Everglades - Everglades - Wikipedia

Everglades
Evergladesning eng ko'zga ko'ringan xususiyati shundaki arra o'tlari dashtlar mintaqa bo'ylab topilgan.
Evergladesning Florida yarim orolining janubiy uchdan birida joylashgan joyi
Manzil	Florida, Qo'shma Shtatlar
Koordinatalar	26 ° 00′N 80 ° 42′W / 26.0 ° N 80.7 ° Vt / 26.0; -80.7Koordinatalar: 26 ° 00′N 80 ° 42′W / 26.0 ° N 80.7 ° Vt / 26.0; -80.7
Maydon	7800 kvadrat mil (20000 km)2)[1]

The Everglades a tabiiy mintaqa ning tropik botqoqli erlar AQSh shtatining janubiy qismida Florida, katta qismning janubiy yarmidan iborat drenaj havzasi ichida Neotropik mintaqa. U shakllantirgan ekotizim hozirgi kunda er yuzida boshqa joyda mavjud emas.^[2] Tizim yaqinda boshlanadi Orlando bilan Kissimmi daryosi, bu keng, ammo sayoz joylarga tashlanadi Okeechobee ko'li. Suv tark etilmoqda ko'l nam mavsumda sekin harakatlanadigan hosil bo'ladi daryo Kengligi 60 mil (97 km) va uzunligi 100 mil (160 km) dan oshiq, a bo'ylab janubga qarab oqadi ohaktosh tokcha Florida ko'rfazi shtatning janubiy uchida. Evergladesda ob-havoning keng ko'lamini boshdan kechirmoqda, nam mavsumda tez-tez toshqindan qurg'oqchilikgacha qurg'oqchilikka qadar. 20-asr davomida Everglades yashash muhitini sezilarli darajada yo'qotdi va ekologik tanazzulga uchradi.

Florida yarim orolining janubiy qismida odamlarning yashash joylari 15000 yil oldin paydo bo'lgan. Evropa mustamlakachiligidan oldin bu mintaqada mahalliy aholi hukmronlik qilgan Kaluza va Tequesta qabilalar. Ispan mustamlakasi bilan har ikki qabilalar keyingi ikki asr davomida asta-sekin pasayib ketishdi. The Seminole asosan tashkil topgan Krik Shimoliy Florida bilan Evergladesga ko'chirilgandan keyin shimolga qarshi kurash olib borgan, boshqa xalqlarni o'zlashtirgan va yangi madaniyat yaratgan odamlar. Seminole urushlari 19-asr boshlarida. Mintaqaga moslashgandan so'ng, ular Qo'shma Shtatlar armiyasi tomonidan olib tashlanishiga qarshi tura oldilar.

Mintaqaga plantatsiyalarni rivojlantirishni istagan muhojirlar birinchi marta 1848 yilda Evergladesni quritishni taklif qilishgan, ammo 1882 yilgacha ushbu turdagi ish olib borilmagan. Kanallar 20-asrning birinchi yarmida qurilgan va Janubiy Florida iqtisodiyotiga turtki bergan. . 1947 yilda Kongress tashkil etdi Markaziy va janubiy Florida toshqinlarini nazorat qilish loyihasi 1400 mil (2300 km) kanallar qurgan, levees va suvni boshqarish moslamalari. The Mayami metropoliteni bu vaqtda sezilarli darajada o'sdi va Everglades suvlari shaharlarga yo'naltirildi. Evergladesning bir qismi asosiy ekin bo'lgan qishloq xo'jaligi maydonlariga aylantirildi shakarqamish. Dastlabki Evergladesning taxminan 50 foizi qishloq xo'jaligi yoki shahar joylari sifatida ishlab chiqilgan.^[3]

Ushbu jadal rivojlanish va atrof-muhitning tanazzulga uchragan davridan so'ng, 1970-yillarda ekotizim tabiatni muhofaza qilish guruhlari tomonidan katta e'tiborga sazovor bo'ldi. Xalqaro miqyosda, YuNESKO va Ramsar konvensiyasi Evergladesni botqoqli va global ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan hudud deb belgilab qo'ydi. Shimoldan 6 milya (9,7 km) katta aeroport qurilishi Everglades milliy bog'i atrof-muhitni o'rganish Janubiy Florida ekotizimiga jiddiy zarar etkazishi aniqlanganda bloklangan. Mintaqani yuqori darajada xabardor qilish va qadrlash bilan tiklash 1980-yillarda Kissimmi daryosini tekislagan kanalni olib tashlash bilan boshlandi. Biroq, mintaqada rivojlanish va barqarorlik masalalari dolzarb bo'lib qolmoqda. Evergladesning yomonlashishi, shu jumladan suvning sifatsizligi Okeechobee ko'li, Janubiy Florida shtatidagi shaharlarning hayot sifatining pasayishi bilan bog'liq edi. 2000 yilda Evergladesni tiklash bo'yicha kompleks reja ushbu muammolarga qarshi kurashish uchun Kongress tomonidan ma'qullangan, bu o'sha paytda tarixdagi eng qimmat va har tomonlama atrof-muhitni tiklashga urinish deb hisoblangan; ammo, amalga oshirish siyosiy qiyinchiliklarga duch keldi.

Ismlar

AQSh harbiylari tomonidan tuzilgan ushbu xaritada "Everglades" atamasi 1857 yilgacha ishlatilgan.

Everglades haqidagi birinchi yozma yozuv Ispaniya xaritalarida bo'lgan kartograflar erni ko'rmagan. Ular Florida shtatining Fors ko'rfazi va Atlantika qirg'oqlari orasidagi noma'lum hududga nom berishdi Laguna del Espíritu Santo ("Muqaddas Ruh ko'li").^[4] Hudud xaritalarda o'nlab yillar davomida o'rganilmagan holda joylashtirilgan. Yozuvchi Jeyms Grant Forbes 1811 yilda "hindular [janubiy nuqtalarni] o'tib bo'lmaydigan qilib ifodalaydi; va inglizlarning yerosti tadqiqotchilari, qirg'inchilari va dengiz qirg'oqlari dengiz qirg'og'idan tashqarida kashf qilish vositasi va daryolar ".^[5]

Britaniyalik surveyer Jon Jerar de Bram, 1773 yilda Florida qirg'og'ini xaritaga tushirgan, bu hududni "Glades daryosi" deb atagan. "Everglades" nomi birinchi marta xaritada 1823 yilda paydo bo'lgan, garchi u 1851 yilga qadar "Ever Glades" deb yozilgan bo'lsa ham.^[6] The Seminole qo'ng'iroq qiling Paxoki, "Grassy Water" ma'nosini anglatadi.^[7] Mintaqa "deb yozilganPa-xay-okee"1839 yilgi AQSh harbiy xaritasida, garchi u ilgari" Ever Glades "deb nomlangan bo'lsa ham Ikkinchi Seminole urushi.^[5]

2007 yilda geograflar Ari J. Lamme va Raymond K. Oldakovski tomonidan o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra "Glades" aniq mahalliy til sifatida paydo bo'ldi. mintaqa Florida shtati. U ichki va eng janubiy hududlarni o'z ichiga oladi Ko'rfaz sohillari ning Janubiy Florida, asosan Evergladesning o'ziga mos keladi. Bu shtatning aholisi kam bo'lgan hududlaridan biridir.^[8]

Geologiya

The geologiya Janubiy Florida shtati, iliq, nam, subtropik iqlim bilan birga, katta botqoqli ekotizimga mos sharoitlarni yaratib beradi. G'ovakli va o'tkazuvchan ohaktosh qatlamlari hosil bo'ladi suv toshi va iqlimga, ob-havoga ta'sir qiluvchi tuproq va gidrologiya Janubiy Florida shtati.^[9]Everglades ostidagi toshning xususiyatlarini davlatning geologik tarixi bilan izohlash mumkin. Florida ostidagi qobiq Afrika qit'asining supero'tkazuvchi mintaqasining bir qismida joylashgan Gondvana. Taxminan 300 million yil oldin Shimoliy Amerika Afrika bilan birlashib, Florida'ni Shimoliy Amerika bilan birlashtirdi. Florida shtatining sharqiy qismida joylashgan vulqon harakati keng tarqalgan cho'kindi jinslar bilan magmatik tosh. Qit'a rifting taxminan 180 million yil oldin Shimoliy Amerikani Gondvanadan ajratishni boshladi.^[10] Florida Afrikaning bir qismi bo'lganida, dastlab suv ustida bo'lgan, ammo salqinroq bo'lgan Yura davri, Florida platformasi cho'kindi jinslar yotqizilgan sayoz dengiz muhitiga aylandi. Orqali Bo'r davri, Florida katta qismi har xil chuqurlikdagi tropik dengiz tubida qoldi.^[11] Yarim orol tog 'jinslari paydo bo'lganidan beri kamida etti marta dengiz suvi bilan qoplangan.^[12]

Ohaktosh va suv qatlamlari

Dalgalanuvchi dengiz sathlari ko'plab qatlamlarni siqib chiqardi kaltsiy karbonat, qum va qobiqlar. Natijada o'tkazuvchan ohaktosh 25 milliondan 70 million yilgacha bo'lgan davrda shakllangan Floridan suv qatlami, bu Florida shtatining shimoliy qismi uchun toza suvning asosiy manbai bo'lib xizmat qiladi. Biroq, bu suv qatlami Okeechobee ko'lidan yarim orolning janubiy uchiga qadar suv o'tkazmaydigan cho'kindi jinslarning minglab futlari ostida yotadi.^[13]

