiyot bo'ling. Biroq, shamol tufayli u samolyot boshqaruvini bir zumda yo'qotib qo'ydi va samolyot tez tushib ketdi. U deyarli hunarmandchilikdan chiqarib yuborilgandan so'ng o'zini tikladi, ammo og'ir va pastga tushish davom etdi. U balandlikdan atigi 12 metr balandlikka tushdi Hudson daryosi tinchroq havoni topish umidida. Ko'plab kursantlar, shu qatorda Gorrell burilish burchagining narigi tomonidagi Kullum Xollga yugurishdi, u erda ular samolyotni nuqta atrofini aniq ko'rishlari mumkin edi. Gorrell va boshqalar kepkalarini silkitib, qizg'in futbol xursandchiligini Kurtiss o'tib ketayotganida aniq kuzatdi. Gorrell shu paytdan boshlab u armiyada aviator bo'lishga qaror qilganligini aytdi.[12][13][n 3]

Aviatsiya maktabi

Batafsil ma'lumot olish uchun ariza berishdan oldin harbiy xizmatni bajarish muddatini o'tash talab qilinadi Aviatsiya bo'limi, Gorrell xizmat ko'rsatish bo'limi sifatida piyoda askarlarni tanladi va foydalanishga topshirildi 2b leytenant ichida 30-piyoda polki. U L at kompaniyasiga qo'shildi Fort Uilyam H. Seward ikki yil xizmat qilgan 1912 yil 12 sentyabrda Alyaska hududi o'z kompaniyasi bilan qaytib kelishdan oldin San-Fransisko prezidenti yilda Kaliforniya 1914 yil 14-iyulda. U 23-dekabr kuni 30-piyoda qo'shinidan ajralib, unga tayinlangan Signal Corps aviatsiya maktabi da San-Diego, Kaliforniya uchish mashqlari uchun.[14][n 4] Maktab Shimoliy orolda joylashgan Koronado va hali ham yozma o'quv rejasi bo'lmagan ibtidoiy dastur edi. 1914 yil 28 dekabrda Gorrel kelganidan olti kun o'tgach, u o'zining birinchi qoidalarini e'lon qildi. 1915 yil yanvar oyining oxiriga kelib maktabda 11 o'quvchi bor edi, shu qatorda Gorrell ham.[15]

1915 yil Shimoliy orolda, Burgess H murabbiyi, № 26.

O'qitish jarayoni uch bosqichda individual ravishda ishlab chiqilgan. Birinchisi, talabani fuqarolik o'qituvchisi bilan uchish bilan tanishtirdi Frensis A. "Doc" Wildman milodda 34, a Kurtis F uchadigan qayiq,[16] quruqlikdagi hamkasbidan og'irroq bo'lgan samolyot, San-Diyegoning shovqinli sharoitida past balandlikda parvoz qilishni xavfsiz qiladi va talabaga quruqlikdagi samolyotga bir vaqtning o'zida olti baravar ko'p qo'nishni amalga oshirish imkoniyatini beradi. Ushbu bosqichning to'rt-besh soatidan so'ng talaba fuqarolik o'qituvchisiga topshirildi Oskar A. Brindli a Burgess modeli H murabbiy. O'zining yakkaxonidan so'ng, nomzod o'qitish bo'yicha mas'ul xodim bilan uning yo'riqnomasi davom etadimi yoki yo'qligini aniqlash uchun chekinishga tushdi. Keyin u o'zi uchun test topshirishga tayyor bo'lguncha yakka uchib ketdi Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) uchuvchi litsenziyasi, uchinchi bosqichga o'tish uchun talab. Bunda Gorrell harbiy instruktor ostida kroslarda uchish bo'yicha mashg'ulot olib, uning reytingi bo'yicha imtihoniga yakun yasadi Kichik harbiy aviator (JMA).[17]

Fevral oyida Gorrell texnik xizmat ko'rsatish va ta'mirlash bo'yicha yangi kursda o'qitilgan talaba ofitserlari guruhining bir qismi edi Kurtiss OX dvigatel.[18] U iyun oyida FAI sertifikatini oldi va o'qitishning so'nggi bosqichiga o'tdi. 26 iyun kuni mashg'ulotlari tugashiga yaqin Gorrel San-Diego-dan yakka parvozni amalga oshirayotgan edi Long-Bich, Kaliforniya S.C.da 37, a Martin TT traktor - dvigatel tebrana boshlaganda va pervanel uning shassisini yo'q qilib uchib ketganda (oldinga yo'naltirilgan pervanel) samolyot. U beda maydoniga sirg'alib kirib, to'xtab qoldi va samolyotni orqasiga burdi. Avtohalokatda Gorrell jarohat olmagan.[19]

JMA bo'yicha birinchi standartlashtirilgan imtihon 10 aprelda e'lon qilindi va texnik va parvoz talablariga javob berdi. 1-iyul kuni uchish yo'nalishi oshirilib, nomzod quyidagilarni ko'rsatishi kerak edi:

* Mashinaning barcha qismlarini radiusi 300 fut bo'lgan aylana ichida ushlab turadigan beshta 8-gachasi ustunlar. * Kvadrat maydondan 900 metr yon tomonga chiqib, balandligi 500 metrga ko'taring, toqqa chiqishda mashinaning barcha qismlarini maydon ichida saqlang. * 3000 futga ko'tarilib, dvigatelni o'ldiring, pastga aylaning, spiral yo'nalishini o'zgartiring, ya'ni chapdan o'ngga va ilgari belgilangan belgidan 150 metrgacha tushing. * O'lik dvigatelli maydon 800 metrdan 100 futgacha bo'lgan maydonda, agar bu maydon 1O futlik to'siq bilan o'ralgan bo'lsa. * 500 metr balandlikdan o'lik dvigatel bilan oldindan belgilangan nuqtadan 100 fut masofada. * Uchish uchburchagi uchishsiz uchish, taxminan 60 milya, quyidagi nuqtalardan o'tib: Shimoliy oroldan, Del Mar, La Mesa, Koronado balandliklari bo'ylab. * Kaliforniya shtatidagi Santa-Ana atrofidan Shimoliy Aylendga tushmasdan qariyb 90 mil masofada to'g'ridan-to'g'ri kros parvozi.[20]

Gorrell imtihondan o'tdi va JMA reytingini 1915 yil 12-iyulda oldi, bu 1914 yilgi Aviatsiya qonuni qoidalariga binoan avtomatik ravishda o'zi bilan bir darajaga vaqtincha ko'tarishni olib bordi. 1-leytenant, Aviatsiya bo'limi signallari korpusi (ASSC) va Ekspert Aviator sertifikatini berish Amerika Aero Club, keyin Qo'shma Shtatlardagi fuqaro aviatsiyasining milliy boshqaruv organi.[n 5]

1-aerokoskadra

1-Aero Squadron JN3 "Jenni" Meksikada, 1916 yil aprel

Gorrell Koronadodagi Signal Corps aviatsiya maktabida kotib bo'lib qoldi (yordamchi ). The 1-aerokoskadra, xuddi shu sohaga asoslanib, sakkizta yangi qabul qilingan Kurtiss JN2 "Jennies" va 21 iyun kuni zaxira dvigatellar, ammo eskadrilyalar yangi samolyotni to'liq parvoz qilishidan oldin unga buyurtma berishdi Fort Sill, Oklaxoma. 26-iyul kuni samolyotni demontaj qilib, ustiga qulab tushgan otryad San-Diyegodan poezdda jo'nab ketdi. Braunsvill, Texas Oklaxomaga kelganidan ko'p o'tmay.[21] Gorrell eskadronga ko'chib o'tganida qo'shildi Sem Xyuston, Texas, 25 noyabr. Eskadronning kichik zobiti sifatida,[n 6] unga otryad adyutanti va ta'minot ofitserining garov majburiyatlari yuklatilgan.[4][n 7]

O'sha paytga kelib, 1-aerokoskadra bir qator muvaffaqiyatsizliklarni boshdan kechirdi, ikkita halokatga duchor bo'ldi va ikkita uchuvchi jiddiy jarohatlar oldi, San-Antoniodagi yangi "havo markaziga" ko'chib o'tdi, u erda hech qanday tayyorgarlik ko'rilmagan va eng yomoni barchasi, eskadron uchuvchilarining JN2 etishmovchiligiga yaqin qo'zg'oloni. Yalang'och ishlov berish va sifatsiz materiallardan tashqari, samolyot sifatsiz dvigatellar bilan ta'minlangan va qanotlari va dumida dizayndagi jiddiy nuqsonlar mavjud bo'lib, bu ularni xavfsiz holatga keltirgan. Aviatsiya bo'limining rahbari shikoyatlarga beparvolik bilan munosabatda bo'ldi va ularni tuzatishga shoshilmay, bir yil avval itaruvchi samolyotlar shu kabi xavfli ishlash xususiyatlarini ko'rsatgan aviatorlar va ularning uchmaydigan qo'mondonlari o'rtasida jiddiy bo'linishlarni kuchaytirdi. Braunsvil otryadi qo'mondoni vazifasini bajaruvchi, 1-leytenant bo'lganida, masala boshiga tushdi. Bayron Q. Jons, qo'mondonlik zanjirini chetlab o'tib, samolyotni to'xtatgan Janubiy departamentning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qo'mondonligiga yozma shikoyat yubordi. Ikkita yangi JN3 o'rnini bosuvchi sifatida keldi va qolgan oltita JN2 yangi qanotlar, bo'shliqlar va dvigatellar bilan JN3 standartiga o'zgartirildi.[22][n 8]

Gorrell (o'ngda) va 1-leytenant Gerbert A. Dargue, Kasas Grandes, Meksika, 1916 yil 11 aprelda 43-sonli maktab bilan suratga tushmoqdalar.

