Herbert Guver - Herbert Hoover

Ushbu maqola Qo'shma Shtatlarning 31-prezidenti haqida. O'g'li uchun qarang Kichik Herbert Gover.

Herbert Guver
Prezident Gover portret.jpg
Rasmiy portret, 1928 yil
31-chi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti
Ofisda
1929 yil 4 mart - 1933 yil 4 mart
Vitse prezidentCharlz Kurtis
OldingiKalvin Kulidj
MuvaffaqiyatliFranklin D. Ruzvelt
3-chi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari savdo vaziri
Ofisda
1921 yil 5 mart - 1928 yil 21 avgust
Prezident
OldingiJoshua V. Aleksandr
MuvaffaqiyatliUilyam F. Uayting
Direktori Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati
Ofisda
1917 yil 21 avgust - 1918 yil 16 noyabr
PrezidentVudro Uilson
OldingiLavozim belgilandi
MuvaffaqiyatliLavozim bekor qilindi
Shaxsiy ma'lumotlar
Tug'ilgan
Herbert Klark Guver

(1874-08-10)1874 yil 10-avgust
G'arbiy filial, Ayova, BIZ.
O'ldi1964 yil 20 oktyabr(1964-10-20) (90 yosh)
Nyu-York shahri, Nyu York, BIZ.
Dam olish joyiHerbert Gover nomidagi Prezident kutubxonasi va muzeyi
Siyosiy partiyaRespublika
Turmush o'rtoqlar
​
​
(m. 1899; vafot etdi1944)​
Bolalar
Olma materStenford universiteti (BS, 1895)
ImzoMurakkab imzo

Herbert Klark Guver (1874 yil 10-avgust - 1964 yil 20-oktabr) amerikalik siyosatchi, ishbilarmon va muhandis bo'lib, u 31-bo'lib xizmat qilgan. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari prezidenti 1929 yildan 1933 yilgacha Respublika partiyasi boshlanishi paytida u lavozimda ishlagan Katta depressiya. Prezident lavozimida ishlashdan oldin Guver rahbarlik qildi Belgiyada yordam uchun komissiya direktori sifatida ishlagan AQSh oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati va uchinchi AQSh sifatida xizmat qilgan Savdo kotibi.

Guver a Quaker oila G'arbiy filial, Ayova. Uni tugatgandan so'ng u Londonda joylashgan tog'-kon kompaniyasi bilan lavozimni egalladi Stenford universiteti 1895 yilda Birinchi jahon urushi, u Belgiyada yordam uchun xalqaro komissiyaning rahbari bo'lib ishg'ol etilgan Belgiyani oziq-ovqat bilan ta'minlaydigan xalqaro yordam tashkiloti bo'ldi. AQSh urushga kirganda, Prezident Vudro Uilson Guvverni Oziq-ovqat ma'muriyatiga rahbar etib tayinladi va Guvver mamlakatning "oziq-ovqat podshosi" sifatida tanildi. Urushdan keyin Guver rahbarlik qildi Amerika yordam ma'muriyati, bu Markaziy Evropa va Sharqiy Evropa aholisini oziq-ovqat bilan ta'minladi. Guverning urush davridagi xizmati uni ko'pchilikning sevimlisiga aylantirdi ilg'or va u respublikachilar nomzodini muvaffaqiyatsiz izladi 1920 yilgi prezident saylovi.

1920 yilgi saylovlardan so'ng yangi saylangan respublika prezidenti Uorren G. Xarding Guvverni savdo kotibi etib tayinladi; Guver prezident davrida xizmatini davom ettirdi Kalvin Kulidj Xarding 1923 yilda vafot etganidan keyin. Guver odatdagidan tashqari faol va ko'rinadigan kabinet a'zosi bo'lib, "boshqa barcha bo'limlarning savdo kotibi va kotibi o'rinbosari" sifatida tanilgan. U radio va havo qatnovini rivojlantirishda nufuzli bo'lgan va federal javobni boshqargan 1927 yildagi buyuk Missisipi toshqini. Guvver respublikachilar nominatsiyasida g'olib bo'ldi 1928 yilgi prezident saylovi va Demokratik nomzodni qat'iy mag'lubiyatga uchratdi, Al Smit. The fond bozori qulab tushdi Gover o'z lavozimini egallaganidan ko'p o'tmay, Buyuk Depressiya uning prezidentligining asosiy masalasiga aylandi. Guvver iqtisodiyotni ko'tarish maqsadida turli xil siyosat olib bordi, ammo yordam berish ishlariga federal hukumatni bevosita jalb qilishga qarshi chiqdi.

Iqtisodiy inqiroz davrida Guver Demokratik partiyadan nomzod tomonidan qat'iy mag'lubiyatga uchradi Franklin D. Ruzvelt ichida 1932 yilgi prezident saylovi. Lavozimdan ketganidan so'ng, Guvver sobiq prezidentning eng uzoq muddatli pensiyasidan birini quvontirdi va keyingi o'n yilliklarda u ko'plab asarlarga mualliflik qildi. Guver tobora ko'payib bormoqda konservativ bu vaqtda va u Ruzveltning tashqi siyosatini va Yangi bitim ichki kun tartibi. 1940-1950 yillarda Guvverning jamoatdagi obro'si prezidentlar uchun turli vazifalarda xizmat qilish orqali biroz tiklandi Garri S. Truman va Duayt D. Eyzenxauer, shu jumladan Hoover komissiyasi. Garchi u o'z merosini qayta tiklashga muvaffaq bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Guver hali ham AQShning yetarli bo'lmagan prezidenti va tarixchilar va siyosatshunoslarning aksariyat so'rovlari sifatida tan olinmoqda. uni darajalang umumiy uchinchi pastki qismida.

Hayotning boshlang'ich davri

Guver 1877 yilda

Herbert Gover 1874 yil 10-avgustda tug'ilgan G'arbiy filial, Ayova.[a] Uning otasi Jessi Guvver a temirchi va nemis, shveytsariya va ingliz ajdodlari do'konlari egalari.[1] Guvverning onasi Xulda Rendall Minthorn katta bo'lgan Norvich, Ontario, Kanada, ko'chib o'tishdan oldin Ayova 1859 yilda. G'arbiy filialning aksariyat fuqarolari singari, Jessi va Xulda ham shunday edilar Quakers.[2] Taxminan ikki yoshga to'lgan "Berti", o'sha paytda uni chaqirgan edi, jiddiy jangga duch keldi krup va uning amakisi Jon Minthorn tomonidan tiriltirilguncha bir lahzada vafot etgan deb o'ylashdi.[3] Yosh bolaligida otasi uni asfaltlanmagan ko'chadan o'tib ketayotgan loyga tushib qolganda, uni "loydagi mening kichkina tayog'im" deb atashardi.[4] Herbertning oilasi shaharning jamoat ibodati hayotida muhim o'rin tutgan, bu deyarli onaning Xuldaning cherkovdagi roli bilan bog'liq edi.[5] Bolaligida Guvver doimiy ravishda maktablarda o'qigan, ammo u Muqaddas Kitobdan tashqari o'zi ham ozgina o'qigan.[6] Mahalliy gazeta Guverning "yoqimli, quyoshli fe'l-atvori" bilan ta'kidlagan otasi 1880 yilda 34 yoshida vafot etdi.[7] Guvverning onasi 1884 yilda vafot etdi, Guvver, uning akasi Teodor va singlisi May etim bo'lib qoldi.[8]

Guvverning tug'ilgan joyi G'arbiy filial, Ayova

Buvisidan biri bilan qisqa muddatli yashashdan keyin Kingsli, Ayova, Guvver keyingi 18 oyda amakisi Allen Guver bilan G'arbiy filialda yaqin atrofdagi fermada yashagan.[9][10] 1885 yil noyabrda Guvver yuborildi Nyuberg, Oregon amakisi Jon Minthorn bilan yashash uchun, a Quaker bir yil oldin o'z o'g'li vafot etgan shifokor va tadbirkor.[11] Minthorn uyi madaniy va ma'lumotli deb hisoblangan va kuchli ish odobiga ega bo'lgan.[12] G'arbiy filialga o'xshab, Nyuberg asosan Midwestern Quakers tomonidan joylashtirilgan chegara shahar edi.[13] Minthorn Governing ta'lim olishini ta'minladi, ammo Guver unga topshirilgan ko'p ishlarni yoqtirmasdi va ko'pincha Minthorndan nafratlanardi. Kuzatuvchilardan biri Guvverni "etim [u] ko'p jihatdan e'tiborsiz bo'lib tuyulgan" deb ta'riflagan.[14] Gover Do'stlar Tinch okeani akademiyasida qatnashdi (hozir Jorj Foks universiteti ), lekin o'n uch yoshida amakisining ko'chmas mulk idorasida (Oregon Land Company) ofis yordamchisi bo'lish uchun o'qishni tashlab ketgan.[15] yilda Salem, Oregon. Garchi u o'rta maktabda o'qimagan bo'lsa-da, tungi maktabda buxgalteriya hisobi, matbaa va matematikani o'rgangan.[16]

Guvver "Pioneer Class" ning birinchi a'zosi edi Stenford universiteti, 1891 yilda kirish imtihonlaridan tashqari barcha kirish imtihonlarida muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchraganiga qaramay kirish matematika.[17][b] Birinchi kursda u o'zining asosiy ixtisosini mashinasozlikdan o'zgartirgan geologiya uchun ishlagandan keyin Jon Kasper Branner, Stenford geologiya bo'limi kafedrasi. Ikkinchi kursda o'z xarajatlarini kamaytirish uchun Gover Stenforddagi birinchi "Romero Hall" talabalar uy-joy kooperativiga asos solgan.[19] Gover vasat talaba bo'lgan va u ko'p vaqtini turli xil yarim kunlik ishlarda yoki kampus ishlarida qatnashish bilan o'tkazgan.[20] Dastlab u boshqa talabalar orasida uyatchan bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Guver talabalar g'aznachisi sifatida saylovda g'olib chiqdi va o'zining yomon munosabati bilan tanildi qardoshlik va sororities.[21] U ham beysbol, ham futbol jamoalarining talaba menejeri bo'lib xizmat qildi va ochilish marosimini o'tkazishda yordam berdi Katta o'yin ga qarshi Kaliforniya universiteti.[22] Katta yoshidan oldin va keyin yozda Guver iqtisodiy geolog ostida stajirovka o'tagan Valdemar Lindgren ning Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining Geologik xizmati; ushbu tajribalar Guvverni tog'-kon geologligi kasbini tanlashga ishontirdi.[23]

