Virjiniya tarixi - History of Virginia
| Virjiniya tarixi |
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 Virjiniya portali |
The Virjiniya tarixi 1500-yillarda, asosan, uni egallab olgan hududga etib kelgan birinchi ispan tadqiqotchilarining hujjatlari bilan boshlanadi Algonquian, Iroquoian va Siuan xalqlar. 1580-yillarda Virjiniyani mustamlaka qilishga qaratilgan inglizlarning muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishlaridan so'ng Uolter Rali[iqtibos kerak ], Virjiniyada doimiy ingliz mustamlakasi boshlandi Jeymstaun bilan, Virjiniya, 1607 yilda. The Virjiniya kompaniyasi koloniya Oltin qidirar edi, ammo muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi va mustamlakachilar zo'rg'a o'zlarini boqishdi. 1609 yilgi qattiq qish paytida ocharchilik mustamlakachilarni kiyimlari va etiklaridan charm yeyishga va murojaat qilishga majbur qildi odamxo'rlik.[1] Koloniya deyarli ishlamay qoldi tamaki foydali eksport sifatida paydo bo'ldi. U birinchi navbatda ishlatib, plantatsiyalarda o'stirildi indentured xizmatchilar jalb qilingan intensiv qo'l mehnati uchun. 1662 yildan keyin koloniya qora qullikni irsiy irqiy kastaga aylantirdi. 1750 yilga kelib, g'arbiy afrikaliklar naqd hosilni asosiy etishtiruvchilari edi qullar. Da plantatsiyalar tamakiga bo'lgan talab yuqori bo'lganligi sababli gullab-yashnagan, aksariyat oq ko'chmanchilar o'z oilalarini yordamchi fermalarda boqishgan. Bilan urush Virjiniya hindu 17-asrda xalqlar omil bo'lgan; 1700 yildan keyin Allegeniya sharqidagi mahalliy aholi bilan to'qnashuv davom etdi, ayniqsa Frantsiya va Hindiston urushi (1754-1763), qabilalar frantsuzlar bilan ittifoqlashgan paytda.[2] G'arbiy mintaqalar, jumladan, Dono va Vashington faqat vafot etganidan keyin xavfsiz bo'lishdi Bob Benge 1794 yilda.
The Virjiniya koloniyasi saylangan Bosh assambleya bilan Shimoliy Amerikadagi eng boy va aholisi eng ko'p bo'lgan Britaniyaning mustamlakasiga aylandi. Koloniyada boy plantatorlar hukmronlik qilar edilar, ular ham belgilanganlarni nazorat qilar edilar Anglikan cherkovi. Baptist va Metodist voizlar keltirdilar Ajoyib uyg'onish, qora tanli a'zolarni kutib olish va ko'plab evangelist va irqiy birlashtirilgan cherkovlarga etakchilik qilish. Virjiniya plantatorlari mustaqillikka erishishda va Qo'shma Shtatlarning demokratik-respublika g'oyalarini rivojlantirishda katta rol o'ynagan. Ular muhim edi Mustaqillik deklaratsiyasi, yozish Konstitutsiyaviy konventsiya (va qul savdosi uchun himoyani saqlab qolish) va Huquqlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi. Holati Kentukki 1792 yilda Virjiniyadan ajralib chiqqan. Dastlabki beshta prezidentning to'rttasi virginiyaliklar edi: Jorj Vashington, "o'z mamlakatining otasi"; va 1800 yildan so'ng, 24 yil davomida prezidentlarning "Virjiniya sulolasi": Tomas Jefferson, Jeyms Medison va Jeyms Monro.
19-asrning birinchi yarmida tamaki narxi pasayib, tamaki erlari unumdorligining katta qismini yo'qotdi. O'simlikshunoslar bug'doy va chorvachilikka katta ahamiyat berib, ozroq mehnat talab qiladigan aralash fermerlikni qabul qildilar. 1830 va 1850 yilgi Konstitutsiyalar saylov huquqini kengaytirdi, ammo shtat bo'ylab oq tanlilarning ulushini tenglashtirmadi. Aholisi 1790 yilda 700 mingdan 1830 yilda 1 millionga, 1860 yilda 1,2 million kishiga sekin o'sdi. Virjiniya eng yirik shtat bo'ldi. Amerika Konfederativ Shtatlari 1861 yilda. Bu urushning asosiy teatriga aylandi Amerika fuqarolar urushi. G'arbiy Virjiniyadagi ittifoqchilar alohida shtatni yaratdilar G'arbiy Virjiniya. Virjiniya iqtisodiyoti urushda vayron bo'lgan va uning faoliyati buzilgan Qayta qurish, Birinchi harbiy okrug sifatida boshqarilganda. Qayta tiklanishning dastlabki belgilari tamaki etishtirish va tegishli sigareta sanoatida, so'ngra ko'mir qazib olish va sanoatlashtirishni kuchayishi kuzatildi. 1883 yilda konservativ oq demokratlar shtat hukumatida qayta hokimiyatni qo'lga kiritib, qayta qurishni tugatdilar va amalga oshirdilar Jim Krou qonunlar. 1902 yil Konstitutsiyasi oq tanli saylovchilar sonini 19-asr darajasidan past va samarali ravishda cheklab qo'ydi huquqsiz federallarga qadar qora tanlilar inson huquqlari 1960 yillarning o'rtalaridagi qonunchilik.
1920 yildan 1960 yilgacha davlatda Bird tashkiloti, Demokratik partiya mashinasida birlashtirilgan qishloq okruglarining ustunligi bilan, ammo ularning muvaffaqiyatsizligi tufayli ularning tutilishi buzildi Katta qarshilik maktab integratsiyasiga. Ikkinchi Jahon urushidan so'ng, davlat iqtisodiyoti rivojlanib, yangi sanoat va shahar bazasiga ega bo'ldi. Shtat bo'ylab jamoat kollejlari tizimi ishlab chiqildi. O'shandan beri AQShning birinchi afroamerikalik gubernatori Qayta qurish Virjiniyaniki edi Duglas Uaylder 1990 yilda. 20-asrning oxiridan boshlab zamonaviy iqtisodiyot yuqori texnologiyali sanoat va mudofaa bilan bog'liq korxonalarda tobora diversifikatsiya qilinmoqda. Virjiniya shtatidagi o'zgaruvchan demografiya milliy saylovlarda bir-biridan ajratilgan ovoz berishga olib keladi, ammo bu shtat siyosatida umuman konservativ hisoblanadi.
Tarix
Inglizlar kelguniga qadar ming yillar davomida turli jamiyatlar mahalliy xalqlar keyinchalik yangi dunyoning inglizlar tomonidan "" deb belgilangan qismida yashagan.Virjiniya". Arxeologik tomonidan tarixiy tadqiqotlar antropolog Helen C. Rountree va boshqalar ko'pchilik joylarda 3000 yillik yashash joyini o'rnatdilar Toza suv. Shunga qaramay, 2015 yilda bag'ishlangan tarixiy belgida so'nggi arxeologik ishlar Pokaxontas oroli Miloddan avvalgi 6500 yillarga oid tarixgacha yashaydigan joyni aniqladi.[3]
Mahalliy amerikaliklar
XVI asrdan boshlab hozirgi Virjiniya shtati uchta asosiy madaniyat guruhlari tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan: Iroquoian, Sharqiy Siouan va Algonquian. Hind daryosidan janubdagi Delmarva yarim orolining uchi Algonquian tomonidan nazorat qilingan Nanticoke. Ayni paytda, Chesapeake Bay sohil bo'yidagi Tidewater mintaqasi Algonquian tomonidan nazorat qilingan ko'rinadi Piscataway (Potomak daryosi atrofida yashagan), Powhatan va Chovanoke, yoki Roanoke (Jeyms daryosi va Neus daryosi o'rtasida yashagan.). Ularning ichki qismida ikkita deb nomlanuvchi Iroquoian qabilalari bo'lgan Nottoway, yoki Managog va Meherrin. Virjiniyaning qolgan qismi deyarli butunlay Sharqiy Syu edi, o'rtasida bo'lingan Monaghan G'arbiy Virjiniya shtatidan janubiy Virjiniya orqali Merilend chegarasigacha (Shenandoah daryosi vodiysi hududi boshqa odamlar tomonidan boshqarilgan) erlarni egallab olgan Manahoak. Shuningdek, Missisipiya madaniyati bilan bog'langan erlar shtatga uning janubi-g'arbiy burchagiga zo'rg'a o'tgan bo'lishi mumkin. Keyinchalik bu qabilalar birlashib Yuchi.[5][6]
- Algonquian
Rountree ta'kidlaganidek, "imperiya" Povatanning siyosiy tuzilishini aniqroq tavsiflaydi. 16-asr oxiri va 17-asr boshlarida boshliq nom olgan Vaxunsunakok hududlari hozirgi sharqiy Virjiniya hududining ko'p qismini qamrab olgan o'ttizta qabilani zabt etish yoki ularga qo'shilish orqali ushbu qudratli imperiyani yaratdi. Nomi bilan tanilgan Powhatan, yoki birinchi darajali boshliq, u bu hududni chaqirdi Tenakomaka ("zich yashaydigan er").[7] Imperiya vaqti-vaqti bilan Monakan kabi boshqa guruhlar tomonidan tahdid ostida bo'lgan ba'zi qabilalar uchun foydalidir. Aytilishicha, birinchi ingliz mustamlakasi - Jeymstaunni bosh pauhatan o'z aholisining g'arbidagi siyuanliklar ustidan yangi harbiy va iqtisodiy afzalliklarni istaganligi sababli joylashtirishga ruxsat bergan. Quyidagi bosh Opechancanough, aloqada bo'lganidan keyin faqat ikki yil ichida uning o'rnini egalladi va inglizlarga nisbatan boshqacha qarashga ega edi. U bir nechta muvaffaqiyatsiz qo'zg'olonlarni boshqargan, bu esa uning xalqini sindirishiga olib kelgan, ba'zi qabilalar janubga borib, Chovanoke orasida yoki shimolda Piscataway orasida yashashgan. Shundan so'ng, uning o'g'illaridan biri bir nechta Povatanni olib, shimoli-g'arbiy tomonga ko'chib o'tdi Shouni va avvalgisini egallab oldi Susquehannock hududlar.[8] 17-asr davomida Merilend va Pensilvaniya shtatlarida yozib olingan, ular oxir-oqibat Ogayo daryosi vodiysiga yo'l olishdi, u erda ular boshqa mahalliy xalqlar bilan birlashib, hozirgi hududni boshqaradigan kuchli konfederatsiyani tashkil etishdi. G'arbiy Virjiniya Shawne urushlari (1811-1813).[9] Faqat 1646 yilga kelib, juda oz sonli Povatanlar qoldi va inglizlar tomonidan qattiq politsiya qilindi, endi o'zlarining rahbarlarini tanlashlariga ham ruxsat berilmadi. Ular uyushgan Pamunkey va Mattaponi qabilalar.[10] Oxir oqibat ular butunlay tarqalib, mustamlaka jamiyatiga qo'shilishdi.
Piscataway o'z tarixining boshida Potomac daryosidan shimolga surilib, qolgan xalqidan ajralib qolish uchun keldi. Ba'zilar qolganida, boshqalari g'arbiy ko'chishni tanladilar. Ularning harakatlari odatda tarixiy yozuvlarda qayd etilmagan, ammo ular 18-asrning oxiriga kelib zamonaviy Michigan shtatidagi Detroyt Fortida yana paydo bo'lishdi. Ushbu Piscatawaylar Kanadaga ko'chib o'tgan va, ehtimol Anishinaabegdan ajralib, o'sha mintaqaga janubi-sharqda ko'chib o'tgan Missisugas bilan birlashgan. Shunga qaramay, ko'plab Piscataway Virjiniya va Merilendda hozirgi kungacha qolishdi. Piscatawayning boshqa a'zolari ham Nanticoke bilan birlashdilar.
Nanticoke asosan hind shaharlari bilan cheklangan edi,[11] Ammo keyinchalik 1778 yilda Nyu-Yorkka ko'chirilgan. Keyinchalik ular Iroquois va Lenape guruhlariga qo'shilib, tarqatib yuborishdi.[12]
Chovanoke 1677 yilda inglizlar tomonidan qo'riqxonalarga ko'chirilib, ular 19-asrgacha bo'lgan. 1821 yilga kelib, ular boshqa qabilalar bilan birlashdilar va umuman tarqatib yuborildilar, ammo bu xalqlarning avlodlari 21-asrda islohot o'tkazdilar va 2014 yilda o'zlarining eski rezervlarini qayta sotib oldilar.
- Sharqiy Siouan
Siouaning aksariyat davlatlari dastlab o'zlarining noma'lumligi bo'lgan kichik qabilalarning to'plami bo'lgan ko'rinadi. XVII asrda yozilgan ismlar Monaxassano, Rassavek, Moxemenxo, Monassukapano, Massinakak, Akenatsi, Maok, Nuntaneak, Nutaly, Naxissan, Sapon, Monakin, Toteros, Keyauvez, Shakori, Eno, Sissipaxav, Monetonlar va Mohetonlar yashagan va ko'chib yurgan narsalar edi. hozir G'arbiy Virjiniya, Virjiniya, Shimoliy Karolina va Janubiy Karolina.[13][14][15][16][17] Ularning barchasi kamida ikkita alohida tilda gaplashishgan - Saponi (bu Chivere va Dhegixan variantlari o'rtasida mavjud bo'lgan yo'qolgan bog'lanish tili kabi ko'rinadi) va Katavba (bu Biloxi va Fors ko'rfazi sohilidagi Siuan tillari bilan chambarchas bog'liq).[18][19][20] Jon Smit Virjiniya interyeridagi ikkita guruhni - Monaganlar va Monaxolarni birinchi bo'lib qayd etdi. So'zlar Povatandan chiqqan[21] va tarjimalari noaniq, ammo Monaghan Lenape so'ziga o'xshash ko'rinadi, Monakuen, bu "bosh terisiga" degan ma'noni anglatadi.[22] Ularni odatda Sharqiy qora oyoqlar deb atashgan, bu bugungi kunda ba'zi Saponi nima uchun siyuan-qora oyoq odamlari deb aniqlashini tushuntiradi,[13][23] keyinroq esa xristianlar sifatida.
Ammo taxmin qilish mumkin bo'lsa-da, ular xuddi shunday joylashtirilganga o'xshaydi - sharqdan g'arbiy tomonga, Jeyms daryosining shimoliy qirg'og'i bo'ylab, xuddi Poxatanning ichki qismida joylashgan bo'lishi mumkin edi. Eno, Shakori va Saponi. Daryoning manbai atrofida (va ehtimol daryoning ba'zi orollarini sharqqa qarab ushlab turadigan yo'llar) bo'lishi kerak edi Occaneechi yoki Akenatsi. Ular mintaqaning "bobosi" qabilasi, deb ishonishgan, bu mahalliy xalqlar orasida har xil qabila uchun juda qadrlangan va o'zlarining birinchi yoki eng keksa odamlari sifatida hurmatga sazovor bo'lgan qabilalar uchun atama. Occaneechi g'arbiy qismida va birinchi navbatda hozirgi G'arbiy Virjiniya hududida joylashgan, hech bo'lmaganda qarindosh deb hisoblangan yana ikki qabilalar - Moneton Kanawha daryosi va G'arbiy Virjiniyani Kentukki bilan ajratib turadigan Blyueston daryosining Tutelo. Jeyms daryosining janubiy qirg'oqlari bo'ylab o'rtada bo'lishi kerak edi Sissipahav. Ular, ehtimol, shtatdagi Saponi / Tutelo emas, Katawba tilida gaplashadigan yagona Sharqiy Siyuan qabilasi bo'lgan. Ularning shimolida edi Manahoac yoki Mahock. Keyauwee ham e'tiborga loyiqdir. Ular eslatib o'tilgan boshqalarning, yangi tashkil etilgan qabilaning subtribi yoki boshqa bir joydanmi, buni aytish qiyin.
Dastlab Virjiniyaning hozirgi g'arbiy chegarasi bo'ylab va G'arbiy Virjiniya va Kentukki janubi-g'arbiy tog'lari bo'ylab mavjud bo'lib, ular birinchi bo'lib Beaver urushlari paytida Iroquoian Westo tomonidan sharqqa haydalgan.[24][25] O'shandan beri tarixchilar ta'kidlashlaricha, Westo deyarli 1630-yillarda shimoliy va sharqiy Ogayo shtatining keng qismini egallab olgan Eri va Neytrallar / Chonnonton edi va keyinchalik 1650 yillarda Iroquois Konfederatsiyasi tomonidan zabt etilgan va haydab chiqarilgan. G'arbiy Virjiniya Tutelo birinchi bo'lib Saponi shimolida, shimoliy Virjiniyada 1670 yilda yashagan deb qayd etilgan.[26] Keyinchalik Qunduz urushlarida Iroquoalar Ogayo va Michigan shtatlaridagi yangi erlarini frantsuzlarga va g'arbiy Buyuk ko'llar atrofidagi yangi mahalliy ittifoqchilariga boy berishdi. 1680-90-yillarda,[27] Iroquois janubga surila boshladi va Saponi bilan bog'liq qabilalarga qarshi urush e'lon qildi va ularni Shimoliy Karolinaga tushirdi. 1701 yilda Saponi, Tutelo, Occaneechi, Shakori va Keyauwee o'z vatanlarini qaytarib olish uchun konfederatsiya tuzmoqchi bo'lganligi qayd etilgan. Yozuvchi beshta qabilaning hammasi janubga haydalgan deb taxmin qilmoqda, ammo tuteloslar "g'arbiy tog'lar" dan ittifoqchilar sifatida qayd etilgan.[28] Aynan o'sha yil Iroquois frantsuzlarga taslim bo'lgan, ammo Saponi bilan jangovar harakatlar uzoq vaqt davom etgan ko'rinadi. Iroquois tez orada inglizlar tomonidan ushlab turilishi deyarli imkonsiz bo'lgan barcha kengaytirilgan erlarni sotishni boshlashlariga ishonishdi. Ular Pensilvaniya shtatidagi Susquahanna daryosi bo'ylab bir qator hududlarni saqlab qolishdi.