Yangi bazada lager sharoitlarini yaxshilash bo'yicha ishlar davom etar ekan, samolyotlar bilan bog'liq muammolar davom etdi. Yaxshilashning qo'shimcha og'irligi bilan JN3s modifikatsiyadan oldingi imkoniyatga ega emas edi. Bunday holat hali ham mavjud edi Pancho Villa va 500 kishilik meksikalik qo'zg'olonchilar 1916 yil 9 martda chegarani kesib o'tdilar va Kolumbusga (Nyu-Meksiko) reyd o'tkazdi. Ertasi kuni Prezident Vudro Uilson Brig tomonidan boshqariladigan harbiy ekspeditsiyaga vakolat berdi. General Jon J. Pershing Meksikaga chekinayotgan Villistasni ta'qib qilish va iloji bo'lsa, Vilyani qo'lga olish. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining harbiy kotibi Nyuton D. Beyker 1-aerokoskadronni aloqa vazifalari uchun ekspeditsiyaga kiritishni buyurdi va havo razvedkasi va 12 mart kuni u Sam-Xyuston shahridagi samolyotlarini demontaj qildi va ularni barcha avtotransport va muhandislik uchastkalari bilan birga poezdga yukladi. Gorrell sakkizta samolyot bilan 13 mart kuni tushda Kolumbga jo'natilgan va 15 mart kuni ertalab etib kelgan o'nta aviator orasida edi. Ekspeditsiya allaqachon o'z jihozlarini tushirayotganda Meksikaga yo'l olgan edi.[23]

1-aviatsiya otryad bir necha kun davomida dala vazifasini bajarishga tayyorgarlik ko'rdi. Uning o'ntasi to'rt g'ildirakli haydovchi Jeffery Quad yuk mashinalari Meksika hukumati Amerika temir yo'llaridan foydalanishda bahslashganda ekspeditsiyaga zudlik bilan mavjud bo'lgan yagona avtotransport edi va ular materiel va janubdagi odamlarni tashish xizmatiga qoyil qolishdi. Gorrell birinchi "yuk mashinalari poezdini" boshqarish uchun tayinlangan, 15-16 martga o'tar kechasi Meksikaga yuborilgan ikkita yuk mashinasi. Piyoda qurollarini ishlatishni o'rgata olmagan samolyot mexaniklari kichik konvoyni Las Palomas qishlog'ida kun yorug'igacha to'xtab turgandan keyin uni qo'riqlashdi va ekspeditsiya shtab-kvartirasida davom etishdi. Kasas Grandes, Chihuaxua.[24]

19 mart kuni tushdan keyin, to'rt kunlik samolyotlarini yig'ish va sinovdan o'tkazish, ekspeditsiyaga yuborilgan 27 ta yangi Jeferi Kvadasi va Meksikaga mollar va odamlarni ko'chirish uchun xuddi shunday ishlarni amalga oshirgandan so'ng, 1-Aero Squadron zudlik bilan ekspeditsiyaga qo'shilish to'g'risida buyruq oldi yangi bazasida. Biroq, Gorrell bilan birga parvozni amalga oshirgan to'qqizta varrak, alacakaranlıkdan oldin tayyorgarlikni yakunlay olmadi va oqilona ravishda ikki soatlik parvozni bajarishga urinib ko'rdi, garchi tunda uchish paytida o'qimagan bo'lsa ham, qorong'ulikdan keyin Casas Grandesga borishga imkoni yo'q edi. Gorrell samolyoti[n 9] yoqilg'i va tishli g'ildiraklar bilan shu qadar og'ir ediki, u uchish maydonining oxirida tel to'siqni zo'rg'a tozaladi. Sakkizta JN3dan yana biri[n 10] Xuddi shu to'siqni to'sib qo'yishda qiynaldi va zudlik bilan dvigatelda nosozlik paydo bo'lib, qaytib quruqlikka aylandi. To'rt kishi bir-biriga yaqin joyda turishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi va belgilangan manzilga etib borgan yo'lning yarmigacha birgalikda La Ascencion yaqiniga tushishdi. Gorrell ham qolgan uchtasi, zulmatda alohida-alohida uchib ketishdi. Gorrell amerika lageri yonidan uchib o'tdi, uning borligidan bexabar va a nuri bilan chizilgan yong'in u qo'nish joyini belgilash uchun yoqilishi kerak bo'lgan gulxanni yanglishdi.[n 11] U juda uzoq janubga uchib ketganiga qaror qildi va yulduzni topib, unga yo'l ko'rsatib, yo'nalishni o'zgartirdi Polaris.[25]

Yoqilg'i tugaganida[n 12] u qisqa maydonni ijro etdi o'lik qo'nish zulmatda samolyotga zarar etkazmasdan, oqim yaqiniga tushib, bir nechta tashlandiq bo'lib tuyuldi Adobe binolar. U ekspeditsiyani kesib o'tishni kutib, piyoda shimol tomon davom etdi aloqa liniyasi biron bir vaqtda, lekin u alomatlarini sezganda yana yo'nalishni o'zgartirdi issiqlikdan charchash 20 mart kuni quyosh chiqqandan so'ng, Gorrell bir necha bor hushidan ketgan bo'lsa-da, 52-sonli shahar va suv manbasiga qaytdi.[26] Keyinchalik Gorrell yaqin atrofdagi binolardan birida otga o'tirgan bir meksikalikka duch keldi va pul taklif qilish va xizmat avtomatini silkitib, odamni uni 20 martda La Ascencionga olib borishga ishontirib, 21 martda etib keldi. Ertasi kuni unga oz miqdordagi benzin va dvigatel moyi etkazib berildi va samolyotiga avtomashinada haydab chiqarildi. 6-piyoda askarlari, aloqa liniyasini qo'riqlash. Kuchli yomg'ir va shamolda u havoga ko'tarilib, yaqinidagi Ojo de Federikoga uchib o'tib ketayotgan yuk mashinalari poyezdiga yonilg'i quyish uchun uchib ketdi. Biroq, keyingi parvoz paytida shamol shamolning pastki chap qanotini yonilg'i olgan tamburga urib yubordi va shpakning bir qismini yo'q qildi. Qanotdagi mato yirtila boshlagach, u yana Ojo de Federikoning oldiga kelib tushdi. U eskadronga qaerda ekanligi to'g'risida xabar yubordi va ertasi kuni, 23 mart kuni tushda Casas Grandesga etib kelgan yuk mashinalari karvoniga minib qo'ydi.[27][n 13]

1-Aero Squadron Casas Grandesga o'tish paytida sakkizta JN3 samolyotidan ikkitasini yo'qotdi.[28] Qolganlari bilan 20 martda ish boshladi, ammo samolyot tog'larda yomon parvozlarni va ularning keng tarqalgan tushishlarini amalga oshirdi, ularning laminat pervanlari quruq sharoitda parchalanishga moyil edi. Erkin jurnalistning maqolasi Uebb Miller uchuvchilarning ko'ngilsizliklarini batafsil bayon qilgan 3 aprel Nyu-York dunyosi, aviatsiya bo'limining yuqori lavozimli ofitserlarining tanqidlari tufayli urush departamentining eng yuqori darajasida g'azabga sabab bo'ldi. Ko'chirilganlardan faqat Gorrell Miller bilan gaplashganini tan olishga tayyor edi, ammo Pershing o'z aviatorlarini qo'llab-quvvatlashni tanlagach, bahs-munozaralar to'xtadi.[29][30][n 14] Gorrellning uchish missiyalari orasida 15-aprel kuni u birinchi Lt bilan kuzatuvchi bo'lganligi diqqatga sazovor. Herbert A. Dargue. Razvedka parvozi uch oyoqda 415 milni bosib o'tdi.[31]

