Liao sulolasi - Liao dynasty
Ajoyib Liao / Qidan 大 遼 (Buyuk Liao)  / 契丹 國 (Kidan davlati) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| 916–1125 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Liao sulolasi eng katta darajada, v. 1000 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Liao davrlari, v. 1111 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Poytaxt | Shanjing (Linxuang)1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Umumiy tillar | Kidan, O'rta xitoy, Yurxen | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Din | Ko'pchilik: Ta'sirlari: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hukumat | Monarxiya | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Imperator | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 907–926 | Taizu (Abaoji) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 926–947 | Taizong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 947–951 | Shizong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 951–969 | Muzong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 969–982 | Jingzong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 982–1031 | Shengzong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1031–1055 | Sinzong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1055–1101 | Daozong | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1101–1125 | Tianzuo | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tarixiy davr | O'rta asr Osiyo | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Abaoji kidanlar xoqoniga aylanadi | 907 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Abaoji unvoniga ega Samoviy imperator | 916 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• "Buyuk Liao" sulola nomi sifatida qabul qilingan | 947 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• imzolash Chanyuan shartnomasi Qo'shiq bilan | 1005 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• paydo bo'lishi Jin sulolasi | 1114–1115 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Imperator Tianzuo Jin tomonidan ushlangan | 1125 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• G'arbiy Liao tashkil etilgan | 1124 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Maydon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 947 est.[1][2] | 2 600 000 km2 (1 000 000 kvadrat milya) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1111 est.[3][4] | 4,500,000 km2 (1,700,000 sqm mil) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Valyuta | Ko'pincha barter ko'chmanchi hududlarda va pul tanga janubiy tumanida. (Qarang: Liao sulolasining tangalari ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Bugungi qismi | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1. Shangjing (Linxuang) Liao tomonidan tashkil etilgan beshta poytaxtdan birinchi o'rinni egalladi, ularning barchasi bir vaqtning o'zida tumanning mintaqaviy poytaxtlari sifatida xizmat qilgan. Qolgan to'rtta poytaxtga Nankin (Xijin, bugungi kun) kiritilgan Pekin ), Dongjing (Lyaoyang ), Szinjin (Datong ) va Zhongjing (Dading, bugungi kun) Ningcheng ). | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| QADIMGI | ||||||||
| Neolitik v. 8500 - v. Miloddan avvalgi 2070 yil | ||||||||
| Xia v. 2070 - v. Miloddan avvalgi 1600 yil | ||||||||
| Shang v. 1600 - v. Miloddan avvalgi 1046 y | ||||||||
| Chjou v. Miloddan avvalgi 1046 - 256 yillar | ||||||||
| G'arbiy Chjou | ||||||||
| Sharqiy Chjou | ||||||||
| Bahor va kuz | ||||||||
| Urushayotgan davlatlar | ||||||||
| IMPERIAL | ||||||||
| Qin Miloddan avvalgi 221–207 yillarda | ||||||||
| Xon Miloddan avvalgi 202 - milodiy 220 yil | ||||||||
| G'arbiy Xan | ||||||||
| Sin | ||||||||
| Sharqiy Xan | ||||||||
| Uch qirollik 220–280 | ||||||||
| Vey, Shu va Vu | ||||||||
| Jin 266–420 | ||||||||
| G'arbiy Jin | ||||||||
| Sharqiy Jin | O'n oltita shohlik | |||||||
| Shimoliy va Janubiy sulolalar 420–589 | ||||||||
| Suy 581–618 | ||||||||
| Tang 618–907 | ||||||||
| (Vu Chjou 690–705) | ||||||||
| Besh sulola va O'n qirollik 907–979 | Liao 916–1125 | |||||||
| Qo'shiq 960–1279 | ||||||||
| Shimoliy qo'shiq | G'arbiy Xia | |||||||
| Janubiy qo'shiq | Jin | G'arbiy Liao | ||||||
| Yuan 1271–1368 | ||||||||