Saponi o'z erlariga qaytishga urindi, ammo bunga qodir emasdi. 1702 yil atrofida Virjiniya koloniyasining gubernatori ularga rezervasyon uchun joy ajratib, yaqinida Xrististan Fortini ochdi. Katovalar orasida qolgan Keyauvidan tashqari barcha qabilalar qaytgan ko'rinadi. Ular o'sha paytda Xrististan xalqi sifatida tanilgan. Ushbu qal'a mahalliy aholiga iqtisodiy va ta'limiy yordam ko'rsatdi, ammo 1718 yilda qal'a yopilgandan keyin Saponi tarqalib ketdi. Mintaqadagi Saponi va Iroquios o'rtasidagi ziddiyatlar davom etar ekan, Virjiniya, Pensilvaniya va Nyu-York gubernatorlari tinchlik shartnomasini tuzishga qo'shildilar va bu oxir-oqibat mojaroni tugatdi. 1722 yillarga kelib Tutelo va boshqa bir qator Saponislar Iroquoian nazorati ostidagi Pensilvaniya hududiga ko'chib o'tdilar va u erda vayron qilingan, mustamlaka jamiyatiga singib ketgan yoki shunchaki ularsiz ko'chib o'tgan mahalliy qabilalarning boshqa ko'plab qochoqlari orasida joylashdilar.[29][30] 1753 yilda Iroquois ularning barchasini Tutelo, Delaver va Nanticoke qabilalari sifatida qayta tashkil qildi, Nyu-Yorkka ko'chirdi va Konfederatsiya tarkibida hech kim Iroquoian bo'lishiga qaramay ularga to'liq hurmat ko'rsatdi.[31] Amerika inqilobidan so'ng, bu qabilalar Kanadaga hamroh bo'lishdi. Keyinchalik, Tutelos avlodlari Ogayo shtatining Saponi va Tutelo qabilalariga aylanib, yana Ogayo shtatiga ko'chib ketishdi. Virjiniya shtatining boshqa ko'plab siuan xalqlari ham Katawba va Yamasee qabilalari bilan birlashgani qayd etilgan.[32]
- Iroquoian
Virjiniyada asosan qayd etilgan bo'lsa-da, Tuscarora 17-asrning boshlarida Delmarva yarim orolidan mintaqaga ko'chib kelgan. Jon Smit ularni erta xaritada Kuskarawocks deb qayd etgan.[33] (Ular xaritada ham ko'rinadigan va ehtimol Iroquoian bo'lgan tokvoglarni o'zlariga singdirgan bo'lishi mumkin.) Inglizlar bilan uzoq muddatli urushdan so'ng Tuskarora Nyu-Yorkka jo'nay boshladi va Iroquois bilan 1720 atrofida guruhlarga qo'shila boshladi va taxminan davom etdi. Amerika inqilobidan keyin irokoliklar Kanadaga surgun qilinmaguncha.[34] Qolganlar yangi qabilaga aylandilar Kohari - va Meherrin yaqinida yashash uchun janubga ko'chib ketishdi.[35]
Meherrin o'sha urushda Tuskaroraga yordam bergan, ammo shimolga ergashmagan. 1717 yilda inglizlar ularga Shimoliy Karolina chegarasidan janubda bron qilishdi. Shimoliy Karolina hukumati yerga bo'lgan huquqlariga qarshi chiqdi va surveyerning xatosi tufayli mahalliy va ingliz ko'chmanchilarning rezervasyonning ba'zi qismlarini talab qilishlariga sabab bo'lganligi sababli ularni olib qo'yishga harakat qildi. Biroq, ular ozmi-ko'pmi, zamonaviy kunga yaxshi munosabatda bo'lishdi. Nottouey, shuningdek, Virjiniya atrofida zamonaviy kungacha ko'p mojarolar va meros yo'qotishsiz qolishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.
Qunduz urushlari asosan Ogayo shtatida joylashgan bo'lsa-da, Nyu-Yorkdagi Iroquois Konfederatsiyasi, shuningdek, Merilendning ingliz mustamlakasi singari, Pensilvaniya markazidagi Susquehannocks bilan uzoq muddatli to'qnashuvda edi, garchi ikkalasi ham o'zlarining ittifoqchilari ekanliklari ma'lum emas edi. 1650 yoki 1660 yillarda, Merilend Susquehannocks bilan tinchlik o'rnatdi va ittifoqdosh bo'ldi, shuning uchun Iroquois, bu vaqtgacha Angliya bilan ittifoqdosh bo'lishiga qaramay, ularni dushman deb ham nomladi. 1674 yilda Susquehannocks bilan urushni tugatgandan so'ng, Iroquois Merilend va uning qolgan mahalliy ittifoqchilariga qarshi Piscatawaylar va Sharqiy Siouan qabilalarini o'z ichiga olgan ozgina tushunarsiz g'azabga kirishdi. 1680-yillarda Sharqiy Siyuanlar shtatdan chiqib ketishga majbur bo'ldilar. 1701 yilda Qunduz urushlari rasmiy ravishda tugaganidan so'ng, Iroquois kengaytirilgan mulklarini, shu jumladan Virjiniyadagi yerlarini inglizlarga sotdi.[26]
17-asrning o'rtalarida, taxminan 1655-6 yillarda Iroquoian guruhi Vesto Virjiniyani bosib oldi. Ko'plab nazariyalar ularning kelib chiqishi haqida juda ko'p bo'lsa-da, ular oxirgisi bo'lgan ko'rinadi Archa va Chonnontons Qunduz urushlari boshlanishida Ogayo shtatiga bostirib kirgan.[36] The Vesto G'arbiy Virjiniya janubiga bostirib kirganga o'xshaydi, so'ngra Karolinaning kichik siuan qabilalariga o'tish uchun to'g'ridan-to'g'ri janubga harakat qildi. 1680-yillarda ularni Savanno deb nomlangan qabila boshchiligidagi mahalliy jangchilar koalitsiyasi yo'q qildi.[37] Shuningdek, Cherokee'dan 1660-yillarda (Shestoning istilosidan keyin, ammo mag'lub bo'lishidan oldin) bir guruh "Shoni" ular orasida yashab, keyinchalik G'arbiy Virjiniya janubiga ko'chib o'tganligi haqida eslatma bor.
- Eslatma boshqa qabilalari
Birinchi ispan va ingliz sayohatchilari Cherokee hajmini juda yuqori baholab, ularni Virjiniya shimoligacha joylashtirgan ko'rinadi. Biroq, hozirgi kunda ko'plab tarixchilar mintaqada "deb nomlangan katta, aralash irq / aralash til konfederatsiyasi bo'lgan" deb hisoblashadi Coosa. XVI asrda ispaniyaliklar ularga Chalaques va Uchis taxalluslarini berishgan va inglizlar Chalaques-ni xeroklarga aylantirishgan.[38] Bugungi kunda biz biladigan xeroklar bu odamlar qatoriga kirgan, ammo ancha janubda yashaganlar va ikkala cheroki tili (kelib chiqishi Iroquoian) ham, yuchi tili (muskogean) ham siyuan ta'sirida jiddiy ravishda o'zgartirilgan va ko'plab siuanlik qarz so'zlarini o'z ichiga olgan.[39][40] Ushbu millat Virjiniya, Kentukki, Tennesi, Shimoliy va Janubiy Karolina va Jorjiya shtatlarining barcha hududlarida mavjud bo'lib, hududning turli chekkalarida uyushtirilgan turli madaniyat guruhlarining yadrolari bilan va ehtimol Yuchi tilida umumiy til sifatida gaplashar edi.
Westo to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ular orasidan musht tushirgandan so'ng, ular Tennesi daryosi bo'ylab bo'linishni yaratish uchun bo'linganga o'xshaydi Cherokee janubga va Yuchi shimolga.[41] Keyinchalik, Yamey urushidan so'ng (1715-1717), Yuchilar Appalachiya bo'ylab kuch ishlatdilar[42] va yana Coyaha va Chiska. Frantsuzlar yangi ittifoqchilar uchun imkoniyatni ko'rib, Chiska bilan g'azablandilar va ularni Algonquian orasida yashash uchun Illinoys koloniyasining markaziga ko'chirishdi. Ilinoweg. Keyinchalik, Ogayo daryosi bo'ylab frantsuzlarning ta'siri susayganligi sababli, qabilalar yana Ilinoweg qabilalarini olib, yana ajralib ketdilar va Kentukki shahriga qaytib ketishdi. Kispoko. Keyinchalik Kispoko Shinning to'rtinchi qabilasiga aylandi.[43]
Shu bilan birga, Koyaxa Cherokee bilan ittifoqni qayta tikladi va Alabamaning ko'plab muskoge qabilalarini (ko'pincha Mobilianlar deb nomlangan) olib keldi. Krik konfederatsiyasi. Ushbu qabila qolgan mustamlakachilik davri va Qo'shma Shtatlarning dastlabki tarixiga katta tarixiy ta'sir ko'rsatgan bo'lsa-da, ular Virjiniyaga qaytib kelishmagan.[44]
Bundan tashqari, xuddi Sawannos singari, ko'plab guruhlar asosiy guruhdan ajralib, G'arbiy Virjiniya va Kentukki kabi joylarga ko'chib ketganga o'xshaydi. Keyinchalik, bu erlar "Cherokee" ajdodlarini da'vo qilgan mahalliy xalqlar bilan to'ldirilganga o'xshaydi, ammo hech qanday uyushgan qabilaviy aloqaga ega emas edi. Ushbu odamlarning avlodlari bugungi kunda G'arbiy Virjiniya, Pensilvaniya, Kentukki va Ogayo shtatlarida yashaydilar. Biroq, bu populyatsiyalar tirik qolgan Monongahela va boshqa siuan guruhlariga uylangan bo'lishi ehtimoldan yiroq emas, ammo aholi ikkala tomondan ham juda oz bo'lgan bo'lishi kerak, chunki bu xalqlar hech qachon hukumatni isloh qilmasliklari va keyinchalik ko'p vaqt davomida ko'chmanchi bo'lib qolishlari mumkin edi.
Dastlabki Evropa tadqiqotlari
 | Ushbu bo'lim uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. (2016 yil fevral) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) |
XV asrda Yangi Dunyo kashf etilgandan so'ng, Evropa davlatlari Yangi Dunyo mustamlakalarini yaratishga harakat qila boshladilar. Angliya, Gollandiya Respublikasi, Frantsiya, Portugaliya va Ispaniya eng faol bo'lganlar.
Ispaniya
1540 yilda yuborilgan ikkita ispaniyalik Xuan de Villalobos va Fransisko de Silvera boshchiligidagi partiya Ernando de Soto, hozir nima bo'lganini kiriting Li okrugi oltin qidirishda.[45] 1567 yil bahorida Ispaniyalik kashfiyotchi serjanti Ernando Moyano de Morales Xuan Pardo, bir guruh askarlarni shimol tomonga olib bordi San-Xuan Fort yilda Joara, Shimoliy Karolinaning g'arbiy qismida joylashgan mahalliy shahar, hujum qilish va yo'q qilish uchun Chiska qishloq Maniatique hozirgi kunga yaqin Saltvil.[46] Saltvill yaqinidagi hujum Virjiniya tarixidagi birinchi qayd qilingan jang bo'ldi.[47]
Ispaniyaning boshqa bir partiyasi, sardori Antonio Velazkes karaval Santa-Katalina, pastki qismiga qadar o'rganilgan Chesapeake Bay buyrug'i bilan 1561 yil o'rtalarida Virjiniya viloyati Angel de Villafañe.[48][49] Ushbu sayohat paytida, ikkitasi Kiskiack yoki Paspaheg[50] yoshlar, shu jumladan Don Luis Ispaniyaga qaytarib olib ketilgan.[48] 1566 yilda ekspeditsiya yuborilgan Ispaniyaning Florida shtati tomonidan Pedro Menédez de Avilés ga yetdi Delmarva yarim oroli. Ekspeditsiya ikkitadan iborat edi Dominikan fir'avnlar, o'ttiz nafar askarlar va Don Luis, Chepesiyadagi Ispaniya mustamlakasini barpo etish uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz harakat qilib, buni afsonalar uchun ochilish deb hisobladilar. Shimoli-g'arbiy o'tish yo'li.[51][52]
1570 yilda Ispaniya Iezuitlar tashkil etdi Ajaxan missiyasi pastki yarim orolda. Biroq, 1571 yilda Don Luis va uning mahalliy ittifoqchilari partiyasi tomonidan vayron qilingan.[53] 1572 yil avgustda Pedro Menes de Aviles keldi Avgustin Iezuitlarni qirg'in qilish uchun qasos olish uchun o'ttiz askar va dengizchilar bilan birga, taxminan 20 mahalliy aholini osib qo'yishdi.[52] 1573 yilda Ispaniyaning Florida gubernatori, Pedro Menédez de Markes, Chesapeake-da keyingi tadqiqotlar o'tkazildi.[54] 1580-yillarda kapitan Visente Gonsales ushbu hududda inglizlarning turar-joylarini qidirish uchun Chesapeake-ga bir nechta sayohatlarni olib bordi.[55] 1609 yilda Ispaniyaning Florida gubernatori Pedro de Ibarra Francisco Fernández de Ecija yubordi Avgustin Jeymstaun kolonistlari faoliyatini o'rganish uchun, ammo Ispaniya Ajakan missiyasi muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchraganidan keyin hech qachon mustamlaka bo'lishga intilmagan.[55]
Ingliz tili
The Roanoke koloniyasi birinchi bo'ldi Ingliz mustamlakasi Yangi dunyoda. U tashkil etilgan Roanoke oroli o'sha paytda Virjiniya bo'lgan, hozirgi qismi Dare okrugi, Shimoliy Karolina. 1584-1587 yillarda Sir homiyligida ikkita yirik ko'chmanchilar guruhi mavjud edi Uolter Rali Roanoke orolida doimiy aholi punktini o'rnatishga urinib ko'rgan va har biri muvaffaqiyatsiz tugagan. Ispaniya bilan urush tufayli Angliyadan etkazib berish uch yilga kechiktirilgandan so'ng yakuniy guruh butunlay g'oyib bo'ldi. Ular g'oyib bo'lganligi sababli, ularni "Yo'qotilgan koloniya" deb atashgan.
Virjiniya nomi Raleigh homiyligida inglizlarning hozirgi Shimoliy Karolina qirg'og'i bo'ylab olib borilgan tadqiqotlari tomonidan to'plangan ma'lumotlardan kelib chiqqan. Filipp Amadas va Artur Barlouning ma'lum qilishicha, mintaqaviy "qirol" nomi berilgan Vingina bir erni boshqargan Wingandacoa. Qirolicha Yelizaveta ismini "Virjiniya" deb o'zgartirdi, ehtimol qisman uning "Bokira malikasi" maqomini qayd etdi. So'z bo'lsa ham latin, bu Qo'shma Shtatlardagi eng qadimgi ingliz tilidagi joy nomi.[56]
Ikkinchi safarda Rali buni bilib oldi, boshliq esa Sekotanlar haqiqatan ham chaqirilgan Vingina, ifoda qanotli, kelganida inglizlar tomonidan eshitilgan, aslida "Siz yaxshi kiyim kiyasiz" degan ma'noni anglatadi Karolina Algonquian, va ilgari noto'g'ri tushunilganidek, mamlakatning asl nomi emas edi.[57][sahifa kerak ]
Londonning Virjiniya kompaniyasi
Qirolicha Yelizaveta I vafotidan so'ng, 1603 yilda qirol Jeyms I Angliya taxtini egalladi. Ko'p yillik urushdan so'ng, Angliya mablag 'uchun kurashga majbur bo'ldi, shuning uchun u Angliyaning Yangi Dunyo mustamlakasi uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga oldi Virjiniya kompaniyasi sifatida kiritilgan bo'lib aksiyadorlik jamiyati 1606 yilda tuzilgan mulkiy nizom asosida. Virjiniya kompaniyasining raqobatchi ikkita filiali bor edi va ularning har biri Virjiniyada oltindan foydalanish uchun (shu hududda mavjud bo'lmagan) ingliz tilini qo'llab-quvvatlash bazasini yaratish uchun mustamlaka yaratishga umid qilishdi. Ispaniyaning katolikligi bilan raqobatlashib, Ispaniyaning kemalariga qarshi xususiylashtirish va protestantizmni Yangi dunyoga tarqatish. Virjiniya kompaniyasi ichida Plimut kompaniyasi filialga Virjiniya deb nomlanuvchi hududning shimoliy qismi berilgan va London kompaniyasi janubdagi maydon.
Jeymstaun
Birinchi qo'nish
1606 yil dekabrda London kompaniyasi uchta kemada 104 kishidan iborat kolonistlar guruhini yubordi Syuzan Konstant, Godspeed va Kashfiyot, kapitan buyrug'i bilan Kristofer Nyuport. 144 kunlik uzoq va qo'pol sayohatdan so'ng, mustamlakachilar Virjiniyaga 1607 yil 26 aprelda kirish eshigiga etib kelishdi. Chesapeake Bay. Da Genri burni, ular qirg'oqqa chiqib, xochni o'rnatdilar va ozgina tadqiq qildilar, bu voqea "Birinchi qo'nish" deb nomlandi.
Londondan Ispaniyaning reydlaridan xavfsizroq joy qidirishni buyurgan buyrug'i bilan ular ushbu hududni o'rganishdi Xempton yo'llari maydon va yangi suvga cho'mgan suzib ketdi Jeyms daryosi uchun Kuz chizig'i keyinchalik qaysi shaharlarga aylanadi Richmond va "Manchester".
Hisob-kitob
Bir necha hafta davom etgan izlanishlardan so'ng kolonistlar joyni tanlab, unga asos soldilar Jeymstaun 1607 yil 14 mayda. Qirol Jeyms I sharafiga shunday nomlangan (daryo kabi). Biroq, manzil Jeymstaun oroli chet el kemalariga qarshi mudofaa uchun qulay bo'lgan, past va botqoq erlar qattiq va kelishuv uchun qulay bo'lmagan. Unga ichimlik suvi, ov qilish uchun ovdan foydalanish imkoniyati yoki dehqonchilik uchun juda ko'p joy etishmadi. Bu erda tub amerikaliklar yashamasligi ma'qul ko'ringan bo'lsa-da, qisqa vaqt ichida kolonistlarga mahalliy a'zolar hujum qilishdi. Paspaheg qabila.
Mustamlakachilar o'zlarini ta'minlash uchun yomon tayyorgarlik bilan kelishdi. Ular mahalliy amerikaliklar bilan oziq-ovqat uchun savdo qilishni rejalashtirgan, Angliyadan vaqti-vaqti bilan etkazib berishga bog'liq bo'lgan va ba'zi vaqtlarini oltin izlashga sarflashni rejalashtirgan. Chiqish Kashfiyot ulardan foydalanish uchun orqada, kapitan Nyuport Angliyaga qaytib keldi Syuzan Konstant va Godspeedva 1608 yil davomida birinchi etkazib berish va ikkinchi etkazib berish vazifalari bilan ikki marta qaytib keldi. Mahalliy amerikaliklar bilan savdo-sotiq va munosabatlar eng yaxshi darajada sust edi va ko'plab mustamlakachilar kasallik, ochlik va mahalliy aholi bilan to'qnashuvlardan vafot etdi. Bir nechta muvaffaqiyatsiz rahbarlardan so'ng, kapitan Jon Smit aholi punktini boshqarishni o'z zimmasiga oldi va ko'pchilik uni koloniyani birinchi yillarida qo'llab-quvvatlagan deb e'tirof etishdi, chunki u oziq-ovqat savdosi va tushkunlikka tushgan mustamlakachilarga rahbarlik qilishda bir oz muvaffaqiyatga erishdi.
1609 yil avgustda Smit Angliyaga qaytib kelganidan so'ng, ta'minotning rejalashtirilgan kelishida uzoq kechikish yuz berdi. 1609/10 qish paytida va bahorda va yozning boshlarida davom etadigan boshqa kemalar kelmadi. Mustamlakachilar, deb nomlangan narsalarga duch kelishdi "och vaqt". Qachon yangi gubernator janob Tomas Geyts, nihoyat 1610 yil 23-mayda Jeymstaunga, halokat halokatidan omon qolgan boshqa odamlar bilan birga keldi Dengiz korxonasi natijada Bermuda Virjiniya hududiga qo'shilib, u 500 ta mustamlakachining 80% dan ko'pini vafot etganligini aniqladi; omon qolganlarning ko'plari kasal edi.