Evergladesning 2019 yil mart oyida olingan sun'iy yo'ldosh tasviri

Janubiy Florida shtatidagi ohaktosh shakllanishi. Manba: AQSh Geologik xizmati

Beshta geologik shakllanish Florida janubiy qismining yuzasini tashkil qiladi: Tamiami shakllanishi, Caloosahatchee shakllanishi, Anastasiya shakllanishi, Mayami ohaktoshi, va Fort Tompson shakllanishi. Tamiami Formation - bu yuqori o'tkazuvchan ochiq rangli toshbo'ronli qumlar va cho'ntaklarning siqilishi. kvarts, 46 metr qalinligi 150 metr. U uchun nomlangan Tamiami izi bu Katta Kipr botqog'ining yuqori toshidan keyin va Evergladesning janubiy qismi asosida joylashgan. Tamiami qatlami va Okeechobee ko'li o'rtasida Caloosahatchee qatlami joylashgan bo'lib, uning ustidan daryo nomi berilgan. O'tkazuvchanligi ancha past bo'lgan bu qatlam yuqori darajada kalsitlanadi va qumli qobiq mergeni, loy va qumdan iborat. Caloosahatchee qatlami ostidagi suv odatda juda minerallashgan. Ikkala Tamiami va Caloosahatchee shakllanishi ham rivojlangan Plyotsen davri.^[14][15]

Okeechobee ko'lining janubiy qismini o'rab turgan, zich, qattiq ohaktosh, chig'anoqlar va qumlardan yasalgan Fort Tompson qatlami. Yomg'ir suvi ohaktosh hosil bo'lishini kamroq emiradi eritma teshiklari—Suv qatlami bilan kesishmaydigan chuqurlarning chuqurroq versiyalari. Ushbu shakllanishda to'shak odatda o'tkazilmaydi.^[16] Ning metropolitenlari ostida Palm-Bich okrugi qobiqli ohaktoshdan tashkil topgan Anastasiya qatlami, kokina va sobiq mangrov yoki sho'r botqoqni ifodalovchi qum. Anastasiya shakllanishi ancha o'tkazuvchan bo'lib, cho'ntaklar va eritma teshiklari bilan to'ldirilgan.^[16] Fort Tompson va Anastasiya formasyonlari va Mayami Ohaktosh va (x) shakllangan Sangamon muzlararo davr.^[17]

Evergladlarga eng katta ta'sir ko'rsatadigan geologik shakllanishlar Mayami ohaktoshi va Fort Tompson qatlamidir. Mayami ohaktoshida ikkitasi bor fasiya. Janubiy Palm-Bich okrugidan janubiy Mayami-Dade okrugiga qadar Atlantika qirg'oq tizmasi asosida joylashgan Mayami Oolit fasadlari quyidagilardan iborat. ooidlar: bitta qum yoki qobiq bo'lagi atrofida hosil bo'lgan tuxum shaklidagi konsentrik qobiqlar va kaltsiy karbonatning mayda shakllanishi. Sharqiy pastki Everglades (Mayami-Dade okrugi va Monro okrugining bir qismida) asosida joylashgan boshqa fasiyalar toshga aylangan narsalardan iborat. bryozoan organizmlar.^[18] Noyob inshoot 20-asrning boshlarida Janubiy Florida shtatida uy-joy qurishda ishlatilgan birinchi materiallardan biri edi. Ushbu cho'kindi qatlamning tarkibi uning ustidagi gidrologiyaga, o'simliklarning hayotiga va hayvonot dunyosiga ta'sir qiladi: tosh ayniqsa g'ovakli va Evergladesdagi quruq mavsumda suvni saqlaydi va uning kimyoviy tarkibi mintaqada keng tarqalgan o'simliklarni aniqlaydi. Mayami Oolit fasadlari ham Evergladesdan okeangacha bo'lgan suv oqimiga to'sqinlik qiladi Loderdeyl Fort va Coot Bay (yaqinida) Cable Sable ).^[19]

Ning metropolitenlari Mayami, Fort-Loderdeyl va West Palm Beach Florida shtatining Sharqiy qirg'oq tizmasi deb nomlangan sharqiy qirg'og'i bo'ylab balandlikning ko'tarilishida joylashgan bo'lib, bu to'lqinlar ooidlarni bitta shaklga siqib chiqargan holda hosil bo'lgan. Katta Kipress botqog'ining g'arbiy chegarasi bo'ylab Immokolee tizmasi (yoki Immokolee Rise) joylashgan bo'lib, Caloosahatchee daryosi va Katta Kipr o'rtasidagi oqimni ajratib turadigan siqilgan qumning biroz ko'tarilishi.^[20] Evergladesning ikkala tomonidagi balandlikning bir oz ko'tarilishi havzani vujudga keltiradi va Okeechoee ko'lidan toshgan suvni janubi-g'arbiy tomon suzishga majbur qiladi.^[21]Mayami ohaktosh shakllanishi va Fort Tompson ohaktoshi ostida yotadi Biskayn suv qatlami sifatida xizmat qiladigan sirt qatlami Mayami metropoliteni chuchuk suv manbai. Yomg'ir va Evergladesdagi to'plangan suv to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Biscayne suv qatlamini to'ldiradi.^[17]

Davomida sodir bo'lgan dengiz sathining ko'tarilishi bilan Pleystotsen taxminan 17000 yil oldin, Okeechobee ko'lidan oqadigan suv sekinlashdi va hozirgi kunda Everglades deb nomlanuvchi ulkan botqoqni yaratdi. Sekinroq oqadigan suv ham qariyb 18 fut (5,5 m) to'planishni yaratdi torf hududda. Taxminan 5000 yil ilgari tuzilgan bunday torf konlarining mavjudligi, keng toshqinlar o'sha paytgacha sodir bo'lganligidan dalolat beradi.^[22]

Gidrologiya

Oldindan rivojlanish oqimining yo'nalishi Okeechobee ko'li ga Florida ko'rfazi Manba: AQSh Geologiya xizmati

Doimiy Everglades toshqini keng tomonidan to'yingan Kissimmi, Caloosahatchee, Mayami, Myakka va Tinchlik daryolari Florida markazida. Kissimmi daryosi keng toshqin suv toshqini to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Okeechobee ko'liga quyiladi, u 730 kvadrat mil (1900 km)²) o'rtacha chuqurligi 2,7 m bo'lgan bu ulkan, ammo sayoz ko'ldir.^[23] Everglades havzasidagi tuproq konlari hijob erni yil davomida doimiy ravishda suv bosgan joyga yotqizilganligini ko'rsatadi. Suv toshqini qisqaroq bo'lganda kaltsiy konlari orqada qoladi. Cho'kindi jinslar suvning bir yildan ikkinchi yilgacha saqlanib qolishidan farqli o'laroq, yog'ingarchilik darajasiga qarab suv ko'tarilib tushadigan joylarda paydo bo'ladi. Kaltsiy konlari ko'proq ohaktosh toshgan joylarda mavjud.^[24]

Uchastka maydoni Orlando Florida yarim orolining uchida bir vaqtning o'zida bitta drenaj qurilmasi bo'lgan. Yomg'ir Okeechobee ko'li va Kissimmi daryosining toshqin qatlamidan oshib ketganda, u to'kilgan va janubi-g'arbiy yo'nalishda oqqan Florida ko'rfazi. Floridada shahar va qishloq xo'jaligining rivojlanishidan oldin Everglades Okeechobee ko'lining janubiy chekkasidan boshlanib, taxminan 160 milya yurib, Meksika ko'rfaziga bo'shatildi. Ohaktosh tokchasi ko'pgina daryolarga xos bo'lgan tor, chuqur kanalga ega bo'lish o'rniga keng va biroz burchakli. Okeechobee ko'lidan Florida ko'rfazigacha bo'lgan vertikal gradient milga taxminan 2 dyuym (5,1 sm) ni tashkil etadi va kuniga 60 mil (97 km) kenglikdagi daryoni yaratib, kuniga yarim mil (0,8 km) yuradi.^[25] Keng va sayoz daryoning bu sekin harakatlanishi ma'lum choyshabva Evergladesga "Grass River" laqabini beradi. Okeechobee ko'lidan chiqib ketadigan suv Florida shtatining so'nggi manziliga etib borish uchun bir necha oy yoki yilni talab qilishi mumkin. Choyshab oqimi shunchalik sekin yuradiki, suv odatda nam mavsumdan ikkinchisiga gözenekli ohaktosh substratida saqlanadi. Suvning pasayishi va oqimi Evergladesning taxmin qilingan 5000 yillik hayoti davomida erni va Janubiy Florida shtatidagi har qanday ekotizimni shakllantirdi. Suv harakati o'simliklarning jamoalarini va hayvonlarning yashash joylariga va oziq-ovqat manbalariga qanday moslashishini belgilaydi.^[26]

Iqlim

Charley dovuli yilda 2004 janubiy Florida shtatining Meksika ko'rfazi sohilida qirg'oqqa harakatlanmoqda

Iqlimi Janubiy Florida o'rtasida keng o'tish zonasi bo'ylab joylashgan subtropik va tropik iqlim (Koppen Aw, Am va Cfa). Ushbu iqlim turiga ega bo'lgan aksariyat mintaqalar singari, ikkita asosiy fasl mavjud - "quruq mavsum" (qish) noyabrdan aprelgacha, maydan oktyabrgacha davom etadigan "nam mavsum" (yoz). Florida janubida yillik yog'ingarchilikning taxminan 70% nam vaqtga to'g'ri keladi - ko'pincha qisqa, ammo kuchli tropik yomg'ir. Quruq mavsumda ozgina yog'ingarchilik bo'ladi va shudring nuqtalari va namlik ko'pincha juda past bo'ladi. Qurg'oqchilik mavsumi ba'zida og'ir bo'lishi mumkin, chunki o'rmon yong'inlari va suv cheklovlari ko'pincha mavjud.