| Ming 1368–1644 | ||||||||
| Qing 1636–1912 | ||||||||
| ZAMONAVIY | ||||||||
| Xitoy Respublikasi 1912–1949 yillarda materikda | ||||||||
| Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi 1949 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar | ||||||||
| Xitoy Respublikasi 1949 yil Tayvanda - hozirgacha | ||||||||
| Mo'g'uliston tarixi | ||||||||||||||||||||
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Qadimgi davr
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O'rta asrlar davri
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Zamonaviy davr
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The Liao sulolasi (/ljaʊ/;[5] Kidan: Mos Jælud; an'anaviy xitoy : 遼朝; soddalashtirilgan xitoy : 辽朝; pinyin : Liáo cháo),[6] sifatida ham tanilgan Liao imperiyasi, rasmiy ravishda Buyuk Liao (大 遼; 大 辽; Dà Liáo) yoki Kidan (Qidan) shtati (Kitan: Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur),[7] imperiya edi va imperatorlik sulolasi yilda Sharqiy Osiyo 916 yildan 1125 yilgacha hukmronlik qilgan Shimoliy va Shimoliy-sharqiy Xitoy, Mo'g'uliston va qismlari Rossiya Uzoq Sharq va Shimoliy Koreya.[8] Imperiya tomonidan tashkil etilgan Yelu Abaoji (Liao imperatori Taizu), Xoqon ning Kitanlar qulashi davrida Tang sulolasi va barchasini nazorat qilgan birinchi davlat edi Manchuriya.[9] Kidanlar tomonidan boshqariladi Yelu klan, Liao sulolasi tarixchilar tomonidan a fath sulolasi Xitoy.[10]
Liao sulolasi tashkil topganidan deyarli darhol hududni kengaytirish jarayonini boshladi, Abaoji muvaffaqiyatli bosib olinishiga rahbarlik qildi. Balhae.[11] Keyinchalik imperatorlar yutuqqa erishadilar O'n oltita prefektura yonilg'i quyish orqali a vakillik urushi ning qulashiga olib keldi Keyinchalik Tang (923-936) va o'rnatmoqchi edi irmoq bilan munosabatlar Goryeo yo'qotishdan keyin Goryeo-Kidan urushlari.[12] 1004 yilda Liao sulolasi qarshi imperatorlik ekspeditsiyasini boshladi Shimoliy Song sulolasi. Ikki imperiya o'rtasidagi og'ir janglar va katta yo'qotishlardan so'ng, ikkala tomon ham harakat qildi Chanyuan shartnomasi. Shartnoma orqali Liao sulolasi Shimoliy Songni ularni tengdoshlari deb tan olishga majbur qildi va ikki davlat o'rtasida taxminan 120 yil davom etgan tinchlik va barqarorlik davri haqida xabar berdi.
An'anaviy Kitan ijtimoiy va siyosiy amaliyotlari va Xitoyning ta'siri va urf-odatlari o'rtasidagi ziddiyat sulolaning belgilovchi xususiyati edi. Ushbu keskinlik ketma-ket inqirozlarga olib keldi; Liao imperatorlari Xitoy tushunchasini ma'qullashdi primogenizatsiya Kitan elitasining qolgan qismi, eng kuchli nomzodning an'anaviy merosxo'rlik usulini qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Kita va xitoyliklarning amaliyoti shu qadar farq qilar ediki, Abaoji ikkita parallel hukumat tuzdi. Shimoliy ma'muriyat Kitan hududlarini an'anaviy Kitan urf-odatlariga rioya qilgan holda boshqargan bo'lsa, Janubiy Ma'muriyat kitan bo'lmagan aholisi katta bo'lgan hududlarni boshqarib, Xitoyning an'anaviy hukumat amaliyotlarini qo'llagan.
Xitoy va Kidan jamiyati o'rtasidagi farqlar gender rollari va nikoh amaliyotlarini o'z ichiga oldi: kitanlar erkaklar va ayollar rollarini ajratib qo'ygan xitoy madaniy amaliyotlaridan keskin farq qilib, jinsga nisbatan teng huquqli nuqtai nazarga ega edilar. Kidan ayollariga ov qilishni, oilaviy mulkni boshqarishni va harbiy lavozimlarni egallashni o'rgatishgan. Ko'plab nikohlar tartibga solinmagan, ayollardan birinchi nikohda bokiralik talab qilinmagan va ayollar ajrashish va qayta turmush qurish huquqiga ega edilar.
Liao sulolasi tomonidan vayron qilingan Yurxen -LED Jin sulolasi 1125 yilda qo'lga olinishi bilan Liao imperatori Tianzuo. Biroq, boshchiligidagi qoldiq kitanlar Yelu Dashi (Liao imperatori Dezong), asos solgan G'arbiy Liao sulolasi (Qara Xitay), Markaziy Osiyoda deyarli bir asr davomida hukmronlik qilgan Mo'g'ullar. Liao sulolasi bilan bog'liq madaniy yutuqlar juda katta bo'lsa-da, muzeylarda va boshqa kollektsiyalarda bir qator turli haykallar va boshqa asarlar mavjud bo'lsa-da, Liao Kidan madaniyati keyingi rivojlanishlarga ta'sirining aniq tabiati va darajasi to'g'risida asosiy savollar bo'lib qolmoqda, masalan. musiqiy va teatr san'ati.