Angliyaga qaytib, Virjiniya kompaniyasi 1609 yil 23-mayda tasdiqlangan Ikkinchi Xartiyasiga binoan qayta tashkil etildi, bu koloniyaning etakchilik vakolatlarini yangi tayinlangan gubernatorga berdi. Tomas Uest, 3-baron De La Warr. 1610 yil iyun oyida u 150 kishi va mo'l-ko'l ta'minot bilan keldi. De La Warr boshladi Birinchi Angliya-Poxatan urushi, mahalliylarga qarshi. Uning rahbarligi ostida Samuel Argall o'g'irlab ketilgan Pokahontas, Powhatan boshlig'ining qizi va uni ushlab turdi Henrikus.
Koloniya iqtisodiyoti yana bir muammo edi. Oltin hech qachon topilmagan edi va koloniyada daromadli sohalarni joriy etish bo'yicha harakatlar oxirigacha muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi Jon Rolf o'zining ikkita chet el tamaki turi bilan tanishtirdi: Orinoco va Sweet Scents. Ular mahalliy navlarga qaraganda yaxshiroq hosil etishtirishdi va 1612 yilda Angliyaga birinchi jo'natilishi bilan xaridorlar lazzatlanishdan zavqlanishdi va shu bilan tamaki Virjiniyaning iqtisodiy samaradorligini ta'minlaydigan naqd pulga aylandi.
Birinchi Angliya-Poxatan urushi, Rolfe 1614 yilda Pokaxontas bilan turmush qurganida tugagan.
Ekish boshlanishi
Jorj Yildli sifatida qabul qildi Virjiniya gubernatori 1619 yilda. U bir kishilik boshqaruviga barham berdi va hokimiyatning vakillik tizimini yaratdi Bosh assambleya, Yangi Dunyodagi birinchi saylangan qonunchilik assambleyasi.
Shuningdek, 1619 yilda Virjiniya kompaniyasi 90 nafar yolg'iz ayolni aholi kolonistlariga yordam berish uchun potentsial xotinlar sifatida yubordi. O'sha yili koloniya ikkita ingliz xususiy odamlari tomonidan olib kelingan "yigirma va g'alati" angolaliklar guruhini sotib oldi. Ular, ehtimol koloniyadagi birinchi afrikaliklar bo'lgan. Ular, ko'plab evropaliklar bilan bir qatorda indentured xizmatchilar o'sib borayotgan tamaki sanoatini kengaytirishga yordam berdi, u allaqachon koloniyaning asosiy mahsuloti bo'lgan. Garchi bu qora tanli kishilarga xizmat ko'rsatadigan xizmatchilar sifatida qarashgan bo'lsa-da, bu boshlanishni belgilab qo'ygan Amerikaning qullik tarixi. Evropadagi qul savdogarlari tomonidan qullikdagi afrikaliklarning katta importi asrning oxiriga kelib sodir bo'lmadi.
Ba'zi hududlarda oilalarga ishlab chiqarishni ko'paytirish, turmush darajasini yaxshilash va boylik orttirish uchun turtki beradigan jamoaviy emas, balki shaxsiy mulkchilik yoki ijara shartnomalari tashkil etildi. Ehtimol, Sirda bo'lgani kabi bu erda hech qanday ilg'or narsa yo'q edi Tomas Deyl badbaxt Henrikus Jeyms daryosining janubiy qirg'og'ida joylashgan g'arbiy yo'nalishdagi rivojlanish, u erda mahalliy aholi Koloniyaning birinchi kollejida ta'lim olishlari kerak edi.
Hozirgi Richmond sharsharasidan 9,7 km janubda, Henrico Cittie, the Falling Creek Ironworks Falling Krikin quyilish joyi yaqinida temir ishlab chiqarish uchun mahalliy ruda konlaridan foydalangan holda tashkil etilgan. Bu Shimoliy Amerikada birinchi bo'ldi.
Virjiniyaliklar bu paytda kuchli individualizmga ega bo'lib, kichik yangi jamoalarni zaiflashtirdilar. Breen (1979) ga ko'ra ularning ufq doirasi hozirgi yoki yaqin kelajak bilan chegaralangan. Ular atrof-muhit tezda moliyaviy daromad keltirishga majbur bo'lishi mumkin va kerak deb hisobladilar. Shunday qilib, hamma kooperativ mablag'lari hisobiga birinchi raqamni qidirmoqdalar. Fermer xo'jaliklari tarqoq bo'lib, ozgina qishloq yoki shaharchalar vujudga keldi. Ushbu o'ta individualizm ko'chmanchilarning hindularga qarshi mudofaani ta'minlay olmasliklariga olib keldi, natijada ikkita qirg'in sodir bo'ldi.[58]
Mahalliy aholi bilan ziddiyat
Tez orada ingliz ko'chmanchilari mahalliy aholi bilan ziddiyatga kirishdilar. Muvaffaqiyatli o'zaro ta'sirga qaramay, erga va boshqa boyliklarga egalik qilish va ularni boshqarish, xalqlar o'rtasidagi ishonch ziddiyatli maydonga aylandi. Virjiniya o'rtacha har uch yilda qurg'oqchilik sharoitlariga ega. Kolonistlar mahalliy aholi og'ir paytlarda ularni boqish uchun yomon tayyorgarlik ko'rganligini tushunmadilar. 1612 yildan keyingi yillarda mustamlakachilar o'zlarining hal qiluvchi naqd hosillari bo'lgan tamaki mahsulotlarini eksport qilish uchun erlarni tozalashdi. Tamaki tuproqni tugatgandan so'ng, ko'chmanchilar doimiy ravishda almashtirish uchun ko'proq erlarni tozalashlari kerak edi. Bu mahalliy amerikaliklarning ovqatlariga oziq-ovqat ekinlarini to'ldirish uchun bog'liq bo'lgan o'rmonzorlarni kamaytirdi. Ko'proq mustamlakachilar kelishi bilan ular ko'proq er olishni xohlashdi.
Qabilalar mustamlakachilar tomonidan bosib olinishiga qarshi kurashishga harakat qildilar. Katta mojarolar bo'lib o'tgan 1622 yildagi hind qirg'ini va Ikkinchi Angliya-Poxatan urushi, ikkalasi ham marhum boshliq Powhatanning ukasi rahbarligida, Boshliq Opechancanough. 17-asrning o'rtalariga kelib, Poxatan va ittifoqdosh qabilalar aholining jiddiy pasayishiga duch keldi, buning sababi yangi kiritilgan epidemiyalar edi. yuqumli kasalliklar, kabi chechak va qizamiq, ular uchun tabiiy immunitet yo'q edi. Evropalik mustamlakachilar Jeyms daryosidagi kuzgi chiziqdan sharqqa qadar bo'lgan barcha erlarni nazorat qilishlari uchun o'z hududlarini kengaytirdilar. Ellik yil oldin bu hudud qudratli Povatan Konfederatsiyasining imperiyasi bo'lgan.
Ko'p qabilalarning tirik qolgan a'zolari koloniyaning umumiy aholisiga singib ketishdi. Ba'zilar an'anaviy o'ziga xoslik va merosga ega bo'lgan kichik jamoalarni saqlab qolishdi. 21-asrda Pamunkey va Mattaponi dastlab inglizlar tomonidan tayinlangan rezervasyonlarni saqlab turadigan ikkita qabiladir. 2010 yildan boshlab[yangilash], davlat o'n bir tan oldi Virjiniya hindu qabilalar. Boshqalari 2007 yilda Jeymstaunning 400 yilligini nishonlaganidan beri davlat va Federal e'tirofga intilishga qiziqishlarini kuchaytirdilar. Davlat tantanalari tub amerikalik qabilalarga davlatga qo'shgan hissalarini namoyish etish uchun taniqli rasmiy rollarni taqdim etdi.
While the developments of 1619 and continued growth in the several following years were seen as favorable by the English, many aspects, especially the continued need for more land to grow tobacco, were the source of increasing concern to the Native Americans most affected, the Powhatan.
By this time, the remaining Powhatan Empire was led by Chief Opechancanough, boshlig'i Pamunkey, and brother of Chief Powhatan. He had earned a reputation as a fierce warrior under his brother's chiefdom. Soon, he gave up on hopes of diplomacy, and resolved to eradicate the English colonists.
On March 22, 1622, the Powhatan killed about 400 colonists in the 1622 yildagi hind qirg'ini. With coordinated attacks, they struck almost all the English settlements along the James River, on both shores, from Newport News Point on the east at Xempton yo'llari all the way west upriver to Falling Creek, a few miles above Henricus and John Rolfe's plantation, Varina Farms.[59]
At Jamestown, a warning by an Indian boy named Chanco to his employer, Richard Peys, helped reduce total deaths. Pace secured his plantation, and rowed across the river during the night to alert Jamestown, which allowed colonists some defensive preparation. They had no time to warn outposts, which suffered deaths and captives at almost every location. Several entire communities were essentially wiped out, including Henrikus va Volstenxolm Taun da Martinning yuzligi. At the Falling Creek Ironworks, which had been seen as promising for the Colony, two women and three children were among the 27 killed, leaving only two colonists alive. The facilities were destroyed.
Despite the losses, two thirds of the colonists survived; after withdrawing to Jamestown, many returned to the outlying plantations, although some were abandoned. The English carried out reprisals against the Powhatan and there were skirmishes and attacks for about a year before the colonists and Powhatan struck a truce.
The colonists invited the chiefs and warriors to Jamestown, where they proposed a toast of liquor. Doktor John Potts and some of the Jamestown leadership had poisoned the natives' share of the liquor, which killed about 200 men. Colonists killed another 50 Indians by hand.
The period between the coup of 1622 and another Powhatan attack on English colonists along the James River (see Jeymstaun ) in 1644 marked a turning point in the relations between the Powhatan and the English. In the early period, each side believed it was operating from a position of power; tomonidan 1646 yilgi shartnoma, the colonists had taken the balance of power, and had established control between the York va Blackwater Rivers.
Qirollik mustamlakasi
1624 yilda Virjiniya kompaniyasining charter was revoked and the colony transferred to royal authority as a toj koloniyasi, but the elected representatives in Jamestown continued to exercise a fair amount of power. Under royal authority, the colony began to expand to the North and West with additional settlements.
In 1634, a new system of local government was created in the Virginia Colony by order of the King of England. Sakkiz shires were designated, each with its own local officers; these shires were renamed as okruglar faqat bir necha yil o'tgach.
Governor Berkeley and English Civil War
The first significant attempts at exploring the Trans-Allegheny region occurred under the administration of Governor Uilyam Berkli. Efforts to explore farther into Virginia were hampered in 1644 when about 500 colonists were killed in another Indian massacre led, once again, by Opechancanough. Berkeley is credited with efforts to develop others sources of income for the colony besides tobacco such as cultivation of tut trees for ipak qurtlari and other crops at his large Yashil buloq plantatsiyasi.
The colonists defined the 1644 coup as an "uprising". Chief Opechancanough expected the outcome would reflect what he considered the morally correct position: that the colonists were violating their pledges to the Powhatan. During the 1644 event, Chief Opechancanough was captured. While imprisoned, he was murdered by one of his guards. After the death of Opechancanough, and following the repeated colonial attacks in 1644 and 1645, the remaining Powhatan tribes had little alternative but to accede to the demands of the settlers.[60]
Most Virginia colonists were loyal to the crown (Charles I) during the Ingliz fuqarolar urushi, but in 1652, Oliver Kromvel sent a force to remove and replace Gov. Berkeley with Governor Richard Bennett, who was loyal to the Angliya Hamdo'stligi. This governor was a moderate Puritan who allowed the local legislature to exercise most controlling authority, and spent much of his time directing affairs in neighboring Merilend koloniyasi. Bennett was followed by two more "Cromwellian" governors, Edward Digges va Samuel Metyus, although in fact all three of these men were not technically appointees, but were selected by the House of Burgesses, which was really in control of the colony during these years.[61]
Many royalists fled to Virginia after their defeat in the English Civil War. Some intermarried with existing plantation families to establish influential families in Virginia such as the Washingtons, Randolphs, Carters and Lees. However, most 17th-century immigrants were indentured servants, merchants or artisans. Keyin Qayta tiklash, in recognition of Virginia's loyalty to the crown, King Angliyalik Karl II bestowed Virginia with the nickname "The Old Dominion", which it still bears today.[62]
Bekonning qo'zg'oloni
Governor Berkeley, who remained popular after his first administration, returned to the governorship at the end of Commonwealth rule. However, Berkeley's second administration was characterized with many problems. Disease, hurricanes, Indian hostilities, and economic difficulties all plagued Virginia at this time. Berkeley established autocratic authority over the colony. To protect this power, he refused to have new legislative elections for 14 years in order to protect a House of Burgesses that supported him. He only agreed to new elections when rebellion became a serious threat.
Berkeley finally did face a rebellion in 1676. Indians had begun attacking encroaching settlers as they expanded to the north and west. Serious fighting broke out when settlers responded to violence with a counter-attack against the wrong tribe, which further extended the violence. Berkeley did not assist the settlers in their fight. Many settlers and historians believe Berkeley's refusal to fight the Indians stemmed from his investments in the fur trade. Large scale fighting would have cut off the Indian suppliers Berkeley's investment relied on. Nataniel Bekon organized his own militia of settlers who retaliated against the Indians. Bacon became very popular as the primary opponent of Berkeley, not only on the issue of Indians, but on other issues as well. Berkeley condemned Bacon as a rebel, but pardoned him after Bacon won a seat in the House of Burgesses and accepted it peacefully. After a lack of reform, Bacon rebelled outright, captured Jamestown, and took control of the colony for several months. The incident became known as Bekonning qo'zg'oloni. Berkeley returned himself to power with the help of the English militia. Bacon burned Jamestown before abandoning it and continued his rebellion, but died of disease. Berkeley severely crushed the remaining rebels.
In response to Berkeley's harsh repression of the rebels, the English government removed him from office. After the burning of Jamestown, the capital was temporarily moved to O'rta plantatsiya, located on the high ground of the Virjiniya yarim oroli equidistant from the James and York Rivers.[63]
Building of Williamsburg
Local leaders had long desired a school of higher education, for the sons of planters, and for educating the Indians. An earlier attempt to establish a permanent university at Henrikus keyin muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi 1622 yildagi hind qirg'ini wiped out the entire settlement. Finally, seven decades later, with encouragement from the Colony's Burgesslar uyi and other prominent individuals, Reverend Dr. James Blair, the colony's top religious leader, prepared a plan. Blair went to England and in 1693, obtained a charter from Protestants King Uilyam va qirolicha Angliyalik Meri II who had just deposed Catholic Angliyalik Jeyms II in 1688 during the Shonli inqilob. The college was named the Uilyam va Meri kolleji in honor of the two monarchs.
The rebuilt statehouse in Jamestown burned again in 1698. After that fire, upon suggestion of college students, the colonial capital was permanently moved to nearby Middle Plantation again, and the town was renamed Uilyamsburg, in honor of the king. Plans were made to construct a capitol building and plan the new city according to the survey of Teodorik Bland.
Tobacco plantations
As the English increasingly used tobacco products, tobacco in the American colonies became a significant economic force, especially in the tidewater region surrounding the Chesapeake Bay. Vast plantations were built along the rivers of Virginia, and social/economic systems developed to grow and distribute this cash crop. Some elements of this system included the importation and employment of slaves to grow crops. Planters would then fill large cho'chqa boshlari with tobacco and convey them to inspection warehouses. In 1730, the Virginia Burgesslar uyi standardized and improved quality of tobacco exported by establishing the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730, which required inspectors to grade tobacco at 40 specified locations.
Ijtimoiy tuzilish
In terms of the white population, the top five percent or so were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige. They controlled the local Anglican church, choosing ministers and handling church property and disbursing local charity. They sought elected and appointed offices.[64] About 60 percent of white Virginians were part of a broad middle class that owned substantial farms; By the second generation, death rates from malaria and other local diseases had declined so much that a stable family structure was possible. The bottom third owned no land, and verged on poverty. Many were recent arrivals, or recently released from indentured servitude.[65] Social stratification was most severe in the Northern Neck, where the Fairfax family had been given a proprietorship. In some districts there 70 percent of the land was owned by a handful of families, and three-fourths of the whites had no land at all. In the frontier districts, large numbers of Irish and German Protestants had settled, often moving down from Pennsylvania. Tobacco was not important there; farmers focused on hemp, grain, cattle, and horses. Entrepreneurs had begun to mine and smelt the local iron ores.[66]
Sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level, starting at the top. In England hunting was sharply restricted to landowners, and enforced by armed gameskeepers. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone—including servants and slaves—could and did hunt. Poor men with a good rifle aim won praise; rich gentlemen who were off target won ridicule. In 1691, Sir Frensis Nikolson, the governor, organized competitions for the "better sort of Virginians onely who are Batchelors," and he offered prizes "to be shot for, wrastled, played at backswords, & Run for by Horse and foott."[67] Horse racing was the main event. The typical farmer did not own a horse in the first place, and racing was a matter for gentlemen only, but ordinary farmers were spectators and gamblers. Selected slaves often became skilled horse trainers. Horse racing was especially important for knitting the gentry together. The race was a major public event designed to demonstrate to the world the superior social status of the gentry through expensive breeding, training, boasting and gambling, and especially winning the races themselves.[68] Historian Timothy Breen explains that horse racing and high-stakes gambling were essential to maintaining the status of the gentry. When they publicly bet a large sum on their favorite horse, it told the world that competitiveness, individualism, and materialism where the core elements of gentry values.[69]
Tarixchi Edmund Morgan (1975) argues that Virginians in the 1650s—and for the next two centuries—turned to slavery and a irqiy bo'linish as an alternative to class conflict. "Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty." That is, white men became politically much more equal than was possible without a population of low-status slaves.[70]
By 1700, the population reached 70,000 and continued to grow rapidly from a high birth rate, low death rate, importation of slaves from the Caribbean, and immigration from Britain and Germany, as well as from Pennsylvania. The climate was mild, the farm lands were cheap and fertile.[71]
Early to mid-1700s: Westward expansion
In 1716, Governor Aleksandr Spotsvud olib keldi Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition, reaching the top ridge of the Moviy tizma tog'lari da Tezkor bo'shliq (elevation 2,365 feet (721 m)).[72][73] Spotswood promoted Germanna, a settlement of German immigrants brought over for the purpose of iron production, in modern-day Oranj okrugi.[74]
By the 1730s, the Uchta notch'd yo'li extended from the vicinity of the kuz chizig'i ning Jeyms daryosi ning kelajakdagi saytida Richmond g'arbiy tomonga Shenandoax vodiysi, kesib o'tish Moviy tizma tog'lari da Jarmans Gap.[75][76] Around this time, Governor Uilyam Guch promoted settlement of the Virginia backcountry as a means to insulate the Virginia colony from Native American and Yangi Frantsiya settlements in the Ogayo shtati[77] In response, a wide variety of settlers traveled southward on the Indian Trail later known as the Great Wagon Road bo'ylab Shenandoax vodiysi from Pennsylvania. Many, including Nemis palatinalari va Shotland-irlandiyalik amerikalik immigrants, settled along former Indian camps. According to Encyclopedia Virginia, "By 1735 there were as many as 160 families in the orqa mamlakat region, and within ten years nearly 10,000 Europeans lived in the Shenandoah Valley."[78]
As colonial settlement moved into the piedmont maydoni Toza suv /Chesapeake maydon,[79] There was some uncertainty as to the exact tax boundaries of Virginia land versus the Yerga patent ijaraga berish rights held by Tomas Feyrfaks, Kemeronning 6-chi Lord Fairfax ichida Northern Neck Proprietary. Qachon Robert "Qirol" Karter died in 1732, Lord Fairfax read about his vast wealth in "Janoblar jurnali" and decided to settle the matter himself by coming to Virginia. Lord Fairfax travelled to Virginia for the first time between 1735 and 1737 to inspect and protect his lands.[80] He employed a young Jorj Vashington[81] (Washington's first employment) to tadqiqot his lands lying west of the Moviy tizma.[82] Once this legal battle was ironed out, Frederik okrugi, Virjiniya was founded in 1743 and the "Frederick Town" settlements there became a fourth city charter in Virginia, now known as Vinchester, Virjiniya in February 1752.[83]
In the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the Ohio Country.[84] Virjiniyaliklar Tomas Li va aka-ukalar Lourens va Avgustin Vashington organized the Ohio Company to represent the prospecting and trading interests of Virginian investors.[85] 1749 yilda Britaniya toji, via the colonial government of Virjiniya, berilgan Ogayo kompaniyasi a great deal of this territory on the condition that it be settled by British colonists.[86] Hokim Robert Dinviddie Virjiniya shtati Ogayo kompaniyasiga sarmoyador bo'lgan, agar frantsuzlar ularning da'vosini bajarsalar, pul yo'qotishi kerak edi.[87] To counter the French military presence in Ohio, in October 1753 Dinwiddie ordered the 21-year-old Major Jorj Vashington (uning ukasi Ogayo kompaniyasining yana bir sarmoyachisi bo'lgan) ning Virginia Regiment ga frantsuzlarni Virjiniya hududidan chiqib ketish haqida ogohlantiring.[88] Ultimately, many Virginians were caught up in the resulting Frantsiya va Hindiston urushi that occurred 1754–1763. At the completion of the war, the 1763 yilgi qirollik e'lonlari forbade all British settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachi tog'lari,[89] with the land west of the Proclamation Line known as the Hind qo'riqxonasi. British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line,[90] some of which had been temporarily evacuated during Pontiac's War, and there were many already granted land claims yet to be settled. For example, George Washington and his Virginia soldiers had been granted lands past the boundary. Prominent American colonials joined with the land speculators in Britain to lobby the government to move the line further west. Their efforts were successful, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Native Americans. In 1768, the Fort-Stanviks shartnomasi va Qattiq mehnat shartnomasi, followed in 1770 by the Lochaber shartnomasi, opened much of what is now Kentukki va G'arbiy Virjiniya to British settlement within the Virginia Colony. However, the Northwest Territories north of the Ohio continued to be occupied by native tribes until US forces drove them out in the early decades of the 1800s.