Florida janubidagi va Evergladesdagi yillik harorat oralig'i unchalik katta emas (11 ° C dan past) - o'rtacha oylik harorati yanvar oyidagi 65 ° F (18 ° C) dan 83 ° F gacha ( 28 ° C) iyulda. Issiq va nam mavsumda (yozda) yuqori haroratlar Florida janubi bo'ylab odatda 90 ° F (32 ° C) dan oshadi (garchi qirg'oq joylari shamol tomonidan soviydi) Meksika ko'rfazi va Atlantika okeani), quruq qish mavsumida yuqori haroratlar o'rtacha 70 dan 79 ° F gacha (21 dan 26 ° C gacha). Florida janubi va Everglades bo'ylab muzlash va muzlash kamdan-kam uchraydi; Mayami va Neapol singari qirg'oq shaharlari har yili sovuq kunlar bilan nol kunlar haqida xabar berishadi, garchi har o'n yilda bir necha marotaba past harorat Janubiy Florida bo'ylab 30-40 ° F (-1 va 4 ° C) gacha tushishi mumkin. The o'simliklarning chidamliligi zonalari 10a shimolda, o'rtacha yillik minimal havo harorati 30 dan 35 ° F gacha (-1 dan +2 ° C gacha) va 10b janubda o'rtacha yillik minimal havo harorati 35-40 ° F (2 dan 4 ° C gacha). ).^[27] Yillik yog'ingarchilik o'rtacha o'rtacha 62 dyuymni (160 sm) tashkil etadi, Sharqiy qirg'oq tizmasiga yog'ingarchilikning ko'p qismi va Okeechobee ko'li atrofidagi hududga taxminan 48 dyuym (120 sm) yog'ingarchilik tushadi.^[28]

Yerdagi boshqa har qanday botqoqlik tizimidan farqli o'laroq, Evergladlar asosan atmosfera tomonidan ta'minlanadi.^[29] Evapotranspiratsiya - er yuzidan atmosferaga bug'lanish va o'simlik transpiratsiyasining yig'indisi - momaqaldiroq bilan bog'liq bo'lib, suv mintaqani tark etishining asosiy mexanizmi hisoblanadi. Qurg'oqchilik ta'sir qilmagan bir yil davomida bu ko'rsatkich yiliga 100 santimetrga etishi mumkin. Qurg'oqchilik sodir bo'lganda, bu ko'rsatkich 130 santimetrdan oshib ketishi va yog'ingarchilik miqdoridan oshib ketishi mumkin.^[30] Suv, asosan, quyosh energiyasi bilan faollashtirilgan er osti suvlari yoki o'simlik moddalaridan bug'lanish orqali hududni tark etganda, u shamol naqshlari bilan chegaradosh yoki Everglades suv havzasi tizimiga quyiladigan boshqa joylarga ko'chiriladi. Evapotranspiratsiya Evergladesdagi rivojlanmagan botqoqli hududlarga kiradigan suvning taxminan 70-90 foizini tashkil qiladi.^[31]

Nam mavsumda yog'ingarchiliklar birinchi navbatda havo massividagi momaqaldiroq tufayli kelib chiqadi va sharqiy subtropik balandlikdan (Bermud balandligi) oqadi. Kunduzgi erni qizdirish iliq nam tropik havoning ko'tarilishiga olib keladi va tropik iqlimga xos tushdan keyin momaqaldiroq yog'ishini keltirib chiqaradi. Soat 14:00 - Janubiy Florida va Everglades bo'ylab kunlik momaqaldiroqning o'rtacha vaqti. Nam mavsum oxirida (avgust va sentyabr) yog'ingarchilik darajasi eng yuqori darajaga etadi, chunki tropik depressiyalar va pastliklar kunlik yog'ingarchilikni ko'paytiradi. Ba'zan, tropik pastliklar kuchli tropik tsiklonlarga aylanib, Florida janubiga etib borganida katta zarar etkazishi mumkin. Tropik bo'ronlar o'rtacha yiliga bir marta, katta bo'ronlar esa har o'n yilda bir marta. 1871 yildan 1981 yilgacha 138 ta tropik tsiklon Everglades ustiga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yoki yaqiniga urildi.^[28] Ushbu bo'ronlardan kuchli shamol o'simlik urug'larini tarqatib yuboradi va to'ldiradi mangrov o'rmonlar, mercan riflari va boshqa ekotizimlar. Yog'ingarchilikning keskin o'zgarishi Janubiy Florida iqlimiga xosdir. Qurg'oqchilik, toshqinlar va tropik siklonlar Evergladesdagi tabiiy suv tizimining bir qismidir.^[31]

Formalash va barqaror jarayonlar

Everglades - bu o'zaro bog'liq bo'lgan ekotizimlarning murakkab tizimidir. Marjori Stouneman Duglas 1947 yilda bu hududni "Grass River" deb ta'riflagan, ammo metafora tizimning faqat bir qismini anglatadi. Drenajdan oldin Everglades deb tan olingan maydon 4 000 kvadrat mil (10 000 km) botqoq va dashtlar tarmog'i bo'lgan.²) hajmi bo'yicha.^[35] Ekotizimlar orasidagi chegaralar nozik yoki sezilmaydi. Ushbu tizimlar bir necha yil yoki o'nlab yillar davomida siljiydi, o'sadi va qisqaradi, o'ladi yoki yana paydo bo'ladi. Geologik omillar, iqlim va yong'in chastotasi Evergladesdagi ekotizimlarni yaratish, saqlash yoki almashtirishga yordam beradi.

Suv

Dovul Shark daryosi Evergladesda, 1966 yil
Surat: Charlz Barron / Florida shtati kutubxonasi va arxivi

Suv Evergladesdagi hukmron kuch bo'lib, Janubiy Florida shtatida er, o'simlik va hayvonot dunyosini shakllantiradi. Dan boshlab oxirgi muzlik maksimal, 21000 yil oldin, kontinental muz qatlamlari chekinib, dengiz sathi ko'tarildi. Florida yarim orolining bu suv osti qismlari va suv sathi ko'tarilish Toza suv Everglades asosidagi ohaktoshni to'ydirib, uning bir qismini yemirgan va yaratgan buloqlar va chuqurliklar. Toza suvning ko'pligi yangi o'simliklarning ildiz otishiga imkon berdi va bug'lanish orqali er yuzida konvektiv momaqaldiroq paydo bo'ldi.^[36][37]

Yomg'ir yog'ishni davom ettirganda, ozgina kislotali yomg'ir suvi eritilgan ohaktosh. Ohaktosh eskirgan sari er osti suvlari quruqlik yuzasiga tegib, ulkan botqoqli ekotizimni vujudga keltirdi.^[36] Mintaqa tekis ko'rinishga ega bo'lsa-da, ob-havo ohaktoshidan ba'zi hududlarda mayda vodiylar va platolar hosil bo'lgan. Ushbu platolar atigi bir necha dyuymga ko'tariladi va tushadi, ammo nozik Janubiy Florida relyefida bu kichik o'zgarishlar suv oqimiga ham, turishi mumkin bo'lgan o'simlik turlariga ham ta'sir qiladi.^[38]

Tosh

Notekis ohaktosh Everglades arra o'tlari cho'llarida hosil bo'lganlar

Everglades havzasining asosiy tosh yoki ohaktoshlari ta'sir qiladi gidroperiod, yoki mintaqa hududi yil davomida qancha vaqt suv ostida qolishi.^[36] Florida shtatining geologiyasi shakllanayotgan paytda dengiz suvi ostida uzoq vaqt davomida cho'kib ketgan joylarda uzoqroq gidroperiodlar mumkin. Ko'proq suv g'ovak ichida joylashgan ooidlar va dengiz sathidan ko'proq vaqt sarflagan eski jinslarga qaraganda ohaktosh.^[39] O'n oylik yoki undan ko'p bo'lgan gidroperiod arra o'tlarining o'sishiga yordam beradi, olti oy yoki undan kam bo'lgan gidroperiodning qisqarishi esa perifiton, suv o'tlari va boshqa mikroskopik organizmlarning o'sishi. Evergladesda faqat ikki xil tuproq bor, torf va marn. Ko'proq gidroperiodlar bo'lgan joyda, hijob yuzlab yoki minglab yillar davomida o'simliklarning parchalanadigan ko'plab avlodlari tufayli hosil bo'ladi.^[40] Perifiton o'sadigan joyda tuproq mergelga aylanadi, u tarkibida kalsitikroq bo'ladi.

Okeechobee ko'li yaqinida qishloq xo'jaligini rivojlantirish bo'yicha dastlabki urinishlar muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi, ammo torf tarkibidagi ozuqa moddalari tezda yo'q qilindi. Tuproq deb ataladigan jarayonda cho'kish, oksidlanish torf miqdori yo'qolishiga olib keladi.^[41] Bakteriyalar o'lik arra o'tlarini suv ostida asta-sekin kislorodsiz parchalanadi. 1920-yillarda suv drenajlanganda va bakteriyalar kislorod bilan ta'sir o'tkazganda, aerobik reaktsiya paydo bo'ldi. Mikroorganizmlar torfni parchalagan karbonat angidrid va suv. Hijobning bir qismi erni tozalash uchun ko'chmanchilar tomonidan yoqib yuborilgan. Dastlabki fermer xo'jaliklari hududlarida qurilgan ba'zi uylar torfning buzilishi sababli poydevorlarini qoziqqa ko'chirishga to'g'ri keldi; boshqa joylar taxminan 2,8 metr tuproq chuqurligini yo'qotdi.^[42]