Ismlar
Sulola rasman 916 yilda tashkil etilgan Abaoji o'zini e'lon qildi imperator va "ning sulolaviy nomini qabul qildiKidan" (Xitoy : 契丹; pinyin : Qì Dān). 946 yilda Liao imperatori Taizong sulolani rasman "deb o'zgartirdiBuyuk Liao" (Xitoy : 大 遼; pinyin : Dà Liáo). Bu hukm 983 yilda yana "Kitan" ga o'zgartirilgan Liao imperatori Shengzong. 1066 yilda Liao imperatori Daozong sulola nomini "Buyuk Liao" ga qayta kiritdi va unvon ushbu sulola qulaguncha rasmiy ishlatishda bo'lgan.
1124 yilda voris davlat tomonidan tashkil etilgan Yelu Dashi ichida G'arbiy mintaqalar rasmiy ravishda "Buyuk Liao" sulola nomini qabul qildi. Ammo tarixshunoslikda ushbu rejim ko'proq "G'arbiy Liao" yoki "Qara Xitay" deb nomlanadi.
Tarixchilar o'rtasida "Liao" ning etimologiyasi to'g'risida yakdil fikr mavjud emas. Ba'zilar "Liao" ning tarkibidagi "temir" so'zidan kelib chiqqan deb hisoblashadi Kitan tili, boshqalari bu ism kelgan deb ishonishadi Liao daryosi suv yig'ish ning an'anaviy vatani bo'lgan Kidan xalqi.
Tarix
Dinastiyadan oldingi tarix
Kitan davlati haqida dastlabki ma'lumot Vey kitobi, tarixi Shimoliy Vey sulolasi (386-534) 554 yilda yakunlangan.[13] 554 yildan keyin yozilgan bir qancha kitoblarda Kitanlar III asr oxiri va IV asr boshlarida faol bo'lganligi haqida eslatib o'tilgan. The Jin kitobi (648), tarixi Szinlar sulolasi (265–420), hukmronligini qamrab olgan bo'limda kitanlarga ishora qiladi Murong Sheng (398–401). Samguk Sagi (1145), tarixi Koreyaning uchta qirolligi, 378 yilda sodir bo'lgan kidanlar bosqini haqida eslatib o'tadi.[14]
Sinologlarning fikriga ko'ra Denis C. Twitchett va Klaus-Peter Titsening ta'kidlashicha, odatda kitanlar Yuven filiali Sianbei odamlar. 345 yilda Sianbeyning boshqa bir tarmog'i mag'lubiyatga uchraganidan so'ng, Yuven uchta qabilaga bo'linib, ulardan biri " Kumo Xi. 388 yilda Kumo Xining o'zi bo'linib ketdi, bir guruh Kumo Xi nomi ostida qoldi, ikkinchisi esa kitanlar bo'ldi.[13] Ushbu fikr qisman qo'llab-quvvatlanadi Vey kitobi, Kitanlar kelib chiqishi Sianbey bo'lganligini tasvirlaydi.[13] Song sulolasidan boshlab, ba'zi xitoylik olimlar Kitanlar avlodlari kelib chiqishi mumkin deb taxmin qilishgan Xionnu odamlar. Zamonaviy tarixchilar Kitanlar kelib chiqishi faqat Xionnu bo'lgan degan fikrni rad etgan bo'lsalar-da, ular kelib chiqishi Syanbay va Xyunnu bo'lgan degan da'volarni qo'llab-quvvatlamoqdalar. Boshlash Rashididdin Hamadoniy XIV asrda bir necha olimlar Kitanlar edi degan nazariyani ilgari surishgan Mo'g'ulcha[15][16] kelib chiqishi bo'yicha va 19-asrning oxirida G'arb olimlari Kitanlar degan da'vo bilan chiqishgan Tungusik kelib chiqishi bo'yicha - zamonaviy lingvistik tahlil bu da'voni obro'sizlantirdi.[17] Ko'p shunga o'xshash so'zlar Kitan va o'rtasida mavjud Koreys tillari tungus yoki mo'g'ul tillarida bo'lmagan.[18]
Vaqt bilan Vey kitobi 554 yilda yozilgan, kitanlar hozirgi Xitoy hududida davlat tuzgan edi Jilin va Liaoning Viloyatlar.[13] Kitanlar mintaqadagi boshqa ko'chmanchi guruhlarga, shuningdek, xitoylarga qarshi qator harbiy mag'lubiyatlarga duch kelishdi Shimoliy Qi (550-577) va Suy (589-618) sulolalari. Kidan qabilalari turli davrlarda kabi turkiy qabilalar ta'siriga tushib qolishgan Uyg'urlar va Sui va kabi Xitoy sulolalari Tang. In Sui kitobi (84-jild), Kitanlar "chegaralarni talon-taroj qilishda va bosqinchilikda xavfli" va "barcha barbarlar orasida eng nohaq va takabbur" deb ta'riflangan. The Liao tarixi (LS, 32 va 59-jildlar) dastlabki Kidan haqida quyidagicha ma'lumot beradi:
Sovuq va kuchli shamol bo'lgan Buyuk Cho'lda (大漠 - dàmò) istiqomat qilib, ular oziq-ovqat manbai sifatida chorva mollarini boqish va baliq ovlash, kiyinish kabi mo'ynalar va fasllar bilan ko'chib ketishgan. Ularning ixtisosligi aravalar va otlar edi ... Kitanlarning eski odatlarida ularning boyliklari otlar, kuchlari askarlar edi. Otlar butun mamlakat bo'ylab ozod qilindi va safdan chiqarilgan askarlar butun odamlarga tarqaldi. Muhim yoki jang masalasi paydo bo'lganda, ular qurollanishga chaqirilgan. Agar buyurtma ertalab soat 5 da berilsa, ular darhol ertalab soat 7 da yig'ilishardi. Otlar suv va o'tning orqasidan ergashdi. Odamlar sutga va kumiss. Ular kuchli kamonni egib, kundalik foydalanishlari uchun hayvonlarni otishdi. Ularda quritilgan ovqat va em-xashak bor edi. Bu ularning yo'li edi (道 - dào). Shu sababli ular g'alabani saqlab qolishadi va qaerga qaramasalar ham qarshiliklarga duch kelmaydilar.
The Liaoshi (LS, 32-jild) Kitanning qadimgi sakkiz qabilasini nomlaydi (ular ham Vayshu ):
Bular qadimgi sakkizta qabiladir: Xivandan qabilasi, Xedaxe qabilasi, Fufuyu qabilasi, Yuling qabilasi, Nilin qabilasi, Piksi qabilasi, Li (Qora) qabilasi, Tuliuyu qabilasi ... Aholisi ko'payganidan ko'p o'tmay ular Shimoliy Qi (b - Bi Qí) ga bostirib kirdi, ammo yuz ming kishini asirlikda yo'qotdi. Keyin, turklar (突厥 - Tjyué) tomonidan tazyiqqa uchragan holda, ular Koreyada (高麗 - Gāoli) vaqtincha o'n ming oiladan ko'proq yashaganlar. Qabilalar tarqab ketishdi va endi qadimgi sakkizta qabila emas edilar.
630 dan 730 yilgacha kitanlar Dahe urug'i orqali Tan sulolasi ta'siri ostida bo'lgan. Tan imperatori Dahega Xitoyning Li familiyasini bergan va ularning rahbarini "Kitan qabilalarini bilvosita boshqarish uchun maxsus yaratilgan idora" bo'lgan gubernatorlikka tayinlagan.[19] Ammo asrning boshlarida Tangning shimolidagi nazorati siljiy boshladi. 696 yilda Dahe rahbari Li Jinzhon qo'zg'olon ko'tarib, Kitan qo'shinlarini zamonaviy Xebeyga olib bordi. Qo'zg'olon mag'lubiyatga uchragan bo'lsa-da, Tanglar Kitanlar ustidan nazoratni qayta tiklay olmaguniga qadar o'n besh yil o'tdi va bu nazorat hech qachon kuchli yoki uzoq umr ko'rmaydi. 730-yillarda Yaoniy klani Dahe o'rnini Kitanning hukmron klani egallaydi va Tang hokimi majburlanadi. An Lushan 751 va 755 yillarda Kitan hududiga ikki marta bostirib kirish uchun. Birinchi bosqinchilik paytida kitanlar tomonidan qattiq mag'lubiyatga uchraganidan so'ng, An Lushan ikkinchisida muvaffaqiyatga erishdi, ammo keyinchalik tanaga qarshi qo'zg'olonni boshlagan edi. Lushanda o'spirinlik davrida unga ishlagan Li Chjuer ismli kithon xizmatkori bo'lgan, ammo An Lushan jinsiy a'zolarini sindirish uchun qilich ishlatgan va u bir necha pint qon yo'qotib o'lishga yaqin qolgan. An Lushan jarohati ustiga kul sepib, uni tiriltirdi. Li Chjuyerga An Lushan katta ishonch bildirgan va u va yana ikki kishi uning xizmatchilari bo'lib xizmat qilishgan. Li Zhuerga fitna uyushtiruvchilar kelib, An Lushan kasal bo'lib qolganda va bo'ysunuvchilariga yomon munosabatda bo'lishni boshlaganlarida uni o'ldirmoqchi bo'lishdi. An Lushanga Li Chjuyer va boshqa fitnachi Yan Chjuan hujum qilib, uni o'ldirgan, bundan oldin An uni kaltaklagan. Lushan o'zini himoya qilish uchun qilichini topolmagani uchun pardalarini silkitib, "bu mening uyimning o'g'ri" deb baqirdi.[20][21] The Lushan qo'zg'oloni Tan sulolasining oxiri boshlangan.[22]