Din
- Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Episcopal Diocese of Virginia:History
The Angliya cherkovi was legally established in the colony in 1619, and the Bishop of London sent in 22 Anglican clergyman by 1624. In practice, establishment meant that local taxes were funneled through the local parish to handle the needs of local government, such as roads and poor relief, in addition to the salary of the minister. There never was a bishop in colonial Virginia, and in practice the local vestry, consisting of gentry laymen controlled the parish.[91] By the 1740s, the Anglicans had about 70 parish priests around the colony.
Missionaries were sent to the Indians but they had little success apart from the Nansemond tribe, which had converted in 1638. The other Powhatan tribes converted to Christianity around 1791.[92]
Shaxsiy taqvodagi stress bularga yo'l ochdi Birinchi buyuk uyg'onish in the mid 18th century, which pulled people away from the formal rituals of the established church.[93] Ayniqsa, orqa mamlakatda aksariyat oilalar hech qanday diniy aloqaga ega emas edilar va ularning past axloqiy me'yorlari to'g'ri inglizlar uchun dahshatli edi.[94] Baptistlar, metodistlar, presviterianlar va boshqa evangelistlar ushbu sust axloqiy me'yorlarga bevosita qarshi chiqdilar va o'z saflarida ularga toqat qilishdan bosh tortdilar. Baptistlar, Nemis lyuteranlar va presviterianlar o'zlarining vazirlarini mablag 'bilan ta'minladilar va Anglikan cherkovining yo'q qilinishini ma'qulladilar.
The spellbinding preacher Samuel Devies led the Presbyterians, and converted hundreds of slaves.[95] By the 1760s Baptistlar were drawing Virginians, especially poor white farmers, into a new, much more democratic religion. Xizmatda qullarni kutib olishdi va ko'pchilik bu vaqtda baptist bo'lishdi. Metodist missionaries were also active in the late colonial period. Metodistlar qullikka chek qo'yishni rag'batlantirdilar va ozod qora tanlilar va qullarni jamoatlarda faol rollarga qabul qilishdi.[96]
The Baptists and Presbyterians were subject to many legal constraints and faced growing persecution; between 1768 and 1774, about half of the Baptists ministers in Virginia were jailed for preaching, in defiance of England's 1689 yildagi Tolerantlik akti that guaranteed freedom of worship for Protestants. At the start of the Revolution, the Anglican Patriots realized that they needed dissenter support for effective wartime mobilization, so they met most of the dissenters' demands in return for their support of the war effort.[97]
Tarixchilar Amerika inqilobidagi diniy raqobatning ta'sirini muhokama qilishdi. The struggle for religious toleration was played out during the American Revolution, as the Baptists, in alliance with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, worked successfully to disestablish the Anglican church.[98] Amerikaliklar urushda g'alaba qozonganlaridan so'ng, Anglikan tashkiloti dinni davlat tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlashni qayta tiklashga intildi. This effort failed when non-Anglicans gave their support to Jefferson's "Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom", which eventually became law in 1786 as the Diniy erkinlik uchun Virjiniya nizomi. Bilan din erkinligi Virjiniya shtatida Angliya cherkovi tashkil qilindi. It was rebuilt as the Episcopal Church in the United States, with no connection to Britain.
Amerika inqilobi
Oldingi
Revolutionary sentiments first began appearing in Virginia shortly after the Frantsiya va Hindiston urushi ended in 1763. The Virginia legislature had passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating. Qirol Jorj III vetoed the measure, and clergy sued for back salaries. Patrik Genri first came to prominence by arguing in the case of Parsonning sababi against the veto, which he declared tyrannical.
The British government had accumulated a great deal of debt through spending on its wars. To help payoff this debt, Parliament passed the Shakar to'g'risidagi qonun in 1764 and the Pochta markasi to'g'risidagi qonun in 1765. The General Assembly opposed the passage of the Sugar Act on the grounds of vakilliksiz soliq solinmaydi, and in turn passing the "Virjiniya hal qiladi " opposing the tax. Governor Frensis Foki responded by dismissing the Assembly. The Northempton okrugi court overturned the Stamp Act February 8, 1766. Various political groups, including the Ozodlik o'g'illari met and issued protests against the act. Eng muhimi, Richard Bland nomli risola nashr etdi An Enquiry into the Rights of The British Colonies, setting forth the principle that Virginia was a part of the British Empire, not the Kingdom of Great Britain, so it only owed allegiance to the Crown, not Parliament.
The Stamp Act was repealed, but additional taxation from the Daromad to'g'risidagi qonun and the 1769 attempt to transport Bostonian rioters to London for trial incited more protest from Virginia. The Assembly met to consider resolutions condemning on the transport of the rioters, but Gubernator Botetur, while sympathetic, dissolved the legislature. The Burgesses reconvened in Raleigh tavernasi and made an agreement to ban British imports. Britain gave up the attempt to extradite the prisoners and lifted all taxes except the tax on tea in 1770.
In 1773, because of a renewed attempt to extradite Americans to Britain, Richard Genri Li, Tomas Jefferson, Patrik Genri, Jorj Meyson, and others in the legislature created a yozishmalar qo'mitasi to deal with problems with Britain. This committee would serve as the foundation for Virginia's role in the American Revolution.
After the House of Burgesses expressed solidarity with the actions in Massachusetts, the Governor, Lord Dunmor, again dissolved the legislature. The first Virginia Convention was held August 1–6 to respond to the growing crisis. The convention approved a boycott of British goods and elected delegates to the Kontinental Kongress.
Urush boshlanadi
On April 20, 1775, Dunmore ordered the gunpowder removed from the Williamsburg Magazine to a British ship. Patrick Henry led a group of Virginia militia from Gannover in response to Dunmore's order. Karter Braxton negotiated a resolution to the Porox bilan bog'liq voqea by transferring royal funds as payment for the powder. The incident exacerbated Dunmore's declining popularity. He fled the Hokimiyat saroyi to a British ship at Yorktown. On November 7, Dunmore e'lon qildi declaring Virginia was in a state of rebellion. Bu vaqtga kelib, Jorj Vashington had been appointed head of the American forces by the Continental Congress and Virginia was under the political leadership of a Committee of Safety formed by the Third Virginia Convention in the governor's absence.
On December 9, 1775, Virginia militia moved on the governor's forces at the Buyuk ko'prik jangi, winning a victory in the small action there. Dunmore responded by bombarding Norfolk with his ships on January 1, 1776. After the Battle of Great Bridge, little military conflict took place on Virginia soil for the first part of the Amerika inqilobiy urushi. Nevertheless, Virginia sent forces to help in the fighting to the North and South, as well as the frontier in the northwest.
Mustaqillik
The Fifth Virginia Convention met on May 6 and declared Virginia a free and independent state on May 15, 1776. The convention instructed its delegates to introduce a resolution for independence at the Continental Congress. Richard Genri Li introduced the measure on June 7. While the Congress debated, the Virginia Convention adopted George Mason's Huquqlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi (June 12) and a constitution (June 29) which established an independent umumiylik. Congress approved Lee's proposal on July 2 and approved Jefferson's Mustaqillik deklaratsiyasi on July 4. The constitution of the Fifth Virginia Convention created a system of government for the state that would last for 54 years, and converting House of Burgesses into a bicameral legislature with both a Delegatlar uyi va a Senat. Patrik Genri birinchi bo'lib xizmat qiladi Hokim of the Commonwealth (1776-1779).
War returns to Virginia
The British briefly brought the war back to coastal Virginia in May 1779. Fearing the vulnerability of Williamsburg, Hokim Tomas Jefferson moved the capital farther inland to Richmond in 1780. However, in December, Benedikt Arnold, who had betrayed the Revolution and become a general for the British, attacked Richmond and burned part of the city before the Virginia Militia drove his army out of the city.
Arnold moved his base of operations to Portsmouth and was later joined by troops under General Uilyam Fillips. Phillips led an expedition that destroyed military and economic targets, against ineffectual militia resistance. The state's defenses, led by General Baron fon Steuben, put up resistance in the April 1781 Blandford jangi, but were forced to retreat. Frantsuzlar General Lafayette and his forces arrived to help defend Virginia, and though outnumbered, engaged British forces under General Charlz Kornuallis in a series of skirmishes to help reduce their effectiveness. Cornwallis dispatched two smaller missions under Colonel John Graves Simcoe va polkovnik Banastre Tarleton to march on Charlottesville and capture Gov. Jefferson and the legislature, though was foiled when Jack Jouett rode to warn Virginia government.
Cornwallis moved down the Virjiniya yarim oroli towards the Chesapeake Bay, where Clinton planned to extract part of the army for a siege of New York City. After surprising American forces at the Yashil bahor jangi on July 6, 1781, Cornwallis received orders to move his troops to the port town of Yorqtaun and begin construction of fortifications and a naval yard, though when discovered American forces surrounded the town. Gen. Washington and his French ally Rochambeau moved their forces from New York to Virginia. Mag'lubiyati Qirollik floti tomonidan Admiral de Grasse da Battle of the Virginia Capes ensured French dominance of the waters around Yorktown, thereby preventing Cornwallis from receiving troops or supplies and removing the possibility of evacuation. Following the two-week siege to Yorktown, Cornwallis decided to surrender. Papers for surrender were officially signed on October 19.
As a result of the defeat, the king lost control of Parliament and the new British government offered peace in April 1782. The 1783 yilgi Parij shartnomasi officially ended the war.
Early Republic and antebellum periods
Victory in the Revolution brought peace and prosperity to the new state, as export markets in Europe reopened for its tobacco.
While the old local elites were content with the status quo, younger veterans of the war had developed a national identity. Led by George Washington and Jeyms Medison, Virginia played a major role in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. Madison proposed the Virjiniya rejasi, which would give representation in Congress according to total population, including a proportion of slaves. Virginia was the most populous state, and it was allowed to count all of its white residents and 3/5 of the enslaved African Americans for its congressional representation and its electoral vote. (Only white men who owned a certain amount of property could vote.) Ratification was bitterly contested; the pro-Constitution forces prevailed only after promising to add a Huquqlar to'g'risidagi qonun loyihasi. The Virjiniya tomonidan tasdiqlangan konventsiya approved the Constitution by a vote of 89–79 on June 25, 1788, making it the tenth state to enter the Union.[99]
Madison played a central role in the new Congress, while Washington was the unanimous choice as first president. He was followed by the Virginia Dynasty, including Thomas Jefferson, Madison, and James Monroe, giving the state four of the first five presidents.
Slavery and freedmen in Antebellum Virginia
The Revolution meant change and sometimes political freedom for enslaved African Americans, too. Tens of thousands of slaves from southern states, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, escaped to British lines and freedom during the war. Thousands left with the British for resettlement in their colonies of Nova Scotia and Jamaica; others went to England; others disappeared into rural and frontier areas or the North.[100]
Inspired by the Revolution and evangelical preachers, numerous slaveholders in the Chesapeake region uydirma umr bo'yi yoki irodasi bilan qullarining bir qismini yoki barchasini. From 1,800 persons in 1782, the total population of free blacks in Virginia increased to 12,766 (4.3 percent of blacks) in 1790, and to 30,570 in 1810; the percentage change was from free blacks' comprising less than one percent of the total black population in Virginia, to 7.2 percent by 1810, even as the overall population increased.[101] Bitta ekuvchi, Robert Karter III freed more than 450 slaves in his lifetime, more than any other planter. Jorj Vashington o'limida barcha qullarini ozod qildi.[102]
Many free blacks migrated from rural areas to towns such as Peterburg, Richmond va Charlottesville for jobs and community; others migrated with their families to the frontier where social strictures were more relaxed.[103] Among the oldest black Baptist congregations in the nation were two founded near Petersburg before the Revolution. Each congregation moved into the city and built churches by the early 19th century.[104]
Twice slave rebellions broke out in Virginia: Jabroilning isyoni in 1800, and Nat Turner's Rebellion in 1831. White reaction was swift and harsh, and militsiyalar killed many innocent free blacks and black slaves as well as those directly involved in the rebellions. After the second rebellion, the legislature passed laws restricting the rights of free people of color: they were excluded from bearing arms, serving in the militia, gaining education, and assembling in groups. As bearing arms and serving in the militia were considered obligations of free citizens, free blacks came under severe constraints after Nat Turner's rebellion.
Westward emigration
As the new nation of the United States of America experienced growing pains and began to speak of Manifest Destiny, Virginia, too, found its role in the young republic to be changing and challenging. For one, the vast lands of the Virginia Colony were subdivided into other US states and territories. In 1784, Virginia relinquished its claims to the Illinois County, Virginia, tashqari Virjiniya harbiy okrugi (Janubiy Indiana ). 1775 yilda, Daniel Buni blazed uchun iz Transilvaniya kompaniyasi dan Fort Chiswell yilda Virjiniya orqali Cumberland Gap Kentukki markaziga. Bu Yovvoyi yo'l became the principal route used by settlers for more than fifty years to reach Kentukki Sharqdan. Yangi paydo bo'lgan AQSh hukumati inqilobiy urush qatnashchilarini Ogayo daryosi bo'yidagi er uchastkalari bilan mukofotladi Shimoli-g'arbiy hudud. 1792 yilda uchta g'arbiy okruglar bo'linib ajralib chiqdi Kentukki.
Ikkinchi ta'sir: g'arbda erlar unumdorroq bo'lib tuyuldi. Virjiniyada 200 yil davomida tamaki tamaki etishtirish uning tuproqlarini susaytirdi.[105]
1803 yil Louisiana Xarid qilish faqat Virjiniya aholisining g'arbiy tomonga o'z davlatlaridan chiqib ketishini tezlashtirdi. Bobosi va buvisi Virjiniya institutini yaratgan ko'plab Virjiniyaliklar ko'chib, g'arbiy tomonga joylashishni boshladilar. Virjiniyada tug'ilgan taniqli amerikaliklar nafaqat Virjiniya shtati taqdiriga, balki tez rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarga ham ta'sir ko'rsatdilar Amerikaning Old West. Virjiniyaliklar Meriwether Lyuis va Uilyam Klark ularning ta'sirida edi mashhur 1804-1806 ekspeditsiyasi Missuri daryosini va Tinch okeaniga ulanish imkoniyatlarini o'rganish. Kabi taniqli ismlar Stiven F. Ostin, Edvin Uoller, Haden Xarrison Edvards Doktor Jon Shackelford Virjiniyadan mashhur tekxan kashshoflari edi. Hatto oxir-oqibat fuqarolar urushi boshlig'i Robert E. Li 1846–48 yillarda Texasdagi harbiy rahbar sifatida o'zini tanitdi Meksika-Amerika urushi.
Madaniy saqlash
Tarixchilarning fikriga ko'ra, bir million Virginiyaliklar Inqilob va Fuqarolar urushi o'rtasidagi hamdo'stlikni tark etishgan.[106] Ushbu ko'chish bilan Virjiniya aholisi va siyosiy ta'sirining pasayishiga duch keldi[107] Taniqli virginiyaliklar Virjiniya tarixiy va falsafiy jamiyati o'tmish merosi va xotirasini saqlab qolish. Shu bilan birga, Virjiniyaliklar g'arbiy qismning ko'p qismini egallab olishlari bilan, o'zlari bilan madaniy odatlarini olib kelishdi. Bugungi kunda ko'plab madaniy xususiyatlar Amerika janubi g'arbga ko'chib o'tgan virginiyaliklarga tegishli bo'lishi mumkin.[108]
Tidewater ekuvchilar va G'arbiy Virjiniya dehqonlari o'rtasidagi madaniy bo'linish
19-asrning birinchi yarmida Virjiniyaning g'arbiy oqimlari rivojlanganligi sababli, qishloq xo'jaligi asoslari, madaniy va transport ehtiyojlarining katta farqlari bu mintaqaning asosiy muammosiga aylandi. Virjiniya Bosh assambleyasi. Qadimgi, sharqiy qismida qullik iqtisodiyotga hissa qo'shdi. Ekuvchilar ko'p mehnat talab qiladigan tamaki mahsulotlaridan aralash ekinlarga o'tayotganlarida, ular hali ham ko'plab qullarni ushlab turishgan va ularni ijaraga berish yoki sotish ham ularning iqtisodiy istiqbollarining bir qismi edi. Qulchilik ekuvchilarga bog'liq bo'lgan iqtisodiy muassasaga aylandi. Ushbu hududning katta qismidagi suv havzalari oxir-oqibat Atlantika okeaniga oqib o'tdi. G'arbiy qismida oilalar kichikroq uy-joylarni etishtirishdi, asosan qul yoki yollanma ishsiz. Ko'chmanchilar boyliklarni ekspluatatsiya qilishni kengaytirdilar: foydali qazilmalarni qazib olish va yog'ochni yig'ish. Er qurigan Ogayo daryosi vodiysi va savdo daryolarni kuzatib bordi.