Kon muhandisi

Bewick, Mering

Guver, 23 yoshda; qabul qilingan Pert, G'arbiy Avstraliya, 1898 yilda

Guver 1895 yilda Stenfordni tugatgach, mamlakat o'rtasida edi 1893 yilgi vahima, va u dastlab ish topishga qiynaldi.[21] U turli xil past darajadagi kon ishlarida ishlagan Syerra Nevada taniqli tog'-kon muhandisi Lui Janinni uni yollashga ishontirmaguniga qadar tog 'tizmasi.[24] Bir yil davomida konda skaut bo'lib ishlagandan so'ng, Guver Bewick, Moreing & Co., a tomonidan yollangan London - oltin konlarini ishlatgan asosli kompaniya G'arbiy Avstraliya.[25] Guvver avvaliga bordi Coolgardie, keyin markazi Sharqiy oltin konlari. Guver 5 ming dollar maosh olgan bo'lsa-da (2019 yilda 153,660 dollarga teng), oltin konlarida sharoitlar og'ir edi.[26] Guvver Coolgardie va Murchisonni tasvirlab berdi yaylovlar ning chetida Buyuk Viktoriya sahrosi "qora pashshalar, qizil chang va oq issiqlik" mamlakati sifatida.[27]

Guvver doimiy ravishda sayohat qilgan Outback kompaniyaning konlarini baholash va boshqarish.[28] U Bewick, Moreingni sotib olishga ishontirdi Gvaliyaning o'g'illari mintaqadagi eng muvaffaqiyatli konlardan biri ekanligini isbotlagan oltin koni.[29] Qisman Xuverning sa'y-harakatlari tufayli kompaniya oxir-oqibat oltin ishlab chiqarishning taxminan 50 foizini nazorat qildi G'arbiy Avstraliya.[30] Gover ko'plarni olib keldi Italiyalik muhojirlar xarajatlarni kamaytirish va qarshi turish mehnat harakati avstraliyalik konchilarning.[31][32] Gov qazib olish kompaniyasi bilan bo'lgan davrda a. Kabi tadbirlarga qarshi chiqdi eng kam ish haqi va ishchilarning tovon puli, egalariga nisbatan adolatsiz ekanliklarini his qilishdi. Guvverning ishi uning ish beruvchilarini hayratga soldi va 1898 yilda u kichik sherikga ko'tarildi.[33] Guvver va uning boshlig'i Ernest Uilyams o'rtasida ochiq janjal paydo bo'ldi, ammo kompaniya rahbarlari Goverga majburiy pozitsiyani taklif qilib vaziyatni yumshatdilar Xitoy.[34]

Lou Genri, 17 yosh, burro va miltiq tayyor Acton, Kaliforniya 1891 yil 22-avgustda

Xitoyga etib borgach, Guvver yaqinida oltin konlarini ishlab chiqardi Tyantszin Bewick, Moreing va xitoyliklarga tegishli Xitoy muhandislik-kon kompaniyasi.[35] U Xitoy tarixiga chuqur qiziqib qoldi, ammo tezda tilni o'rganishdan voz kechdi. U xitoylik ishchilarning samarasizligi va irqiy jihatdan pastligi haqida jamoatchilikka ogohlantirdi.[36] U uzoq muddatli servitut shartnomalarini tuzish amaliyotiga barham berish va xizmatga yarasha ishchilar uchun islohotlarni boshlashga intilib, xitoylik ishchining ahvolini yaxshilash bo'yicha tavsiyalar berdi.[37] The Bokschining isyoni Guver Xitoyga kelganidan ko'p o'tmay, Houvers va boshqa ko'plab chet el fuqarolarini tuzoqqa tushirib, ko'p millatli harbiy kuchlar Boxer kuchlarini Tientsin jangi. Xitoy hukumatining yaqinda qulashidan qo'rqib, Xitoy muhandislik va konchilik kompaniyasining direktori Bewick, Moreing bilan yangi xitoy-ingliz korxonasini tashkil etishga rozi bo'ldi. Guver va Bevikdan so'ng, Mering yangi Xitoy konchilik kompaniyasi ustidan samarali nazorat o'rnatdi, Guver 1901 yil oxirida Bewick, Moreingning sherikiga aylandi.[38]

Operatsion sherigi sifatida Gover doimiy ravishda Bewick, Moreing nomidan dunyo bo'ylab sayohat qilib, kompaniya tomonidan turli qit'alarda ishlaydigan konlarni ziyorat qildi. 1902 yil dekabrdan boshlab, sheriklardan biri konda aktsiyalarni firibgarlikka sotganligini tan olganidan so'ng, kompaniya dolzarb huquqiy va moliyaviy muammolarga duch keldi. 1904 yilda, Britaniya hukumati Bevik, G'arbiy Avstraliyadagi Moreingning mehnat amaliyoti va moliyaviy ishlarini tekshirish uchun ikkita alohida qirollik komissiyasini tuzgandan so'ng, ko'proq muammolar paydo bo'ldi. Kompaniya kostyumini yo'qotib qo'ygandan so'ng, Gover hamkorlikdan chiqish yo'lini izlay boshladi va u 1908 yil o'rtalarida o'z aktsiyalarini sotdi.[39]

Yagona egasi

Tog'-kon muhandisi bo'lgan Guver 30 yoshda

Bewikk, Meringdan ketganidan keyin Guver Londonda mustaqil konchilik bo'yicha maslahatchi va moliyachi bo'lib ishlagan. Garchi u geolog va shaxta operatori sifatida mashhurlikka erishgan bo'lsa-da, Guvver ko'p e'tiborini pul yig'ish, korporativ tashkilotlarni qayta qurish va yangi korxonalarni moliyalashtirishga qaratdi.[40] U texnik va moliyaviy tajribasi evaziga foydadan ulush olib, muammoli kon ishlarini yoshartirishga ixtisoslashgan.[41] Guver o'zini va uning sheriklarini "kasallarni davolash bo'yicha muhandis-shifokorlar" deb o'ylardi va u "kasal minalar shifokori" sifatida shuhrat qozondi.[42] U har bir qit'aga sarmoya kiritgan va uning ofislari bo'lgan San-Fransisko; London; Nyu-York shahri; Parij; Petrograd; va Mandalay, Britaniya Birma.[43] 1914 yilga kelib Gover juda boy odam edi, uning taxminiy shaxsiy boyligi 4 million dollarni tashkil etdi (2019 yilda 102,1 million dollarga teng).[44]

U asos solgan Sink korporatsiyasi qazib olmoq rux Avstraliya shahri yaqinida Buzilgan tepalik.[45] Sink korporatsiyasi tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan ko'pikli flotatsiya qo'rg'oshin-kumush rudasidan rux olish jarayoni[46] va dunyodagi birinchi selektiv yoki differentsial flotatsiya zavodini boshqargan.[47] Guvver Britaniyaning Burma Corporation firmasi bilan hamkorlik qilib, kumush, qo'rg'oshin va ruxni ko'p miqdorda ishlab chiqargan Namtu Bavudin koni.[48]:90–96,101–102[49] U mis ishlab chiqarishni ko'paytirishga yordam berdi Kishtim, Rossiya, piritik eritish yordamida. Shuningdek, u alohida konni boshqarishga rozi bo'ldi Oltoy tog'lari Guverning so'zlariga ko'ra, "ehtimol dunyoda ma'lum bo'lgan eng katta va eng boy ma'dan tanasini ishlab chiqqan".[48]:102–108[50]

Bo'sh vaqtlarida Guver yozgan. Uning ma'ruzalari Kolumbiya va Stenford universitetlari 1909 yilda nashr etilgan Kon qazib olish tamoyillari, bu standart darslikka aylandi. Kitobda uning tomon harakatlanishi aks ettirilgan progressiv ideallar, chunki Guver sakkiz soatlik ish kunlarini va uyushgan mehnatni qo'llab-quvvatlagan.[51] Guvver ilmlar tarixi bilan chuqur qiziqib qoldi va ayniqsa, unga qiziqib qoldi De re metallica, XVI asrning tog'-kon va metallurgiya bo'yicha nufuzli asari. 1912 yilda Gover va uning rafiqasi birinchi ingliz tilidagi tarjimasini nashr etishdi De re metallica.[52] Gover shuningdek Stenforddagi vasiylik kengashiga qo'shildi va Jon Brannerni universitet prezidenti etib tayinlash bo'yicha muvaffaqiyatli kampaniyani olib bordi.[53]

Nikoh va oila

The Lou Genri Xover uyi yilda Palo Alto, Kaliforniya, er-xotinning birinchi va yagona doimiy yashash joyi
Guver o'g'li bilan Allan (chapda) va uning nabirasi Endryu (yuqorida), 1950 yil

Stenfordda o'qiyotgan yillarida Guver ismli sinfdoshi bilan do'st bo'lib qoldi Lou Genri, garchi uning moliyaviy ahvoli o'sha paytda turmush qurishni taqiqlagan bo'lsa ham.[21] Bankirning qizi Monterey, Kaliforniya, Lou Genri Stenfordda geologiya fakultetini Jon Branner o'qigan ma'ruzada qatnashgandan so'ng qaror qildi.[54] 1898 yilda lavozimini ko'targanidan so'ng, Guver Lou Genrini unga uylanishini so'rab, unga murojaat qildi. U taklifni qabul qilganidan so'ng, Guver qisqa vaqt ichida ularning to'ylari uchun AQShga qaytib keldi.[33] Ular Lou Genri 1944 yilda vafot etguniga qadar turmush qurishgan.[55] Uning Quaker tarbiyasi uning martabasiga kuchli ta'sir ko'rsatgan bo'lsa-da, Guver kattalar hayotida kamdan-kam hollarda Quaker uchrashuvlarida qatnashgan.[56][57] Guvver va uning rafiqasi ikki farzandi bor edi: Kichik Herbert Gover. (1903 yilda tug'ilgan) va Allan Genri Guvver (1907 yilda tug'ilgan).[33] Gover oilasi 1902 yilda Londonda yashay boshladi, garchi ular tez-tez Guverning karerasi doirasida sayohat qilishgan.[58] 1916 yildan keyin Hoovers Qo'shma Shtatlarda yashay boshladilar Palo Alto, Kaliforniya va Vashington, Kolumbiya[59]

Birinchi jahon urushi va uning oqibatlari

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Vudro Vilsonning prezidentligi

Evropada yordam

Birinchi jahon urushi 1914 yil avgustda paydo bo'lgan Ittifoqdosh kuchlar (Frantsiya, Rossiya, Britaniya imperiyasi, Belgiya, va boshqa mamlakatlar) qarshi Markaziy kuchlar (Germaniya, Avstriya-Vengriya, va boshqa mamlakatlar). Guver va Londonda joylashgan boshqa amerikalik ishbilarmonlar Evropada qolib ketgan 100 mingga yaqin amerikaliklarning qaytib kelishini tashkil qilish uchun qo'mita tuzdilar. Guvver qo'mita raisi etib tayinlandi va Kongress va ijro etuvchi hokimiyatning roziligi bilan Evropadagi amerikaliklarga yordamni tarqatishni o'z zimmasiga oldi.[60] Keyinchalik Guvver: "Men buni hozirda anglamagan edim, ammo 1914 yil 3-avgustda mening kareram abadiy tugadi. Men jamoat hayotining sirpanchiq yo'lida edim" dedi.[61] 1914 yil oktyabr oyining boshlariga kelib, Guver tashkiloti kamida 40 ming amerikaliklarga yordam tarqatdi.[62]