An Lushan qo'zg'olonidan keyin kitanlar uyg'urlarning vassaliga aylanishdi, shu bilan bir vaqtda Tangga soliqlar to'lashdi, bu holat 755 yildan boshlab 840 yilda uyg'urlar qulaguniga qadar davom etdi. 840 yildan Abaoji ko'tarilguniga qadar kitanlar irmoq bo'lib qolishdi. Tang sulolasidan.[23]
Abaoji (907–926)
Abaoji vafotidan keyin Liao imperatori Taizu 872 yilda Yila boshlig'i Saladida tug'ilgan. Yila qabilasi sakkizta Kitan qabilalarining eng kattasi va eng kuchlisi bo'lgan, ammo o'sha paytda Yaoniya xonlari umumiy hokimiyatni ushlab turishgan. 901 yilda Abaoji uch yillik kengash tomonidan Yila boshlig'i etib saylandi. O'sha paytda Yaoniyadan boshqa hech bir Kitan familiyani ishlatmagan, ammo keyinchalik 930-yillarda Abaoji urug'i Yeluni o'z familiyasi sifatida qabul qilgan. Shu bilan birga ularning hamkasbi klani ham Xiao familiyasini ishlatishni boshladilar.[24]
Yila etakchisiga qo'shilgandan so'ng, Abaoji reyd o'tkazdi Xitoy, hujum qildi Jurxenlar va ustidan ustunlikni o'rnatdi Shivey va Kumo Xi. 903 yilda Abaoji Yaon Xagonidan keyin ikkinchi o'rinda turadigan barcha Kitanlarning oliy qo'mondoni Yuyue deb nomlandi. Ikki yil o'tgach, u 70 ming otliq qo'shinni olib bordi Datong bilan qon qasamyodini tuzish Shatuo urush boshlig'i Li Keyong. 907 yilda Abaoji uni xoqon qilishni talab qildi va boshqa yetti qabilaning ko'magi bilan Kitanlarning oliy rahbari sifatida ko'tarildi.[25] Keyin Abaoji Kitan boshliqlarini o'ldirib, Kitan elitasini xavotirga solib qo'ydi, ularning aksariyati uning harakatini Xitoy uslubidagi imperatorlik sari harakat deb bildilar. 910 yilgacha Abaoji qoidasi bekor qilinmadi, u Kitanni e'tiborsiz qoldirib, oilaning boshqa a'zosini Xagon lavozimini egallashga chaqirdi. 912 va 913 yillarda Abaoji oilasi a'zolari qurolli qo'zg'olonlarga urinishgan. Birinchi qo'zg'olon topilgandan va mag'lub bo'lgandan so'ng, Abaoji fitnachilarni kechirdi. Ikkinchisidan keyin faqat uning ukalari avf etildi, boshqa fitnachilar zo'ravonlik bilan o'limga duchor bo'ldilar. Birodarlar 917 va 918 yillarda qo'zg'olonlar uyushtirdilar, ikkalasi ham osonlikcha tor-mor etildi.[26][27]
916 yilda Abaoji samoviy imperator unvoniga ega bo'lib, a deb e'lon qildi Xitoy davri nomi va qurilgan Konfutsiy ma'badi. U to'ng'ich o'g'liga ism qo'ydi, Yelu Bey, uning asosiy do'stidan, Shulu Ping, merosxo'r sifatida va butun zodagonlardan unga sodiqlik bilan qasamyod qilishni talab qildi. Ikki yildan so'ng, Kidan sudi "Oliy poytaxt" ga ko'chirildi (Shanjing ), yangi qurilgan devor bilan o'ralgan shahar, odatda xitoy saroylari joylashgan buyuk parki va imperatorlik chodirlari. Abaoji hibsga olingan xitoyliklarning yashashi uchun yana 30 ta devor bilan o'ralgan shaharlarni qurishga yordam berdi. Oliy poytaxtga "Sharq poytaxti" qo'shildi (Dongjing ). Imperiya ma'muriyati dasht va qabila ishlarini nazorat qiluvchi Shimoliy ma'muriyat va o'troq va xitoylik aholini nazorat qiluvchi Janubiy muassasa o'rtasida bo'linib ketgan. Ikki muassasani kantslerlar boshqargan, shimolni Xiao konsorts klani tayinlagan va janubni hukmron Yelu klani tayinlagan.[27][28]