Shtat qonun chiqaruvchisidagi vakillik aholisi ko'proq bo'lgan sharqiy hududlar va tarixiy ekish elitasi foydasiga keskin ravishda buzildi. Bunga aholi sonini hisoblashda qullarga beriladigan qisman nafaqa qo'shildi; na qullar va na ayollar ovoz bergani sababli, bu oq tanli erkaklarga ko'proq kuch berdi. Qonunchilik organining nomutanosibliklarga vositachilik qilish bo'yicha harakatlari mazmunli echimsiz tugadi, garchi shtat vakillik masalalari bo'yicha konstitutsiyaviy konventsiyani o'tkazdi. Shunday qilib, Amerika fuqarolar urushi boshlanishida Virjiniya nafaqat milliy inqirozda, balki o'z chegaralarida uzoq davom etgan qarama-qarshiliklarda ham ushlandi. Boshqa chegara shtatlari o'xshash mintaqaviy farqlarga ega bo'lsa-da, Virjiniya uzoq vaqt davomida sharq-g'arbiy ziddiyatlarni boshdan kechirgan va oxir-oqibat boshiga kelgan; bu urush paytida ikkita alohida davlatga bo'linadigan yagona davlat edi.
Infratuzilma va sanoat inqilobi
Inqilobdan keyin turli infratuzilma loyihalari ishlab chiqila boshlandi, shu jumladan Dismal botqoq kanali, Jeyms daryosi va Kanavxa kanali va turli xil burilish moslamalari. Virjiniya yangi Konstitutsiyaga binoan Federal infratuzilma loyihalarining birinchi uyi edi Cape Henry Light 1792 yil, Chesapeake ko'rfazining og'zida joylashgan. 1812 yilgi urushdan so'ng Virjiniyada bir qancha Federal mudofaa loyihalari amalga oshirildi. Drydock birinchi raqamli 1827 yilda Portsmutda qurilgan. Jeyms daryosi bo'ylab, Monro Fort Xempton yo'llarini himoya qilish uchun qurilgan bo'lib, 1834 yilda qurib bitkazilgan.
1830-yillarda Virjiniyada temir yo'llar qurila boshlandi. 1831 yilda Chesterfild temir yo'li konlaridan ko'mir tashishni boshladi Midlothian tortishish kuchi va qoralama hayvonlar bilan ta'minlangan Manchesterdagi (Richmond yaqinidagi) doklarga. Virjiniyada lokomotivlar bilan ta'minlangan birinchi temir yo'l bu edi Richmond, Frederiksburg va Potomak temir yo'li, 1834 yilda ijaraga olingan, Aquia Landing-da Vashingtonga boradigan paroxod liniyalari bilan bog'lanish niyatida. Ko'p o'tmay, boshqalar (bir xil tavsiflovchi ismlar bilan) ergashdilar: Richmond va Peterburg temir yo'li va Louisa temir yo'li 1836 yilda Richmond va Danville temir yo'li 1847 yilda Apelsin va Aleksandriya temir yo'li 1848 yilda va Richmond va York daryosi temir yo'li. 1849 yilda Virjiniya jamoat ishlari kengashi tashkil etdi Moviy Ridge temir yo'li. Muhandis ostida Klavdiy Krozet, temir yo'l orqali Blue Ridge tog'larini muvaffaqiyatli kesib o'tdi Moviy tizma tunnel Afton tog'ida.
Peterburg bepul qora hunarmandlar va hunarmandlar tirikchilik qilishlari mumkin bo'lgan shahar bilan bir qatorda ishlab chiqarish markaziga aylandi. 1860 yilda uning aholisining yarmi qora tanlilar edi, shundan uchdan biri erkin qora tanlilar edi, bu shtatdagi eng katta aholi.
Temir sanoati
Keng temir konlari bilan, ayniqsa g'arbiy okruglarda, Virjiniya temir sanoatida kashshof bo'lgan. Yangi dunyodagi birinchi temir zavodi tashkil etilgan Falling Creek 1619 yilda yo'q qilingan bo'lsa-da, 1622 yilda vayron qilingan edi. Bir vaqtning o'zida 7000 qo'l bilan 80 ta temir, ko'mir pechlari va temirchiliklar paydo bo'ldi, ularning 70 foizga yaqini qullar edi. Temirchilar mahalliy qul egalaridan qullarni yollashadi, chunki ular oq tanli ishchilarga qaraganda arzonroq, boshqarish osonroq va yaxshi ish beruvchiga o'tolmaydilar. Ammo ish etikasi zaif edi, chunki ish haqi ishchilarga emas, egalariga berildi, ular qattiq ishlashga majbur bo'lgan, yomon ovqatlangan va kiyingan va oilalaridan ajralib qolgan. Virjiniya sanoati tobora erkin ish kuchiga tayanadigan Pensilvaniya, Nyu-Jersi va Ogayo shtatlaridan ortda qoldi. Bredford (1959) qul ishchilariga oid ko'plab shikoyatlarni aytib o'tdi va qullarga haddan tashqari ishonish temir ustalarining ishlab chiqarishni takomillashtirilgan usullarini qullar sabotaj qilishidan qo'rqishiga olib keldi. Qora tanlilarning aksariyati malakasiz qo'l mehnati bilan shug'ullanishgan, ammo Lyuis (1977) ba'zi birlari malakali lavozimlarda bo'lganligini aytgan.[110][111]
Fuqarolar urushi
Virjiniya dastlab Konfederatsiyaga qo'shilishdan bosh tortdi, ammo prezident Linkoln 15 aprelda barcha shtatlardan qo'shin chaqirgandan keyin buni amalga oshirdi; bu Janubiy Karolinani bo'ysundirish uchun janubiy yo'lda Virjiniyani kesib o'tgan Federal qo'shinlarni anglatardi. 1861 yil 17 aprelda qurultoy ajralib chiqish uchun ovoz berdi va saylovchilar qarorni 23 mayda tasdiqladilar. Darhol Birlik armiyasi shimoliy Virjiniyaga ko'chib o'tdi va qo'lga kiritildi Iskandariya urushsiz va urushning qolgan qismida uni boshqargan. Wheeling hududi ajralib chiqishga qarshi edi va Ittifoq uchun kuchli bo'lib qoldi.
Strategik ahamiyati tufayli Konfederatsiya poytaxtini Richmondga ko'chirgan. Richmond uzoq ta'minot liniyasining oxirida edi va Konfederatsiyaning juda ramziy poytaxti bosqinchilik harakatlaridan keyingi turning asosiy maqsadi bo'ldi.[112] Fuqarolik urushi davrida temir ishlab chiqarishning yirik markazi Richmondda joylashgan Tredegar temir ishlari Urush uchun artilleriyaning katta qismini ishlab chiqargan. Shahar ko'plab armiya kasalxonalari joylashgan edi. Libbi qamoqxonasi asirlangan Ittifoq zobitlari uchun haddan tashqari zich va og'ir sharoitlar bilan shuhrat qozongan, o'lim darajasi yuqori bo'lgan.[113] Richmondning asosiy mudofaasi uni atrofdagi Peterburg shahriga qarab qurilgan xandaklar edi. Saltvil Konfederat tuzining asosiy manbai bo'lgan (uchun juda muhimdir oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini saqlash ) urush paytida, ikkalasiga etaklovchi Saltvilldagi janglar.
Fuqarolar urushining birinchi yirik jangi 1861 yil 21-iyulda bo'lib o'tdi. Ittifoq kuchlari temir yo'l tutashuvini o'z qo'liga olishga harakat qildilar. Manassalar, lekin Konfederatsiya armiyasi birinchi bo'lib unga erishdi va g'olib bo'ldi Birinchi Manassas jangi (Shimoliy nomlash konvensiyasida "Bull Run" nomi bilan tanilgan). Ikkala tomon ham urushga safarbar qilindi; 1861 yil yana bir jiddiy kurashsiz davom etdi.
Ham iqtisodiy, ham ijtimoiy darajadagi erkaklar, ham qullar, ham qul bo'lmaganlar, shuningdek sobiq ittifoqchilar, har ikki tomonda ham ko'p sonli harbiy xizmatga jalb etildilar. Konfederatsiyaga ozgina odam yuborgan hududlar, ayniqsa g'arbiy va chegara bo'ylab, kam sonli qullar, kambag'al iqtisodiyot va reinal tarixi bilan ajralib turardi.[imloni tekshiring ] Tidewater bilan antagonizm.[114]
G'arbiy Virjiniya ajralib chiqadi
G'arbiy okruglar Konfederatsiyaga toqat qilolmadilar. Ajralib, ular avval Virjiniya (Vashington tomonidan tan olingan) Ittifoq shtatini tuzdilar; bunga deyiladi Virjiniya hukumati tiklandi va Vashingtondagi daryo bo'yidagi Iskandariyada joylashgan. Qayta tiklangan hukumat 1862 yilda G'arbiy Virjiniya yangi shtatini tuzish uchun Kongressga ruxsat berishdan tashqari juda oz ish qildi.[115][116] 1861 yil may oyidan avgust oyigacha Unionistlarning bir qator anjumanlari bo'lib o'tdi Rulda; Ikkinchi g'ildirak konvensiyasi o'zini qonun chiqaruvchi organ sifatida tashkil etdi Virjiniya hukumati tiklandi. Virjiniya hali ham Ittifoq tarkibida bo'lgan, ammo shtat idoralari bo'sh va yangi gubernatorni saylagan deb e'lon qildi. Frensis H. Perpont; ushbu organ Linkoln ma'muriyati tomonidan 4 iyulda rasmiy e'tirofga sazovor bo'ldi.[117] 20 avgustda g'ildirakli g'ildirak tanasi yaratilish to'g'risida farmon chiqardi; 24-oktabr kuni jamoatchilik ovoziga qo'yildi. Ovoz berish urush oxirigacha davom etgan Pierpont hukumatidan ajralib turadigan yangi shtat - G'arbiy Virjiniya foydasiga o'tdi.[118] Kongress va Linkoln yangi shtat konstitutsiyasida qullarni bosqichma-bosqich ozod qilishni nazarda tutgandan so'ng, G'arbiy Virjiniya 1863 yil 20-iyunda 35-shtat bo'ldi. Amalda endi uchta shtat bor edi: Konfederat Virjiniya, Ittifoq Virjiniyani qayta tikladi va G'arbiy Virjiniya.[119]
Richmonddagi shtat va milliy hukumatlar yangi shtatni tan olmadilar va Konfederatlar u erda ovoz bermadilar. Richmonddagi Konfederatsiya hukumati yubordi Robert E. Li. Ammo Li mahalliy yordamni kam topdi va Ogayo shtatidan kelgan Union kuchlari tomonidan mag'lub bo'ldi. 1861 yildagi kasaba uyushmalarining g'alabalari Konfederatsiya kuchlarini Monongahela va Kanavxa vodiylaridan haydab chiqardi va urushning qolgan davrida Ittifoq Alleghenies g'arbiy mintaqasini ushlab turdi va shimolda Baltimor va Ogayo temir yo'lini nazorat qildi. Yangi davlat qayta qurishga bo'ysunmagan.[120]
Keyinchalik urush yillari
Urushning qolgan qismida Virjiniya bo'ylab ko'plab yirik janglar, shu jumladan Yetti kunlik janglar, Frederikburg jangi, Kanslervill jangi, Brendi Stantsiyasidagi jang
Urush davomida, vaqti-vaqti bilan taktik g'alabalarga va zarbaga qarshi ajoyib reydlarga qaramay, Virjiniyaning ko'plab mintaqalarini Konfederatsiya nazorati Federal avans bilan asta-sekin yo'qoldi. 1862 yil oktyabrga kelib Potomak bo'yidagi shimoliy 9 va 10 Kongress okruglari Ittifoq nazorati ostida edi. Sharqiy Sohil, Shimoliy, O'rta va Quyi yarimorol va Norfolkni g'arbdan Suffolkgacha o'rab turgan 2-kongress okrugi may oyigacha Ittifoq tomonidan doimiy ravishda ishg'ol qilingan. Piedmont va Shenandoah vodiysi kabi boshqa mintaqalar ko'plab kampaniyalar orqali muntazam ravishda qo'llarini almashtirdilar.
1864 yilda Ittifoq armiyasi Richmondga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri quruqlik orqali hujum qilishni rejalashtirgan Quruqlikdagi kampaniya va Cho'ldagi jang, bilan yakunlandi Peterburgni qamal qilish 1864 yilning yozidan 1865 yil apreligacha davom etgan. 1864 yil 6-noyabrga qadar Konfederatsiya kuchlari Virjiniyaning Richmond-Peterburg mintaqasidagi 16 kongress okrugidan atigi to'rttasini va ularning janubiy qirg'oqlarini nazorat qildilar.[121]
1865 yil aprelda Richmond orqaga chekinish bilan yoqib yuborildi Konfederatsiya armiyasi ; Linkoln yangi ozod qilingan qora tanlilarni xursand qilish uchun shahar ko'chalarida yurdi. Konfederatsiya hukumati to'xtab, janubga qochib ketdi Danvill bir necha kun. Li Uliss Grantga taslim bo'lganida, oxir oqibat keldi Appomattoks 1865 yil 9 aprelda.
Qayta qurish
Virjiniya infratuzilmasi (temir yo'l kabi) xarobaga aylanib, urush tufayli vayron bo'ldi; ko'plab plantatsiyalar yonib ketdi; va ishsiz, oziq-ovqat va uyushma armiyasi tomonidan taqdim etiladigan ratsiondan tashqari materiallarga ega bo'lmagan ko'plab qochqinlar, ayniqsa uning Ozodlik byurosi.[122]
Tarixchi Meri Farmer-Kayzerning xabar berishicha, oq tanli er egalari erkin ayollarning dangasalik dalili sifatida dalada ishlashni istamasliklari to'g'risida Byuroga shikoyat qilishgan va Byurodan ularni mehnat shartnomalarini imzolashga majbur qilishlarini so'rashgan. Bunga javoban, Byuroning ko'plab rasmiylari "ozod qilingan ayollarning ishchi kuchidan chiqib ketishini va bunga yo'l qo'ygan" tovuqni qoqib tashlagan "erlarni osonlikcha qoralashdi". Byuro ozod qilingan ayollarni ishlashga majburlamagan bo'lsa-da, erkin odamlarni ishlashga majbur qildi yoki bekorchilar sifatida hibsga olindi. Bundan tashqari, agentlar kambag'al turmushga chiqmagan onalarni katta bolalarini oq ustalarga ishlash uchun shogird sifatida berishga undashdi. Farmer-Kayzer "Fridvomenlar byuroda ham ittifoqchi, ham dushman topdilar" degan xulosaga keladi.[123]
Virjiniya tiklanish davrida uchta bosqich mavjud edi: urush davri, prezidentlik va kongress.[124] Urushdan so'ng darhol Prezident Endryu Jonson tanigan Frensis Xarrison Perpont hukumat qonuniy va tiklangan mahalliy boshqaruv sifatida. Virjiniya qonun chiqaruvchi organi qabul qilindi Qora kodlar Freedmenlarning harakatchanligi va huquqlarini keskin cheklagan; ular faqat cheklangan huquqlarga ega edilar va fuqarolar deb hisoblanmadilar va ovoz berolmadilar. Shtat qullikni bekor qilish to'g'risidagi 13-tuzatishni ratifikatsiya qildi va 1861 yilda ajralib chiqish haqidagi farmonni bekor qildi. Jonson bundan mamnun edi Qayta qurish to'liq edi.