The Germaniyaning Belgiyaga bosqini 1914 yil avgustda Belgiyada oziq-ovqat inqirozi boshlandi, bu oziq-ovqat importiga katta bog'liq edi. Nemislar Belgiya fuqarolarini qo'lga kiritilgan hududda boqish uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmalariga olishdan bosh tortdilar va inglizlar o'zlarining qamallarini olib tashlashdan bosh tortdilar Germaniya tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan Belgiya agar AQSh hukumati Belgiya oziq-ovqat importini urushda neytral tomon sifatida nazorat qilmasa.[63] Uilson ma'muriyati va CNSA, Belgiya yordam tashkiloti, Hoover tashkil etdi Belgiyada yordam uchun komissiya (CRB).[64] CRB tarqatish uchun CNSA uchun millionlab tonna oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini oldi va import qildi va nemis armiyasi ovqatni moslashtirmasligini ta'minlashga yordam berdi. Xususiy xayr-ehsonlar va davlat grantlari uning oyiga 11 million dollarlik byudjetining katta qismini ta'minladi va CRB o'zining bayrog'i, dengiz floti, fabrikalari, tegirmonlari va temir yo'llari bo'lgan haqiqiy mustaqil respublikaga aylandi.[65] Britaniyalik amaldor CRBni "xayrixohlik uchun uyushtirilgan pirat davlat" deb ta'rifladi.[66]

Guvver Londondan 14 soatlik ish kunida to'qqiz million urush qurboniga ikki million tonnadan ortiq oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini tarqatishni boshqargan. Ning dastlabki shaklida servis diplomatiyasi, u kesib o'tdi Shimoliy dengiz qirq marta Germaniya hukumati bilan uchrashish va ularni oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini etkazib berishga ruxsat berishga ishontirish.[67] Shuningdek, u inglizlarni ishontirdi Bosh vazirning kansleri Devid Lloyd Jorj jismoniy shaxslarning Belgiya aholisiga pul yuborishiga imkon berish, shu bilan CRB ish yukini kamaytirish.[68] Frantsiya hukumatining iltimosiga binoan, CRB 1915 yilda Shimoliy Frantsiya aholisiga etkazib berishni boshladi.[66] Amerika diplomati Uolter Peyj Guvverni "ehtimol Angliya, Frantsiya, Germaniya, Gollandiya va Belgiya hukumatlari bilan o'zaro tushunish bo'yicha muzokaralar olib borgan (ya'ni mansabni egallamagan holda) yashaydigan yagona odam" deb ta'riflagan.[69][70]

AQSh oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati

AQSh oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati plakat

AQSH Germaniyaga qarshi urush e'lon qildi 1917 yil aprelda Germaniya shug'ullanganidan keyin cheklanmagan dengiz osti urushi Britaniya suvlarida Amerika kemalariga qarshi.[71] AQSh urushga safarbar bo'lganda, Prezident Vudro Uilson Guverni boshliq etib tayinladi AQSh oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati urush paytida millatning oziq-ovqat ehtiyojlarini ta'minlashda ayblangan.[72] Guver hech bo'lmaganda 1916 yildan beri ma'muriyatga qo'shilishga umid qilar edi va u bu lavozimni Kongressning bir nechta a'zolari va Uilsonning ishonchli odamiga lobbi qilishdan so'ng oldi, Edvard M. Xaus.[73] Guver "oziq-ovqat chorlari" apellyatsiyasini topib, yuz minglab ayollardan iborat ko'ngillilar guruhini jalb qildi. tashviqot kinoteatrlar, maktablar va cherkovlarda.[74] U agentlik rahbariyatiga yordam beradigan odamlarni sinchkovlik bilan tanladi - Alonzo Teylor (texnik qobiliyat), Robert Taft (siyosiy birlashmalar), Gifford Pinchot (qishloq xo'jaligi ta'siri) va Julius Barnes (ishbilarmonlik).[75]

Birinchi jahon urushi keskin oshib borgan global oziq-ovqat inqirozini keltirib chiqardi oziq-ovqat narxlari va urushayotgan mamlakatlarda oziq-ovqat tartibsizliklari va ocharchilikka sabab bo'ldi. Guverning oziq-ovqat podshosi bo'lgan asosiy maqsadi Ittifoqchi kuchlarni ta'minot bilan ta'minlash edi, ammo u ichki narxlarni barqarorlashtirishga va ichki tanqislikning oldini olishga harakat qildi.[76] Tomonidan berilgan keng vakolatlar ostida Oziq-ovqat va yoqilg'ini nazorat qilish to'g'risidagi qonun, Oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati Qo'shma Shtatlar bo'ylab oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqarishni nazorat qildi va ma'muriyat oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini sotib olish, import qilish, saqlash va sotish bo'yicha vakolatlaridan foydalangan.[77] Ratsiondan qochishga qat'iy qaror qilgan Guvver odamlarga belgilangan ovqatlarni iste'mol qilishdan saqlanishlari va ularni askarlarning ratsioni uchun saqlashlari uchun belgilangan kunlarni belgilab qo'ydi: go'shtsiz dushanba, bug'doysiz chorshanba va "shubhangiz bo'lsa, kartoshka iste'mol qiling". Ushbu siyosat hukumat publitsistlari tomonidan "Hooverizing" deb nomlangan, Guverning doimiy ravishda reklama qilishda uning nomini tilga olmaslik haqidagi buyruqlariga qaramay.[78] Oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati Ittifoqdosh davlatlarga 23 million metrik tonna oziq-ovqat etkazib berdi, bu ularning qulashiga yo'l qo'ymadi va Guver katta e'tirofga sazovor bo'ldi.[79] Oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati rahbari sifatida Guver Qo'shma Shtatlarda, ayniqsa Goverda mutaxassis ma'mur va samaradorlik ramzini ko'rgan ilg'or odamlar orasida o'z tarafdorlariga ega bo'ldi.[80]

Urushdan keyingi yengillik

Birinchi Jahon urushi 1918 yil noyabrida nihoyasiga yetdi, ammo Evropa tanqidiy oziq-ovqat holatiga duch kelaverdi; Guver 400 millionga yaqin odam ochlikdan aziyat chekish ehtimoliga duch kelganini taxmin qildi.[81] Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati Amerika yordam ma'muriyati (ARA) va Guvverga Markaziy va Sharqiy Evropani oziq-ovqat bilan ta'minlash ayblandi.[82] Yengillik bilan bir qatorda, ARA Evropa iqtisodiyotini yoshartirish maqsadida infratuzilmani qayta tikladi.[83] Davomida Parij tinchlik konferentsiyasi, Guvver Prezident Uilsonning yaqin maslahatchisi bo'lib ishlagan va u asosan Uilsonning tashkil etish maqsadlari bilan o'rtoqlashgan Millatlar Ligasi, asosida chegaralarni belgilash o'z taqdirini o'zi belgilash va mag'lubiyatga uchragan Markaziy kuchlarga qattiq jazo berishdan saqlanish.[84] Keyingi yil taniqli ingliz iqtisodchisi Jon Maynard Keyns yozgan Tinchlikning iqtisodiy oqibatlari agar Gverning realizmi, "bilim, ulug'vorlik va befarqlik" Parij kengashlarida kengroq o'yinni topganida edi, dunyoda "Yaxshi tinchlik" bo'lar edi.[85] 1919 yil o'rtalarida AQSh hukumatining ARAni moliyalashtirish muddati tugagandan so'ng, Guver ARAni xususiy tashkilotga aylantirib, xususiy donorlardan millionlab dollar yig'di.[82] Shuningdek, u Evropa bolalar jamg'armasini tashkil etdi, u o'n to'rt mamlakat bo'ylab o'n besh million bolaga yordam ko'rsatdi.[86]

Qarama-qarshiliklariga qaramay Senator Genri Kabot uyi va boshqa respublikachilar, Guver urushdan keyin mag'lub bo'lgan nemis millatiga yordam ko'rsatdi, shuningdek ularga yordam berdi ochlik - urilgan Rossiya Sovet Federativ Sotsialistik Respublikasi.[82] Guvver buni qoraladi Bolsheviklar, lekin Prezident Uilsonni an aralashuv ichida Rossiya fuqarolar urushi, u ko'rib chiqqanidek Oq rus kuchlar bolsheviklarga qaraganda unchalik yaxshi emas va AQShning uzoq muddat aralashish ehtimoli borligidan qo'rqishgan.[87] The 1921–22 yillarda Rossiyada ochlik olti million kishini talab qildi, ammo ARA aralashuvi, ehtimol millionlab odamlarning hayotini saqlab qoldi.[88] U bolshevizmga yordam berish orqali yordam bermayaptimi, degan savolga Guver "yigirma million odam ochlikdan azob chekmoqda. Ularning siyosati nima bo'lishidan qat'i nazar, ular to'yadi!"[82] Ko'plab evropaliklarning minnatdorchiligini aks ettirgan holda, 1922 yil iyul oyida Sovet muallifi Maksim Gorkiy Guvverga "sizning yordamingiz tarixga eng ulug'vor shon-sharafga loyiq noyob, ulkan yutuq sifatida kiradi, bu sizning o'limdan qutqargan millionlab ruslar xotirasida uzoq vaqt saqlanib qoladi" deb aytdi.[89]

1919 yilda Guver tashkil etdi Hoover War Collection Stenford universitetida. U Belgiyadagi yordam komissiyasining, AQSh oziq-ovqat ma'muriyati va Amerika yordam ma'muriyatining barcha fayllarini topshirdi va sadaqa sifatida 50 ming dollar va'da qildi (2019 yilda 737 332 dollarga teng). Urush va undan keyingi inqiloblar bilan bog'liq risolalar, jamiyat nashrlari, hukumat hujjatlari, gazetalar, plakatlar, e'lonlar va boshqa vaqtinchalik materiallarni yig'ish uchun olimlar Evropaga yuborildi. To'plam 1922 yilda Guvver urushi kutubxonasi deb nomlangan va hozirda u sifatida tanilgan Hoover instituti.[90] Urushdan keyingi davrda Guver shuningdek, Amerika Federatsiyasining muhandislik jamiyatlari prezidenti sifatida ishlagan.[91][92]