917 yilda Abaoji oldi nafta davlatidan sovg'a sifatida Vuyue:
Vu shtatining hukmdori (Li Byan) Qidan (Liao) hukmdori Abaoji nomiga jahldor otashin yog'i (meng huoyou) yubordi, ular o'rnatilgandan va suv bilan aloqa qilgandan keyin yanada qattiqroq yonib ketishdi. Bu shaharlarga hujum qilishda ishlatilishi mumkin edi. Tai Tsu (Abaoji) juda xursand bo'ldi va shu zahoti Youzjouga hujum qilish niyatida o'ttiz ming kishilik otliq qo'shinni tayyorladi. Ammo uning malikasi Shulu kuldi va dedi: 'Kim mamlakatga neft bilan hujum qilishini eshitgan bo'lsa? Shahar ochlikdan mahrum bo'lishi uchun uch ming otni olib, mamlakatni vayronaga aylantirib, chegaralarda kutib olish yaxshiroq emasmi? Bu bilan ular bir necha yilni talab qilsalar ham, xatolarga yo'l qo'yilmaydi. Xo'sh, nega bu shoshqaloqlik? Ehtiyot bo'ling, shunda xitoyliklar bizni masxara qilishlari va o'z xalqimiz yiqilib ketishi uchun sizni yomon ahvolda qoldirmanglar. Shuning uchun u o'z dizaynida uzoqroq yurmadi.[29]
920 yilda Abaoji "deb nomlanuvchi kidan yozuv tizimini ishlab chiqishni buyurdi Kidancha katta yozuv. Xitoy yozuviga yuzaki o'xshash bo'lsa-da, so'zlarni yaratish uchun xitoycha belgilarga zarbalarni o'zboshimchalik bilan qo'shadi va kamaytiradi, bu xitoylik o'quvchilar uchun umuman tanib bo'lmaydigan holga keltiradi. 925 yilda a Uyg'ur delegatsiya Abaoji'ni ukasiga buyurtma berish uchun olib bordi Yelu Diela, o'rganish Uyg'ur tili. Uyg'urlarning ta'siri a rivojlanishiga olib keldi Kidancha kichik yozuv ko'proq fonetik elementlar bilan. Kitan yozuvi Shimoliy ma'muriyatdagi yog'och va toshdagi yodgorlik yozuvlari va yozuvlarni yuritish uchun ishlatilgan. Kitan yozuvida yozilgan deyarli hech qanday keng hujjatlar saqlanib qolmagan va bu juda kam ishlab chiqarilgan degan guvohlik beradi. Janubiy muassasada xitoy tili ma'muriy til bo'lib, ko'plab kitanlar, shu jumladan Abaoji o'g'illari o'rgangan.[30] Keyinchalik Tangning elchisi Yao Kun bilan suhbatda Abaoji xitoy tilida gaplashishini aytdi, ammo boshqa kitanlar huzurida u bilan gaplashmasligini aytdi, chunki ular xitoylarga taqlid qilib, yumshoq bo'lib qolishidan qo'rqardi.[31]
Yetib kelganimdan keyin menga tomoshabinlar taqdim etildi. Abaoji meni o'zining katta chodiriga taklif qildi. Abaoji to'qqiz yoshda edi chi baland [juda baland!]. U uzun bo'yli brokadan xalat kiyib, orqasiga keng kamar bog'lab qo'ydi. U va uning sherigi qarama-qarshi divanlarda o'tirishdi. Meni oldinga olib chiqishdi va taqdim etishdi. Xabarimni etkazishimdan oldin, Abaoji [masxara bilan] so'radi: "Men sizning Xitoydagi eringizda endi Xenan shahrida bitta, Xebeyda boshqa bir Osmon O'g'li borligini eshitdim; bu haqiqatmi?"[32]
— Yao Kun
Abaoji o'z hukmronligi davrida ko'plab qo'shni xalqlarga hujum qildi va Kitan hududini beqiyos kengaytirdi. Dasht ko'chmanchilariga qarshi, u 908 yilda yurishlarga qarshi boshchilik qildi Shivey, 910 yilda Kumo Xi, 912 yilda Zubu, 915 yilda Xongirad va yana 919 yilda Xongirodni bo'ysundirish uchun.[33] 922 yildan 923 yilgacha u reyd o'tkazdi Jin (Keyinchalik Tang kashfiyotchisi) va uning vorisi, Keyinchalik Tang.[34] Bir yil o'tgach, u hujum qildi Tatarlar.[35] Uning yurishlari 926 yilda vafot etguniga qadar davom etdi Balhae va qo'g'irchoq qirolligini yaratish Dongdan.[36] Balhae aholisining aksariyati hozirgi hududga ko'chirilgan Liaoning. Balxeyni yo'q qilish natijasida Kidan nazorati ostidagi uchta mustaqil guruh paydo bo'ldi: zamonaviy shimoliy g'arbiy Balxay xalqi Heilongjiang, Balxay xalqi g'arbdan Yalu daryosi va holati Jeongan ning yuqori vodiysida Mudan daryosi.[37]