Kongressdagi boshqa respublikachilar yangi saylangan shtat delegatsiyasini qabul qilishdan bosh tortdilar; Radikallar qullik va shunga o'xshash krepostnoylik usullarining bekor qilinganligi va ozodlikka chiqqan fuqarolarga fuqarolarning huquqlari berilganligini tasdiqlovchi dalillarni istashdi. Shuningdek, ular Virjiniya rahbarlari Konfederat milliychiligidan voz kechmaganlaridan xavotirda edilar. 1866 yilgi milliy saylovlarda ko'pchilik ovozlarni qo'lga kiritgandan so'ng, Radikal respublikachilar Kongressda hokimiyatni qo'lga kiritishdi. Ular Virjiniyani (va boshqa to'qqiz sobiq Konfederatsiya shtatini) harbiy boshqaruvga topshirdilar. Virjiniya "sifatida boshqarilganBirinchi harbiy okrug "1867-69 yillarda general boshchiligida Jon Shofild Ayni paytda, Fridmenlar respublikachilik tarafdorlari safiga qo'shilish orqali siyosiy faollashdilar Ittifoq ligasi, konventsiyalar o'tkazish va erkaklar uchun umumiy saylov huquqi va qonun bo'yicha teng munosabatda bo'lishni talab qilish, shuningdek sobiq Konfederatlarning huquqlarini bekor qilishni va ularning plantatsiyalarini olib qo'yishni talab qilish. McDonough, Shofildni bir tomondan Radikal sababni qo'llab-quvvatlagani uchun konservativ oqlar tomonidan tanqidga uchraganini va boshqa tomondan qora saylov huquqini erta deb o'ylaganligi uchun Radikallar tomonidan hujumga uchraganini aniqlagan holda, u "u juda hayratlanarli tarzda" o'rtasida o'rtacha kursni bosib o'tdi. haddan tashqari.[125]
Borgan sari respublika saflarida chuqur bo'linish paydo bo'ldi. O'rtacha element milliy qo'llab-quvvatlashga ega edi va o'zini "Haqiqiy respublikachilar" deb atadi. Oqlarga nisbatan radikal element - masalan, agar u Konfederatsiya armiyasida oddiy askar bo'lsa yoki Konfederatsiya hukumatiga oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini sotgan bo'lsa, lavozimini egallashiga yo'l qo'ymaslik kabi er islohoti. 1867 yilgi saylovlarda 20 mingga yaqin sobiq Konfederatlarning ovoz berish huquqidan mahrum qilingan.[126] 1867 yilda radikal Jeyms Xannikutt (1814–1880), oq tanli voiz, muharrir va Scalawag (Qayta tiklanishni qo'llab-quvvatlaydigan oq tanli janubiylar) qora tanli respublikachilarning ovozini barcha plantatsiyalarni musodara qilishga chaqirib, erni ozod va kambag'al oqlarga topshirishga chaqirdi. Sobiq viglar, ishbilarmonlar va plantatorlar boshchiligidagi "haqiqiy respublikachilar" (mo''tadillar) qora saylov huquqini qo'llab-quvvatlab, mol-mulkni musodara qilish chizig'ini tortdilar. Agar plantatorlar qora tanli saylovchilarni qo'rqitmoqchi bo'lsa, musodara qilishni talab qiladigan murosaga erishildi.[127] Hunnikutt koalitsiyasi Respublikachilar partiyasini o'z qo'liga oldi va Konfederatsiyani qo'llab-quvvatlagan barcha oq tanlilarning doimiy ravishda huquqdan mahrum bo'lishini talab qila boshladi. Virjiniya Respublikachilar partiyasi butunlay bo'linib ketdi va ko'plab mo''tadil respublikachilar muxolifatdagi "Konservatorlar" ga o'tdilar.[128] Radikallar 1867 yil konstitutsiyaviy qurultoy delegatlari uchun o'tkazilgan saylovlarda g'olib bo'lishdi.[129]
1868 yilgi konstitutsiyaviy konvensiyaga 33 oq tanli konservatorlar va 72 radikal (shulardan 24 nafari qora tanli, 23 nafari Skalavag va 21 nafari) kiritilgan. Gilam xaltachalari.[130] Raislik qiluvchidan keyin "Andervud konstitutsiyasi" deb nomlangan bu asosiy yutuq soliq tizimini isloh qilish va Virjiniyada birinchi marta bepul davlat maktablari tizimini yaratish edi.[131] Konfederatlar huquqini buzganlik haqidagi qizg'in bahs-munozaralardan so'ng, Virjiniya qonun chiqaruvchi organi sobiq konfederatlarning lavozimini egallashiga yo'l qo'ymaydigan Konstitutsiyani tasdiqladi, ammo ularga shtat va federal saylovlarda ovoz berishga ruxsat berdi.[132]
Milliy respublikachilarning mo''tadil bo'lishiga qaratilgan bosim ostida general Shofild armiyani davlatni boshqarishda davom etdi. U shaxsiy do'stini tayinladi, Genri H. Uells vaqtincha gubernator sifatida. Uells Carpetbagger va sobiq Ittifoq generali edi. Shofild va Uells Hunnikut va Skalavag respublikachilariga qarshi kurashib, ularni mag'lubiyatga uchratishdi. Ular Hunnicutt gazetasidagi davlat bosma buyurtmalariga oid shartnomalarni olib qo'yishdi. Milliy hukumat 1869 yilda saylovlarni o'tkazishni buyurdi, unda Andervudning yangi konstitutsiyasiga ovoz berildi, aksariyat sobiq isyonchilarning ovozini doimiy ravishda tortib oladigan ikkita imtiyozli bandi bo'yicha alohida va shtat amaldorlari uchun alohida ovoz berildi. Armiya Ozodlarni (sobiq qullarni) saylovchilar sifatida ro'yxatga oldi, ammo 20000 ga yaqin taniqli oq tanlilarga ovoz berishlariga yoki lavozimlarida ishlashlariga ruxsat bermadi. Respublikachilar Uellsni gubernatorlikka ko'rsatdilar, chunki Hunnikutt va skalavaglarning aksariyati oppozitsiyaga o'tdi.[133]
O'zlarini "Haqiqiy respublikachilar" deb atagan mo''tadil respublikachilarning etakchisi edi Uilyam Mahone (1826–1895), temir yo'l prezidenti va sobiq Konfederatsiya generali. U oq tanli skalavag respublikachilari, ba'zi qora tanlilar va konservativ partiyani tuzgan sobiq demokratlar koalitsiyasini tuzdi. Mahone oq tanlilarga urush natijalarini, shu jumladan fuqarolik huquqlari va ozodlik uchun ovoz berishni qabul qilishni tavsiya qildi. Mahone Konservativ partiyani o'z nomzodini tashlab, uni qo'llab-quvvatlashga ishontirdi Gilbert C. Uoker, Mahonening gubernatorlikka nomzodi. Buning evaziga Mahonening odamlari konservatorlarni qonunchilik poygalarida qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Mahonening rejasi amalga oshdi, chunki 1869 yilgi saylovchilar Uokerni sayladilar va sobiq Konfederatlarning taklif qilingan huquqsizligini mag'lub etdilar.[134]
Yangi qonunchilik organi AQSh Konstitutsiyasiga kiritilgan 14 va 15-tuzatishlarni ratifikatsiya qilganida, Kongress o'z delegatsiyasini o'tirdi va Virjiniyani qayta qurish 1870 yil yanvarda nihoyasiga etdi. Radikal respublikachilar zo'ravonliksiz saylovlarda haydab chiqarildi.[135] Virjiniya ko'proq radikal respublikachilar tamoyillarini ifodalaydigan fuqarolik hukumatini tanlamagan yagona janubiy shtat edi. Keng qirg'in va erkin mehnatga moslashishdagi qiyinchiliklardan aziyat chekkan oq tanli Virjiniyaliklar odatda janubiy munosabatlarga xos bo'lgan urushdan keyingi achchiqlanishni baham ko'rish uchun kelishdi.[136] Tarixchi Richard Lou Radikal respublikachilar harakati duch kelgan to'siqlar ularning sabablarini umidsiz qildi, deb ta'kidlaydi:
- respublikachilarning qashshoqligidan, davlat siyosatidagi tajribasizligidan, potentsial ittifoqchilardan ajralib qolishidan va qizigan Shimol bilan birlashmasidan ham ko'proq istiqbollariga zarar etkazgan - bu oq tanlilar jamoatchiligi orqali kuchli tarzda o'tgan buzuq va kuchli irqchilik edi. Eski Dominionning oq tanli fuqarolarining aksariyati asosan sobiq qullardan tashkil topgan siyosiy partiyani jiddiy qabul qila olmadilar.[137]
Oltin oltin
Temir yo'l va sanoatning o'sishi
Qayta tiklanganlardan tashqari, fuqarolar urushidan keyin yangi temir yo'llar rivojlandi. 1868 yilda temir yo'l baroni ostida Kollis P. Xantington, Virjiniya Markaziy temir yo'li birlashtirildi va o'zgartirildi Chesapeake va Ogayo temir yo'li. 1870 yilda bir nechta temir yo'llar birlashtirilib Atlantika, Missisipi va Ogayo temir yo'llari, keyinchalik o'zgartirildi Norfolk va G'arbiy. 1880 yilda, hozirda ishlamay qolgan Jeyms daryosi va Kanavxa kanalining tortib olinadigan yo'liga aylantirildi Richmond va Allegheny temir yo'llari, bu o'n yil ichida Chesapeake va Ogayo shtatlariga birlashtiriladi. Boshqalarga quyidagilar kiradi Janubiy temir yo'l, Dengiz kemasi havo liniyasi, va Atlantika qirg'og'i chizig'i; oxir-oqibat boshqalar Virjiniyaga, shu jumladan The Baltimor va Ogayo va Pensilvaniya temir yo'li. Qayta qurilgan Richmond, Frederiksburg va Potomak temir yo'li oxir-oqibat, Vashington bilan bog'langan edi
1880-yillarda Pokaxontas ko'mir koni Virjiniya janubi-g'arbiy qismida ochilgan, boshqalari esa o'z navbatida temir yo'l transportiga ko'proq talabni ta'minlagan. 1909 yilda Virjiniya temir yo'li G'arbiy Virjiniya tog'laridan Xempton-Yo'ldagi portlarga ko'mirni tashish uchun aniq maqsadda qurilgan. Temir yo'llarning o'sishi yangi shaharlarning paydo bo'lishiga va boshqalarning, shu jumladan tez o'sishiga olib keldi Clifton Forge, Roanoke, Kru va Viktoriya. Temir yo'l portlashi hech qanday voqea sodir bo'lmagan Eski 97 ning halokati 1903 yilda Virjiniya shtatining Danvilidan shimolda sodir bo'lgan, keyinchalik mashhur ballada tomonidan abadiylashtirilgan.
Sigaretni prokatlash mashinasi ixtiro qilinishi va 20-asrning boshlarida chekishning katta o'sishi bilan sigaretalar va boshqa tamaki mahsulotlari Richmond va Peterburgning asosiy sanoatiga aylandi. Kabi tamaki magnatlari Lyuis Ginter bir qator davlat muassasalarini moliyalashtirgan.
Qayta tuzatish, xalq ta'limi, ajratish
Virjiniya siyosatchilari o'rtasida bo'linish 1870-yillarda, Virjiniyaning urushdan oldingi qarzini kamaytirishni qo'llab-quvvatlovchilar ("O'quvchilar") Virjiniya butun qarzini va foizlarini to'lashlari kerak deb hisoblaganlarga qarshi chiqqanlarida yuz bergan ("Moliyachilar"). Virjiniyaning urushdan oldingi qarzlari asosan infratuzilmani yaxshilash tomonidan nazorat qilingan Virjiniya jamoat ishlari kengashi, ularning aksariyati urush paytida yoki G'arbiy Virjiniyaning yangi shtatida vayron qilingan.
1877 yilda gubernatorlikka Demokratlar nomzodi uchun muvaffaqiyatsiz taklifidan so'ng, sobiq konfederativ general va temir yo'l boshqaruvchisi Uilyam Mahone konservativlar koalitsiyasini tuzib, "O'quvchilar" etakchisiga aylandi Demokratlar oq va qora Respublikachilar. O'quvchilar deb atalmish "boylik va belgilangan imtiyozlar qudratini sindirishga" va xalq maorifini rivojlantirishga intildilar. Partiya yangi tashkil etilgan xalq ta'limi uchun mablag'larni himoya qilish maqsadida davlat qarzlarini "qayta tiklashga" va G'arbiy Virjiniyaning yangi shtatiga adolatli ulush ajratishga va'da berdi. Uning bekor qilinishi haqidagi taklifi ovoz berish solig'i va maktablar va boshqa davlat muassasalari uchun mablag'larni ko'paytirish ikki tomonlama va partiyalararo ko'makni jalb qildi.
Readjuster partiyasi o'z nomzodini tanlashda muvaffaqiyat qozondi, Uilyam E. Kemeron gubernator sifatida ishlagan va u 1882 yildan 1886 yilgacha xizmat qilgan. Mahone senator sifatida xizmat qilgan AQSh Kongressi 1881 yildan 1887 yilgacha, shuningdek, hamkasbi Readjustor Harrison H. Riddleberger, 1883 yildan 1889 yilgacha AQSh Senatida ishlagan. Readjusters tomonidan Virjiniya siyosatini samarali boshqarish 1883 yilgacha davom etgan, ular shtat qonun chiqaruvchi organlarida ko'pchilik nazoratini yo'qotgan, keyin esa demokratlar saylangan. Fitsxu Li 1885 yilda gubernator sifatida. Virjiniya qonun chiqaruvchisi AQSh Senatidagi Mahoneni ham, Riddbergerni ham demokratlar bilan almashtirdi.
1888 yilda Readjustor va Demokratik boshqaruv istisno edi Jon Mercer Langston, kim respublika chiptasi bilan Peterburg viloyatidan Kongressga saylangan. U shtatdan Kongressga saylangan birinchi qora tanli va qariyb bir asr davomida oxirgi bo'lgan. U bir muddat xizmat qildi. Iste'dodli va kuchli siyosatchi u edi Oberlin kolleji bitirmoq. U fuqarolik urushi boshlanishidan oldin Ogayo shtatida bekor qilish ishlarida uzoq vaqtdan beri qatnashgan va prezident bo'lgan Milliy teng huquqli ligasi 1864 yildan 1868 yilgacha yuridik kafedrani boshqargan va tuzgan Xovard universiteti va kollej prezidenti vazifasini bajargan. Saylanganida, u nima bo'lgan bo'lsa, u prezident edi Virjiniya shtati universiteti.
Readjustor partiyasi yo'qolib ketganda, xalq ta'limi maqsadi kuchli bo'lib qoldi, maktab o'qituvchilari ta'lim olish uchun tashkil etilgan muassasalar mavjud edi. 1884 yilda davlat bankrotlikka erishdi Farmville shahridagi ayollar kolleji va uni a sifatida ochdi oddiy maktab. Xalq ta'limi o'sishi qo'shimcha o'qituvchilarga ehtiyoj tug'dirdi. 1908 yilda ikkita qo'shimcha maktab tashkil etildi, Frederiksburgda va biri Harrisonburgda va 1910 yilda, biri Radfordda.
Readjuster partiyasi g'oyib bo'lgandan so'ng, Virjiniya demokratlari tezda qonunchilik va konstitutsiyaviy tuzatishlarni samarali ravishda qabul qildilar huquqsiz Afro-amerikaliklar va ko'plab kambag'al oqlar, foydalanish orqali so'rovnoma soliqlari va savodxonlik testlari. Ular keyingi 80 yil davomida Demokratik partiya ostida oq rangli, bir partiyaviy boshqaruvni yaratdilar. Oq tanli qonun chiqaruvchilar qayta tiklangan qonunlarni qabul qildilar oq ustunlik belgilash orqali Jim Krou ajratish. 1902 yilda Virjiniya saylovchilarni ro'yxatga olishni kamaytiradigan yangi konstitutsiyani qabul qildi.
Progressive Era
The Progressive Era 1900 yildan keyin davlatni modernizatsiya qilish, samaradorligini oshirish, ilmiy uslublarni qo'llash, ta'limni targ'ib qilish, isrofgarchilik va korruptsiyani yo'q qilish uchun mo'ljallangan ko'plab islohotlar amalga oshirildi.
Asosiy rahbar Gubernator edi Klod Suonson (1906-10), yangi boshlang'ich qonundan foydalangan holda hokimiyatga erishish uchun mashinasozlik siyosatini ortda qoldirgan demokrat. Swansonning qonunchilik organidagi islohotchilar koalitsiyasi maktablar va avtomobil yo'llarini qurdi, o'qituvchilarning ish haqi va standartlarini oshirdi, davlatning sog'liqni saqlash dasturlarini targ'ib qildi va qamoqxonalarni moliyalashtirishni ko'paytirdi. Swanson bolalar mehnatiga qarshi kurashdi, temir yo'l stavkalarini tushirdi va korporativ soliqlarni oshirdi, shu bilan birga davlat xizmatlarini tizimlashtirdi va zamonaviy boshqaruv usullarini joriy qildi. Shtat qora tanli mahkumlar tomonidan bajarilgan ishlarning ko'pi bilan o'sib borayotgan yo'llar tarmog'ini moliyalashtirdi zanjirli to'dalar. Swanson 1910 yilda AQSh Senatiga ko'chib o'tgandan so'ng, u prezidentning tarafdori sifatida milliy darajada Progressivizmni targ'ib qildi. Vudro Uilson Virjiniyada tug'ilgan va mahalliy o'g'il deb hisoblangan. Swanson, dengiz ishlarida kuch sifatida Norfolk Navy Yard va Newport News Ship Building and Drydock Corporation kompaniyalarini ilgari surdi. Swansonning shtat bo'ylab tashkiloti "Bird tashkiloti" ga aylandi.[138]
The Davlat korporatsiyasi komissiyasi (SCC) 1902 yilgi Konstitutsiyaning bir qismi sifatida, temir yo'llarning qarama-qarshiligiga qarshi, temir yo'l siyosati va tariflarini tartibga solish uchun tashkil etilgan. SCC partiyalardan, sudlardan va yirik korxonalardan mustaqil bo'lib, jamoat manfaatlarini maksimal darajada ta'minlashga qaratilgan edi. Bu samarali agentlikka aylandi, bu ayniqsa mahalliy savdogarlarni stavkalarni past darajada ushlab turish bilan quvontirdi.[139]
Virjiniya uzoq yillik qishloq xo'jaligi islohotchilarining tarixiga ega va Progressive Era ularning sa'y-harakatlarini rag'batlantirdi. Qishloq joylari doimiy muammolarga duch keldi, masalan, aholi sonining kamayishi, savodsizlikning keng tarqalishi, dehqonchilikning yomon uslublari va qishloq xo'jaligi hayvonlari va dehqon oilalari orasida zaiflashadigan kasalliklar. Islohotchilar boshlang'ich ta'lim sifatini oshirish zarurligini ta'kidladilar. Federal yordam bilan ular okrug agentlari tizimini yaratdilar (bugun Virjiniya kooperativ kengaytmasi ) bu fermerlarga tamaki va boshqa ekinlar bilan ishlashning eng yangi ilmiy usullarini o'rgatgan va fermer xo'jaliklari xotinlariga oshxonada va pitomnikda ularning samaradorligini qanday oshirishni o'rgatgan.[140]
Richmondalik Lila Mead Valentin tomonidan yozilgan ba'zi yuqori sinfdagi ayollar ko'plab ilg'or islohotlarni, shu jumladan bolalar bog'chalari, o'qituvchilar ta'limi, hamshiralar dasturiga tashrif buyurish va ikkala irq uchun ham kasb-hunar ta'limi. O'rta sinf oq tanli ayollar, ayniqsa, taqiq harakatida faol edilar.[141] Ayollarning saylov huquqi harakati irqiy masalalar bilan chalkashib ketdi - oq tanlilar qora tanli ayollarga ovoz berishga ruxsat berishni xohlamadilar - va o'z bazasini o'rta sinf oqsillardan tashqari kengaytira olmadilar. Virjiniya ayollari 1920 yilda ovoz berishdi, bu esa konstitutsiyaga kiritilgan milliy tuzatish natijasidir.[142]
Oliy ta'limda asosiy etakchi bo'lgan Edvin A. Alderman, prezidenti Virjiniya universiteti, 1904-31. Uning maqsadi janubiy universitetni davlat xizmati va intellektual etakchilik kuchiga aylantirish edi. va o'quv yordam dasturi. Alderman davlatning oliy ta'lim tizimini muvaffaqiyatli kasbiylashtirdi va modernizatsiya qildi. U xalqaro stipendiyalar standartlarini va shtat bo'ylab kengaytirilgan xizmatlar tarmog'ini ilgari surdi. Boshqa kollej prezidentlari qatoriga qo'shilib, u 1910 yilda tashkil etilgan Virjiniya Ta'lim Komissiyasini targ'ib qildi. Aldermanning salib yurishi an'anachilarning ba'zi qarshiliklariga duch keldi va hech qachon Jim Krou ajratilgan maktab ta'limiga qarshi chiqmadi.[143]
Progressivlar modernizatorlar bo'lganida, Virjiniya urf-odatlari va merosiga, ayniqsa zodagonlar orasida ham qiziqish kuchaygan Virjiniyaning birinchi oilalari (FFV). The Virjiniya antikvarlarini saqlash bo'yicha assotsiatsiya (APVA), 1889 yilda Vilyamsburgda tashkil etilgan bo'lib, Virjiniyaning 18-asrda asos solgan otalari nomidan vatanparvarlikni ta'kidlagan.[144] 1907 yilda Jeymstaun ko'rgazmasi birinchi ingliz mustamlakachilari kelishi va Jeymstaun asos solinganligining uch yuz yilligini nishonlash uchun Norfolk yaqinida bo'lib o'tdi.
Ko'p sonli federal arboblar ishtirok etgan va ular uchun boshlanish nuqtasi sifatida xizmat qilgan Buyuk Oq flot, Jeymstaun ko'rgazmasi ham ushbu hududning harbiy salohiyatiga qiziqish uyg'otdi. Keyinchalik, 1917 yilda ekspozitsiya joylashgan joy Norfolk dengiz stantsiyasi. Vashingtonga yaqinligi, mo''tadil iqlimi va Atlantika dengizining markazidagi katta portning strategik joylashuvi Virjiniyani Birinchi Jahon urushi paytida yangi harbiy inshootlar uchun muhim joyga aylantirdi. Bularga kiritilgan Fort Story, Armiya signallari korpusi stantsiya Langli, Quantico dengiz bazasi shahzoda Uilyam okrugida, Belvoir Fort Fairfax County, Fort-Li Peterburg yaqinida va Eustis Fort, Uorik okrugida (hozirgi Newport News). Shu bilan birga, og'ir yuk tashish transporti hududni maqsadga aylantirdi U-qayiqlar va Virjiniya qirg'og'ida bir qator savdo kemalariga hujum qilingan yoki cho'kib ketgan.[145][146]
Urushlararo
Temperantlik 20-asrning boshlarida muammoga aylandi. 1916 yilda shtat bo'ylab o'tkazilgan referendum spirtli ichimliklarni iste'mol qilishni taqiqlash to'g'risidagi qarorni qabul qildi. Bu 1933 yilda bekor qilingan.[147]
1930 yildan keyin turizm rivojlanishi bilan rivojlana boshladi Mustamlaka Uilyamsburg.