1920 yilgi saylov

Guver 1914 yilgacha Amerika jamoatchiligi orasida kam tanilgan edi, ammo Uilson ma'muriyatidagi xizmati uni uni da'vogar sifatida ko'rsatdi. 1920 yilgi prezident saylovi. Guverning urush davrida soliqlarni oshirishga undashi, Bosh prokurorni tanqid qilishi A. Mitchell Palmer davomida harakatlar Birinchi qizil qo'rqinch, va kabi choralar uchun uning advokati eng kam ish haqi, qirq sakkiz soatlik ish haftasi va bolalar mehnatidan voz kechish uni ikkala tomonning ilg'or taraqqiyotparvarlariga murojaat qilishga majbur qildi.[93] Xizmatida bo'lishiga qaramay Demokratik Vudro Vilson ma'muriyati, Guver hech qachon demokratlar bilan ham, u bilan ham yaqin aloqada bo'lmagan Respublikachilar. Dastlab u 1920 yilgi saylovlarda biron bir partiyaga majburiyat berishdan qochishga intilib, ikki yirik partiyalarning biri uni o'zlarining milliy qurultoylarida uni prezidentlikka taklif qilishlariga umid qilishdi.[94] 1920 yil mart oyida u strategiyasini o'zgartirdi va o'zini respublikachi deb e'lon qildi; u asosan Demokratik nomzodning 1920 yilgi prezidentlik saylovlarida g'alaba qozonish uchun juda kam imkoniyatga ega bo'lishiga ishonish bilan turtki bergan.[95] Guverning milliy taniqli bo'lishiga qaramay, Uilson ma'muriyatidagi xizmati fermerlarni va GOPning konservativ Eski Gvardiyasini chetlashtirdi va uning prezidentlikka nomzodi Kaliforniya shtatidagi mag'lubiyatdan so'ng mag'lubiyatga uchradi. sevimli o'g'il Xiram Jonson. Da 1920 yilgi respublikachilarning milliy anjumani, Uorren G. Xarding qurultoy Jonson tarafdorlari o'rtasida tang ahvolga tushib qolgandan keyin murosaga keluvchi nomzod sifatida paydo bo'ldi, Leonard Vud va Frank Orren Lowden.[93] Guvver Hardingning umumiy saylovlardagi muvaffaqiyatli kampaniyasini qo'llab-quvvatladi va u Respublikachilar partiyasida kuchli tarafdorlari bazasini yaratish orqali bo'lajak prezidentlik saylovlari uchun zamin yaratishni boshladi.[96]

Savdo kotibi (1921–1928)

Yordamchilar Uilyam Makkrayn (chapda) va Uolter Dreyk (o'ngda) kotib Guver bilan (o'rtada)
Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Uorren G. Xarding prezidentligi va Kalvin Kulijning prezidentligi

1920 yilda prezident etib saylanganidan so'ng, Harding Guverni qo'llab-quvvatlashi uchun mukofotladi va uni ham tayinlashni taklif qildi Ichki ishlar kotibi yoki Savdo kotibi. Savdo kotibi Vazirlar Mahkamasining kichik lavozimi deb hisoblangan, uning vazifalari cheklangan va noaniq belgilangan, ammo Guver bu lavozimni qabul qilishga qaror qildi.[97] Guvverning ilg'or pozitsiyalari, ularni qo'llab-quvvatlashda davom etmoqda Millatlar Ligasi va yaqinda Respublikachilar partiyasiga o'tish uning ko'plab Senat respublikachilari tomonidan tayinlanishiga qarshi qarshilik uyg'otdi.[98] Ushbu qarama-qarshilikni engib o'tish uchun Xarding Guver nomzodini konservativ favorit bilan birlashtirdi Endryu Mellon kabi G'aznachilik kotibi Va Guverning ham, Mellonning ham nomzodlari Senat tomonidan tasdiqlandi. Guver 1921 yildan 1929 yilgacha tijorat kotibi bo'lib, Harding rahbarligida xizmat qilgan va Xarding vafotidan keyin 1923 yilda Prezident Kalvin Kulidj.[97] Garchi Harding ma'muriyatining eng taniqli a'zolari, shu jumladan Bosh prokuror Garri M. Daugherty va ichki ishlar kotibi Albert B. Kuz ga aloqador bo'lgan katta janjallar, Xover Harding ma'muriyatiga nisbatan o'tkazilgan tergovlardan deyarli zarar ko'rmagan holda paydo bo'ldi.[99]

Guvver Savdo departamentini mamlakatning o'sishi va barqarorligining markazi sifatida tasavvur qildi.[100] Uning urush davri iqtisodiyotini safarbar qilish tajribasi uni federal hukumat chiqindilarni yo'q qilish, ishlab chiqarishni ko'paytirish, ma'lumotlarga asoslangan amaliyotni qabul qilishni rag'batlantirish, infratuzilishga sarmoya kiritish va tabiiy resurslarni tejash orqali samaradorlikni oshirishi mumkinligiga ishontirdi. Zamonaviylar Guvverning yondashuvini "cheklanmagan kapitalizm" va "uchinchi alternativa" deb ta'rifladilar sotsializm Evropada tobora ommalashib borayotgan edi.[101] Guver mehnat, kapital va hukumat o'rtasida muvozanatni o'rnatishga intildi va buning uchun u har xil deb etiketlandi korparatist yoki an assotsiatsiyalashgan.[102]

Guver hukumat bo'ylab iqtisodiy ishlarni muvofiqlashtirish vakolatini talab qildi va oldi. U ko'plab sub-bo'limlar va qo'mitalarni yaratdi, ishlab chiqarish statistikasidan tortib to hamma narsani nazorat qilib turdi havo sayohati. Ba'zi hollarda u Vazirlar Mahkamasining boshqa bo'limlari o'z vazifalarini yaxshi bajarolmayotgan deb hisoblaganda, ularning nazoratini "tortib olgan"; ba'zilari uni "Savdo kotibi va boshqa barcha bo'limlarning kotibi o'rinbosari" deb atashni boshladilar.[100] Ga javoban 1920–21 yillardagi tushkunlik, u Hardingni ishsizlik bo'yicha prezidentlik komissiyasini yig'ishga ishontirdi, bu esa mahalliy hukumatlarni kontrtsiklik infratuzilma xarajatlari bilan shug'ullanishga undaydi.[103] U Mellonning soliqlarni pasaytirish dasturining ko'p qismini ma'qulladi, ammo ko'proq narsani ma'qulladi progressiv soliq tizimi va xazina kotibining yo'q qilishga qaratilgan harakatlariga qarshi chiqdi mol-mulk solig'i.[104]

Radio va sayohat

Gverni tinglash radio qabul qilgich

1923-1929 yillarda radiolari bo'lgan oilalar soni 300000 dan 10 milliongacha o'sdi,[105] va Guvverning savdo kotibi lavozimida ishlashi Qo'shma Shtatlarda radiodan foydalanishga katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi. 1920-yillarning boshlarida va o'rtalarida Guvverning radiokonferentsiyalari tashkil qilish, rivojlantirish va tartibga solishda muhim rol o'ynadi radioeshittirish. Guver ham pasni oshirishda yordam berdi 1927 yilgi radio akti bu hukumatga aralashish va jamoatchilik uchun "foydasiz" deb hisoblangan radiostansiyalarni bekor qilishga imkon berdi. Guvverning radiolarni tartibga solishga urinishlari barcha kongressmenlar tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanmadi va u Senat va radiostantsiya egalarining katta qarshiliklariga uchradi.[106][107][108]

Havo qatnovining dastlabki rivojlanishida Guvver ham ta'sir ko'rsatdi va u bilvosita hukumat tomonidan beriladigan subsidiyalar hisobiga rivojlangan rivojlangan xususiy sanoatni yaratishga intildi. U favqulodda qo'nish maydonlarini rivojlantirishni rag'batlantirdi, barcha uchish-qo'nish yo'laklarini chiroqlar va radio nurlari bilan jihozlashni talab qildi va fermerlarni samolyotlardan foydalanishga undadi hosilni changlatish.[109] Shuningdek, u federal hukumatning samolyotlarni tekshirish va uchuvchilarni litsenziyalash bo'yicha vakolatini o'rnatdi va keyinchalik bu uchun o'rnak bo'ldi Federal aviatsiya ma'muriyati.[110]

Savdo kotibi sifatida Guvver ko'cha harakati va avtomobil yo'llari xavfsizligi bo'yicha milliy konferentsiya deb nomlanuvchi ko'cha harakati bo'yicha milliy konferentsiyalarni o'tkazdi. Guvverning asosiy maqsadi transport hodisalarida tobora ko'payib borayotgan qurbonlar sonini hal qilishdan iborat edi, ammo konferentsiyalar ko'lami kengayib bordi va tez orada avtotransport standartlari, yo'l harakati qoidalari va shahar transportini boshqarish bilan shug'ullandi. U taklif qilingan manfaatdor guruhlarni o'zaro kelishuvlar bo'yicha muzokaralar olib borish uchun tark etdi, keyinchalik ular davlatlar va mahalliy aholi tomonidan qabul qilinishi uchun taqdim etildi. Avtomobil savdo uyushmalari eng yaxshi tashkil etilganligi sababli, konferentsiyalar tomonidan qabul qilingan ko'plab pozitsiyalar ularning manfaatlarini aks ettirdi. Konferentsiyalarda shtatlar tomonidan farzandlikka olish uchun yagona Yagona transport vositasi kodeksi va shaharlarga asrab olish uchun namunaviy shahar transport harakati to'g'risidagi qaror chiqarildi. Ikkalasi ham ta'sirchan bo'lib, yurisdiktsiyalar o'rtasida bir xillikni ta'minladilar va shahar ko'chalarida avtoulovning ustuvorligini targ'ib qilishdi.[111]

Guverning imidjini yaratish

Fillips Payson O'Brayen Guver Britaniyada muammo bo'lgan deb ta'kidlaydi. U shuncha yilni Britaniyada va Avstraliyada yashab, ingliz kompaniyalari xodimi sifatida o'tkazgan, unga ingliz vositasi deb nom berish xavfi bor edi. Uchta echim bor edi, ularning barchasi ommaviy axborot vositalari bilan yaqin hamkorlikda uni sinab ko'rdi.[112] Birinchidan, hissiyotsiz, ammo har doim iloji boricha eng yaxshi echimni topishga va amalga oshirishga sodiq bo'lgan ixlosmand olimning obrazi paydo bo'ldi. Ikkinchi yechim, Belgiyadagi ocharchilik kabi dunyodagi muammolardan, shuningdek, jahon urushi paytida u oziq-ovqat komissari sifatida hal qilgan Amerika kabi aniq muammolardan xavotirda bo'lgan insonparvarlik obro'siga ega bo'lish edi. Uchinchi yechim - bu ingliz dumini burish bo'yicha eski taktikaga qaytish edi. U ushbu echimni 1925-1926 yillarda butun dunyo bo'ylab kauchuk inqirozida qo'llagan. Amerika avtosanoati dunyodagi mahsulotning 70 foizini iste'mol qildi, ammo ingliz investorlari ta'minotning katta qismini nazorat qildilar. Ularning rejasi ishlab chiqarishni keskin qisqartirish va Britaniya Malaya, bu kauchuk narxlarini uch baravar oshirishga ta'sir qildi. Guver g'ayrat bilan bir qator nutqlar va intervyular berib, monopolistik amaliyotni qoraladi va unga barham berishni talab qildi. Amerika Davlat departamenti bunday inqirozni istamadi va 1926 yilda bu masalada murosaga keldi. O'sha vaqtga kelib Guver o'zining imidj muammosini hal qildi va 1928 yilgi kampaniyasi davomida u o'zini Britaniya manfaatlariga juda yaqin bo'lgan degan hujumlarni muvaffaqiyatli bostirdi.[113]