Yong'in

Yong'in Evergladesni tabiiy saqlashda muhim element hisoblanadi. Yong'inlarning aksariyati sababdir chaqmoq nam mavsumda momaqaldiroqdan uradi. Ularning ta'siri asosan yuzaki bo'lib, o'simliklarning o'ziga xos o'sishini ta'minlashga xizmat qiladi: arra o'tlari suv ustida yonadi, lekin ildizlari ostida saqlanadi. Yog'och botqoqlarida yong'in kattaroq butalar va daraxtlarni chetlab o'tishga xizmat qiladi va chirigan o'simlik moddalari tarkibidagi ozuqaviy moddalardan samaraliroq ajralib chiqadi. parchalanish.^[43] Nam mavsumda o'lik o'simlik moddalari va o'tlar va daraxtlarning uchlari yoqib yuborilgan bo'lsa, quruq mavsumda olov organik torf bilan oziqlanishi va chuqur yonib, ildiz tizimlarini yo'q qilishi mumkin.^[43] Yong'inlar mavjud suv va yog'ingarchilik bilan chegaralanadi. Bir oyoq (.30 m) torfning rivojlanishi uchun taxminan 225 yil vaqt kerak bo'ladi, ammo ba'zi joylarda torf Evergladesning 5000 yillik hayotiga nisbatan zichroq emas.^[44] Olimlar olovni sabab sifatida ko'rsatmoqdalar; u ham Everglades muckining qora rangiga sabab sifatida ko'rsatiladi. Qatlamlar ko'mir Everglades qismidagi torfda mintaqa bir necha yillar davomida kuchli yong'inlarga dosh berganligini aniqladi, ammo bu tendentsiya so'nggi 940 yilda sodir bo'lganidan beri pasayganga o'xshaydi. Miloddan avvalgi.^[44]

Ekotizimlar

Evergladesdagi asosiy landshaft turlari inson harakati oldidan. Manba: AQSh Geologiya xizmati

Sawgrass botqoqlari va chayqalishlar

Evergladesda bir nechta ekotizim mavjud bo'lib, ular orasidagi chegaralar nozik yoki yo'q. Evergladesning asosiy xususiyati shundaki arra o'tlari botqoq. Okeechobee ko'lidan Florida ko'rfazigacha bo'lgan 160 mil uzunlikdagi va 97 kilometr kenglikdagi sayoz daryoda suv va arra o'tlarining kombinatsiyasi ko'pincha "haqiqiy Everglades" yoki shunchaki "Glades" deb nomlanadi.^[45][46] Birinchi drenaj tashabbuslaridan oldin 1905 yilda, choyshab quyi Florida yarim orolining deyarli uchdan bir qismini egallagan.^[36] Sawgrass asta-sekin harakatlanadigan suvda yaxshi rivojlanadi, ammo kislorod ildiziga yeta olmasa, g'ayrioddiy chuqur toshqinlarda o'lishi mumkin. Yong'in sodir bo'lganidan keyin darhol zaiflashadi.^[47] Botqoq uchun gidroperiod kamida to'qqiz oyni tashkil etadi va uzoqroq davom etishi mumkin.^[48] Arra o'tlari zich o'sadigan joyda ozgina hayvonlar yoki boshqa o'simliklar yashaydi alligatorlar uyalash uchun ushbu joylarni tanlang. Xona ko'proq bo'lgan joyda, perifiton o'sadi.^[49] Perifiton lichinkali hasharotlar va amfibiyalarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi, ularni o'z navbatida qushlar, baliqlar va sudralib yuruvchilar oziq-ovqat sifatida iste'mol qiladilar. Shuningdek, u yutadi kaltsiy mergelning kaltsit tarkibiga qo'shiladigan suvdan.^[50]

Yalang'och o'tlar orasida suv oqimlari yoki erkin oqadigan suv kanallari rivojlanadi. Yalang'ochlar maysa botqoqlaridan taxminan 3 fut (0,91 m) chuqurroq va yil davomida kamida 11 oy, ba'zan esa bir necha yil ketma-ket suv ostida qolishi mumkin.^[51] Kaplumbağalar, alligatorlar, ilonlar va baliqlar kabi suvda yashovchi hayvonlar bo'shashmasdan rivojlanadi; ular odatda suvdagi umurtqasiz hayvonlar bilan oziqlanadi.^[52] Bu erda suv ostida va suzuvchi o'simliklar o'sadi, masalan, qovuq (Utrikulariya ), nilufar (Nymphaeaceae ) va spatterdock (Nuphar lutea ). Everglades tizimidagi asosiy shlyuzlarga quyidagilar kiradi Shark daryosi Sluff Florida ko'rfaziga, Lostmans daryosi Slyug'ining Katta Kipr bilan chegaradosh va undan tashqariga oqib chiqmoqda Teylor Slo sharqiy Evergladesda.

Nam cho'llar arra botqoqlari kabi biroz ko'tarilgan, ammo o'simliklarning xilma-xilligi ko'proq. Yilning atigi uch-etti oyi davomida suv yuzasi bilan qoplanadi va suv o'rtacha, atigi 4 dyuym (10 sm) chuqurlikda sayoz bo'ladi.^[53] Suv bosganda, mergel turli xil suv o'simliklarini qo'llab-quvvatlashi mumkin.^[54] Eritma teshiklari yoki ohaktosh eskirgan chuqur chuqurliklar, hatto dasht quruq bo'lsa ham suv ostida qolishi mumkin va ular suv omurgasızlarını qo'llab-quvvatlaydi. Qisqichbaqa yosh suzuvchi qushlarni boqadigan salyangozlar va lichinkali amfibiyalar.^[55] Ushbu mintaqalar shafqatsizlar va arra o'tlari botqoqlari o'rtasida chegaradosh.

Alligatorlar nam dashtlarda joy yaratdilar. Tirnoqlari va tumshuqlari bilan ular past joylarda qazishadi va quruq mavsum davomida suv ostida qoladigan o'simliklardan xoli suv havzalarini yaratadilar. Alligator teshiklari uzoq umr ko'rgan suv omurgasızları, kaplumbağalar, baliqlar, kichik sutemizuvchilar va qushlarning hayoti uchun ajralmas hisoblanadi. Keyin timsollar teshikka kelgan ba'zi hayvonlarni oziqlantiradi.^[56][57]

Tropik qattiq yog'och hamak

Tropik qattiq daraxtzor hamakda daraxtlar juda zich va xilma-xil.

Dasht va dashtlardan 1 fut (0,30 m) dan 3 fut (0,91 m) gacha ko'tarilgan quruqlikda o'sadigan daraxtlarning kichik orollari tropik qattiq daraxt deb ataladi. hamaklar.^[58] Ular biridan (4000 m.) Farq qilishi mumkin²) o'n gektargacha (40000 m.)²) hududda va chuchuk suvli shilliqqurtlarda, arra o'tlari yoki tekislikda paydo bo'ladi. Hamak atrofdagi torfdan bir necha dyuym baland ko'tarilgan ohaktoshli platolarda biroz ko'tarilgan yoki ular chuqur torf yong'inlari bilan zarar ko'rmagan quruqlikda o'sishi mumkin. Qattiq yog'och hamaklar subtropik va qattiq daraxtlarning aralashmasini namoyish etadi, masalan, Janubiy tirik eman (Quercus virginiana ), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba ), qirol palmasi (Roystonea ) va bustik (Dipholis salicifolia ) juda zich to'planib o'sadigan.^[59] Baza yaqinida, o'tkir arra palmettos (Serenoa repenslari ) gullab-yashnashi, odamlarning kirib borishi juda qiyin bo'lgan, ammo kichik sutemizuvchilar, sudralib yuruvchilar va amfibiyalar bu orollarni ideal yashash joyi deb bilishadi. Yalang'och suvlar orollar atrofida aylanib, yaratmoqda xandaklar. Garchi ba'zi ekotizimlar olov bilan ta'minlansa va targ'ib qilinsa-da, hamaklarning tiklanishi o'nlab yoki asrlarni talab qilishi mumkin. Hamak atrofidagi xandaklar daraxtlarni himoya qiladi.^[60] Daraxtlar balandligi sovuq, chaqmoq va shamol kabi ob-havo omillari bilan cheklangan; hamakdagi daraxtlarning aksariyati 17 metrdan oshmaydi.

Pineland

Evergladesdagi eng qurg'oqchil erlarning bir qismi gidroperioddan ozgacha bo'lgan Evergladesning eng yuqori qismida joylashgan pineland (shuningdek, qarag'ay rockland deb nomlanadi) ekotizimidir. Biroq, ayrim qavatlar bir necha oy davomida eritma teshiklari yoki ko'lmaklarni suv bosishi mumkin. Pinelandning eng muhim xususiyati - bu Janubiy Florida slash qarag'ayining yagona turi (Pinus elliottii ). Pineland jamoalari ularni saqlab qolish uchun olovni talab qiladi va daraxtlar bir vaqtning o'zida olovni targ'ib qiluvchi va qarshilik ko'rsatadigan bir nechta moslashishga ega.^[61] Qarag'ay o'rmonining qumli tagligi juda tez yonadigan quruq qarag'ay ignalari bilan qoplangan. Janubiy Florida shtatidagi slash qarag'aylari ularni issiqlikdan himoya qilish uchun qobig'i bilan izolyatsiya qilingan. Yong'in o'rmon tubida raqobatbardosh o'simliklarni yo'q qiladi va urug'larni unib chiqish uchun qarag'ay konuslarini ochadi.^[62] Muhim yong'insiz davr pinlandni qattiq daraxtzorga aylantirishi mumkin, chunki kattaroq daraxtlar kesilgan qarag'aylardan o'tib ketadi.^[63] The understory qarag'ay toshlaridagi butalar olovga chidamli arra palmetto (Serenoa repenslari ), karam palmasi (Sabal palmetto ) va G'arbiy Hindiston lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor ). Qarag'ay hamjamiyatidagi o'simliklarning eng xilma-xil guruhi o'tlar bo'lib, ularning yigirma turi mavjud. Ushbu o'simliklar tarkibiga kiradi ildiz mevalari va ularni charxlangandan keyin tezda unib chiqishga imkon beradigan boshqa mexanizmlar.^[64]