Shenandoah milliy bog'i yangi yig'ilgan erlardan qurilgan, shuningdek Blue Ridge Parkway va Skyline Drive. The Fuqarolarni muhofaza qilish korpusi ushbu milliy bog'ni rivojlantirishda ham katta rol o'ynagan Pokaxontas davlat bog'i. 1940 yilga kelib yangi avtomagistral ko'priklari quyi Potomak, Rappaxannok, York va Jeyms Rivers orqali o'tib, uzoq masofani tugatdi. paroxod uzoq vaqt Chesapeake ko'rfazi bo'ylab asosiy transport sifatida xizmat qilgan xizmat. Feribotlar bugun bir necha joylarda qolmoqda.
Bird mashinasi
Qora tanlilar aholining uchdan bir qismini tashkil qildi, ammo deyarli barcha siyosiy kuchlarini yo'qotdi. Saylovchilar shunchalik kichkina ediki, 1905 yildan 1948 yilgacha davlat xizmatchilari va idora egalari shtat saylovlarida uchdan birining ovozini olishdi. Ushbu kichik, boshqariladigan elektorat tomonidan shtat bo'ylab qudratli siyosiy mashinaning shakllanishiga ko'maklashdi Garri Bird 1920 yildan 60 yilgacha hukmronlik qilgan (1887-1966).[148] Siyosiy jihatdan faol bo'lgan qora tanlilarning aksariyati Berd tashkilotini qo'llab-quvvatladilar, bu esa o'z navbatida ularning ovoz berish huquqini himoya qildi va Virjiniyaning irqiy munosabatlari 1950-yillarga qadar janubda eng uyg'un holga keltirildi, deydi V.O. Kalit.[149] Federal fuqarolik huquqlari to'g'risidagi qonunchilik 1964 va 1965 yillarda qabul qilinmaguncha, afroamerikaliklar ovoz berish huquqini va boshqa asosiy konstitutsiyaviy huquqlarni qayta tiklay olmadilar inson huquqlari.
Ikkinchi Jahon urushi va zamonaviy davr
Iqtisodiy rag'batlantirish jahon urushi ishchilarga to'liq ish bilan ta'minlandi, yuqori ish haqi va dehqonlar uchun katta foyda keltirdi.[150] Ko'p minglab askarlar va dengizchilarni o'qitish uchun olib keldi. Virjiniya xizmatlarga 300 ming erkak va 4000 ayolni yubordi. Urushning kuchayishi shtatning dengiz va sanoat iqtisodiy bazasini, Shimoliy Virjiniya va unga qo'shni Vashingtonda federal hukumat ish o'rinlarining o'sishini sezilarli darajada oshirdi. Pentagon Arlingtonda dunyodagi eng katta ofis binosi sifatida qurilgan. Qo'shimcha qurilmalar qo'shildi: 1941 yilda, Fort A.P. Hill va Fort-Pikket ochildi va Fort-Li qayta faollashtirildi. Newport News kemasozlik korxonasi 1943 yilda ishchi kuchini 17000 dan 70.000 gacha kengaytirgan, Radford Arsenalda 22000 ishchi portlovchi moddalar ishlab chiqargan. Tovar ayirboshlash juda yuqori edi - uch oy ichida Newport News kemasozlik korxonasida 8400 yangi ishchi yollandi, chunki 8300 kishi ishdan bo'shatildi.[151]
Sovuq urush va kosmik asr
Urushdan keyingi umumiy o'sishdan tashqari, Sovuq urush Shimoliy Virjiniya va Xempton-Yo'llarda ham o'sishga olib keldi. Arlingtonda allaqachon tashkil etilgan Pentagon bilan yangi tashkil etilgan Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi shtab-kvartirasi uzoqroqda joylashgan Langli (havo kuchlari bazasi bilan bog'liq bo'lmagan). 1960-yillarning boshlarida yangi Dulles xalqaro aeroporti Fairfax County-Loudoun County chegarasi atrofida joylashgan. Shimoliy Virjiniyadagi boshqa saytlar tinglash stantsiyasini o'z ichiga olgan Vint tepaligi. Mavjudligi sababli AQSh Atlantika floti 1952 yilda Norfolkda Ittifoq qo'mondonligi Atlantika ning NATO Bosh qarorgohi o'sha erda joylashgan bo'lib, u erda Sovuq urush davom etgan.[152] Keyinchalik 1950-yillarda va daryo bo'yida, Newport News kemasozlik qurilishini boshlagan bo'lar edi USS Enterprise - dunyodagi birinchi atom energetikasi samolyot tashuvchisi - va undan keyingi atom tashuvchisi parki.
Virjiniya ham Amerikaning harakatlariga guvoh bo'ldi Kosmik poyga. Qachon Aeronavtika bo'yicha milliy maslahat qo'mitasi ga aylantirildi Milliy aviatsiya va kosmik ma'muriyat 1958 yilda, natijada Kosmik vazifalar guruhi bosh qarorgohi laboratoriyalarida joylashgan Langley tadqiqot markazi.[153] U erdan boshlanadi Mercury loyihasi va shu kungacha AQSh tomonidan boshqariladigan kosmik parvozlar dasturining shtab-kvartirasi bo'lib qoladi Xyustonga o'tish 1962 yilda.[153] Sharqiy sohilda, Chincoteague yaqinida, Wallops parvoz vositasi raketa uchirish maydonchasi bo'lib xizmat qildi, shu jumladan uchirish Kichkina Jou 2 a yuborgan 1959 yil 4-dekabrda rezus maymun, Sem, suborbital kosmik parvozga.[154] Keyinchalik Langli nazoratni amalga oshirdi Viking dasturi Marsga.[155]
AQShning yangi davlatlararo avtomagistral tizimi 1950 va yangi yillarda boshlangan Xempton yo'llari ko'prigi-tunnel 1958 yilda o'zgarishga yordam berdi Virjiniya plyaji 1963 yilga kelib kichik kurort shahardan shtatning eng yirik shaharlaridan biriga aylandi va o'sishiga turtki berdi Xempton yo'llari region linked by the Hampton Roads Beltway. In the western portion of the state, completion of north-south Davlatlararo 81 brought better access and new businesses to dozens of counties over a distance of 300 miles (480 km) as well as facilitating travel by students at the many Shenandoah area colleges and universities. Ning yaratilishi Smit tog 'ko'li, Anna ko'li, Kleytor ko‘li, Lake Gaston va Buggs orolining ko'li, by damming rivers, attracted many retirees and vacationers to those rural areas. As the century drew to a close, Virginia tobacco growing gradually declined due to health concerns, although not at steeply as in Janubiy Merilend. A state jamoat kolleji system brought affordable higher education within commuting distance of most Virginians, including those in remote, underserved localities. Other new institutions were founded, most notably Jorj Meyson universiteti va Ozodlik universiteti. Localities such as Danvill va Martinsvill suffered greatly as their manufacturing industries closed.[iqtibos kerak ]
Fuqarolik huquqlari davri va ommaviy qarshilik
1944 yilda, Irene Morgan refused to give up her seat on an interstate bus and was arrested in Midlseks okrugi, Virjiniya pursuant to Virginia's segregation laws. Morgan appealed her case up to the U.S. Supreme Court and, in 1946, won Irene Morgan va Virjiniya Hamdo'stligiga qarshi, which struck down irqiy ajratish in interstate buses. Virginia continued to enforce interstate bus segregation, and in 1947, activists organized a series of integrated rides, the Yarashuv sayohati, through Virginia and other states of the Yuqori Janubiy in an act of civil disobedience against Virginia's defiance of the Supreme Court's ruling. Another U.S. Supreme Court ruling involving Virginia, Boynton va Virjiniya (1960), desegregated interstate bus terminals. Morgan, Boynton, and the Journey of Reconciliation inspired the 1961 Ozodlik safari that fought bus segregation in the Chuqur janub. Along with the bus desegregation cases, Virginia was a contestant in the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage, Sevgi Virjiniyaga qarshi (1967).
Senator Harry Byrd, the state's dominant politician, was long a champion of constitutional rights against expansion of federal power. He deployed two doctrines in a last ditch battle against racial integration after the Brown decision of 1954: interposition and massive resistance. The first doctrine proclaimed that the U.S. Constitution allowed the states to interpose state sovereignty blocking rulings of federal courts from taking effect on local school boards. The new doctrine of Katta qarshilik became a rallying cry across the southern United States to block orders by federal courts to integrate public schools. The test cases came in Virginia, when in 1956 the legislature adopted interposition and urged fellow states to join in. Governor Stanley abandon his earlier moderation, and the legislature adopted the Stenli rejasi. It included 13 segregationist laws, including five that were designed to intimidate the NAACP. The governor now had the power to close public schools, and he shut down the first one in Warren County in 1958, followed by Charlottesville and Norfolk. In 1959 both the Virginia supreme Court of Appeals, and the federal court declared the Stanley Plan unconstitutional in terms of both the state and federal constitutions. Hokim J. Lindsay bodom broke with Byrd; the General assembly voted to end massive resistance. Nevertheless, in 1959-1963, Shahzoda Eduard okrugi closed all its public schools.[156]
The first black students attended the Virjiniya universiteti yuridik fakulteti 1950 yilda va Virginia Tech 1953 yilda.[157] In 2008, various actions of the Fuqarolik huquqlari harakati were commemorated by the Virjiniya fuqarolik huquqlari yodgorligi Richmondda.
Zamonaviy hamdo'stlik
By the 1980s, Shimoliy Virjiniya va Xempton yo'llari region had achieved the greatest growth and prosperity, chiefly because of employment related to Federal government agencies and defense, as well as an increase in technology in Northern Virginia. Shipping through the Port of Hampton Roads began expansion which continued into the early 21st century as new container facilities were opened. Coal piers in Newport News and Norfolk had recorded major gains in export shipments by August 2008. The recent expansion of government programs in the areas near Washington has profoundly affected the economy of Shimoliy Virjiniya whose population has experienced large growth and great ethnic/ cultural diversification, exemplified by communities such as Taysons burchagi, Reston and dense, urban Arlington. The subsequent growth of defense projects has also generated a local information technology industry. In recent years, intolerably heavy commuter traffic and the urgent need for both road and rail transportation improvements have been a major issue in Northern Virginia. The Xempton yo'llari region has also experienced much growth, as have the western suburbs of Richmond ikkalasida ham Henriko va Chesterfild Grafliklar.
On January 13, 1990, Duglas Uaylder became the first African American to be elected as Governor of a US state since Qayta qurish when he was elected Governor of Virginia.
Virginia served as a major center for information technology during the early days of the Internet and network communication. Internet and other communications companies clustered in the Dulles Corridor. By 1993, the Washington area had the largest amount of Internet backbone and the highest concentration of Internet service providers.[158] In 2000, more than half of all Internet traffic flowed along the Dalles pullik yo'li,[158] and by 2016 70% of the world's internet traffic flowed through Loudoun County.[159] Bill von Meister founded two Virginia companies that played major roles in the commercialization of the Internet: Maklin, Virjiniya asoslangan Manba va Video korporatsiyasini boshqarish, oldingi America Online. While short-lived, The Source was one of the first onlayn xizmat ko'rsatuvchi provayderlar yonma-yon CompuServe. On hand for the launch of The Source, Ishoq Asimov remarked "This is the beginning of the information age."[160] The Source helped pave the way for future online service providers including another Virginia company founded by von Meister, America Online (AOL). AOL became the largest provider of Internet access during the Dial-up era of Internet access. AOL maintained a Virginia headquarters until the then-struggling company moved in 2007.
In 2006, former Virjiniya gubernatori Mark Uorner gave a speech and interview in the ommaviy multiplayer onlayn o'yin Ikkinchi hayot, becoming the first politician to appear in a video game.[161] In 2007, Virginia speedily passed the nation's first kosmik parvoz act by a vote of 99–0 in the Delegatlar uyi.[162] Northern Virginia company Kosmik sarguzashtlar is currently the only company in the world offering kosmik turizm. In 2008, Virginia became the first state to pass legislation on Internet safety, with mandatory educational courses for 11- to 16-year-olds.[163]
Virginia was targeted in the 2001 yil 11 sentyabrdagi hujumlar, kabi American Airlines aviakompaniyasining 77-reysi was hijacked and crashed into Pentagon yilda Arlington okrugi.
In 2013, by a slight margin in the Virginia Governor's race, the state of Virginia broke a long acclaimed streak of choosing a governor against the incumbent party within the White House. For the first time in more than thirty years, the Governor and the President were from the same party.
Pochta markalarida Virjiniya tarixi
1907 issue Jamestown centennial
1936 issue Army-Navy series
1937 issue Army-Navy series
Stamps of Virginia events and landmarks include
• Jamestown founding
• Mount Vernon
• Stratford Hall
Shuningdek qarang
- Colonial South and the Chesapeake
- Virjiniya koloniyasi
- Virjiniya Konstitutsiyasi
- Virjiniya shtatidagi ayollarning saylov huquqi
- Virjiniyaning avvalgi okruglari, shaharlari va qishloqlari
- Richmond, Virjiniya tarixi, the current state capital
- History of the East Coast of the United States
- AQShning janubiy tarixi
- History of Virginia on stamps
- Newspapers in Virginia in the 18th century, List of
- Timeline of Virginia[164][165][166][167]
- Virjiniya konvensiyalari
Adabiyotlar
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 1, 2013). "Girl's Bones Bear Signs of Cannibalism by Starving Virginia Colonists". The New York Times.
- ^ Charlz H. Ambler va Festus P. Summers, G'arbiy Virjiniya, tog'li shtat (1958) pp 48-52, 55
- ^ "Archaeological evidence also indicates that Native Americans occupied the area as early as 6500 BC." "State Historical Highway Marker 'Pocahontas Island' To Be Dedicated in Petersburg", Petersburg, VA Official Website, Posted on: June 16, 2015, archived article accessed February 25, 2016
- ^ Brown, Hutch (Summer 2000). "Wildland Burning by American Indians in Virginia". Fire Management Today. 60 (3): 32. An engraving after John White watercolor. Sparsely wooded field in background suggests the region's savanna.
- ^ Virginia Indian Tribes, University of Richmond Arxivlandi March 9, 2005, at the Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
- ^ Clarence Walworth Alvord and Lee Bidgood, 1912.
- ^ [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022073344/http://niahd.wm.edu/index.php?browse=entry&id=4965&svr=www Archived 2008 yil 22 oktyabr, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi c.f. Anishinaabe tili: danakamigaa: "activity-grounds", ya'ni "land of much events [for the People]"
- ^ Edward Bland, The Discoverie of New Brittaine
- ^ "The Shawnee Tribe and War of 1812". SchoolworkHelper.net. 2017 yil 17-avgustda olingan.
- ^ Vud, Karenne (muharrir). The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail, 2007.
- ^ "Restore Handsell".
- ^ Pritsker 441
- ^ a b "LEARN NC arxivlandi".
- ^ Hodge, F. W. (1910). The Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Vashington, Kolumbiya okrugi: Hukumatning bosmaxonasi.
- ^ Mooney, James, The Siouan Tribes of the Southeast. Smitson instituti. Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 1894.
- ^ Brashler 1987
- ^ Kent 2001 yil
- ^ Hale, Horatio "Tutelo Tribe & Language" (1883)
- ^ Owen-Dorsey, James & Swanton, John R. "A Dictionary of Biloxi & Ofo" (1912)
- ^ Speck, Frank G. "Catawba Texts" (1969)
- ^ Collins, Scott Preston "Saponi History"
- ^ http://www.gilwell.com/lenape/lenape.pdf
- ^ "Saponi Nation of Ohio".
- ^ Jerald T. Milanich (2006 yil 10 fevral). Laboring in the Fields of the Lord: Spanish Missions And Southeastern Indians. Florida universiteti matbuoti. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8130-2966-5. 2012 yil 25-iyun kuni olindi.
- ^ "Discoveries of John Lederer," reprinted by O.H. Harpel, Cincinnati (1879)
- ^ a b Batt's "Journal & Relation of a New Discovery" N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. III, p. 191 (1671)
- ^ "Lambreville to Bruyas Nov. 4,1696" N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. III, p. 484
- ^ Lawson's "History of Carolina" reprinted by Stroller & Marcom. Raleigh, 1860, p. 384
- ^ N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. V, p. 633
- ^ "Life of Brainerd" p. 167
- ^ N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. VI, p. 811
- ^ Mooney, J. (1894). The Siouan Tribes of the East. Vashington, Kolumbiya okrugi: Hukumatning bosmaxonasi.
- ^ http://www.sonofthesouth.net/revolutionary-war/maps/captain-smith-virginia-map.jpg
- ^ "The Tuscarora and the Iroquois League | Native American Netroots".
- ^ "Coharie Tribe". Coharie Tribe. Coharie Tribe. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
- ^ "EARLY INDIAN MIGRATION IN OHIO". GenealogyTrails.com. 2017 yil 17-avgustda olingan.
- ^ Cheves, L. "Shaftesbury Papers." Col. of the South Carolina Historical Society 5, Richmond: William Ellis Jones
- ^ Cheves, L. "Shaftesbury Papers." Col. of the South Carolina Historical Society 5, Richmond: William Ellis Jones
- ^ "Yuchi Language Primer" (2007) Yuchi.org
- ^ cherokeelessons.com/pdf/Cherokee Lessons 978-0-557-68640-7.pdf
- ^ Oatis, Steven J. "A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, (1680-1730)
- ^ Oatis, A Colonial Complex
- ^ Charles Augustus Hanna, 1911 The Wilderness Trail, Vol II, 1911, pp. 93–95.
- ^ Etridj, Robbi (2003). "Chapter 5: "The People of Creek Country"". Creek Country: The Creek Indians and their World. Shimoliy Karolina universiteti matbuoti. p. 93. ISBN 0-8078-5495-6.
- ^ Berrier Jr., Ralph (September 20, 2009). "The slaughter at Saltville". Roanoke Times. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2012 yil 11 sentyabrda. Olingan 9 oktyabr, 2011.
- ^ "Virginia Memory: Virginia Chronology". Virjiniya kutubxonasi. Olingan 9 oktyabr, 2011.
- ^ James O. Glanville (2004). Conquistadors at Saltville in 1567?: A Review of the Archeological and Documentary Evidence. Smithfield Review.
- ^ a b "A" New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient: The American Southeast During the Sixteenth Century. LSU Matbuot. October 1, 2004. pp. 182–184. ISBN 978-0-8071-3028-5. Olingan 30 mart, 2013.
- ^ Stephen Adams (2001), The best and worst country in the world: perspectives on the early Virginia landscape, University of Virginia Press, p. 61, ISBN 978-0-8139-2038-2
- ^ Charles M. Hudson; Carmen Chaves Tesser (1994). The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521-1704. Jorjiya universiteti matbuoti. p. 359. ISBN 978-0-8203-1654-3.
- ^ Jerald T. Milanich (2006 yil 10 fevral). Lordning dalalarida mehnat qilish: Ispaniya missiyalari va janubi-sharqiy hindular. Florida universiteti matbuoti. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-8130-2966-5. Olingan 30 iyun, 2012.
- ^ a b Seth Mallios (August 28, 2006). The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange And Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, And Jamestown. Alabama universiteti matbuoti. pp. 39–43. ISBN 978-0-8173-5336-0. Olingan 30 iyun, 2012.
- ^ Price, 11
- ^ Thomas C. Parramore; Peter C. Stewart; Tommy L. Bogger (April 1, 2000). Norfolk: The First Four Centuries. Virjiniya universiteti matbuoti. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8139-1988-1. Olingan 18 mart, 2012.
- ^ a b MR Piter S Mankal (2007). Atlantika dunyosi va Virjiniya, 1550-1624. UNC matbuot kitoblari. 517, 522 betlar. ISBN 978-0-8078-3159-5. Olingan 17 fevral, 2013.