Boshqa tashabbuslar

Guver (chapda) Prezident bilan Uorren Xarding 1921 yil beysbol o'yinida

Oqilona ishbilarmonlik sarmoyalarini rag'batlantirish maqsadida Guvver Savdo departamentini ma'lumotlarning hisob-kitob markaziga aylantirdi. U turli sohalardan ko'plab akademiklarni jalb qildi va ularga iqtisodiyotning turli jihatlari, shu jumladan po'lat ishlab chiqarish va filmlar haqida hisobotlarni nashr etishni topshirdi. Chiqindilarni yo'q qilish uchun u avtomobil shinalari va bolalar shishasining nipellari kabi mahsulotlarni standartlashtirishni rag'batlantirdi.[114] Chiqindilarni yo'q qilish bo'yicha boshqa sa'y-harakatlar savdo mojarolari va mavsumiy o'zgarishlardan kelib chiqadigan ishchilar yo'qotishlarini kamaytirish, baxtsiz hodisalar va shikastlanishlar natijasida sanoatdagi yo'qotishlarni kamaytirish va qazib olish va jo'natish paytida to'kilgan xom neft miqdorini kamaytirishni o'z ichiga olgan. U ishbilarmonlarga maslahat berish uchun chet elda vakolatxonalarini ochish orqali xalqaro savdoni rivojlantirdi. Guver, ayniqsa, Gollivud filmlarini chet ellarda reklama qilishni juda xohlagan.[115] Uning "O'z uyingga egalik" kampaniyasi yakka tartibdagi uy-joylarga egalik huquqini targ'ib qilishda hamkorlik qildi, "Amerikada yaxshi uylar" harakati, Arxitektorlarning kichik uylarga xizmat ko'rsatish byurosi va uylarni zamonaviylashtirish byurosi kabi guruhlar. U bankirlar bilan ishlagan va jamg'arma va kredit uy qurishni keskin rag'batlantirgan yangi uzoq muddatli uy-joy ipotekasini ilgari surish uchun sanoat.[116] Boshqa yutuqlarga bitimni yutib olish kiradi AQSh po'lati sakkiz soatlik ish kunini qabul qilish va kunni tarbiyalash Kolorado daryosi ixchamligi, janubi-g'arbiy shtatlar o'rtasida suvga bo'lgan huquqlar ixcham.[117]

Missisipidagi toshqin

The 1927 yildagi buyuk Missisipi toshqini banklarni buzdi va levees ning pastki Missisipi daryosi 1927 yil boshida, natijada millionlab gektar maydonlarni suv bosdi va 1,5 million kishi o'z uylaridan qochishga majbur bo'ldi. Garchi falokatlarga qarshi kurash Savdo departamentining vazifalariga kirmasa ham, Missisipi daryosi bo'yidagi oltita shtat gubernatorlari prezident Kulijdan toshqinga qarshi munosabatni muvofiqlashtirish uchun Guverni tayinlashni iltimos qildilar.[118] Tabiiy ofatlarga qarshi kurash federal hukumatning mulki emasligiga ishongan Kulij dastlab aralashishdan bosh tortdi, ammo oxir-oqibat u siyosiy tazyiqlarga qo'shilib, Guvverni mintaqaga yordam berish uchun maxsus qo'mitaga rahbar etib tayinladi.[119] Gover yuzdan ziyod chodir shaharlari va olti yuzdan ortiq kemalardan iborat flot tashkil etdi va 17 million dollar (2019 yilda 250,21 million dollarga teng) mablag 'yig'di. Ko'p jihatdan toshqin inqirozi paytida uning rahbarligi tufayli 1928 yilga kelib Guvver prezident Kulijning o'zi soya qila boshladi.[118] Gover inqirozdagi roli uchun katta e'tirofga sazovor bo'lsa-da, u qochoqlar lagerlarida afroamerikaliklarga nisbatan yomon muomalalar haqidagi xabarlarni bostirishga buyruq berdi.[120] U buni afroamerikaliklar rahbarining hamkorligi bilan amalga oshirdi Robert Russa Moton Guver prezident bo'lganidan keyin unga misli ko'rilmagan ta'sir va'da qilingan.[121]

1928 yildagi prezident saylovi

Asosiy maqola: Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarida prezident saylovi, 1928 yil

Xover 1920-yillarda bo'lajak prezidentlik taklifini jimgina qo'llab-quvvatladi, ammo u boshqa muddatga saylanish huquqiga ega bo'lgan Kulidjni begonalashtirishdan ehtiyot bo'ldi. 1928 yilgi prezident saylovi.[122] Butun xalq bilan bir qatorda, Kudidj 1927 yil avgustda boshqa muddatni izlamasligini e'lon qilganda hayron bo'ldi. Kudidjning yaqinlashib kelayotgan nafaqasi bilan, Guvver darhol 1928 yilgi respublikachilar nominatsiyasida birinchi o'rinni egalladi va u tezda boshchiligidagi kuchli saylov kampaniyasini tuzdi. Hubert Work, Will H. Hays va Reed Smoot.[123] Kulij Guvverni o'zining o'rnini egallash uchun moylashni xohlamadi; bir safar u "olti yil davomida odam menga nomaqbul maslahat berdi - hammasi yomon", deb ta'kidladi.[124] Goverga nisbatan iliq his-tuyg'ulariga qaramay, Kulidj mashhur tijorat kotibi nomzodiga qarshi chiqib, partiyani bo'linishni istamadi.[125]

Respublikachilarning ko'plab ehtiyotkorlari Moliya vaziri Endryu Mellon yoki sobiq davlat kotibi kabi muqobil nomzodni taklif qilishdi Charlz Evans Xyuz.[126] Biroq, Xyuz va Mellon o'z nomzodlarini qo'yishdan bosh tortdilar va Frank Orren Lovden va vitse-prezident kabi boshqa potentsial da'vogarlar. Charlz Dovs keng qo'llab-quvvatlay olmadi.[127] Guvver birinchi byulletenda prezidentlik nomzodini qo'lga kiritdi 1928 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani. Qurultoy delegatlari vitse-prezident Charlz Douzni qayta nomzodini Guverning nomzodi deb hisoblashdi yugurish jufti, ammo Douvesdan nafratlanadigan Kulidj bu uning uchun "shaxsiy tahqir" bo'lishini ta'kidladi. Buning o'rniga anjuman tanlandi Senator Charlz Kurtis Kanzas shtati.[128] Guvver nomzodni qabul qildi Stenford stadioni, Xarding va Kudidj ma'muriyatining siyosatini davom ettirishini katta olomonga aytib berdi.[129] Demokratlar Nyu-York gubernatorini nomzod qilib ko'rsatdilar Al Smit, kim birinchi bo'ldi Katolik partiyadan prezidentlikka asosiy nomzod.[130]

1928 yilgi saylov natijalari

Hoover centered his campaign around the Republican record of peace and prosperity, as well as his own reputation as a successful engineer and public official. Averse to giving political speeches, Hoover largely stayed out of the fray and left the campaigning to Curtis and other Republicans.[131] Smith was more charismatic and gregarious than Hoover, but his campaign was damaged by katoliklikka qarshi kurash and his overt opposition to Prohibition. Hoover had never been a strong proponent of Prohibition, but he accepted the Republican Party's plank in favor of it and issued an ambivalent statement calling Prohibition "a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose."[132] In the South, Hoover and the national party pursued a "nilufar-oq " strategy, removing black Republicans from leadership positions in an attempt to curry favor with white Southerners.[133]

Hoover maintained polling leads throughout the 1928 campaign, and he decisively defeated Smith on election day, taking 58 percent of the popular vote and 444 of the 531 electoral votes.[134] Historians agree that Hoover's national reputation and the booming economy, combined with deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and Prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory.[135] Hoover's appeal to Southern white voters succeeded in cracking the "Qattiq janubiy ", and he won five Southern states.[136] Hoover's victory was positively received by newspapers; one wrote that Hoover would "drive so forcefully at the tasks now before the nation that the end of his eight years as president will find us looking back on an era of prodigious achievement."[137]

Hoover's detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 yilgi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari aholini ro'yxatga olish which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations. The 1920 Census was the first and only Decennial Census where the results were not used to reapportion Congress, which ultimately influenced the 1928 Electoral College and impacted the Presidential Election.[138][139]

Presidency (1929–1933)

Asosiy maqola: Herbert Governing prezidentligi
Hoover's inauguration
Inaugural parade ticket

Hoover saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed "volunteerism". He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance.[140] The first major bill that he signed, the 1929 yildagi qishloq xo'jaligi marketingi to'g'risidagi qonun, tashkil etdi Federal fermer kengashi in order to stabilize farm prices.[141] Hoover made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions started by Hoover, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying the entirety of American society.[142] He appointed a Cabinet consisting largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives,[143] including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon.[144] Lou Henry Hoover was an activist First Lady. She typified the new woman of the post-World War I era: intelligent, robust, and aware of multiple female possibilities.[145]

Katta depressiya

Shuningdek qarang: Qo'shma Shtatlardagi katta depressiya

On taking office, Hoover said that "given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation."[146] Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many shared Hoover's optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on Hoover's accession.[147] This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including a persistent fermer xo'jaligi inqirozi, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles, and growing daromadlar tengsizligi.[148] Most dangerous of all to the economy was excessive spekülasyon that had raised stock prices far beyond their value.[149] Some regulators and bankers had warned Coolidge and Hoover that a failure to curb speculation would lead to "one of the greatest financial catastrophes that this country has ever seen," but both presidents were reluctant to become involved with the workings of the Federal zaxira tizimi, which regulated banks.[150]

In late October 1929, the 1929 yildagi qimmatli qog'ozlar bozori occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Katta depressiya.[151] The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate,[152] but Hoover viewed a lack of confidence in the financial system as the fundamental economic problem facing the nation.[153] He sought to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He also feared that allowing individuals on the "dole " would permanently weaken the country.[154] Instead, Hoover strongly believed that local governments and private giving should address the needs of individuals.[155]

Dastlabki siyosat

Hoover congratulates the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce on the completion of Klivlend ittifoqi terminali, June 14, 1930

Though he attempted to put a positive spin on Qora seshanba, Hoover moved quickly to address the qimmatli qog'ozlar bozorining qulashi.[156] In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21.[157] Hoover also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, and the Federal zaxira qisqartirilishini e'lon qildi foiz stavkalari.[158] In early 1930, Hoover acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the Federal fermer kengashi lending and purchasing policies.[159] These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus.[158] At the same time, Hoover opposed congressional proposals to provide federal relief to the unemployed, as he believed that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments and philanthropic organizations.[160]