Kidan hukmdori Abaoji 924 yilda Mo'g'uliston platosiga o'z ta'sirini kuchaytirdi, ammo qirg'izlar bilan har qanday ziddiyatlarga ishora yo'q. Bizda Kitan (Liao) manbalaridan qirg'izlarga tegishli yagona ma'lumot, ikki davlat diplomatik aloqalarni saqlab turganligidan dalolat beradi. Taxminan 840 yildan 924 yilgacha Qirg'iziston "imperiyasi" haqida yozadigan olimlar xayolni tasvirlaydilar. Mavjud barcha dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, Mo'g'ul platosidagi kuchlari biroz qisqartirilganiga qaramay, qirg'izlar 840 yillarda g'alaba qozonganlaridan keyin u erda muhim siyosiy yoki harbiy mavjudligini saqlab qolishmagan.[38]
— Maykl Drompp
Abaoji 926 yil 6-sentabrda 54 yoshida tifo kasalligidan vafot etdi.[31]
Tayzong (926–947)
Yelu Deguang, vafotidan keyin Liao imperatori Taizong, ning ikkinchi o'g'li edi Shulu Ping va Kidan taxti uchun birinchi navbatda emas. Uning akasi, 26 yoshli merosxo'r Yelu Bey, intellektual izlanishlari uchun konservativ Kitan elitalari tomonidan yoqtirilmadi. Kabi polimat, Yelu Bey rassomchilik, kitan va xitoy tillarida yozishni yaxshi bilgan va katta shaxsiy kutubxonaga ega bo'lgan. Shuningdek, u Xitoy madaniyati, musiqasi, tibbiyoti va bashorat qilishni yaxshi ko'rardi. Xitoy uslubidagi primogenitizatsiya ham kitanlar orasida odat emas edi, shuning uchun Abaoji Yelu Beyni merosxo'r deb e'lon qilganida, ular unga sodiq bo'lishlari haqida qasamyod qildilar.[39] Beyning onasi Shuli Ping, o'z kuchi bilan nihoyatda qudratli edi, minglab otliqlarga qo'mondonlik qilgan va kampaniyada etakchi qo'shinlarni boshqargan, eri bilan dafn qilish uchun o'ng qo'lini kesib tashlaganidan so'ng, barcha harbiy va fuqarolik ishlarini regent sifatida o'z qo'liga oldi. Shulu Pingning o'zi birinchi o'g'lini xitoyliklarga moyilligi sababli merosxo'r deb rad etdi va uning barcha ta'siridan foydalanib, Beyni 922-923 va 924-925 yurishlarida qatnashgan ukasi Deguangga ajratib qo'ydi. 927 yil oxirlarida Bey onasiga murojaat qildi va rasmiy ravishda o'z da'vosidan voz kechdi. Deguang taxtni egalladi.[40]
"Osmon mandatini olgan hukmdor jannatga diqqatli va buyuk ruhlarga hurmat bilan munosabatda bo'lishi kerak. Eng katta xizmat ko'rsatganlarga hurmatimni bildirishim kerak. Ularning qaysi biri birinchi o'rinda turadi?" Hamma bu Budda bo'lishi kerak, deb javob berdi. Abaoji bunga javoban: "Buddizm Xitoy ta'limoti emas". Keyin knyaz Bey gapirdi: "Konfutsiy - bu buyuk donishmand, ko'p avlodlar uchun ulug'lanadi. U birinchi o'rinni egallashi kerak". Abaoji xursand bo'ldi. Shundan so'ng u Konfutsiy ibodatxonasini qurishni buyurdi va merosxo'rning o'zi bahor va kuzgi marosimlarni olib borishi to'g'risida farmon berdi.[41]
Bey hali ham hukmdor bo'lgan Dongdan qirolligi ilgari Balhae, uni bosib olishda qatnashgandan keyin otasi tomonidan unga berilgan.[42] Hali ham uni tahdid deb bilgan Taizong, 929 yilda Dongdanning poytaxti va uning barcha aholisini Sharqiy poytaxtga ko'chirishni buyurdi (Dongjing ). Dongdan yarim avtonom maqomini yo'qotdi. 930 yilda Bey dengiz orqali qochib ketdi Keyinchalik Tang sud tomonidan qabul qilingan Li Siyuan faxriy mehmon sifatida. 937 yilda u tomonidan o'ldirilgan Shi Jingtang, Keyinchalik Tangni ag'darib tashlagan va hukmronlik qilgan Keyinchalik Jin (besh sulola) kitanlarning qo'g'irchog'i sifatida.[43]