Janubiy Florida mintaqasining shaharsozlik rivojlanishidan oldin qarag'ay toshlari taxminan 161,660 gektar maydonni (654,2 km) egallagan²) ichida Mayami-Deyd okrugi. Everglades milliy bog'i ichida 19,840 akr (80,3 km)²) qarag'ay o'rmonlari muhofaza qilinadi, ammo parkdan tashqarida, 1780 akr (7,2 km)²) qarag'ay jamoalari 1990 yilga kelib qolgan bo'lib, o'rtacha 12,1 akr (49000 m) ni tashkil etadi²) hududda.^[61] Yong'inning rolini tushunmaslik bu hududdagi qarag'ay o'rmonlarining yo'q bo'lib ketishiga ham ta'sir ko'rsatdi, chunki tabiiy yong'inlar o'chirildi va qarag'ay toshlari qattiq daraxtzorlarga o'raldi. Belgilangan yong'inlar qarag'ay toshlaridagi Everglades milliy bog'ida har uch yildan etti yilgacha sodir bo'ladi.^[65]

Evergladesdagi toza suv ekotizimlarining kesmasi, suvning nisbiy o'rtacha chuqurligi

Sarv

Katta Sarvdagi suv havzasi

Kipr botqoqlarini Everglades bo'ylab uchratish mumkin, ammo eng kattasi ko'pini qoplaydi Kollier okrugi. Katta sarvni botqog'i arra o'tlari va qurg'oqlardan g'arbda joylashgan bo'lib, u odatda "Katta sarv" deb nomlanadi.^[66] Ism daraxtlarning balandligi yoki diametridan ko'ra uning maydoniga ishora qiladi; eng konservativ hisob-kitoblarga ko'ra, botqoqning balandligi 3100 km²), lekin gidrologik chegarasi Katta Siparni hisoblash uchun 2,400 kvadrat mildan ko'proq (6,200 km)²).^[67] Katta Sarvning aksariyati ohaktoshning ingichka qatlami bilan qoplangan tog 'jinslari tepasida o'tiradi. Katta Sarv ostidagi ohaktosh tarkibiga kiradi kvarts, bu Evergladesning boshqa hududlarida joylashganidan farq qiluvchi turli xil o'simliklarni egallaydigan qumli tuproqni yaratadi.^[66] Big Cypress havzasi nam mavsumda o'rtacha 55 dyuym (140 sm) suv oladi.^[68]

Katta Kipr Janubiy Florida shtatidagi kipr botqoqlarining eng yirik o'sishi bo'lsa-da, kipr botqoqlarini Atlantika qirg'oqlari tizmasi yaqinida va Okeechobee ko'li va Sharqiy tekislik oralig'ida, shuningdek, arra o't botqoqlarida topish mumkin. Kiprlar bargli ignabargli daraxtlar suv bosgan sharoitda gullab-yashnashi uchun noyob tarzda moslangan, "tizzalar" deb nomlangan suv ostidan chiqib ketadigan tanasi va ildiz proektsiyalari bilan.^[69] Balli sarv daraxtlar eng chuqur torfga ildiz otgan, markazida eng baland va qalin tanasi bo'lgan shakllarda o'sadi. Torf yupqalashganda, sarvlar kichrayib, ingichka bo'lib, kichik o'rmonga tashqaridan gumbaz ko'rinishini beradi.^[70] Ular, shuningdek, ikkala tomonning yonboshlari bilan chegaralangan ohaktosh tizmasida biroz ko'tarilgan iplarda o'sadi.^[71] Kipr gumbazlarida boshqa qattiq daraxt daraxtlarini topish mumkin, masalan qizil chinor, botqoq bay va pop ash. Agar sarvlar olib tashlansa, qattiq daraxtlar egallab olinadi va ekotizim aralash botqoq o'rmoni toifasiga kiritiladi.

Mangrov va qirg'oq dashtlari

Qizil mangrov fasl bilan chegaradosh daraxtlar mansub Evergladesda

Oxir-oqibat Okeechobee ko'li va Katta Sarv suvlari okeanga yo'l oladi. Mangrov daraxtlari o'tish zonasiga yaxshi moslashgan sho'r toza va sho'r suvlar uchrashadigan suv.^[72] Ning estuarin ekotizimi O'n ming orollar deyarli butunlay mangrov o'rmonlaridan iborat bo'lib, deyarli 200000 akrni (810 km) egallaydi²).^[73] Nam mavsumda Florida ko'rfaziga toza suv quyiladi va arra o'tlari qirg'oqqa yaqinlasha boshlaydi. Quruq mavsumda va ayniqsa qurg'oqchilikning uzoq vaqtlarida sho'r suv qirg'oq dashtiga, dengiz suvini yutib chuchuk suv botqoqlarini bufer qiladigan ekotizimga kirib boradi. Mangrov daraxtlari toza suv ekotizimida sho'r suv ichkariga yetib borganida o'sishni boshlaydi.^[74]

Mangrov deb hisoblanadigan uchta daraxt turi mavjud: qizil (Rizofora mangalasi ), qora (Avitsennia germinans ) va oq (Laguncularia racemosa ), ammo barchasi turli xil oilalardan.^[75] Ularning barchasi kislorodsiz tuproqda o'sadi, suv sathining keskin o'zgarishiga bardosh bera oladi va sho'r, sho'r va toza suvga chidamli.^[76] Uchala mangrov turlari ham kuchli bo'ron paytida qirg'oqlarni himoya qilishning ajralmas qismidir. Qizil mangrovlar eng uzoq ildizlarga ega bo'lib, bo'ronlardan keyin va ular orasida qirg'oq chizig'ini qurishda yordam beradigan cho'kindilarni ushlaydi. Uch turdagi daraxtlar ham to'lqinlarning energiyasini yutadi va bo'ron ko'tarilishi. Everglades mangrovlari ham pitomnik sifatida xizmat qiladi qisqichbaqasimonlar baliqlar va qushlar uchun roukeries. Mintaqa Tortugas pushti qisqichbaqasini qo'llab-quvvatlaydi (Farfantepenaeus duorarum ) va tosh qisqichbaqa (Menippe mercenaria ) tarmoqlar;^[77] Florida shtatining sho'r suvlarida tijorat maqsadida yig'ilgan qisqichbaqasimon turlarining 80 dan 90 foizigacha Everglades yaqinida tug'iladi yoki vaqt o'tkazadi.^[73][78]

Florida ko'rfazi

Uzoqda bir guruh mangrov, Florida ko'rfazi da Flamingo

Sohil va ichki daryolarning katta qismi mangrovlardan qurilgan; qirg'oq botqoqlari va ko'rfaz o'rtasida chegara yo'q. Shunday qilib dengiz ekotizimlari Florida ko'rfazi Everglades suv havzasining bir qismi va umuman Everglades bilan bog'langan va ta'sirlangan ekotizimlardan biri hisoblanadi. 800 kvadrat mildan ko'proq (2100 km)²) Florida ko'rfazi tomonidan himoyalangan Everglades milliy bog'i, park chegaralaridagi eng katta suv havzasini ifodalaydi.^[79] Taxminan 100 ta kalitlar Florida ko'rfazida, ularning aksariyati mangrov o'rmonlari.^[80] Evergladesdan Florida ko'rfaziga kiradigan toza suv keng yotoqxonalar uchun mukammal sharoit yaratadi toshbaqa o'tlari va ko'rfazda hayvonlarning hayoti uchun asos bo'lgan suv o'tlari shakllanishi. Dengiz toshbaqalari va manatees o'tlarni iste'mol qiling, umurtqasiz hayvonlar, masalan, qurtlar, mollyuskalar va boshqa mollyuskalar suv o'tlari shakllanishi va mikroskopik planktonlarni iste'mol qiladilar.^[81] Ayol dengiz kaplumbağalari har yili qirg'oqdagi uyasiga qaytadi va manatees qish oylarini ko'rfazning iliq suvida o'tkazadi. Dengiz o'tlari, shuningdek, dengiz tubini barqarorlashtirishga va to'lqinlardan energiya olish orqali qirg'oqlarni eroziyadan himoya qilishga xizmat qiladi.

Tarix

Mahalliy amerikaliklar

Odamlar Florida yarim oroliga taxminan 15000 yil oldin kelgan. Paleo-hindular ehtimol Florida tarkibiga kiritilgan katta o'yinlardan so'ng kelgan ulkan yalqovlar, qichitqi tishli mushuklar va ko'zoynakli ayiqlar. Ular cho'l sharoitiga moslashgan o'simliklar va hayvonlarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan quruq landshaftni topdilar.^[82] Biroq, 6500 yil oldin iqlim o'zgarishi yanada landshaftni keltirib chiqardi; Florida shtatida yirik hayvonlar yo'q bo'lib ketdi va Paleo-hindular asta-sekin moslashib, Arxaik xalqlar. Ular atrof-muhit o'zgarishiga mos kelishdi va mavjud bo'lgan turli xil manbalar yordamida ko'plab vositalarni yaratdilar.^[83] Kechiktirilgan arxaik davrida iqlim yana namlandi va miloddan avvalgi 3000 yilgacha suv sathlarining ko'tarilishi aholi va madaniy faoliyatning ko'payishiga imkon berdi. Florida hindulari uchta aniq, ammo o'xshash madaniyatlarga ega bo'lib, ular joylashgan joylar yaqinidagi suv havzalari uchun nomlangan: Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee va Glades.^[84]