Hoover had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s, but his attempt to raise agricultural tariffs became connected with a bill that broadly raised tariffs.[161] Hoover refused to become closely involved in the congressional debate over the tariff, and Congress produced a tariff bill that raised rates for many goods.[162] Despite the widespread unpopularity of the bill, Hoover felt that he could not reject the main legislative accomplishment of the Republican-controlled 71-kongress. Over the objection of many economists, Hoover signed the Smoot-Hawley tariflari to'g'risidagi qonun into law in June 1930.[163] Canada, France, and other nations retaliated by raising tariffs, resulting in a contraction of international trade and a worsening of the economy.[164] Progressive Republicans such as Senator Uilyam E. Borax of Idaho were outraged when Hoover signed the tariff act, and Hoover's relations with that wing of the party never recovered.[165]

Keyinchalik siyosat

Hoover in the Oval Office with Ted Joslin, 1932

By the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21.[166] A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931.[167] While other countries left the oltin standart, Hoover refused to abandon it;[168] he derided any other pul tizimi as "collectivism."[169] Hoover viewed the weak European economy as a major cause of economic troubles in the United States.[170] In response to the collapse of the German economy, Hoover marshaled congressional support behind a one-year moratorium on European war debts.[171] The Hoover Moratorium was warmly received in Europe and the United States, but Germany remained on the brink of defaulting on its loans.[172] As the worldwide economy worsened, democratic governments fell; Germaniyada, Natsistlar partiyasi rahbar Adolf Gitler assumed power.[173]

By mid-1931, the unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns.[174] A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, Hoover allowed his opponents in the Democratic Party to define him as cold, incompetent, reactionary, and out-of-touch.[175] Hoover's opponents developed defamatory epitetlar to discredit him, such as "Xovervill " (the shanty towns and homeless encampments), "Hoover leather" (cardboard used to cover holes in the soles of shoes), and "Hoover blanket" (old newspaper used to cover oneself from the cold).[176] While Hoover continued to resist direct federal relief efforts, Governor Franklin D. Ruzvelt of New York launched the Favqulodda vaziyatlarda yordamni vaqtincha boshqarish to provide aid to the unemployed. Democrats positioned the program as a kinder alternative to Hoover's alleged apathy towards the unemployed.[177]

The economy continued to worsen, with unemployment rates nearing 23 percent in early 1932,[178] and Hoover finally heeded calls for more direct federal intervention.[179] In January 1932, he convinced Congress to authorize the establishment of the Rekonstruksiya moliya korporatsiyasi (RFC), which would provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads, and local governments.[180] The RFC saved numerous businesses from failure, but it failed to stimulate commercial lending as much as Hoover had hoped, partly because it was run by conservative bankers unwilling to make riskier loans.[181] The same month the RFC was established, Hoover signed the Federal kredit banki to'g'risidagi qonun, establishing 12 district banks overseen by a Federal Home Loan Bank Board in a manner similar to the Federal Reserve System.[182] He also helped arrange passage of the 1932 yildagi Shisha-Shtagal qonuni, emergency banking legislation designed to expand banking credit by expanding the collateral on which Federal Reserve banks were authorized to lend.[183] As these measures failed to stem the economic crisis, Hoover signed the Favqulodda vaziyatlarda yordam va qurilish to'g'risidagi qonun, a $2 billion public works bill, in July 1932.[178]

Byudjet siyosati

National debt as a fraction of GNP up from 20% to 40% under Hoover. Kimdan Historical Statistics US (1976).

After a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931.[184] Though some economists, like Uilyam Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget.[185] In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the 1932 yilgi daromad to'g'risidagi qonun.[186] The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the tax cut reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s. Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top estate tax rate, cut shaxsiy daromad solig'i exemptions, eliminated the yuridik shaxslarning daromad solig'i exemption, and raised corporate tax rates.[187] Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.[188]

Civil rights and Mexican Repatriation

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Lily-oq harakat va Meksika Repatriatsiyasi
Herbert and Lou Genri Xover aboard a train in Illinois

Hoover seldom mentioned civil rights while he was president. U bunga ishongan Afroamerikaliklar and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative.[189][sahifa kerak ] Hoover appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge had combined, but many African-American leaders condemned various aspects of the Hoover administration, including Hoover's unwillingness to push for a federal anti-linchalash qonun.[190] Hoover also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South.[191] Garchi Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African-American leaders were outraged.[192] Hoover further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge Jon J. Parker uchun Oliy sud; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate due to opposition from the NAACP va uyushgan mehnat.[193] Many black voters switched to the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, and African Americans would later become an important part of Franklin Roosevelt's Yangi bitim koalitsiyasi.[194]

As part of his efforts to limit unemployment, Hoover sought to cut Qo'shma Shtatlarga immigratsiya, and in 1930 he promulgated an executive order requiring individuals to have employment before migrating to the United States.[195] With the goal of opening up more jobs for U.S. citizens, Secretary of Labor Uilyam N. Doak began a campaign to prosecute illegal immigrants in the United States. Though Doak did not seek to deport one specific group of immigrants, his campaign most strongly affected Meksikalik amerikaliklar, especially Mexican Americans living in Kaliforniya janubiy.[196] Many of the deportations were overseen by state and local authorities who acted on the encouragement of Doak and the Department of Labor.[197] During the 1930s, approximately one million Mexican Americans were forcibly "repatriated" to Mexico; approximately sixty percent of those deported were birthright citizens.[198] According to legal professor Kevin R. Johnson, the repatriation campaign meets the modern legal standards of etnik tozalash, as it involved the forced removal of a racial minority by government actors.[199]

Taqiq

Despite his politics, Hoover was never a teetotaler. While serving as Secretary of Commerce he would often stop at the Belgian embassy for mexnat.[200]

On taking office, Hoover urged Americans to obey the O'n sakkizinchi o'zgartirish va Volstead qonuni, which had established Prohibition across the United States.[201] To make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition, he created the Vikersxem komissiyasi.[202] Hoover had hoped that the commission's public report would buttress his stance in favor of Prohibition, but the report criticized the enforcement of the Volstead Act and noted the growing public opposition to Prohibition. After the Wickersham Report was published in 1931, Hoover rejected the advice of some of his closest allies and refused to endorse any revision of the Volstead Act or the Eighteenth Amendment, as he feared doing so would undermine his support among Prohibition advocates.[203] As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and a grassroots movement began working in earnest for Prohibition's repeal.[204] In January 1933, a constitutional amendment repealing the Eighteenth Amendment was approved by Congress and submitted to the states for ratification. By December 1933, it had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twenty-first Amendment.[205]

Tashqi aloqalar

According to Leuchtenburg, Hoover was "the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to the rest of the world". Nevertheless, during Hoover's term, the world order established in the immediate aftermath of World War I began to crumble.[206] As president, Hoover largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in lotin Amerikasi 's internal affairs. In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum, ning rad etilishi Ruzvelt xulosasi and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America. Hoover did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in the Dominika Respublikasi, and he sent warships to Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution.[207] Notwithstanding those actions, he wound down the Banan urushi tugatish occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the Gaitining bosib olinishi.[208]

Hoover placed a priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift money from the military to domestic needs.[209] Hoover and Secretary of State Genri L. Stimson focused on extending the 1922 Vashington dengiz shartnomasi, which sought to prevent a naval qurollanish poygasi.[210] As a result of Hoover's efforts, the United States and other major naval powers signed the 1930 London dengiz shartnomasi.[211] The treaty represented the first time that the naval powers had agreed to cap their tonnage of auxiliary vessels, as previous agreements had only affected kapital kemalar.[212]

1932 yilda Qurolsizlanish bo'yicha Butunjahon konferentsiyasi, Hoover urged further cutbacks in armaments and the outlawing of tanklar va bombardimonchilar, but his proposals were not adopted.[212]

In 1931, Japan bosqinchi Manchuriya, mag'lubiyatga uchragan Xitoy Respublikasi 's military forces and establishing Manchukuo, a puppet state. The Hoover administration deplored the invasion, but also sought to avoid antagonizing the Japanese, fearing that taking too strong a stand would weaken the moderate forces in the Japanese government and alienate a potential ally against the Sovet Ittifoqi, which he saw as a much greater threat.[213] In response to the Japanese invasion, Hoover and Secretary of State Stimson outlined the Stimson doktrinasi, which held that the United States would not recognize territories gained by force.[214]

Bonus armiyasi

Asosiy maqola: Bonus armiyasi

Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act 1924 yilda; the terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945. Although offered money by Kongress to return home, some members of the "Bonus Army" remained. Washington police attempted to disperse the demonstrators, but they were outnumbered and unsuccessful. Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured. Hoover sent U.S. Army forces led by General Duglas Makartur to the protests. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a Kommunistik inqilob, chose to clear out the camp with military force. Though Hoover had not ordered MacArthur's clearing out of the protesters, he endorsed it after the fact.[215] The incident proved embarrassing for the Hoover administration, and destroyed any remaining chance he had of winning re-election.[216]

1932 re-election campaign

Asosiy maqola: AQSh prezident saylovi, 1932 yil
Hoover addresses a large crowd in his 1932 campaign

By mid-1931 few observers thought that Hoover had much hope of winning a second term in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis.[217] Nonetheless, Hoover faced little opposition for re-nomination at the 1932 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani, as Coolidge and other prominent Republicans all passed on the opportunity to challenge Hoover.[218] Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot of the 1932 yil Demokratlarning milliy qurultoyi, defeating the 1928 Democratic nominee, Al Smith. The Democrats attacked Hoover as the cause of the Great Depression, and for being indifferent to the suffering of millions.[219] As Governor of New York, Roosevelt had called on the New York legislature to provide aid for the needy, establishing Roosevelt's reputation for being more favorable toward government interventionism during the economic crisis.[220] The Democratic Party, including Al Smith and other national leaders, coalesced behind Roosevelt, while progressive Republicans like George Norris and Robert La Follette Jr. deserted Hoover.[221]

Hoover's detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 yilgi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari aholini ro'yxatga olish which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations. The 1920 Census was the first and only Decennial Census where the results were not used to reapportion Congress; which ultimately influenced the 1928 Electoral College and impacted the Presidential Election.[138][139]

1932 yilgi saylov natijalari

Hoover originally planned to make only one or two major speeches, and to leave the rest of the campaigning to proxies, as sitting presidents had traditionally done. However, encouraged by Republican pleas and outraged by Democratic claims, Hoover entered the public fray. In his nine major radio addresses Hoover primarily defended his administration and his philosophy of government, urging voters to hold to the "foundations of experience" and reject the notion that government interventionism could save the country from the Depression.[222] In his campaign trips around the country, Hoover was faced with perhaps the most hostile crowds ever seen by a sitting president. Besides having his train and motorcades pelted with eggs and rotten fruit, he was often heckled while speaking, and on several occasions, the Maxfiy xizmat halted attempts to kill Hoover by disgruntled citizens, including capturing one man nearing Hoover carrying sticks of dynamite, and another already having removed several spikes from the rails in front of the president's train.[223]