Gorrell 1916 yil 1-iyulda 1-piyoda leytenant doimiy muassasa unvonini oldi va shu bilan avtomatik ravishda vaqtincha ko'tarilish Kapitan, ASSC.[14] 31 avgustda u 1-aerokoskadadan ajralib, unga xabar berishni buyurdi Massachusets texnologiya instituti 21 sentyabrda aspiranturada o'qishni boshlaydi aviatsiya muhandisligi.[28] Gorrell a Ilmiy magistr 1917 yil 5-iyulda MIT-dan diplom, bu vaqtga kelib Qo'shma Shtatlar Germaniya bilan urushgan va Gorrel Frantsiyada xizmat qilgan.[14]

Birinchi jahon urushi

Gorrell MITda o'qishni deyarli tugatgan edi Qo'shma Shtatlar Germaniyaga qarshi urush e'lon qildi 1917 yil 6-aprelda. O'sha kuni kechqurun, Vashingtondagi D. Signal Officer ofisi (OCSO) ga bitiruvdan keyingi topshiriq bo'yicha buyruqlar ostida, u Aeronavtika bo'limi razvedkasining boshlig'i sifatida xizmat qildi.[32][n 15] Unga 5-may kuni mayor tayinlandi Benjamin Fouis va kapitan Virginius Klark armiyaning qo'shma (armiya-flot) aviatsiya texnik kengashidagi vakillari sifatida. Gorrell va Foulois[n 16] Kongressga aviatsiya bo'limini kengaytirish uchun byudjet taklifini tayyorlashda birgalikda ishlagan. Oddiy oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini o'rash qog'ozidan foydalanib, Gorrell signallarni ishlab chiqarish bo'yicha bosh ofitser Brig. General Jorj O. Skvier. Ularning miqdori 600 000 000 dollardan oshdi,[n 17] bu mablag 'Yaqinda qurilgan bino uchun belgilanganidan kattaroq deb ta'kidlagan Panama kanali. Skvayer bu taklifni ma'qulladi va Gorrell Majorga qo'shildi Raynal C. Bolling, ilgari bosh maslahatchi AQSh po'lati, zarur qonun hujjatlarini tayyorlashda.[33][n 18] Gorrell o'z filialida kapitan lavozimiga ko'tarildi va Mayor, ASSC 1917 yil 15-mayda urushdan oldingi ofitserlarning ommaviy targ'iboti doirasida.[14]

May oyi oxirida Gorrell va Armiya-Dengiz kuchlari qo'shma kengashi Frantsiya Premer-vaziridan taklif oldi Aleksandr Ribot Qo'shma Shtatlar 1918 yil bahorida jangga tayyor bo'lish uchun 4500 samolyotdan iborat aviatsiya korpusini yaratganligi va undan talablarga javob beradigan samolyotlar va dvigatellarni ishlab chiqarish sxemasini tuzganligi.[34] Keyin Samolyot ishlab chiqarish kengashi (APB) AQShning Evropada ishlab chiqarilgan o'z samolyotlari uchun ishlab chiqaradigan Evropa takliflarini rad etdi va a to'laydi royalti qurilgan har bir samolyotda,[n 19] Bolling boshqaruv kengashiga tayinlandi va Evropaga royalti bo'yicha ziddiyatlarni hal qilish va Qo'shma Shtatlarni qurollantirish uchun samolyot turlarini tanlash bo'yicha komissiya qabul qilish majburiyatini oldi. qaysi biri Amerikada litsenziya asosida va qaysi biri evropaliklardan sotib olinishi kerakligini aniqlash. Gorrell va Klark aviatsiya muhandislari sifatida "Bolling missiyasi" nomi bilan mashhur bo'lgan 12 kishilik komissiyada Armiya tarkibida Bollingga qo'shilishdi. Missiya Nyu-Yorkdan kemada suzib ketdi RMS Adriatik 1917 yil 17-iyun kuni kirib keldi "Liverpul" 26 iyun kuni. Bolling missiyasi Angliyada, Frantsiyada va Italiyada olti hafta davomida o'z missiyasini bajarish uchun ma'lumot to'plashdi, shundan keyin Bolling ham, Gorrel ham Frantsiyada ish olib borishdi. Amerika ekspeditsiya kuchlari.[35][36][37]

Gorrellning AEF-ga dastlabki topshirig'i Parijda yangi paydo bo'lgan "Havo xizmati, aloqa liniyasi" ning xodimi sifatida bo'lib, oxir-oqibat Texnik bo'lim boshlig'i etib tayinlandi.[n 20] Uning Havo xizmatining bosh muhandisi sifatida ishi asosan Bolling missiyasi uchun bajargan ishining davomi edi, faqat u sotib olgan material va yig'ilgan ma'lumotlar AQShda APBni o'rganish uchun emas, balki jangovar operatsiyada foydalanish uchun edi. Gorrell bosh bo'lib ishlagan uch oyda ishining zarur funktsiyalarini aniqlash va bajarish bilan bir qatorda, 19 kishilik ofitserlar va 31 ta harbiy xizmatchilar tarkibidagi yettita bo'linmaning ishlaydigan bo'limiga qadar bitta kishini tashkil qilgan Texnik bo'limni, va ishlagan Orlidagi aerodrom eksperimental aviatsiya va yangi samolyotlarni qabul qilish uchun.[38][n 21] Gorrell oxir-oqibat bo'lim boshlig'i sifatida qisqa vaqt ichida "Air Service" dan foydalanish uchun 80 million dollarlik samolyotlar, uskunalar va boshqa mol-mulk sotib olishga mas'ul bo'lgan.[4]

Gorrell 1917 yil 27-oktabrda podpolkovnik (vaqtinchalik, signal korpusi) unvoniga ega bo'ldi. Noyabr oyida Foulois, hozirda havo xizmatining generali va martabali ofitseri bo'lib, AQShdan samolyotga uchmaydigan ko'plab xodimlarni olib keldi. original Air Service xodimlarini tashkil etgan aviatsiya xodimlarining.[4][n 22]

Strategik bombardimon qilish rejasi

Uning ex officio Texnik bo'lim boshlig'i polkovnik bo'lganida ustun. Billi Mitchell Urush e'lon qilinganda va Gorrellning sobiq otryadining sherigi Mayorning o'rnini egallaganida kuzatuvchi sifatida Evropada bo'lgan. Taunsend F. Dodd, Gorrell Angliyada bo'lgan davrda AEF aviatsiya xodimi sifatida.[n 23] Mitchell, Germaniyadan bombardimon qilish kuchi uchun samolyot talablarini shakllantirishni mutaxassisdan talab qilib, Gorlingni Bolling missiyasi avgust oyining boshida tarqalib ketganida tanladi.[39] Mitchellning AEFga qo'mondonlik qilgan general Jon Pershingga bunday kuch uchun dastlabki tavsiyasi Iyul oyida chiqarilgan Havo xizmatining birinchi taklif qilingan tashkilotida ("59-otryad rejasi") e'tiborsiz qoldirilgan edi. Ittifoqchilarning aviatsiya bo'yicha mutaxassislari bilan uchrashuvlarida Gorrell va Bolling ikkalasi ham bombardimonchi kuchlar haqidagi dalillardan ijobiy taassurot oldilar. Ser Devid Xenderson, Harbiy aviatsiya bosh direktori va ilgari rahbar bo'lgan Qirollik uchar korpusi, va italiyaliklar tomonidan bunday kuchning haqiqiy ishlatilishi bilan.[n 24] Gorrell, xususan, italiyaliklarning uch motorini yaratuvchisi tomonidan o'z qiymatiga ishontirildi Ca.3 bombardimonchi, Janni Kaproni. Uning ko'rsatmalaridan biri shuni anglatadiki, hujum bombardimon qilish kampaniyasi samarali bo'lishi uchun u "tizimli, puxta va izchil" bo'lishi kerak edi, buni Gorrell to'liq tasdiqladi.[40]