- ^ Three names from the Roanoke koloniyasi are still in use, all based on Native American names. Styuart, Jorj (1945). Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. Nyu-York: tasodifiy uy. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-59017-273-5.
- ^ Raleigh, Jahon tarixi: "For when some of my people asked the name of that country, one of the savages answered 'Win-gan-da-coa', which is as much as to say, 'You wear good clothes.'
- ^ T. H. Breen, "Looking Out for Number One: Conflicting Cultural Values in Early Seventeenth-Century Virginia," South Atlantic Quarterly, Summer 1979, Vol. 78 Issue 3, pp. 342–360
- ^ J. Frederick Fausz, "The 'Barbarous Massacre' Reconsidered: The Powhatan Uprising of 1622 and the Historians," Explorations in Ethnic Studies, vol 1 (Jan. 1978), 16–36
- ^ Gleach p. 199
- ^ John Esten Cooke, Virjiniya: Xalq tarixi (1883) p. 205.
- ^ Heinemann, Ronald L., et al., Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: a history of Virginia 1607-2007, U. Virginia Press 2007 ISBN 978-0-8139-2609-4, p.44-45
- ^ Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia (1957)
- ^ Albert H. Tillson (1991). Gentry and Common Folk: Political Culture on a Virginia Frontier, 1740-1789. Kentukki shtati. p. 20ff. ISBN 978-0813117492.
- ^ Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North America (2002) p 157.
- ^ Jon E. Selbi, Virjiniyadagi inqilob, 1775-1783 (1988) p 24-25.
- ^ Quoted in Nancy L. Struna, "The Formalizing of Sport and the Formation of an Elite: The Chesapeake Gentry, 1650-1720s." Sport tarixi jurnali 13#3 (1986) p 219. onlayn Arxivlandi 2017 yil 22-avgust, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
- ^ Struna, The Formalizing of Sport and the Formation of an Elite pp 212-16.
- ^ Timothy H. Breen, "Horses and gentlemen: The cultural significance of gambling among the gentry of Virginia." Uilyam va Meri har chorakda (1977) 34#2 pp: 239-257. onlayn
- ^ Edmund Morgan, Amerika qulligi, Amerika erkinligi: mustamlaka Virjiniya sinovi (1975) p 386
- ^ Heinemann, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth (2007) 83–90
- ^ Gene Wilhelm, Jr., "Folk Culture History of the Blue Ridge Mountains" Appalachian Journal (1975) 2#3 JSTOR-da
- ^ Delma R. Carpenter, "The Route Followed by Governor Spotswood in 1716 across the Blue Ridge Mountains." Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali (1965): 405-412. JSTOR-da
- ^ Rob Sherwood, "Germanna's Treasure Trove of History: A Journey of Discovery." So'rov 13.1 (2008): 45-55. onlayn
- ^ "Uchta chizilgan yo'lning marshruti: dastlabki hisobot" (PDF). Virginiadot.org. Olingan 16 aprel, 2015.
- ^ "Uchta chizilgan yo'lning marshruti: dastlabki hisobot" (PDF). 3chopt.com. Olingan 16 aprel, 2015.
- ^ Encyclopedia Virginia article: "Backcountry Frontier of Colonial Virginia" onlayn
- ^ Encyclopedia Virginia article: "Backcountry Frontier of Colonial Virginia" http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Backcountry_Frontier_of_Colonial_Virginia#start_entry
- ^ http://www.virginiaplaces.org/settleland/fairfaxgrant.html Once colonial settlement moved upstream of the Kuz chizig'i into the Piedmont, the dispute over the inland edge of the Northern Neck grant became an issue. Settlers seeking clear title had to know whether to file paperwork and pay fees to the colonial government in Williamsburg or the land office of the Fairfax family. If the colony could extinguish the Northern Neck grant somehow, revenues would flow to Williamsburg rather than to Lids qal'asi."
- ^ http://www.historichampshire.org/research/searching1.htm "in mid-March, 1735, Lord Fairfax arrived in Virginia on board the Glasgow on his first inspection trip to America. The trip lasted over two years during which time Fairfax reasserted his claim to the Proprietary and made arrangements for the survey of the boundaries."
- ^ http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/lord-fairfax/ "in 1748 hired, among others, the sixteen-year old Washington to survey the Northern Neck."
- ^ George Washington's elder half brother Lourens Vashington (1718-1752) was married to Anne (1728-1761) a daughter of Col. William Fairfax of Belvoir —a land agent and cousin of Lord Thomas Fairfax. Anne's brother, George William Fairfax, was married to Sally Fairfax (nee Cary).
- ^ Historical Statement Relative to the Town of Winchester the Virginia -- Burgesslar uyi granted the fourth city charter in Virginia to 'Winchester' as Frederick Town was renamed.
- ^ MacCorkle, William Alexander. "The historical and other relations of Pittsburgh and the Virginias". Historic Pittsburgh General Text Collection. Pitsburg universiteti. Olingan 16 sentyabr, 2013.
- ^ Andrew Arnold Lambing; va boshq. "Allegheny County: its early history and subsequent development: from the earliest period till 1790". Tarixiy Pitsburg matnlar to'plami. Pitsburg universiteti. Olingan 12 sentyabr, 2013.
- ^ "Addresses delivered at the celebration of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Bushy Run, August 5th and 6th, 1913". Historic Pittsburgh General Text Collection. Pitsburg universiteti. Olingan 16 sentyabr, 2013.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 48
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 42–43
- ^ "Royal Proclamation I". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013 yil 20 oktyabrda. Olingan 30 may, 2013.
- ^ Gordon S. Wood, The American Revolution, A History. New York, Modern Library, 2002 ISBN 0-8129-7041-1, p.22
- ^ Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen, Virjiniyadagi episkop cherkovi, 1607–2007 (2007)
- ^ Rountree p. 161–162, 168–170, 175
- ^ Edvard L. Bond, "Jeyms Blerning Virjiniyadagi anglikan ilohiyoti va sadoqati, 1685–1743" Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, (1996) 104#3 pp 313–40
- ^ Charlz Vudmason, Inqilob arafasida Karolina mamlakatlari: Charlz Vudmasonning jurnali va boshqa yozuvlari, Anglikalik sayohat tahrir. Richard J. Xuker tomonidan (1969)
- ^ David Brion Davis (1986). Mustamlaka Chesapeake-da qullik. Mustamlaka Uilyamsburg. p. 28. ISBN 9780879351151.
- ^ Cynthia Lynn Lyerly (1998). Metodizm va janubiy aql, 1770-1810. Oksford UP. p. 119ff. ISBN 9780195354249.
- ^ Jon A. Ragosta, "Ozodlik uchun kurash: Amerika inqilobi davrida Virjiniya dissidentlarining diniy erkinlik uchun kurashi" Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, (2008) 116#3 pp. 226–261
- ^ Rhys Isaac, "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 To 1775," Uilyam va Meri har chorakda (1974) 31 №3 345–368 betlar JSTOR-da
- ^ Polin Mayer, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 (2010) pp. 235–319
- ^ Piter Kolchin, Amerika qulligi: 1619-1877, Nyu-York: Tepalik va Vang, 1994, p. 73
- ^ Kolchin, Amerika qulligi, p. 81
- ^ Endryu Levi, Birinchi ozodlik beruvchi: Qullarini ozod qilgan asoschi ota Robert Karterning unutilgan hikoyasi, Nyu-York: Tasodifiy uy, 2005 (ISBN 0-375-50865-1)
- ^ Scott Nesbit, "Scales Intimate and Sprawling: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Geography of Marriage in Virginia", Janubiy bo'shliqlar, 2011 yil 19-iyul. http://southernspaces.org/2011/scales-intimate-and-sprawling-slavery-emancipation-and-geography-marriage-virginia.
- ^ Albert J. Raboteau, Qullar dini: Antebellum janubidagi "ko'rinmas muassasa", New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 137, accessed December 27, 2008
- ^ "Soil exhaustion in the Tidewater became chronic, and the Piedmont was "worn out, washed and gullied." Conditions were better in the Valley of Virginia, where wheat rather than tobacco was dominant, but even there people saw a brighter future outside Virginia." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners
- ^ "In all, perhaps one million Virginians left the commonwealth between the Revolution and the Civil War." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners
- ^ "Virginia fell from first to seventh place in population, and its number of congressmen dropped from twenty-three to eleven." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners
- ^ http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners "Although this mass exodus of Virginians caused the state to slip into a secondary role both politically and economically, these westward-bound settlers spread their culture, laws, political ideas, and labor system across America."
- ^ "Washington Iron Furnace National Register Nomination" (PDF). Virjiniya tarixiy manbalar bo'limi. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2010 yil 23 iyunda. Olingan 23 mart, 2011.
- ^ S. Sydney Bradford, "The Negro Ironworker in Ante Bellum Virginia," Journal of Southern History, 1959 yil may, jild 25 Issue 2, pp. 194–206; Ronald L. Lewis, "The Use and Extent of Slave Labor in the Virginia Iron Industry: The Antebellum Era," West Virginia History, Jan 1977, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 141–156
- ^ For a comparison of Virginia and New Jersey see John Bezis-Selfa, "A Tale of Two Ironworks: Slavery, Free Labor, Work, and Resistance in the Early Republic," Uilyam va Meri chorakda, Oct 1999, Vol. 56 Issue 4, pp. 677–700
- ^ "Virginia Museum of History & Culture |". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2008 yil 3 fevralda. Olingan 4 dekabr, 2007.
- ^ qarang "Libbi qamoqxonasi", Virjiniya entsiklopediyasi, 2012 yil 21 aprelda
- ^ Aaron Sheehan-Dean, "Everyman's War: Confederate Enlistment in Civil War Virginia," Fuqarolar urushi tarixi, March 2004, Vol. 50 Issue 1, pp. 5–26
- ^ The U.S Constitution requires permission of the old state for a new state to form. David R. Zimring, "'Secession in Favor of the Constitution': How West Virginia Justified Separate Statehood during the Civil War," West Virginia History, (2009) 3#2 pp. 23–51
- ^ Richard O. Curry, G'arbiy Virjiniyada bo'linib ketgan uy, davlatchilik siyosati va Copperhead harakati, (1964), pp. 141–147.
- ^ Kori, Bo'lingan uy, pg. 73.
- ^ Kori, Bo'lingan uy, pgs. 141–152.
- ^ Charlz H. Ambler va Festus P. Summers, West Virginia: The Mountain State ch 15–20
- ^ Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (1985) ch 12–14
- ^ Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America 1861-1865 (1994) p. 43-53.
- ^ The main scholarly histories are Hamilton James Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction (1904); Richard Lowe, Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856–70 (1991); and Jack P. Maddex, Jr., The Virginia Conservatives, 1867–1879: A Study in Reconstruction Politics (1970). See also Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) ch. 11
- ^ Mary Farmer-Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation, (Fordham U.P., 2010), quotes pp. 51, 13
- ^ Richard Lowe, "Another Look at Reconstruction in Virginia," Fuqarolar urushi tarixi, March 1986, Vol. 32 Issue 1, pp. 56–76
- ^ James L. McDonough, "John Schofield as Military Director of Reconstruction in Virginia.," Fuqarolar urushi tarixi, Sept 1969, Vol. 15#3, pp. 237–256
- ^ Heinemann, et al. Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007) p 248.
- ^ Erik Foner, Fuqarolar urushi davrida siyosat va mafkura (1980) p 146
- ^ James E. Bond, No Easy Walk to Freedom: Reconstruction and the Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment (Praeger, 1997) p. 156.
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 5
- ^ The Carpetbaggers were Northern whites who had moved to Virginia after the war. Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) p. 248
- ^ Note: In order to gain public education, black delegates had to accept segregation in the schools.
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 6
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 7
- ^ Walker had 119,535 votes and Wells 101,204. The new Underwood Constitution was approved overwhelmingly, but the disfranchisement clauses were rejected by 3:2 ratios. The new legislature was controlled by the Conservative Party, which soon absorbed the "True Republicans". Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, p. 411
- ^ Ku-kluks-klan chapters were formed in Virginia in the early years after the war, but they played a negligible role in state politics and soon vanished. Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) p. 249
- ^ Nelson M. Blake, William Mahone of Virginia: Soldier and Political Insurgent (1935)
- ^ Richard Lowe, Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856-70 (1991) p 119
- ^ Henry C. Ferrell, Claude A. Swanson of Virginia: a political biography (1985)
- ^ George Harrison Gilliam, "Making Virginia Progressive," Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, 1999, Vol. 107 Issue 2, pp. 189–222
- ^ Lex Renda, "The Advent of Agricultural Progressivism in Virginia," Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, 1988, Vol. 96 Issue 1, pp. 55–82
- ^ Lloyd C. Taylor, Jr. "Lila Meade Valentine: The FFV as Reformer," Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, 1962, Vol. 70 Issue 4, pp. 471–487
- ^ Sara Hunter Graham, "Woman Suffrage In Virginia: The Equal Suffrage League and Pressure-Group Politics, 1909–1920," Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, 1993, jild 101 Issue 2, pp. 227–250
- ^ Michael Dennis, "Reforming the 'academical village,'" Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali, 1997, jild 105 Issue 1, pp. 53–86
- ^ James M. Lindgren, "Virginia Needs Living Heroes": Historic Preservation in the Progressive Era," Jamoat tarixchisi, Jan 1991, Vol. 13 Issue 1, pp. 9–24
- ^ "U-Boat Sinks Schooner Without Any Warning" (PDF). Nyu-York Tayms. 1918 yil 17-avgust. Olingan 28 iyul, 2011.
- ^ "RAIDING U-BOAT SINKS 2 NEUTRALS OFF VIRGINIA COAST". Nyu-York Tayms. 1918 yil 17-iyun. Olingan 28 iyul, 2011.
- ^ Arlington Connection, Michael Lee Pope, October 14–20, 2009, Alcohol as Budget Savior, page 3
- ^ Morgan Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics (1974) p 181; Wallenstein, Cradle of America (2007) p 283–4
- ^ V.O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics (1949) p 32
- ^ Joe Freitus, Virginia in the War Years, 1938-1945: Military Bases, the U-Boat War and Daily Life (McFarland, 2014)
- ^ Charles Johnson, "V for Virginia: The Commonwealth Goes to War," Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali 100(1992): 365–398 JSTOR-da
- ^ "A Brief History of U.S. Fleet Forces Command". U.S. Fleet Forces Command, USN. Olingan 17 mart, 2011.
- ^ a b "Langley's Role in Project Mercury". NASA Langley tadqiqot markazi. Olingan 20 mart, 2011.
- ^ "Giant Leaps Began With "Little Joe"". NASA Langley tadqiqot markazi. Olingan 20 mart, 2011.
- ^ "Viking: Trialblazer For All Mars Research". NASA Langley tadqiqot markazi. Olingan 20 mart, 2011.
- ^ James H. Hershman Jr., "Massive Resistance" Encyclopedia of Virginia (2011)
- ^ Wallenstein, Peter (Fall 1997). "Not Fast, But First: The Desegregation of Virginia Tech". VT Magazine. Virginia Tech. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2008 yil 13 aprelda. Olingan 12 aprel, 2008.
- ^ a b Donnelly, Sally B. "D.C. Dotcom." Vaqt 2000 yil 8-avgust. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,52073-2,00.html
- ^ Freed, Benjamin (September 14, 2016). "70 Percent of the World's Web Traffic Flows Through Loudoun County". Vashingtonlik.
- ^ "OBIT -".
- ^ LIFE: Mark Warner becomes first U.S. politician to campaign in a video game Arxivlandi 2011 yil 30 sentyabr, soat Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
- ^ Virginia leads the way
- ^ Virginia First State to Require Internet Safety Lessons
- ^ "Notable dates in Virginia history". Virginia Historical Society.
- ^ Benjamin Vincent (1910), "Virginia", Xaydnning sanalar lug'ati (25-nashr), London: Ward, Lock & Co., hdl:2027 / loc.ark: / 13960 / t89g6g776 – via Hathi Trust
- ^ Xovard, Bler; Burnham, Mary K.; Burnham, Bill (April 2005). Virjiniya uchun qo'llanma. ISBN 9781588435125.
- ^ "Results for 'su:Virginia History Chronology.' [WorldCat.org] ". www.worldcat.org. Olingan 21 iyul, 2020.
Qo'shimcha o'qish
So'rovnomalar
- Dabney, Virginius. Virjiniya: Yangi hukmronlik (1971)
- Heinemann, Ronald L., John G. Kolp, Anthony S. Parent Jr., and William G. Shade, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007). ISBN 978-0-8139-2609-4.
- Kierner, Cynthia A., and Sandra Gioia Treadway. Virginia Women: Their Lives and Times, vol. 1. (University of Georgia Press, 2015) x, 378 pp
- Morse, J. (1797). "Virginia". The American Gazetteer. Boston, Massachusetts: At the presses of S. Hall, and Thomas & Andrews. OL 23272543M.
- Rubin, Louis D. Virginia: A Bicentennial History. States and the Nation Series. (1977), popular
- Salmon, Emily J., and Edward D.C. Campbell, Jr., eds. The Hornbook of Virginia history: A Ready-Reference Guide to the Old Dominion's People, Places, and Past 4-nashr. (1994)
- Valenshteyn, Piter. Amerikaning beshigi: to'rt asrlik Virjiniya tarixi (2007). ISBN 978-0-7006-1507-0.
- WPA. Virjiniya: Eski hukmronlik uchun qo'llanma (1940) har bir joy uchun mashhur qo'llanma; jamiyat, iqtisodiyot va madaniyatga kuchli onlayn nashr
- Yoshroq, Edvard va Jeyms Tice Mur, tahrir. Virjiniya gubernatorlari, 1860–1978 (1982)
Tarixnoma
- Tarter, Brent, "Virjiniyada tarix yaratish", Virjiniya tarixi va biografiyasi jurnali Jild: 115. Nashr: 1. 2007. 3+ bet. onlayn nashr
Davrga ko'ra
Tarixdan oldingi va mustamlaka
- Appelbaum, Robert va Jon Vud Sweet, nashrlar. Ingliz imperiyasini tasavvur qilish: Jeymstaun va Shimoliy Atlantika dunyosining yaratilishi (Pensilvaniya matbuoti U, 2011 yil)
- Billings, Uorren M., Jon E. Selbi va Thad V, Teyt. Mustamlaka Virjiniya: tarix (1986)
- Bond, Edvard L. Tamaki koloniyasidagi la'natlangan ruhlar: XVII asr Virjiniyadagi din (2000),
- Breen T. H. Puritanlar va sarguzashtlar: Amerikaning dastlabki davrida o'zgarish va qat'iyatlilik (1980). Mustamlakachilik ijtimoiy tarixiga oid 4 bob onlayn nashr
- Breen, T. H. Tamaki madaniyati: Inqilob arafasida Buyuk Tidewater ekuvchilarning mentaliteti (1985)
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Tashqi havolalar
- Virjiniya entsiklopediyasi
- Virjiniya tarixiy jamiyati davlatning qisqa tarixi, o'qituvchilar uchun qo'llanma
- Virjiniya xotirasi, raqamli to'plamlar va onlayn-sinf Virjiniya kutubxonasi
- Virjiniyada graflar qanday boshlandi?
- Birlik yoki ajralib chiqish: Virjiniyaliklar qaror qiladi
- Virjiniya va fuqarolar urushi
- Fuqarolar urushi xronologiyasi
- Boston ommaviy kutubxonasi, xarita markazi. Virjiniya xaritalari, turli xil sanalar.
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