Hoover's attempts to vindicate his administration fell on deaf ears, as much of the public blamed his administration for the depression.[224] In the electoral vote, Hoover lost 59–472, carrying six states.[225] Hoover won 39.7 percent of the popular vote, a reduction of 26 percentage points from his result in the 1928 election. Roosevelt's performance in the popular vote made him the first Democratic presidential nominee to win the presidency with a ommaviy ovozlarning aksariyati beri Franklin Pirs 1852 yilda.[226]

Post-presidency (1933–1964)

Ruzvelt ma'muriyati

Opposition to New Deal

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Franklin D. Ruzvelt prezidentligi, birinchi va ikkinchi davrlar
Hoover bilan Franklin D. Ruzvelt, March 4, 1933

Hoover departed from Washington in March 1933, bitter at his election loss and continuing unpopularity.[227] As Coolidge, Harding, Wilson, and Taft had all died during the 1920s or early 1930s and Roosevelt died in office, Hoover was the sole living ex-president from 1933 to 1953. Hoover and his wife lived in Palo Alto until her death in 1944, at which point Hoover began to live permanently at the Waldorf Astoria hotel Nyu-York shahrida.[228] During the 1930s, Hoover increasingly self-identified as a konservativ.[229] He closely followed national events after leaving public office, becoming a constant critic of Franklin Roosevelt. In response to continued attacks on his character and presidency, Hoover wrote more than two dozen books, including The Challenge to Liberty (1934), which harshly criticized Roosevelt's Yangi bitim. Hoover described the New Deal's Milliy qutqarish ma'muriyati va Qishloq xo'jaligini sozlashni boshqarish as "fascistic", and he called the 1933 yilgi bank to'g'risidagi qonun a "move to gigantic socialism."[230]

Only 58 when he left office, Hoover held out hope for another term as president throughout the 1930s. Da 1936 yil respublikachilarning milliy anjumani, Hoover's speech attacking the New Deal was well received, but the nomination went to Kansas Governor Alf Landon.[231] Yilda the general election, Hoover delivered numerous well-publicized speeches on behalf of Landon, but Landon was defeated by Roosevelt.[232] Though Hoover was eager to oppose Roosevelt at every turn, Senator Artur Vandenberg and other Republicans urged the still-unpopular Hoover to remain out of the fray during the debate over Roosevelt's proposed 1937 yil sud tizimini qayta tashkil etish to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi. Da 1940 yilgi respublikachilarning milliy anjumani, Hoover again hoped for the presidential nomination, but it went to the internationalist Vendell Uilki, who lost to Roosevelt in the general election.[233]

Ikkinchi jahon urushi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Franklin D. Ruzvelt prezidentligi, uchinchi va to'rtinchi davrlar

During a 1938 trip to Europe, Hoover met with Adolf Hitler and stayed at Hermann Göring 's hunting lodge.[234] He expressed dismay at the persecution of Jews in Germany and believed that Hitler was mad, but did not present a threat to the U.S. Instead, Hoover believed that Roosevelt posed the biggest threat to peace, holding that Roosevelt's policies provoked Japan and discouraged France and the United Kingdom from reaching an "accommodation" with Germany.[235] After the September 1939 Polshaga bostirib kirish by Germany, Hoover opposed U.S. involvement in Ikkinchi jahon urushi shu jumladan Qarz berish siyosat.[236] He rejected Roosevelt's offers to help coordinate relief in Europe,[237] but, with the help of old friends from the CRB, helped establish the Polshadan yordam uchun komissiya.[238] Boshidan keyin Belgiyaning bosib olinishi in 1940, Hoover provided aid for Belgian civilians, though this aid was described as unnecessary by German broadcasts.[239][240]

During a radio broadcast on June 29, 1941, one week after the Fashistlarning Sovet Ittifoqiga bosqini, Hoover disparaged any "tacit alliance" between the U.S. and the USSR, stating, "if we join the war and Stalin wins, we have aided him to impose more communism on Europe and the world... War alongside Stalin to impose freedom is more than a travesty. It is a tragedy."[241] Much to his frustration, Hoover was not called upon to serve after the United States entered World War II due to his differences with Roosevelt and his continuing unpopularity.[228] He did not pursue the presidential nomination at the 1944 yilgi Respublikachilar milliy konvensiyasi, and, at the request of Republican nominee Tomas E. Devi, refrained from campaigning during the general election.[242] In 1945, Hoover advised President Harry S. Truman to drop the United States' demand for the so'zsiz taslim bo'lish of Japan because of the high projected casualties of the Yaponiyaga rejalashtirilgan bosqinchilik, although Hoover was unaware of the Manxetten loyihasi va atom bombasi.[243]

Ikkinchi Jahon Urushidan keyingi

Hoover's official oq uy portrait by Elmer Wesley Greene
Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Garri S. Trumanning prezidentligi va Duayt D. Eyzenxauerning prezidentligi

Following World War II, Hoover befriended President Garri S. Truman despite their ideological differences.[244] Because of Hoover's experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 Truman selected the former president to tour Ittifoqchilar tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan Germaniya to ascertain the food needs of the occupied nation. After touring Germany, Hoover produced a number of reports critical of U.S. occupation policy.[245] He stated in one report that "there is the illusion that the New Germany left after the qo'shimchalar ga kamaytirish mumkinpastoral state. ' It cannot be done unless we exterminate yoki undan 25000000 kishini olib chiqing. "[246] On Hoover's initiative, a school meals program in the American and British occupation zones of Germany was begun on April 14, 1947; the program served 3,500,000 children.[247]

Tashqi audio
audio belgisi Milliy press-klub tushlik ma'ruzachilari, Herbert Gover, 1954 yil 10 mart, 37:23, Guvver soat 7:25 da boshlanib, ikkinchi qayta tashkil etish komissiyasi haqida gapirdi, Kongress kutubxonasi[248]

In 1947, Truman appointed Hoover to a commission to reorganize the executive departments; the commission elected Hoover as chairman and became known as the Hoover Commission. The commission recommended changes designed to strengthen the president's ability to manage the federal government. Though Hoover had opposed Roosevelt's concentration of power in the 1930s, he believed that a stronger presidency was required with the advent of the Atom davri.[249] Davomida 1948 yil prezident saylovi, Hoover supported Republican nominee Thomas Dewey's unsuccessful campaign against Truman, but he remained on good terms with Truman.[250] Hoover favored the Birlashgan Millatlar in principle, but he opposed granting membership to the Soviet Union and other Communist states. He viewed the Soviet Union to be as morally repugnant as Nazi Germany and supported the efforts of Richard Nikson and others to expose Communists in the United States.[251]

In 1949, New York Governor Tomas E. Devi offered Hoover the Senate seat vacated by Robert F. Vagner. U rad etdi.

Hoover backed conservative leader Robert A. Taft da 1952 yilgi respublikachilarning milliy anjumani, but the party's presidential nomination instead went to Duayt D. Eyzenxauer, who went on to win the 1952 yilgi saylov.[252] Though Eisenhower appointed Hoover to another presidential commission, Hoover disliked Eisenhower, faulting the latter's failure to roll back the New Deal.[249] Hoover's public work helped to rehabilitate his reputation, as did his use of self-deprecating humor; he occasionally remarked that "I am the only person of distinction who's ever had a depression named after him."[253] In 1958, Congress passed the Sobiq prezidentlar to'g'risidagi qonun, offering a $25,000 yearly pension (equivalent to $221,540 in 2019) to each former president.[254] Hoover took the pension even though he did not need the money, possibly to avoid embarrassing Truman, whose precarious financial status played a role in the law's enactment.[255] In the early 1960s, President Jon F. Kennedi offered Hoover various positions; Hoover declined the offers but defended Kennedy after the Cho'chqalar ko'rfazining bosqini and was personally distraught by Kennedining o'ldirilishi 1963 yilda.[256]

Hoover wrote several books during his retirement, including Vudro Vilsonning azoblari, in which he strongly defended Wilson's actions at the Paris Peace Conference.[257] In 1944, he began working on Ozodlikka xiyonat, which he often referred to as his "magnum opus "In Ozodlikka xiyonat, Hoover strongly critiques Roosevelt's foreign policy, especially Roosevelt's decision to recognize the Soviet Union in order to provide aid to that country during World War II.[258] The book was published in 2012 after being edited by historian Jorj H. Nash.[259]

O'lim

Hoover faced three major illnesses during the last two years of his life, including an August 1962 operation in which a growth on his large intestine was removed.[260][261] He died on October 20, 1964, in New York City following massive ichki qonash.[262]Though Hoover's last spoken words are unknown, his last known written words were a get well message to his friend Harry Truman, six days before his death, after he heard that Truman had sustained injuries from slipping in a bathroom: "Bathtubs are a menace to ex-presidents for as you may recall a bathtub rose up and fractured my vertebrae when I was in Venezuela on your world famine mission in 1946. My warmest sympathy and best wishes for your recovery."[263] Two months earlier, on August 10, Hoover reached the age of 90, only the second U.S. president (after Jon Adams ) shunday qilish. When asked how he felt on reaching the milestone, Hoover replied, "Too old."[261] At the time of his death, Hoover had been out of office for over 31 years (11,553 days all together). This was the longest retirement in presidential history until Jimmi Karter broke that record in September 2012.[264]

Hoover was honored with a davlat dafn marosimi unda u davlatda yotish ichida Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Capitol rotunda.[265] Then, on October 25, he was buried in West Branch, Iowa, near his prezident kutubxonasi and birthplace on the grounds of the Herbert Guver milliy tarixiy sayti. Afterwards, Hoover's wife, Lou Henry, who had been buried in Palo Alto, California, following her death in 1944, was re-interred beside him.[266]

Meros

Tarixiy obro'-e'tibor

Hoover was extremely unpopular when he left office after the 1932 election, and his historical reputation would not begin to recover until the 1970s. According to Professor David E. Hamilton, historians have credited Hoover for his genuine belief in voluntarism and cooperation, as well as the innovation of some of his programs. However, Hamilton also notes that Hoover was politically inept and failed to recognize the severity of the Great Depression.[267] Nikolas Lemann writes that Hoover has been remembered "as the man who was too rigidly conservative to react adeptly to the Depression, as the hapless foil to the great Franklin Roosevelt, and as the politician who managed to turn a Republican country into a Democratic one."[268] Polls of historians and political scientists have generally tartiblangan Hoover in the bottom third of presidents. 2018 yilgi so'rovnoma Amerika siyosiy fanlar assotsiatsiyasi 's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Hoover as the 36th best president.[269] 2017 yil C-oralig'i poll of historians also ranked Hoover as the 36th best president.[270]

Although Hoover is generally regarded as having had a failed presidency, he has also received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official.[268] Biographer Glen Jeansonne writes that Hoover was "one of the most extraordinary Americans of modern times," adding that Hoover "led a life that was a prototypical Horatio Alger story, except that Horatio Alger stories stop at the pinnacle of success."[271] Biographer Kenneth Whyte writes that, "the question of where Hoover belongs in the American political tradition remains a loaded one to this day. While he clearly played important roles in the development of both the progressive and conservative traditions, neither side will embrace him for fear of contamination with the other."[272]

Yodgorliklar

The Herbert Gover nomidagi Prezident kutubxonasi va muzeyi is located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Guver milliy tarixiy sayti. The library is one of thirteen presidential libraries run by the Milliy arxivlar va yozuvlar boshqarmasi. The Gover-Minthorn uyi, where Hoover lived from 1885 to 1891, is located in Nyuberg, Oregon. Uning Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he donated to the government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah milliy bog'i. The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, 1919 yilda qurilgan Stenford, Kaliforniya, is now the official residence of the president of Stanford University, and a Milliy tarixiy yo'nalish. Also located at Stanford is the Hoover Institution, a think tank and research institution started by Hoover.