Mitchellning fikrlarini o'rganishdan tashqari, asosan RFM qo'mondoni tomonidan olingan General-mayor Ser Xyu M. Trenchard, Gorrell bir qator shaxslar va ularning yozuvlari bilan maslahatlashdi. Havo xizmatida, mayor Harold Fowler va Millard F. Xarmon amaliy jang tajribasini taqdim etdi. Uning qarashlaridan tashqari, Kaproni unga ingliz tilidagi nusxasini taqdim etdi Urushni o'ldiraylik; Dushmanning yuragiga yo'naltiraylik, jurnalist Nino Salvaneski tomonidan yozilgan uning g'oyalari to'plami. Shuningdek, u qanot qo'mondoni Spenser Grey bilan aloqa xodimi bilan uchrashdi Royal Naval Air Service bir qator bombardimon qilingan reydlarda qatnashgan va maxsus qurol-yarog 'ishlab chiqargan Air Service shtab-kvartirasiga biriktirilgan. Biroq, uning ishiga eng katta ta'sir boshqa RNAS uchuvchisi, mayor Lord Tiverton tomonidan amalga oshirildi.[n 25] Tiverton faqat Germaniya sanoatiga qarshi strategik bombardimonni chuqur o'rganib chiqqan edi, unga Gorrell Amerika maqsadlariga bag'ishlangan qismlarni qo'shdi, ammo o'z qog'ozida so'zma-so'z ishlatilgan.[41]

Gorrell 1917 yil 28-noyabrda Fouloisga o'z ishini taqdim etdi va 3-dekabrda uni amalga oshirish uchun "Strategik aviatsiya, avans zonasi" ning rejalashtirish bo'limiga rahbarlik qildi. Pershing 1918 yil 5-yanvarda umuman rejaga rozi bo'ldi,[n 26] va Gorrell AEF Bosh shtab-kvartirasiga ko'chirildi Chaumont uning G-3 (rejalar va operatsiyalar) bo'limining havo xizmati xodimi sifatida. Mart oyida, uning diqqat-e'tiborini tobora ko'proq taktik yordam masalalariga qaratganligi sababli, Gorrell GHQ xodimlariga Ikkinchi Jahon urushida ishlatilganlar uchun namuna bo'lgan bomba nishonini o'z ichiga olgan G-2 bo'limida "Havo razvedkasi idorasi" ni o'rnatishda yordam berdi. Strategik aviatsiya rahbari sifatida Gorrellning vorisi fuqarolik hayotida tog'-kon sanoatchisi bo'lgan[n 27] va bombardimon qilish rejasini targ'ib qilishda samarasiz edi, ammo Gorrellning o'zi 1918 yildagi doimiy bombardimon kampaniyasining asosiy to'sig'i AQSh samolyotlarini ishlab chiqarishdagi muvaffaqiyatsizlik deb tan oldi, natijada GHQ tomonidan er usti kuchlarining taktik qo'llab-quvvatlashidan manbalarni har qanday yo'naltirishga qarshilik kuchayib bordi. .[42][n 28] Havo xizmatining birinchi tungi bombardimon bo'limi, AEF[n 29] sulh bitimidan atigi ikki kun oldin avans zonasiga etib bormadi.[43]

Gorrellning rejasi o'zining kelib chiqishini Kaproni va Tiverton g'oyalarida aks ettirdi, G'arbiy frontdagi uch yillik tanglikni tugatish uchun asosiy sanoat asab markazlariga qarshi olib borilgan doimiy kampaniya, maqsadi dushman qobiliyatining muhim tarkibiy qismlarini aniqlash va yo'q qilish emas, balki umumiy "jami" urush "Germaniya iqtisodiyoti va tinch aholiga qarshi kampaniya. Shunga qaramay, urush 1919 yil yozida davom etganida, Oq uy va Urush departamentining bunday kampaniyasini qo'llab-quvvatlash ehtimoli past edi.[44] "Havo kuchlari" tarixchisi Tomas Greer yozgan: "Gorrellning nazariyalari urushdan keyingi yillarda armiyada uxlab qolishga qaratilgan edi; faqat keyingi jahon urushi arafasida ular yana paydo bo'ldi ... nihoyat, marhamat va qo'llab-quvvatlashda g'alaba qozonish uchun Bosh shtab. "[45] Tomonidan tiriltirilgan Havo korpusi taktik maktabi 1937 va 1938 o'quv dasturlariga qo'shilishi uchun,[4] u USAF General tomonidan tavsiflangan General Lourens S. Kuter "havo kuchlarini ish bilan ta'minlash bo'yicha Amerika kontseptsiyasining eng qadimgi, eng aniq va kam ma'lum bo'lgan bayonoti" sifatida.[46]

Gorrell, endigina 27 yoshda, 1918 yil 27-oktabrda aviakompaniya polkovnigi unvoniga sazovor bo'ldi va AEF havo xizmati boshlig'ining yordamchisiga aylandi, bu AQSh armiyasida ushbu darajani egallagan eng yosh zobit bo'ldi. Amerika fuqarolar urushi.[47] 1918 yil 11-noyabrdagi jangovar harakatlar yaqinida uning xodimlar vazifalari muvofiqlashtirish va aloqada bo'lish edi Armiya guruhi AEFdagi barcha havo xizmati operatsiyalari darajasi. Gorrell amerikalik mukofotiga sazovor bo'ldi Ajoyib xizmat medali, inglizlar Hurmatli xizmat tartibi va frantsuzlar Faxriy legion Birinchi jahon urushidagi xizmati uchun.[4]

"Gorrell tarixi"

1918 yil fevralda Vashingtondagi Urush departamenti Armiyaning Birinchi Jahon urushidagi ishtirokini hujjatlashtirish jarayonini boshlash uchun Bosh shtabda Tarixiy bo'linmani tashkil etdi. Bir vaqtning o'zida AEF Chaumont shtab-kvartirasida o'zining tarixiy bo'linmasini tashkil etdi. May oyida AEFning past darajalariga qadar harakatlari ta'minot xizmatlari (avval "Aloqa yo'nalishlari" va "Ichki makon" deb nomlangan) Turlarda tarixiy yozuvlar bo'limini yaratdi. SOS-ning bir qismi sifatida, Havo xizmati o'z vazifasining bir qismini o'zining Axborot boshlig'i kapitanga topshirdi. Ernest LaRue Jons, jurnalning noshiri Aviatsiya fuqarolik hayotida.[48] Jons jang paytida faqat besh kishidan iborat xodimlarni dasturga bag'ishlashga qodir edi, ammo u Havo xizmati faoliyati fotosuratlarini ishlab chiqarish, to'plash va saqlash uchun kichik bo'linma yaratdi.[49]

Ikki hafta ichida Sulhdan so'ng darhol shtab boshlig'i Havo xizmati, birinchi armiya Podpolkovnik Uilyam S.Sherman o'zining taktik birliklari operatsiyalarining keng hujjatlar to'plamini tuzdi va uni qo'mondon generalga topshirdi. Birinchi armiya, nusxasi bilan yakuniy havo xizmati boshlig'i, AEF, general-mayor Meyson Patrik.[50] Gorrell Shermanning ishida butun havo xizmatini qamrab oladigan, taktik saboqlarni aniqlaydigan va kelajakdagi urushni rejalashtirish va ajratish uchun institutsional xotirani ta'minlaydigan juda katta loyihaga hayotiy ehtiyojni tan oldi. U Patrikni tarixiy loyihani amalga oshirishga ishontirdi[51] va Shermanning "tarixi" ma'lumot olish uchun zarur bo'lgan shaklni taqdim etdi. Shermanning shtab-kvartirasi va Jounsning Turlardagi faoliyati birliklar va tashkilotlardan ma'lumotlarni yig'ish bo'yicha harakatlarni yangilab, ularning birliklari Qo'shma Shtatlarga qaytishidan oldin materialni taqdim etishni talab qildi. Ma'lumotlar yig'ilishini muvofiqlashtirish va nazorat qilish uchun Patrik 1918 yil 4 dekabrda Parijda joylashgan shtab boshlig'ining yordamchisi lavozimini yaratdi va uni to'ldirish uchun Gorrellni tayinladi, aslida uni AEF havo xizmatining "bosh tarixchisi" qildi. .[52]