Calusa va Tequesta

Glades xalqlaridan hududda ikkita yirik davlat paydo bo'ldi: The Kaluza va Tequesta. Calusa Janubiy Floridadagi eng katta va eng qudratli davlat edi. U Florida shtatining g'arbiy qirg'og'ida, Okeechobee ko'li atrofida va ellikta qishloqni boshqargan Florida Keys. Kalusa qishloqlarining aksariyati daryolar og'zida yoki muhim orollarda joylashgan edi. Calusa kichik ov, baliqlar, toshbaqalar, alligatorlar, qisqichbaqasimonlar va turli xil o'simliklarda yashagan ovchilarni yig'ishgan.^[85] Asboblarining aksariyati suyak yoki tishlardan yasalgan, ammo o'tkir qamishlar ov yoki urush uchun ham samarali bo'lgan. Calusa qurollari kamon va o'qlardan iborat edi, atlatllar va nayzalar. Kanoetlar transport uchun ishlatilgan va Janubiy Florida qabilalari ko'pincha Everglades orqali sayohat qilishgan, ammo kamdan-kam hollarda ularda yashaganlar.^[86] Kanoeda Kubaga sayohatlar ham keng tarqalgan edi.^[87]

Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the Spanish occupation ranged from 4,000 to 7,000.^[88] The society declined in power and population; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000.^[87] In the early 18th century, the Calusa came under attack from the Yameysi shimolga. They asked the Spanish for refuge in Cuba, where almost 200 died of illness. Soon they were relocated again to the Florida Keys.^[89]

Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta. They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade va Broward okruglar. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered on the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Mayami daryosi or Little River. Spanish depictions of the Tequesta state that they were greatly feared by sailors, who suspected them of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks.^[90] With an increasing European presence in south Florida, Native Americans from the Keys and other areas began increasing their trips to Cuba. Official permission for the immigration of Native Americans from the Florida Keys was granted by Cuban officials in 1704.^[91] Spanish priests attempted to set up missions in 1743, but noted that the Tequesta were under assault from a neighboring tribe. When only 30 members were left, they were removed to Havana. A British surveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta lived.^[92] Common descriptions of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 used only the term "Seminoles".^[93]

Seminole

Seminoles made their home in the Everglades

Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. The Krik invaded the Florida peninsula; they conquered and assimilated what was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. They were joined by remnant Indian groups and formed the Seminole, a new tribe, by etnogenez. The Seminole originally settled in the northern portion of the territory. Bunga qo'chimcha, bepul qora tanlilar and fugitive qullar made their way to Florida, where Spain had promised slaves freedom and arms if they converted to Catholicism and pledged loyalty to Spain. These African Americans gradually created communities near those of the Seminole, and became known as the Qora Seminoles. The groups acted as allies.

1817 yilda, Endryu Jekson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States, in what became known as the Birinchi Seminole urushi. After Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821, conflicts between settlers and the Seminole increased as the former tried to acquire lands. The Ikkinchi Seminole urushi lasted from 1835 to 1842, and afterward, the US forcibly removed about 3,000 Seminole and 800 Black Seminole to Hindiston hududi (now Oklahoma), west of the Mississippi River. Many others died in the war.^[94] Conflict broke out again in the Uchinchi Seminole urushi from 1855 to 1859, when a few hundred Seminole fought off US forces from the swamps of the Everglades. The US finally decided to leave them alone, as they could not dislodge them even after this protracted and expensive warfare.

By 1913, the Seminole in the Everglades numbered no more than 325.^[95] They made a living by hunting and trading with white settlers, and raised domesticated animals.^[96] The Seminole made their villages in hardwood hammocks or pinelands, had diets of hominy va coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game.^[95] Their villages were not large, due to the limited size of the hammocks. Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930, the people lived in relative isolation from the majority culture.

Ning qurilishi Tamiami izi, beginning in 1928 and spanning the region from Tampa to Miami, altered their ways of life. Some began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands.^[97] Some of the people who interacted more with European Americans began to move to reservations in the 1940s. These were their bases for reorganizing their government and they became federally recognized in 1957 as the Florida shtatidagi Seminole qabilasi.

People who kept more traditional ways had settlements along the Tamiami Trail and tended to speak the Mikasuki tili. They later were federally recognized in 1962 as the Florida shtatidagi hindularning Miccosukee qabilasi. As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the two groups were closely associated with the Everglades. They struggled to maintain privacy while serving as tourist attractions. They earned money by wrestling alligators and selling craftworks.^[98] 2008 yildan boshlab^[yangilash], the Seminole Tribe of Florida had five reservations, and the lands of the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians were collectively considered a sixth reservation. The two tribes have each developed kazino gaming on some of their properties to generate revenue for support, services and economic development.^[99]

Qidiruv

Map of the Everglades in 1856: Military action during the Seminole urushlari improved understanding of the features of the Everglades

The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood and largely unknown part of the country. An 1840 expedition into the Everglades offered the first printed account for the general public to read about the Everglades. The anonymous writer described the terrain the party was crossing:

No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seek to drive them.^[100]

The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of both wonder or hatred. During the Second Seminole War an army surgeon wrote, "It is in fact a most hideous region to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, and every other kind of loathsome reptile."^[101]

A survey team led by railroad executive James Edmundson Ingraham explored the area in 1892.^[102] In 1897, explorer Xyu Uillobi spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Xarni daryosi uchun Mayami daryosi. He sent his observations to the New Orleans Times-demokrat. Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous buloqlar va 10,000alligatorlar "more or less" in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark daryosi, "killing hundreds, but they continued to return".^[103] Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been explored and mapped except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w)e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa."^[104]

Drenaj

A national push for expansion and progress in the United States occurred in the later part of the 19th century, which stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use. According to historians, "From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned. Indeed, it was considered the proper thing to do."^[105] Draining the Everglades was suggested as early as 1837,^[6] and a resolution in Kongress was passed in 1842 that prompted G'aznachilik kotibi Robert J. Uoker to request those with experience in the Everglades to give their opinion on the possibility of drainage. Many officers who had served in the Seminole Wars favored the idea.^[6] In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states botqoqli erlar within their state boundaries. The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands.^[106] Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for any attempts, though the Fuqarolar urushi va Qayta qurish halted progress until after 1877.

Hamilton Disston's land sale notice

After the Civil War, a state agency called the Internal Improvement Fund (IIF), whose purpose was to improve Florida's roads, canals, and rail lines, was discovered to be deeply in debt. The IIF found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Xemilton Disston interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture. Disston purchased 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km²) of land for $1 million in 1881,^[107] and he began constructing canals near Aziz bulut. At first the canals seemed to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers.^[108] They were effective in lowering the groundwater, but it became apparent that their capacity was insufficient for the wet season.^[109] Although Disston's canals did not drain well, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers. Within four years property values doubled, and the population increased significantly.^[107]

The IIF was able to invest in development projects due to Disston's purchase, and an opportunity to improve transportation arose when oil tycoon Genri Flagler began purchasing land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida, as far south as Palm-plyaj 1893 yilda.^[110] Along the way he built resort hotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations. The land bordering the rail lines was developed as citrus farms.^[111] By 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biskeyn ko'rfazi.^[112] Three months after the first train had arrived, the residents of Miami voted to incorporate the town. Miami became a prime destination for extremely wealthy people after the Royal Palm mehmonxonasi ochildi.^[113]

During the 1904 gubernatorlik race, the strongest candidate, Napoleon Bonapart Broward, promoted draining the Everglades. He called the future of South Florida the "Empire of the Everglades". Soon after his successful election, he began work to "drain that abominable pestilence-ridden swamp",^[114] and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands. In 1907 they established the Everglades Drainage District and began to study how to build the most effective canals, and how to fund them.^[6] Governor Broward ran for the AQSh Senati 1908 yilda, ammo yutqazdi. Broward was paid by land developer Richard J. Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. Elected to the Senate in 1910, Broward died before he could take office. Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died.^[115] Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them.^[112]

Growth of urban areas

A canal lock in the Everglades Drainage District around 1915

With the construction of canals, newly reclaimed Everglades land was promoted throughout the United States. Land developers sold 20,000 lots in a few months in 1912. Advertisements promised within eight weeks of arrival, a farmer could be making a living, although for many it took at least two months to clear the land. Some tried burning off the sawgrass or other vegetation, only to learn that the peat continued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms.^[116] Although initially crops sprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and died, seemingly without reason.^[117]

The increasing population in towns near the Everglades hunted in the area. Raccoons and otters were the most widely hunted for their skins. Hunting often went unchecked; in one trip, a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters.^[118] Suv qushlari were a particular target of plum ovi. Bird feathers were used in women's hats in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In 1886, 5 million birds were estimated to be killed for their feathers.^[119] They were shot usually in the spring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. The plumes, or aigrettes, as they were called in the tegirmon ishlab chiqarish business, sold for $32 an ounce in 1915— the price of gold.^[118] Millinery was a $17 million a year industry^[120] that motivated plume harvesters to lay in watch of nests of egretlar and many colored birds during the nesting season, shoot the parents with small-bore rifles, and leave the chicks to starve.^[118] Plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day.^[121]

Rum-yuguruvchilar used the Everglades as a hiding spot during Taqiq; it was so vast there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it.^[122] The arrival of the railroad, and the discovery that adding trace elements like mis was the remedy for crops sprouting and dying quickly, soon created a population boom. New towns such as Mur Xeyven, Kliviston va Belle Glade sprouted like the crops.^[6] Shakarqamish became the primary crop grown in South Florida. Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $150 million. Undeveloped land north of Miami sold for $30,600 an acre.^[123] In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds (3.2 kg), most of it in real estate advertising.^[124] Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of South Florida qarag'ay tozalangan. Some of the pine was for lumber, but most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development.^[61]

To'fonni nazorat qilish

Herbert Hoover Dike-ning qurilishi to'g'risida reklama belgisi

Two catastrophic hurricanes in 1926 va 1928 caused Lake Okeechobee to breach its levees, killing thousands of people. The government began to focus on the control of floods rather than drainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District was created in 1929, financed by both state and federal funds. Prezident Gerbert Guver toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and ordered the Armiya muhandislari korpusi to assist the communities surrounding the lake.^[125] Between 1930 and 1937 a dike 66 miles (106 km) long was built around the southern edge of the lake. Nazorat Hoover Dike va suvlari Okeechobee ko'li were delegated to federal powers: the United States declared legal limits of the lake to between 14 and 17 feet (4.3 and 5.2 m).^[104] A massive canal was also constructed 80 feet (24 m) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep through the Caloosahatchee daryosi; whenever the lake rose too high, the excess water left through the canal.^[104] More than $20 million was spent on the entire project. Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built. The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to 9,000 after Ikkinchi jahon urushi.^[126]

Immediately, the effects of the Hoover Dike were seen. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s; with the wall preventing water from leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Everglades became parched. Peat turned to dust. Salt ocean water intruded into Miami's wells; when the city brought in an expert to explain why, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area's er osti suvlari —here, it appeared on the surface.^[127] In 1939, a million acres (4,000 km²) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami.^[128] Scientists who took soil samples before draining did not take into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades make it prone to soil cho'kish when it becomes dry. Naturally occurring bacteria in Everglades peat and muck assist with the process of decomposition under water, which is generally very slow, partially due to the low levels of erigan kislorod. When water levels became so low that peat and muck were at the surface, the bacteria interacted with much higher levels of oxygen in the air, rapidly breaking down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved to stilts and 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil was lost.^[42]

Everglades milliy bog'i

Prezident Garri Truman dedicating Everglades milliy bog'i on December 6, 1947.