Hoover has been memorialized in the names of several things, including the Hoover to'g'oni ustida Kolorado daryosi va juda ko'p boshlang'ich, o'rta va o'rta maktablar Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari bo'ylab. Two minor planets, 932 Hooveria[273] va 1363 yil Herberta, uning sharafiga nomlangan.[274] The Polish capital of Varshava has a square named after Hoover,[275] and the historic townsite of Gvaliya, G'arbiy Avstraliya contains the Hoover House Bed and Breakfast, where Hoover resided while managing and visiting the mine during the first decade of the twentieth century.[276] A tibbiyot to'pi sifatida tanilgan o'yin Goverbol is named for Hoover; it was invented by White House physician Admiral Joel T. Boone to help Hoover keep fit while serving as president.[277]

  • Hoover Presidential Library located in West Branch, Iowa

  • Blyashka Poznań honoring Hoover

  • Medal depicting Hoover, by Devreese Godefroi

Boshqa sharaflar

Hoover was inducted into the Milliy konchilik shon-sharaf zali in 1988 (inaugural class).[278] His wife was inducted into the hall in 1990.[279]

Hoover was inducted into the Australian Prospectors and Miners' Hall of Fame in the category Directors and Management.[280]

Hoover was awarded a faxriy doktorlik tomonidan Xelsinki universiteti 1938 yil mart oyida.[281] [282] The ceremonial sword is today on display in the lobby of the Hoover tower.

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ Hoover later became the first president born west of the Missisipi daryosi, and remains the only president born in Iowa.[1]
  2. ^ Hoover later claimed to be the first student at Stanford, by virtue of having been the first person in the first class to sleep in the dormitory.[18]

Adabiyotlar

Iqtiboslar

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Asarlar keltirilgan

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Asosiy maqola: Herbert Governing bibliografiyasi

Biografiyalar

  • Eng yaxshisi, Gari Din. Amerikalik individualizm siyosati: Gerbert Guver "O'tish davrida", 1918–1921 (1975)
  • Eng yaxshisi, Gari Din. Gerbert Guverning hayoti: mash'al saqlovchisi, 1933-1964. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013 yil.
  • Klements, Kendrik A. Gerbert Guverning hayoti: nomukammal Vizyoner, 1918–1928 (2010).
  • Edvards, Barri C. "Xaritada Guverni qo'yish: 31-Prezident ilg'or bo'lganmi?" Kongress va Prezidentlik 41 # 1 (2014) 49-83 betlar onlayn
  • Xetfild, Mark. tahrir. Gerbert Guver qayta baholagan (2002)
  • Hawley, Ellis (1989), Gerbert Guver va tarixchilar.
  • Jinsonne, Glen. Gerbert Guverning hayoti: Fighting Quaker, 1928–1933. Palgrave Macmillan; 2012 yil.
  • Lloyd, Kreyg. Agressiv introvert: Herbert Guvver va jamoatchilik bilan aloqalarni boshqarish bo'yicha tadqiqot, 1912–1932 (1973).
  • Nesh, Jorj H. Gerbert Governing hayoti: muhandis 1874–1914 (1983); chuqur ilmiy tadqiqotlar
    • —— (1988), Gumanitar, 1914–1917, Gerbert Gverning hayoti, 2.
    • —— (1996), Favqulodda vaziyatlar magistri, 1917–1918, Gerbert Gverning hayoti, 3.
  • Nesh, Li, ed. Gerbert Governi tushunish: o'nta istiqbol (1987); olimlarning insholari
  • Smit, Richard Norton. Noyob odam: Herbert Guverning g'alabasi, (1987), tarjimai holi 1932 yilga bag'ishlangan.
  • Uolch, Timo'tiy. tahrir. Noyob amerikaliklar: Gerbert va Lou Genri Guverning hayoti va merosi Praeger, 2003 yil.
  • G'arbiy, Hal Elliott. Gover, Baliq ovi bo'yicha prezident: Inson portreti va uning ochiq havoda hayoti (2005).

Ilmiy tadqiqotlar

  • Arnold, Peri E. "Ma'mur sifatida" buyuk muhandis ": Gerbert Guver va zamonaviy byurokratiya." Siyosat sharhi 42.3 (1980): 329–348. JSTOR  1406794.
  • Sartarosh, Uilyam J. Yangi davrdan yangi bitimga: Herbert Guver, iqtisodchilar va Amerika iqtisodiy siyosati, 1921-1933. (1985)
  • Klaus Bernet (2009). "Guver, Gerbert". Bautzda, Traugott (tahrir). Biografiya-Bibliografiya Kirxenlexikon (BBKL) (nemis tilida). 30. Nordxauzen: Bautz. cols. 644–653. ISBN  978-3-88309-478-6.
  • Brendlar, Jozef. Gerbert Gover va iqtisodiy diplomatiya: Savdo siyosati bo'limi, 1921-1928. (Pitsburg Press of U, 1970).
  • Britten, Tomas A. "Guver va hindular: Federal hind siyosatida davomiylik masalasi, 1900-1933" Tarixchi 1999 61(3): 518–538. ISSN  0018-2370.
  • Klements, Kendrik A. Guvver, konservatsiya va iste'mol: yaxshi hayotni muhandislik qilish. Kanzas universiteti matbuoti, 2000 yil
  • Dodge, Mark M., ed. Gerbert Guver va tarixchilar. (1989)
  • Fauzold Martin L. va Jorj Mazuzan, nashr. Guver prezidentligi: qayta baholash (1974)
  • Gudman, Mark va Mark Gring. "1927 yildagi radio akti: progressiv mafkura, epistemologiya va praksis". Ritorika va jamoatchilik bilan aloqalar 3.3 (2000): 397–418.
  • Xouli, Ellis. "Herbert Guver va tarixchilar - so'nggi o'zgarishlar: sharh insho" Ayova shtati yilnomalari 78 # 1 (2018) 75-86 betlar DOI
  • Xoli, Ellis. "Herbert Gover, Savdo Kotibiyati va" Assotsiativ davlat "haqidagi qarash, 1921-1928". Amerika tarixi jurnali, (1974 yil iyun) 61 # 1: 116-140.
  • Jansky Jr, C. M. "Herbert Governing eshittirishga qo'shgan hissasi". Teleradioeshittirish va elektron ommaviy axborot vositalari jurnali 1.3 (1957): 241–249.
  • Li, Devid D. "Herbert Guver va tijorat aviatsiyasining rivojlanishi, 1921–1926". Biznes tarixi sharhi 58.1 (1984): 78-102.
  • Lixtman, Allan J. Xurofot va eski siyosat: 1928 yildagi Prezident saylovi (1979)
  • Lisio, Donald J. Prezident va norozilik: Gover, Makartur va Bonus Riot, 2d ed. (1994)
  • Lisio, Donald J. Guver, qora tanlilar va Lily-oqlar: Janubiy strategiyalarni o'rganish (1985)
  • Parafianowicz, Halina. 'Herbert C. Gover va Polsha: 1919-1933. Afsona va haqiqat o'rtasida "
  • Polskiy, Endryu J. va Olesya Tkacheva. "Siyosatga qarshi meros: Gerbert Guver, partizanlar ziddiyati va 1920-yillarda assotsiatsiyalashuvning ramziy apellyatsiyasi". Xalqaro siyosat, madaniyat va jamiyat jurnali 16.2 (2002): 207–235. onlayn
  • Qisqa, Brant. "Prezidentlikdan keyingi ritorika: Gerbert Guverning Yangi Bitimga qarshi kampaniyasi, 1934-1936" Prezidentlik tadqiqotlari chorakda (1991) 21 # 2 333-350 betlar onlayn
  • Sibley, Ketrin A.S., ed. Uorren G. Xarding, Kalvin Kulidj va Gerbert Guverning hamrohi (2014); 616pp; tarixshunoslikni ta'kidlaydigan olimlarning insholari
  • Vueschner, Silvano A. Yigirmanchi asr pul-kredit siyosati: Gerbert Guver va Benjamin Strong, 1917-1927. Grinvud, 1999 yil

Birlamchi manbalar

  • Myers, Uilyam Starr; Uolter H. Nyuton, tahrir. (1936). Guvver ma'muriyati; hujjatlashtirilgan bayon.
  • Xolli, Ellis, tahrir. (1974-1977). Herbert Guver: Prezidentning ommaviy xabarlari, ma'ruzalari va bayonotlarini o'z ichiga oladi, 4 jild.
  • Gover, Gerbert Klark (1934), Ozodlikka da'vat.
  • —— (1938), Amerika yo'lidagi manzillar, 1933-1938.
  • —— (1941), 1940–41 yillarda Amerika yo'lidagi manzillar.
  • ——; va Gibson, Xyu (1942), Doimiy tinchlik muammolari.
  • —— (1949), 1945–48 yillarda Amerika yo'lidagi manzillar.
  • —— (1952a), Sarguzashtlar yillari, 1874-1920 (PDF), Xotiralar, 1-jild, Nyu-York, arxivlangan asl nusxasi (PDF) 2008 yil 17-dekabrda.
  • —— (1952b), Vazirlar Mahkamasi va Prezidentlik, 1920–1933 (PDF), Xotiralar, 2, Nyu-York, arxivlangan asl nusxasi (PDF) 2008 yil 17-dekabrda.
  • —— (1952c), Katta depressiya, 1929-1941 yillar (PDF), Xotiralar, 3, Nyu-York, arxivlangan asl nusxasi (PDF) 2008 yil 17-dekabrda.
  • Miller, Duayt M.; Uolch, Timoti, nashrlar. (1998), Herbert Guvver va Franklin D. Ruzvelt: Hujjatli tarix, Amerika tarixidagi hissalari, Westport, KT: Greenwood Press, ISBN  978-0-313-30608-2
  • Gover, Herbert Klark (2011), Nesh, Jorj H. (tahr.), Xiyonat qilingan erkinlik: Herbert Guvverning Ikkinchi Jahon urushi va uning oqibatlarining maxfiy tarixi, Stenford, Kaliforniya: Hoover Institution Press, ISBN  978-0-8179-1234-5.
  • Gover, Herbert Klark (2013), Nesh, Jorj H. (tahr.), Salib yurish yillari, 1933–1955: Herbert Guvverning yangi davri va uning oqibatlari to'g'risida yo'qolgan xotirasi., Stenford, Kaliforniya: Hoover Institution Press, ISBN  978-0-8179-1674-9.

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