Patrik 12 dekabrda Gorrell ko'rsatmalarini berdi, "Pershing" ga yuboriladigan "Yakuniy hisobot" ni, shu jumladan statistik xulosalarni.[53] Gorrell sobiq qiruvchi uchuvchi va yozuvchini, 1-Lt. Charlz B. Nordxof, ning bosh muharriri bo'lish Yakuniy hisobot. 1919 yil 6-yanvarda Gorrell butun loyihani Tours-ga ko'chirdi, u erda SOS-ning 70 kishilik ma'lumot bo'limidan foydalanib, mashaqqatli hujjatlarni topshirish jarayonini boshlashi mumkin edi. Ikki kundan keyin u konferentsiya o'tkazdi, unda u Jons va Shermanning loyihalarini o'z loyihasiga birlashtirdi. Jons hujjat va fotosuratlarni kirish paytida yig'ish, indeksatsiya qilish va majburiy ravishda 100 ga yaqin kishini nazorat qildi,[54] va Nordhoffga tarkibiga kiritish uchun material taqdim etish uchun 30 kishilik tahririyat kengashi tashkil etildi Yakuniy hisobot. Chaumontda Shermanga a yozish topshirildi Taktik tarix 13 kishilik shtab yordam bergan Havo xizmatining jangovar harakatlarini tavsiflab. Umuman olganda, 1919 yil 5 fevralga qadar 250 dan ortiq xodimlar tarixni yaratish bilan shug'ullanishdi.[55]

The Havo xizmati boshlig'ining yakuniy hisoboti 252 sahifadan iborat hujjat bo'lib chiqdi, ulardan 134 tasi bayon va 56 ta qo'llab-quvvatlovchi fotosuratlar, jadvallar, jadvallar va xaritalar. Yozilgandan ikki yil o'tgach, u Havo xizmatidan foydalanish uchun nashr etildi va 1948 yilda AEFning tarixiy bo'linmasining ulkan tarixiga kiritildi.[55] Shermanniki Taktik tarix, 1919 yil 14 fevralda Pershingga taqdim etilgan bo'lib, 158 sahifani tashkil etdi. Ikkala hujjat ham Urush bo'limiga yuborilishidan oldin uslubi uchun tahrirlangan, ammo mazmuni uchun emas.[56] Butun ish tugagandan so'ng, rasmiy ravishda Havo xizmati AEF tarixi ammo xalq orasida "Gorrell tarixi" nomi bilan tanilgan, 282 jildga aylandi, ikkitasi indekslar uchun. Ular A dan R gacha harflar qatorida 18 umumiy toifaga bo'lingan.[57] U 1919 yilning yozida har bir toifadagi aniq tarixiy rivoyatlar uchun manba sifatida Urush bo'limiga jo'natildi, ammo mablag 'etishmasligi sababli bu ish hech qachon boshlamadi. "Gorrell tarixi" nihoyat omborxonadan ko'chirildi O'q-dorilarni qurish, u erda 1919 yildan beri yashagan Milliy arxivlar 1961 yilda.[58][n 30]

Urushdan keyingi topshiriqlar

1919 yil mart oyida Gorrell Patrik bilan birga o'zining texnik maslahatchisi va hamkasbi sifatida ham xalqaro aeronavigatsiyani tartibga soluvchi konventsiya yozish uchun Parijda yig'ilgan Ittifoqdosh 12 davlatdan iborat aviatsiya komissiyasiga bordi. Gorrell (along with Bolling) had also been a delegate in 1917 to the contentious, four-nation "Inter-Allied Aeronautical Commission" and was familiar with all the preliminary discussions. Each of the five main Allied powers[n 31] to the 1919 conference brought two delegates and submitted a draft convention. Soon after its first meeting the 1919 commission was also made an advisory body on aviation matters to the Supreme Council at the Paris Peace Conference.[59] Although neither Gorrell nor Patrick was present at the finale in October and the United States did not become a signatory, the commission resulted in the 1919 yilgi Parij konventsiyasi.

Imzolanganidan keyin Versal shartnomasi, Gorrell returned to the United States in July 1919 for duty in Washington, D.C. with the Advisory Board, Air Service. The board of six field grade officers had been created in the March 13, 1919 reorganization of the Air Service to advise the director of the Air Service, like Patrick a non-aviator major general, on technical matters. This assignment lasted only from July 19 to September 8, 1919, when his five-year association with the Air Service ended and he was assigned to the War Plans Division of the General Staff.[14]

In the month preceding his transfer, controversy had enveloped the Air Service, some of it along politically partisan lines, as a select committee of the Respublika - nazorat qilingan Kongress investigated the deplorable record of U.S. wartime aircraft production. At the same time bills had been introduced in both houses that would remove military aviation from the Army and Navy and create an independent air force.[n 32] Strong public and congressional support had rallied behind Billy Mitchell in favor of the bills. The Army's hierarchy vigorously opposed the movement and created the Menoher Board of four artillery generals[n 33] to articulate its position and counter the popular and flamboyant Mitchell.[60]

Gorrell was immediately assigned by the Army to assist Director of War Plans and Menoher Board member Maj. Gen. Uilyam G. Xaan in formulating their stance, which also deprived the airmen of one of their most articulate exponents at the same time.[n 34] Gorrell's appearance in August 1919 with Patrick before the Frear Committee[n 35] while still a member of the advisory board, to refute erroneous and polemic allegations made during earlier testimony, was well-remarked,[4] but his second round of testimony on October 27, 1919, in which he returned to read into the record the just-issued report of the Menoher Board, is largely overlooked. In addition to putting forth the Army's arguments, the report bluntly opposed any independent role for the Air Service and averred that it could never become more than an auxiliary branch of the Army.[61]

By January 1920 reprints made in the press at the height of debate over Senator New's independent air force bill attributed the Army's statement to Gorrell personally.[62] If Gorrell was in fact opposed to any autonomy for the Air Service, he made no public statements or writings regarding his personal position after an initial endorsement of the report's contents during his testimony.[63] Shortly after, in the wave of officer demotions to permanent grade then underway (his would be back to captain), Gorrell concluded that despite demonstrated loyalty to the General Staff he was not to be among the favored few officers who would be permitted to retain their wartime high rank[64] and abruptly left the Army.[65]

Tadbirkor

Gorrell resigned his commission on March 19, 1920,[n 36] only six weeks after his 29th birthday. He gave no reason other than he felt he had achieved the highest position possible in the Army at a young age and would face the tedium of a long climb back to that position (and without comparable compensation) if he remained in the peacetime service.[65] U qo'shildi Nordyke and Marmon Company 's automobile manufacturing subsidiary in May 1920 as the manager of its Department of Sales Extension in Indianapolis, Indiana, at a wage of only $25.00 a week.[n 37] By February 1924 he had risen to a vice president in the company and was in Boston, Massachusets. In September 1925 he accepted a vice presidency with the Stutz avtoulovlar kompaniyasi and became its president on January 25, 1929. He remained with the company until August 1935, serving as boshqaruv raisi.[4]

In March 1935 Gorrell incorporated the Edgar S. Gorrell Investment Company in California to promote the mass housing construction market in Los Angeles and left Stutz in August to devote himself full-time to the venture. In 1941, while president of ATA, he helped found and was president of the Air Cargo, Inc. konsortsium.[4][5]

ATA prezidenti

While still with Stutz, Gorrell was drawn back into aviation by being named to a special committee of seven civilians[n 38] and five military men chaired by former Secretary of War Baker that was formed to investigate the Air Corps in the wake of the "Airmail Scandal." The "Baker Board" convened at the Armiya urush kolleji on April 17, 1934, to review the work of more than a dozen prior aviation boards, interview more than 100 witnesses, and solicit suggestions for improving the Air Corps from more than 500 of its 1,400 officers.[n 39] Before the Baker Board issued its report to the public on July 23, 1934, Congress passed the Air Mail Act of June 12, 1934, one of the provisions of which was creation of the Federal aviatsiya komissiyasi ostida Savdo departamenti to scrutinize all aspects of aviation, not just military. One of the main focuses of the commission, chaired by the editor of the Atlanta konstitutsiyasi, Klark Xauell, was the fledgling and unregulated American air transport industry, whose alleged misconduct[n 40] was at the core of the airmail scandal.[66]

After the cancellation of its airmail contracts, the airline industry underwent a drastic shake-up and emerged in late 1934 and throughout 1935 with new leadership but countless pressing problems, the most serious of which was its poor economic condition. Fourteen scheduled air carriers decided to leave the manufacturer-dominated Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce and form the Amerikaning havo transporti assotsiatsiyasi bosh qarorgohi bilan Chikago, Illinoys. Gorrell was invited to be its first president.[n 41] He dropped his California housing venture and assumed his new role on January 14, 1936.[4] In introducing himself to the press, Gorrell predicted four improvements in the industry by 1938: standardization of aircraft, the introduction of four-engined transports capable of speeds of 250 mph, new safety equipment, and trans-Atlantic passenger service. Although the last did not begin until June 1939 and four-engined transports were not put into general service until 1940, Gorrell's vision immediately put the ATA on a "paying basis" with the industry.[67] Gorrell appeared before hearings of the Copeland qo'mitasi on airline safety in February 1936 and his pledge of immediate improvement in safety began to be fulfilled when on December 31, 1936, he announced that the Havo savdosi byurosi had allocated ten million dollars of its appropriations to finance a system of radio marker beacon stations along scheduled airline routes.[68]