The idea of a national park for the Everglades was pitched in 1928, when a Miami land developer named Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934. It took another 13 years to be dedicated on December 6, 1947.^[129] One month before the dedication of the park, a former editor from Mayami Herald and freelance writer named Marjori Stouneman Duglas released her first book titled Everglades: Grass daryosi. After researching the region for five years, she described the history and ecology of the South Florida in great detail. She characterized the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp.^[130] The last chapter was titled, "The Eleventh Hour" and warned that the Everglades were dying, although it could be reversed.^[131]

Markaziy va janubiy Florida toshqinlarini nazorat qilish loyihasi

The same year the park was dedicated, two hurricanes and the wet season caused 100 inches (250 cm) to fall on South Florida. Although there were no human casualties, agricultural interests lost approximately $59 million (equivalent to $634 million in 2019).^[132] In 1948, Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SF), which divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, and released water in dryer times or removed it and pumped it to the ocean in times of flood. The WCAs took up approximately 37 percent of the original Everglades.^[133] The C&SF constructed over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades. During the 1950s and 1960s the Miami metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6 million people moved to South Florida: 1,000 people moved to Miami every week.^[134] Developed areas between the mid-1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas.^[135]

Everglades qishloq xo'jaligi zonasi

A 2003 U.S. Geological Survey photo showing the border between Water Conservation Area 3 (bottom) with water, and Everglades milliy bog'i, dry (top)

The C&SF established 470,000 acres (1,900 km²) for the Everglades Agricultural Area—27 percent of the Everglades prior to development.^[136] In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of marganets sulfat to Everglades muck produced a profitable harvest for vegetables.^[137] The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane, though soda, beans, lettuce, celery, and rice are also grown. Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres (160,000 m²), bordered by canals on two sides, that are connected to larger canals where water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops.^[138] The fertilizers used on vegetables, along with high concentrations of azot va fosfor that are the byproduct of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA. The introduction of large amounts of these chemicals provided opportunities for exotic plants to take hold in the Everglades.^[139] One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient-poor environment, and the introduction of fertilizers began to alter the plant life in the region.^[140]

Jetport proposition

A turning point came for development in the Everglades at the proposal in the late 1960s for an expanded airport, after Mayami xalqaro aeroporti outgrew its capacities. The new jetport was planned to be larger than O'Hare, Dalles, JFK va LAX airports combined,^{[iqtibos kerak ]} and the chosen location was 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Everglades National Park. Ning birinchi jumlasi AQSh Ichki ishlar vazirligi o'rganish environmental impact of the jetport read, "Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park".^[141] When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4,000,000 US gallons (15,000,000 L) of raw sewage a day and 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the project met staunch opposition. The New York Times called it a "blueprint for disaster",^[142] va Viskonsin senator Geylord Nelson Prezidentga yozgan Richard Nikson voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment."^[143] Hokim Klod Kirk withdrew his support for the project, and Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded at 79 years old to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. Nixon instead established Katta sarv milliy qo'riqxonasi, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program .^[144]

Qayta tiklash

Kissimmi daryosi

The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project's final construction project was straightening the Kissimmi daryosi, a meandering 90-mile (140 km)-long river that was drained to make way for grazing land and agriculture. The C&SF started building the C-38 canal in 1962 and the effects were seen almost immediately. Waterfowl, wading birds, and fish disappeared, prompting conservationists and sport fishers to demand the region be restored before the canal was finished in 1971.^[145] In general, C&SF projects had been criticized for being temporary fixes that ignored future consequences, costing billions of dollars with no end in sight.^[146] Hokimdan keyin Bob Grem initiated the Save Our Everglades campaign in 1983, the first section of the canal was backfilled in 1986. Graham announced that by 2000 the Everglades would be restored as closely as possible to its pre-drainage state.^[147] The Kissimmee River Restoration project was approved by Congress in 1992. It is estimated that it will cost $578 million to convert only 22 miles (35 km) of the canal. The entire project was to be complete by 2011,^[148] yet as of 2017^[yangilash], the project is "more than halfway complete" and the new completion date is 2020.^[149]

Suv sifati

Warnings are placed in Everglades National Park to dissuade people from eating fish due to high mercury content. This warning explicitly mentions bosh.

Further problems with the environment arose when a vast alg gullari appeared in one-fifth of Lake Okeechobee in 1986, the same year mushukchalar were discovered overtaking sawgrass marshes in Loxahatchee milliy yovvoyi tabiat qo'riqxonasi. Scientists discovered that fosfor, used as a fertilizer in the EAA, was flushed into canals and pumped back into the lake.^[150] When the lake drained, the phosphorus entered the water in the marshes, changing the nutrient levels. It kept periphyton from forming marl, one of two soils in the Everglades. The arrival of phosphorus allowed cattails to spread quickly. The cattails grew in dense mats—too thick for birds or alligators to nest in. It also dissolved oxygen in the peat, promoted algae, and prohibited growth of native invertebrates on the bottom of the food chain.^[151]

Xuddi shu paytni o'zida simob was found in local fish at such high levels that consumption warnings were posted for fishermen. A Florida panterasi was found dead with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human.^[152] Scientists found that power plants and incinerators using fossil fuels were expelling mercury into the atmosphere, and it fell as rain or dust during droughts. The naturally occurring bacteria that reduce sulfur in the Everglades ecosystem were transforming the mercury into metilmerika va shunday bo'ldi bioakkumulyatsion through the food chain.^[152] Stricter emissions standards helped lower mercury coming from power plants and incinerators, which in turn lowered mercury levels found in animals, though they continue to be a concern.^[152]

The Everglades Forever Act, introduced by Governor Lawton Chiles in 1994, was an attempt to legislate the lowering of phosphorus in Everglades waterways. The act put the Janubiy Florida suv xo'jaligi okrugi (SFWMD) va Florida atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish boshqarmasi (DEP) in charge of testing and enforcing low phosphorus levels: 10 parts per billion (ppb) (down from 500 ppb in the 1980s).^[153] The SFWMD built Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs) near sugarcane fields where water leaving the EAA flows into ponds lined with lime rock and layers of peat and ohakli perifiton. Testing has shown this method to be more effective than previously anticipated, bringing levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb.^[154]

Invaziv turlar

Climbing ferns overtake cypress trees in the Everglades. Ferns yong'inda omon qoladigan daraxtlarni yo'q qila oladigan "o't o'chirish narvonlari" vazifasini bajaradi.

As a center for trade and travel between the U.S., the Caribbean, and South America, South Florida is especially vulnerable to invaziv turlar, or species of plants and animals that adapt aggressively to conditions in the Everglades, allowing them to reproduce faster and grow larger than they would naturally in their native environments. Approximately 26% of all species of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals in South Florida are exotic—more than in any other part of the U.S.—and the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world.^[155] Controlling invasive species in 1,700,000 acres (6,900 km²) of infested land in South Florida costs authorities about $500 million a year.^[156]

The Everglades hosts 1,392 exotic plant species actively reproducing in the region, outnumbering the 1,301 species considered native to South Florida.^[157] The melaleuca tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia ) takes water in greater amounts than other trees. Melaleucas grow taller and more densely in the Everglades than in their native Australia, making them unsuitable as nesting areas for birds with wide wingspans.^[158] They also choke out native vegetation. More than $2 million has been spent on keeping them out of Everglades National Park.^[159]

Brazilian pepper, or Florida holly (Schinus terebinthifolius ), has also wreaked havoc on the Everglades, exhibiting a tendency to spread rapidly and to crowd out native species of plants as well as to create inhospitable environments for native animals. It is especially difficult to eradicate and is readily propagated by birds, which eat its small red berries.^[160] The Brazilian pepper problem is not exclusive to the Everglades; neither is the suv zamboli (Eichhornia crassipes), which is a widespread problem in Florida's waterways, a major threat to endemic species, and is difficult and costly to eradicate. The Old World climbing fern (Ligodium mikrofilum ) may be causing the most harm to restoration as it blankets areas thickly, making it impossible for animals to pass through. It also climbs up trees and creates "fire ladders", allowing parts of the trees to burn that would otherwise remain unharmed.^[161]

Many pets have escaped or been released into the Everglades from the surrounding urban areas. Some find the conditions quite favorable and have established self-sustaining populations, competing for food and space with native animals. Many tropical fish have been released, but blue tilapias (Oreochromis aureus ) cause damage to shallow waterways by creating large nests and consuming aquatic plants that protect native young fish.^[162]