Gorrell was expected by airline executives to become a "czar" for civil aviation in the manner of Will Hays in the Hollywood movie industry or Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis professional beysbolda. However, Gorrell quickly perceived that any such undertaking was legally impossible and would be a serious political and business mistake. For any particular step that would benefit the industry Gorrell usually eschewed open espousal of the action, preferring to work behind scenes instead and call upon selected airline executives to advocate the move. He adopted much the same method dealing with Congress, Federal regulatory departments. va harbiy.[n 42] Gorrell became a proponent of strong government regulation of the airline industry as a means of promoting its growth by protecting existing carriers from "cut-throat" competition, as well as improving safety. The 1938 yil fuqarolik aviatsiyasi qonuni was lobbied for by members of the industry to restrict new competition and control trade practices.[4][n 43]

“Beyond doubt, the scheduled air transport industry has influenced and stimulated many of our other national industries. Our military air force is as dependent on commercial aeronautics as our Navy is upon our Merchant Marine.”
Edgar S. Gorrell, 14 January 1937 speech to the Boston Chamber of Commerce[69]

One of his first tasks after accepting the ATA presidency,[n 44] fearing that in the wake of the air mail scandal the government might nationalize the air transport industry during a national emergency as it had the railroads in World War I, was a campaign to persuade the War Department to develop a plan for the use of civil air transport in such event, which became a continuing priority for Gorrell throughout his term as ATA president.[70] Within a few days the War Department requested that the joint Aeronautical Board study the issue and develop a policy to benefit both the Army and the Navy.

A few months later, using a draft copy of the Aeronautical Board's study, Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Oskar Vestover calculated the transport requirements for mobilization and found that the Air Corps lacked at least 200 transports needed for the first 120 days, and that the airlines only had sufficient aircraft to fill a third of that shortfall. The Aeronautical Board issued its report in February 1937 and specifically counseled against a military takeover of the airlines, instead recommending that a civilian "Federal Coordinator" be designated to control and coordinate their operations to eliminate duplication of effort. Airline personnel should likewise be deferred from military service to perform the tasks asked of the carriers.[71]

In May 1937 the War Department issued a revision of the existing Industrial Mobilization Plan, first formulated in 1922, that was lacking in detail and lumped the airlines together with all other forms of transportation.[72] Gorrell responded by writing drafts of what he termed "a structure of action"[73] for the airlines and worked confidentially with C.R. Smith ning American Airlines, William A. Patterson ning United Airlines va Jek Fray ning TWA to ensure its smooth implementation.[73]

By April 1938 he had not only persuaded most military leaders of both services that nationalization would be a mistake, but had satisfactorily demonstrated how the airlines could integrate themselves into a strategic contingency while maintaining their autonomy, by limiting competition among them during the emergency and using government contracts to support the war effort. Comprehensive plans were in place and revised monthly in the War Department, the Air Corps, and the ATA by the time war broke out in Europe on September 1, 1939,[73][74][75]

Role of the airlines in World War II

Immediately after the news of the Japanese Perl-Harborga hujum went public, Western Airlines responded to a request to move ammunition to units without it along the Pacific Coast. Other carriers followed the example within hours and on December 11 Gorrell cabled both Chief of the Armiya havo kuchlari General-leytenant Genri X. Arnold and Army Chief of Staff Gen. Jorj C. Marshall that the airlines were performing their assigned functions in the plans.[76] Nevertheless, President Roosevelt's initial impulse was to nationalize the scheduled air carriers[3] and on December 13 he issued Executive Order 8974 to take control of the airlines.[n 45] Gorrell was aware that airline responsiveness was crucial to forestalling nationalization and promptly provided aircraft and crews at the first strategic request, made to ATA the same day.[77][78][n 46] The next day, while a deal was being brokered with Harbiy kotibning havo bo'yicha yordamchisi Robert A. Lovett to turn over voluntarily more than half the airlines' aircraft[n 47] and crews to the AAF Ferrying Command (ACFC) on a contract basis,[79][n 48] the promised transports arrived at their staging points.[80]

The executive order was not revoked, however, and Gorrell moved ATA's headquarters to Washington, D.C.[80] His foresight and wariness were proven sound when the AAF reacted to early Axis success worldwide by using the EO to attempt transfer of the Fuqarolik aviatsiyasi boshqarmasi to the Army Air Forces. Although the main purpose of the move was to bring the Fuqarolik uchuvchilarni tayyorlash dasturi under the military, it would also have the effect of passing to the AAF regulatory control of the airlines. Brigadier General Donald H. Connolly was recalled to active duty in January 1942 from his civilian position as CAA administrator and made Military Director of Civil Aviation (MDCA) with the explicit purpose of carrying out EO 8974.[81][n 49] The MDCA took Gorrell with a six-man ATA liaison staff into the AAF Office of Civil Aviation on an unpaid advisory basis, tasked to establish travel priorities and prepare a system for the mass movement of troops within the western hemisphere va ga Gavayi using civil carriers.[82]

The plan was unworkable, however, because it was drawn up as an "on-demand" operation. Before it was fully implemented, Arnold ordered the commander of ACFC, Maj. Gen. Robert Olds, to take "complete military control over all parts of your operation." On February 18, 1942, all overseas contracts except those in the western hemisphere were cancelled and their associated civil operations (primarily those of Panamerika ) were militarized.[83][84][n 50] The AAF had neither sufficient resources nor expertise, however, and C.R. Smith, now a colonel in the AAF, was appointed second-in-command of ACFC in April.[n 51] He brought ideas and extensive transport experience to the transport command, which its senior officers did not have, developing a workable long-range plan to maintain the civil status of airline operations before further militarization took place.[85][n 52] In the meantime Secretary of War Genri L. Stimson opposed the attempt to subsume the CAA into the AAF and honored Lovett's agreement with the airlines not to invoke EO 8974. In August 1942, along with Secretary of the Navy Frank Noks, he put the nationalization issue to rest by writing Savdo kotibi Jessi H. Jons that the CAA would conduct its war support activities as a civilian agency.[81]

Throughout the pre-war years Gorrell had linked the purpose of the ATA to national defense, going so far as to post the concept in the association's letterhead, and his war plan for the use of civil air transport parallels that of his plan for strategic air bombardment in that it soon became accepted as elementary doctrine.[4] 1952 yilda Fuqarolik zaxiralari havo floti was created to establish a permanent system for use of the airlines in times of national emergency. Gorrell's achievements as president of ATA were four-fold: the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 that provided civil aviation a secure economic base, development of a system of air navigation radio facilities in the United States and Alaska, preparation of a war plan for the utilization of the airlines, and the use of government contracts with the airlines to provide worldwide transportation during World War II.[4] The ATA honors his legacy by annually awarding the "Edgar S. Gorrell Award" for outstanding contributions toward aviation safety.

Izohlar

Izohlar
  1. ^ The yearbook also noted that he qualified as a "sharpshooter" with the M1903 Springfild rifle and used a furlough to learn to ride a horse so that he could participate in the academy's horse show.
  2. ^ 1909 yil fevralda Jozef Pulitser va Nyu-York dunyosi offered a $10,000 prize (about $240,000 in 2015 dollars; AQSh inflyatsiya kalkulyatori ) for the first flight before October made by any type of air machine from New York to Albany as part of the public tercentenary celebration of Genri Xadson 's cruise upriver and Robert Fulton 's 1807 retracing of the route in the steamboat Shimoliy daryo. When a pair of tozalanadigan narsalar failed in an attempt during the celebration, the Dunyo extended the offer for a year and allowed it to be made in either direction, provided the trip was made within a 24-hour period using only two stops. Curtiss had decided to make the attempt after a week of rain during the celebration on Gubernatorlar oroli had resulted in an embarrassing lack of success in competition with the Rayt birodarlar. During the spring of 1910 he secretly built an aircraft just for the flight, tested it in Memfis, Tennesi, and was rushing to win the prize before other candidates including Klifford B. Xarmon va Charlz K. Xemilton could make attempts. (Roseberry 1991, pp. 262-262)
  3. ^ Curtiss completed the historic 150-mile flight in just short of four hours, including two stops for fuel, with a total flight time of two hours and 51 minutes. (Roseberry 1991, p. 280)
  4. ^ Gorrell's West Point classmate 2nd Lt. Walter G. "Mike" Kilner preceded him to the Aviation School by seven weeks. Kilner graduated from flying training a month before Gorrell and they served in Mexico together in 1916. During World War I Kilner, three years older than Gorrell, held the distinction of being the Army's youngest full colonel until Gorrell took the "title" away from him in October 1918. Kilner eventually became a brigadier general and Assistant Chief of the Air Corps in 1938.
  5. ^ Gorrell was awarded FAI Certificate No. 324 and Expert Aviator Certificate No. 39.
  6. ^ Gorrell had trained with 1st Lt. Ira A. Rader at San Diego and both received their JMA ratings at the same time, but Rader had proceeded to Oklahoma with the 1st Aero Squadron while Gorrell remained at the school.
  7. ^ The TO&E slot of a non-flying "Supply Officer" in the squadron was not authorized before 1917.
  8. ^ For more on the divisions see Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps#The Goodier court-martial.
  9. ^ Gorrell was assigned to fly Signal Corps Number 52 (S.C. No. 52), one of the two original JN3s.
  10. ^ S.C. No. 42, flown by Kilner.
  11. ^ Unbeknownst to the aviators, field headquarters and a temporary airfield had been established 15 miles away at the old Mormon colony of Koloniya Dublan.
  12. ^ Ushbu manba asserts that his plane's motor lost oil and was in danger of seizing up. Hennessy (p. 168) states he discovered a leak in the fuel tank after landing. The aircraft was able to take off again using the same engine, so likely Gorrell's anxiety stemmed from a combination of perceptions exacerbated by flying at night.
  13. ^ Gorrell and a group of mechanics in two Quads returned to S.C. No. 52 on March 25, finding it as he had left it. They used a spare strut and linen to make a patch over the hole in the wing and Gorrell flew it to Casas Grandes. The next day he flew it to Columbus to have a new wing installed. (Miller, pp. 28 and 31)
  14. ^ Gorrell's obituary written for the West Point Association of Graduates suggests that his subsequent assignment to MIT while the squadron was still actively campaigning was a "kick upstairs" resulting from the dust-up. Whatever the case, the 1st Aero Squadron was Gorrell's only flying assignment.
  15. ^ The Aeronautical Division was an administrative, not a tactical, organization that acted as the headquarters of the "Aviation Section." It was renamed the "Air Division" on October 1, 1917, and was replaced entirely by the Harbiy aviatsiya bo'limi (DMA) on April 24, 1918.
  16. ^ Foulois had been Gorrell's squadron commander in Mexico.
  17. ^ More than $11 billion in 2015 dollars.
  18. ^ The resulting Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), approved July 24, 1917, was the largest appropriation by Congress for any single purpose to that time and was in addition to two earlier war appropriations for aeronautics, $10.8M passed on May 12 and $43.5M on June 15. (Mooney and Layman 1944, p. 28)
  19. ^ Gorrell later testified to Congress that in his view the United States was being asked to pay an "entrance fee" to get into the war. (October 24, 1919, to the aviation subcommittee of the House Select Committee on Expenditures in the War Department)
  20. ^ The aviation staff of the AEF was set up in August 1917 to prepare itself to "hit the ground running" when the "Air Service, AEF" was formally established in orders on September 3. Bolling was promoted to colonel and made "Director of Air Service Supply."
  21. ^ Ultimately there were nine divisions of the Technical Section. The Yakuniy hisobot describes them as "airplanes, engines, airplane instruments, metallurgy, ordering and acceptance, chemistry, technical data, history and research, and drafting." A tenth division, armaments, was transferred to another staff section. (I jild, p. 131)
  22. ^ Gorrell's memorial page wryly observed that "at the end of this hectic period an entire boat load of people landed in France to take on the jobs that Colonel Gorrell had been holding down alone."
  23. ^ Dodd was promoted to colonel and designated "Director of Air Service Instruction".
  24. ^ Henderson had been strongly influenced by a trio of German daytime bombing raids on London in the weeks preceding his meeting with the commission. The Italians were already bombing Avstriya (the only Allied nation then engaged in strategic bombardment) with up to 140 bombers on a single mission, and Caproni's vision of airpower mirrored that of his friend Giulio Douhet. This led to Bolling recommending in his final report to the APB that bombardment aircraft play a major role in U.S. plans, but in expressing his view in ratios, he placed the bombardment portion third in sequence and it was inadvertently given a low priority in planning.
  25. ^ Hardinge Goulborn Giffard, Viscount Tiverton and later 2nd Xalsberi grafligi.
  26. ^ The Air Service was authorized to equip and train 30 night bombing squadrons when Caproni bombers became available.
  27. ^ Ambrose Monnell of Xalqaro nikel kompaniyasi
  28. ^ The resistance was best illustrated by the pointed re-naming of the "Strategical Aviation" branch in June 1918 to "GHQ Air Service Reserve" and placing it under direct control of the AEF staff.
  29. ^ The 155th Aero Squadron, equipped with DH-4 two-seat bombers, sent to Autreville aerodromi.
  30. ^ Jones resumed his civilian career as an aviation writer but returned to staff duty as a lieutenant colonel with the Army Air Forces during World War II. Sherman, a Regular officer and 1910 graduate of West Point whose branch was the Corps of Engineers, was assigned to the Air Service Operations and Training Group in March 1919, reduced by demobilization to his permanent establishment rank of major, and instructed at the Air Service Tactical School va Qo'mondonlik va general shtab kolleji. He died in 1927 after a protracted illness at the age of 39.
  31. ^ Besides the United States, these nations were Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan.
  32. ^ The bills were introduced by Senator Harry New Indiana va Vakil Charlz F. Kori of California, both Republicans, following the recommendations of a fact-finding commission led by Assistant Secretary of War Benedikt Krouell that contradicted Army boards created by the General Staff to oppose an independent air force. The Army used the political clout of Secretary of War Newton Baker and the prestige of General Pershing to put down the independence movement. Even so, Pershing's testimony displayed sympathy with the goals of the airmen to an extent that he was virtually cross-examined to elicit the Army's position. (Tate 1998, pp. 12-13)
  33. ^ Maj. Gen. Charles T. Menoher chaired the board, composed of himself and major generals Frank W. Coe, William G. Haan, and William J. Snow, but he was also director of the Air Service.
  34. ^ The index of his testimony before the Frear Committee lists him as "Colonel, Infantry, Regular". His colonel's commission was neither in the Infantry nor as a Regular, and were this the case, Gorrell likely would not have resigned from the Army in 1920. (War Expenditure Hearings, Volume 3 Serial 4, p. 2705)
  35. ^ Chaired by Congressman Jeyms A. Frear, the committee was officially the House of Representatives' "Subcommittee No. 1 (Aviation), Select Committee on Expenditures in the War Department, 66th Congress, First Session".
  36. ^ Gorrell quipped that "I put my own resignation through in 28 hours" after submitting it. (USMA Class of 1912 Ten Year Book, 49-50 betlar)
  37. ^ Howard Marmon, founder and president of the subsidiary, had worked with Gorrell in Europe in 1917 when both were members of the Bolling Mission.