Native to southern Asia, the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus ) is a relatively new invasive species in the Everglades. This species can grow up to 20 feet (6.1 m) long, and they compete with alligators for the top of the food chain. Florida wildlife officials speculate that escaped pythons have begun reproducing in an environment for which they are well-suited.^[163][164] In Everglades National Park alone, agents removed more than 2,000 Burmese pythons from the park as of 2017^[yangilash].^[165] Federal authorities banned four species of exotic snakes, including the Burmese python, in 2012.^[166] The pythons are believed to be responsible for drastic decreases in the populations of some mammals within the park.^[167]

The invasive species that causes the most damage to bird populations is the cat (Felis catus), both domestic and yirtqich. Cats that are let outside live close to suburban populations and have been estimated to number 640 per square mile. In such close numbers in historic migratory areas, they have devastating effects on migratory bird populations.^[168]

Evergladesni tiklash bo'yicha kompleks reja

Although scientists made headway in decreasing mercury and phosphorus levels in water, the natural environment of South Florida continued to decline in the 1990s, and life in nearby cities reflected this downturn. To address the deterioration of the Miami metropolitan area, Governor Lawton Chiles commissioned a report on the barqarorlik hududning. In 1995, Chiles published the commission's findings in a report that related the degradation of the Everglades ecosystems to the lower quality of life in urban areas. The report noted past environmental abuses that brought the state to a position to make a decision. Not acting to improve the South Florida ecosystem, the report predicted, would inevitably cause further and intolerable deterioration that would harm local tourism by 12,000 jobs and $200 million annually, and commercial fishing by 3,300 jobs and $52 million annually.^[169] Urban areas had grown beyond their capacities to sustain themselves. Crowded cities were facing problems such as high crime rates, traffic jams, severely overcrowded schools, and overtaxed public services; the report noted that water shortages were ironic, given the 53 inches (130 cm) of rain the region received annually.^[169]

In 1999, an evaluation of the C&SF was submitted to Congress as part of the Water Development Act of 1992. The seven-year report, called the "Restudy", cited indicators of harm to the ecosystem: a 50 percent reduction in the original Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water releases from canals and pumping stations, an 85 to 90 percent decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50 years, and the decline of output from commercial fisheries. Suv havzalari, shu jumladan Okeechobee ko'li, Caloosahatchee daryosi, Avliyo Lyusi daryolar, Uert Lagun ko'li, Biskeyn ko'rfazi, Florida ko'rfazi and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes, gipersalinlik va dengiz va chuchuk suv ekotizimlarining keskin o'zgarishlari. The Restudy noted the overall decline in water quality over the past 50 years was due to loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water.^[170] It predicted that without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate. Water shortages would become common and some cities would have annual suv cheklovlari.^[171]

CERP strategiyalaridan foydalangan holda suvni qayta tiklash va saqlashni rejalashtirish

The Restudy came with a plan to stop the declining environmental quality, and this proposal was to be the most expensive and comprehensive ecological repair project in history.^[172] The Evergladesni tiklash bo'yicha kompleks reja (CERP) proposed more than 60 construction projects over 30 years to store water that was being flushed into the ocean, in reservoirs, underground aquifers, and abandoned quarries; add more Stormwater Treatment Areas to filter water that flowed into the lower Everglades; regulate water released from pumping stations into local waterways and improve water released to Everglades National Park and Water Conservation Areas; remove barriers to sheetflow by raising the Tamiami izi and destroying the Miami Canal, and reuse wastewater for urban areas.^[173] The cost estimate for the entire plan was $7.8 billion, and in a bipartisan show of cooperation, CERP was voted through Congress with an overwhelming margin. Prezident tomonidan imzolangan Bill Klinton 2000 yil 11-dekabrda.^[174]

Since its signing, the State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2 billion on the various projects. 36000 gektardan ortiq (150 km)²) of Stormwater Treatment Areas have been constructed to filter 2,500 short tons (2,300 t) of phosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA spanning 17,000 acres (69 km²) was constructed in 2004, making it the largest manmade wetland in the world. Fifty-five percent of the land necessary to acquire for restoration has been purchased by the State of Florida, totaling 210,167 acres (850.52 km²). A plan to hasten the construction and funding of projects was put into place, named "Acceler8", spurring the start of six of eight large construction projects, including that of three large reservoirs.^[175] However, federal funds have not been forthcoming; CERP was signed when the U.S. government had a budget surplus, but since then deficits have renewed, and two of CERP's major supporters in Congress retired. Bir hikoyaga ko'ra The New York Times, state officials say the restoration is lost in a maze of "federal bureaucracy, a victim of 'analysis paralysis'".^[176] CERP still remains controversial as the projects slated for Acceler8, environmental activists note, are those that benefit urban areas, and regions in the Everglades in desperate need of water are still being neglected, suggesting that water is being diverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment.^[177]

Airboating mashhur bo'lib qoldi ekoturizm attraction in the Everglades

A series of biennial reports from the U.S. National Research Council have reviewed the progress of CERP. The fourth report in the series, released in 2012, found that little progress has been made in restoring the core of the remaining Everglades ecosystem; instead, most project construction so far has occurred along its periphery.^[178] The report noted that to reverse ongoing ecosystem declines, it will be necessary to expedite restoration projects that target the central Everglades, and to improve both the quality and quantity of the water in the ecosystem.^[179] To better understand the potential implications of the current slow pace of progress, the report assessed the current status of ten Everglades ecosystem attributes, including phosphorus loads, peat depth, and populations of snail kites, birds of prey that are endangered in South Florida. Most attributes received grades ranging from C (degraded) to D (significantly degraded), but the snail kite received a grade of F (near irreversible damage). The report also assessed the future trajectory of each ecosystem attribute under three restoration scenarios: improved water quality, improved hydrology, and improvements to both water quality and hydrology, which helped highlight the urgency of restoration actions to benefit a wide range of ecosystem attributes and demonstrate the cost of inaction.^[179] Overall, the report concluded that substantial near-term progress to address both water quality and hydrology in the central Everglades is needed to reverse ongoing degradation before it is too late.

Future of the Everglades

In 2008, the State of Florida agreed to buy AQSh shakar and all of its manufacturing and production facilities for an estimated $1.7 billion.^[180] Florida officials indicated they intended to allow U.S. Sugar to process for six more years before dismissing its employees and dismantling the plant. The area, which includes 187,000 acres (760 km²) of land, would then be rehabilitated and water flow from Lake Okeechobee would be restored.^[180] In November 2008, the agreement was revised to offer $1.34 billion, allowing sugar mills in Clewiston to remain in production.^[181] Critics of the revised plan say that it ensures sugarcane will be grown in the Everglades for at least another decade.^[182] Further research is being done to address the continuing production of sugarcane in the Everglades to minimize phosphorus runoff.^[183]

Everglades restoration received $96 million of the Amerikaning 2009 yilgi tiklanish va qayta investitsiya to'g'risidagi qonuni.^[184] As a result of the stimulus package, a mile-long (1.6 km) bridge to replace the Tamiami izi, a road that borders Everglades National Park to the north and has blocked water from reaching the southern Everglades, was begun by the Army Corps of Engineers in December 2009. The next month work began to reconstruct the C-111 canal, east of the park that historically diverted water into Florida Bay.^[185][186] Hokim Charli Krist announced the same month that $50 million of state funds would be earmarked for Everglades restoration.^[187] In May 2010, 5.5 miles (8.9 km) of bridges were proposed to be added to the Tamiami Trail.^[188]

Plane crashes

At least three airplanes have crashed in the Everglades.

• Northwest Airlines aviakompaniyasining 705-reysi, 1963
• 1972 yil 29 dekabrda, Sharqiy havo liniyalari 401-reys crashed at the Florida Everglades causing 101 fatalities and 75 survivors. Bunga uchuvchining xatosi sabab bo'ldi.^[189]
• On May 11, 1996, ValuJet reysi 592 crashed in the river of the Everglades killing all 110 passengers and crew. The cause is in-flight cargo fire.^[190]

Shuningdek qarang

• Karr (relyef shakli)
• Everglades jamg'armasi
• Everglades Pseudoatoll
• Florida tarixi

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

Tashqi havolalar

Geografiya va ekologiya

• Everglades milliy bog'i va Katta sarv milliy qo'riqxonasi
• Artur R. Marshal milliy yovvoyi tabiat qo'riqxonasi (AQSh baliq va yovvoyi tabiat xizmati)
• Everglades kooperativining invaziv turlarini boshqarish maydoni

Tarix

• Everglades tarixi
• Rizzardi, Kit V. (2001 yil 1 mart). "Evergladesni tartibga solish va sud jarayonining so'nggi tarixi". Florida Bar Journal.
• Everglades haqida tarix ma'lumotlari The Jahon raqamli kutubxonasi
• Florida Everglades tarixiga bag'ishlangan jamoat teleserialining epizodi

Qayta tiklash

• Evergladesni tiklashning kompleks rejasi (CERP)
• Everglades jamg'armasi
• Everglades koalitsiyasi
• Janubiy Florida ma'lumotlariga kirish (AQSh Geologik xizmati)
• Florida atrof-muhit - "Evergladesni qutqaring" aksiyasining asoschilari
• Everglades do'stlari
• Janubiy Florida atrof-muhit to'g'risidagi hisobot (Janubiy Florida suv xo'jaligi okrugi va Florida DEP)

OAV

• Everglades raqamli kutubxonasi
• Suvga sayohat: Everglades - Everglades haqida keng qamrovli film va veb-hujjatli film
• Marjori Stouneman Duglas davridagi Everglades (Fotoko'rgazma)
• Everglades rasmlari bioimages.vanderbilt.edu (Sekin modem versiyasi )
• Xavfdagi Everglades - slayd-shou The New York Times