  38. ^ Gorrell and two other notable veterans of the Air Service, Jimmi Dulitl va Klarens Chamberlin, were chosen for the committee when Charlz Lindberg va Orvil Rayt declined to serve.
  39. ^ Gorrell was one of three members of Baker Board characterized as an advocate for the Air Corps (the other two were Doolittle and Air Corps chief Maj. Gen. Benjamin Fouis ), but of the three, he alone concurred with the rest of the board in recommending that the role of the Air Corps remain limited to "auxiliary support" of the ground forces as advocated by the Army's general staff.
  40. ^ The April 1935 issue of Flying Magazine (p. 231) noted that the Howell Commission conducted the 20th investigation of the airlines. However, in 1941 the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining da'vo sudi found that there had not been any fraud or collusion in the awarding of air mail contracts to the airlines. (Smithsonian National Postal Museum, "1934 Airmail Scandal")
  41. ^ The committee selecting Gorrell consisted of Eddi Rikbekbeker (Sharqiy havo liniyalari ), William A. Patterson (United Airlines ), C.R. Smith (American Airlines ) va Jek Fray (TWA ).
  42. ^ In March 1937 Senator Royal S. Copeland proposed mobilizing the airlines during summer maneuvers as a test of its possible use in the 1936 revision of the Army's 1922 mobilization plan. When the GHQ Air Force decided to follow through with the suggestion during the Northeast Maneuvers of 1938, Gorrell was asked to analyze the plan and found that it would result in a loss of seven days of commercial operations and cost the taxpayers over $5 million. Rather than antagonize Copeland, who made the suggestion based on discussions with Gorrell during his committee hearings, he advised Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Oskar Vestover of his findings, who had the proposal quietly shelved. (Crackel, pp. 7-8)
  43. ^ The characterization of Gorrell as ATA president is not entirely laudatory. The Air Line Uchuvchilar Uyushmasi was still in its infancy as a pilots' union and its relationship with ATA and Gorrell was adversarial. Its history of its first 50 years is cool toward him in general, particularly regarding the role ascribed to him in passage of the Civil Aeronautics Act, and flatly states that ATA and Gorrell not only adamantly opposed what ALPA considers the prime instrument responsible for airline safety improvement, the Air Safety Board, but helped destroy the ASB in 1940. (Hopkins, pp. 92 and 105-106)
  44. ^ Gorrell first put forth his war plan proposal when he appeared before a Senate subcommittee investigating airline safety in February 1936.
  45. ^ EO 8974 authorized the Secretary of War to "take possession and assume control of any civil aviation system, or systems, or any part thereof, to the extent necessary for the successful prosecution of the war." (Executive Order 8974, "Control of Civil Aviation", Dec. 13, 1941, Federal reestr 6 FR 6441, Dec. 17, 1941)
  46. ^ The first invocation of the order was to have been the movement of a provisional battalion of U.S. Marines from Quantico, Virjiniya, to neutral Braziliya as a security force for airfields at Natal, Recife va Belem, but Gorrell immediately provided 12 transports from American Airlines before the Marine force was even assembled.
  47. ^ In December 1941 the airlines were operating 289 DC-3s and 100 lighter two-engine transports. 200 were allocated at the meeting to the Havo transporti qo'mondonligi, but in May 1942 the number retained by the airlines was finalized at 155 DC-3s and 10 Lockheed Lodestars. (Orencic p. 51 and Craven and Cate Vol VIII p. 21, footnote 44)
  48. ^ Lovett convened a special conference of AAF, Navy, government and industry executives on December 14, 1941, to allocate then-limited transport resources. Airline contracts with the AAF took the form of purchase (early in the war) or lease of the aircraft by the AAF and payment to the airlines for their crews to operate them, including on overseas routes. During 1942 88% of all AAF transport operations worldwide were conducted by the airlines under contract, and 65% in 1943. Domestically the total was 100% for both years. Beginning in 1944 ATC crews and planes became available and domestic flights were phased out with some carriers released from their contracts. (Craven and Cate Vol. VII, p. 31)
  49. ^ Connolly was not an airman but a career officer in the Muhandislar korpusi. As a lieutenant colonel he had been in charge of the WPA in Southern California in 1935 when Arnold commanded the 1-qanot da Mart maydoni. After a brief term as MDCA he commanded the Fors ko'rfazi qo'mondonligi farq bilan.
  50. ^ Pan Am was targeted because its transports were already in place overseas and its trans-Africa route to the Yaqin Sharq hayotiy deb hisoblangan. (Craven and Cate, Vol VIII, p.54)
  51. ^ Olds had just been replaced in command of ACFC by Brig. General Garold L. Jorj after suffering a heart attack that led to his early death in 1943.
  52. ^ Smith was critical of Gorrell's planning efforts, minimizing them before, during, and following the war. He had a polarizing personality, however, and was alone in his criticisms. His motivations for the criticisms, whether honestly held, politically motivated, chafing at their professional relationship, or a rival for credit in preserving the industry, are unclear. (Crackel p. 50 note 69)
Iqtiboslar
  1. ^ Grant, "Airpower Genesis", p. 54
  2. ^ Naltiy (1997), p. 133
  3. ^ a b Serling, "America's Airlines", p. 229
  4. ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m n Edgar S. Gorrell 1912, West Point Association of Graduates, retrieved 2015-11-07
  5. ^ a b Obituary, Associated Press, Miluoki jurnali, Mar 6, 1945, p. 16
  6. ^ Official Register (1908), p. 25
  7. ^ Official Register (1910), p. 16 and (1911), p. 15
  8. ^ Official Register (1909), p. 20
  9. ^ a b Official Register (1912), p.13
  10. ^ Official Register (1912), p.11
  11. ^ a b Gobits (1912), p. 83
  12. ^ a b Clodfelter (2011), pp. 7-8
  13. ^ Roseberry (1991), pp. 275-276
  14. ^ a b v d e Kullumning biografik registri jild 6B, pp. 1583–1584
  15. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 136
  16. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 113
  17. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 141
  18. ^ Hennessy (1958), pp. 136-137
  19. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 139
  20. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 140
  21. ^ Miller (2003), p. 8
  22. ^ Miller (2003), pp. 10-12
  23. ^ Miller (2003), pp. 14-15
  24. ^ Miller (2003), p. 18
  25. ^ Miller (2003), p. 20
  26. ^ Miller (2003), pp. 27-28
  27. ^ Miller (2003), p. 28
  28. ^ a b Hennessy (1958), p. 168
  29. ^ Miller (2003), pp. 34-35
  30. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 169
  31. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 170
  32. ^ Hennessy (1958), p. 194
  33. ^ Kuk (1996), p. 12
  34. ^ Maurer, Volume II, p. 105
  35. ^ Nalty (1997), pp. 48-49
  36. ^ Maurer, Volume I, pp. 53-54
  37. ^ Maurer, Volume II, p. 131
  38. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 131
  39. ^ Clodfelter (2011), p. 16
  40. ^ Clodfelter (2011), pp. 12-13
  41. ^ Clodfelter (2011), pp. 17-19
  42. ^ Greer (1985), pp. 11-12
  43. ^ Clodfelter (2011), p. 29
  44. ^ Clodfelter (2011), p. 32
  45. ^ Greer (1985), p. 12
  46. ^ Greer (1985), p. 10
  47. ^ Clodfelter (2011), p. 34
  48. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 1
  49. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 3
  50. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 5
  51. ^ Grant, "Airpower Genesis", p. 56
  52. ^ Maurer, Volume I, pp. 3-5
  53. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 6
  54. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 7
  55. ^ a b Maurer, Volume I, p. 8
  56. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 9
  57. ^ Maurer, Volume I, pp. 9-10
  58. ^ Maurer, Volume I, p. 12
  59. ^ Gorrell, "Rules of the Air," p.12
  60. ^ Tate (1998), pp. 8-11
  61. ^ War Expenditure Hearings, pp. 3482-3498
  62. ^ "Against Separate Air Service: Gen. Haan and Col. Gorrell Present the Case of the General Staff in Favor of Army Control," Nyu-York Tayms, January 11, 1920, p. 1
  63. ^ War Expenditure Hearings, p. 3493
  64. ^ Teyt (1998), p. 8, quoting Foulois
  65. ^ a b Autobiographical entry. USMA Class of 1912 Ten Year Book, 49-50 betlar
  66. ^ Correll, "The Air Mail Fiasco", pp. 61-65
  67. ^ Wedell, "ATA", pp. 26-27
  68. ^ "Air Lines Offer Pilots' Plan to Use Safety Sum, $10,000,000 Would First Improve Radio Beams", Chicago Daily Tribune, January 1, 1937, p. 9
  69. ^ Edgar S. Gorrell 1891–1845, Norwich University Archives and Special Collections
  70. ^ Lewis (2000), p. 15
  71. ^ Crackel (1998), p. 6-7
  72. ^ Crackel (1998), p. 7
  73. ^ a b v Orenic (2009), p. 50
  74. ^ Crackel (1998), p. 10
  75. ^ Kreyven va Keyt, jild I, pp. 350-351
  76. ^ Crackel (1998), pp. 29-30
  77. ^ Crackel (1998), pp. 14-15; p. 46 note 36
  78. ^ Pisano (2001), p. 84
  79. ^ Kreyven va Keyt, jild Men, p. 352; Vol. VII, p. 11
  80. ^ a b Crackel (1998), p. 30
  81. ^ a b Pisano (2001), pp. 85-86
  82. ^ Crackel (1998), p. 31
  83. ^ Crackel (1998), p. 33
  84. ^ Kreyven va Keyt, jild VII, p. 54
  85. ^ Crackel (1998), pp. 32-35

Adabiyotlar

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