929 yilda Xongirad isyon qildi. 929 yilda Taizong o'zining ukasini yubordi, Yelu Lihu, Keyinchalik Tangga hujum qilish uchun Datong. 933 yilda Taizong ba'zilariga qarshi kampaniyani olib bordi Tangut qabilalar. Bu davrda Kitan hududining eng muhim kengayishi janubdagi siyosiy beqarorlikdan kelib chiqdi. 933 yilda Keyinchalik Tang imperatori vafot etdi. O'g'li, Li Konghou, asrab olgan akasidan oldin atigi besh oy davom etgan, Li Kongke, uni o'ldirdi. Li Kongke qudratli gubernator Shi Tszintangni sud tomonidan qattiqroq nazoratga o'tkazilishini buyurdi va bu uning isyoniga sabab bo'ldi. Li Kongke tomonidan qattiq siqilgan Shi Jingtang kitanlardan yordam so'radi. Taizong unga yordam uchun 50 ming kishilik otliq qo'shinni boshchiligida olib borgan va keyinchalik Tang qo'shinini mag'lub etgan Taiyuan. 936 yil 28-noyabrda Shi Tszintang Kitanlar tomonidan Keyinchalik Jin imperatori sifatida sarmoyalangan. 938 yilda Keyinchalik Jinning qo'g'irchoq imperatori uni ko'chirdi O'n oltita prefektura Kitanlarga topshirilib, ularga Shimoliy Xitoy va Markaziy tekisliklar.[44] Yangi "Janubiy poytaxt" (Nankin ) zamonaviy tarzda qurilgan Pekin.[27][45] Shi Jingtang o'zini vassal tutgan va hatto Kitan elchilariga uning hududidan o'tib, aloqa qilishlariga ruxsat bergan. Janubiy Tang, uning geosiyosiy raqibi.[46]
Shi Jingtang 942 yilda vafot etdi. Uning jiyani va vorisi, Shi Chongui, armiya qo'mondoni boshchiligidagi Kitanlarga qarshi sud ta'sirida bo'lgan Jing Yanguang. 943 yilda Shi Chonggui kitanlarning savdo imtiyozlarini bekor qildi Kaifeng va o'zlarining vakillarini Kidan sudiga qaytarib yuborib, mol-mulklarini musodara qildilar. Keyingi yili Taizong bostirib kirdi, ammo 945 yilda tuya bilan jangdan qochib qutulishga majbur bo'ldi. Ammo qat'iyat bilan Kitanlar Jin kuchlarini yiqitdi va 946 yilda jinlarning bosh qo'mondoni Du Chongvey taslim bo'ldi. 947 yil boshida Taizong Kaifengga raqibsiz kirdi. Jin imperatori va uning oilasi Oliy poytaxtga surgun qilingan. Djin qo'shini qurolsizlantirildi va tarqatildi, otlari musodara qilindi. Ushbu buyuk g'alaba bilan Taizong rasmiy ravishda "Buyuk Liao" sulola nomini oldi.[47][48] Keyinchalik Jinni zabt etilishi bilan Liao davlat uzatmalarining Jade muhrini (chuanguo yuxi) sotib oldi. Mafkuraviy jihatdan, Liao shu paytgacha o'zini Tszinning qonuniy vorisi va Xitoy hukmdori deb bilar edi. Shunday qilib, suv elementini, metall elementidan keyin keladigan elementni, keyingi Jinning sulolaviy elementini, beshta elementning yaratilish ketma-ketligiga qarab tanladi. Shuningdek, u Su elementiga mos qora rangni o'zining sulolasi sifatida tanladi.[49]
Uning g'alabasi davom etmadi. Kitanlar etarli bo'lmagan materiallarni olib kelib, shaharni bexosdan talon-taroj qildilar va qishloq joylarini talon-taroj qildilar va mahalliy aholiga qattiq yuklarni yukladilar, bu esa ularning g'azablanishiga va ularga hujum qilishga sabab bo'ldi. Kitanlar fath qilingan shaharni boshqarish va boshqarish o'rniga, Jin amaldorlari va saroy ayollaridan tortib, xaritalar va musiqa asboblariga qadar bo'lgan barcha qimmatbaho narsalarni Oliy poytaxtga qaytarib berishga qaror qilishdi. Taizong, shuningdek, Taiyuanning yana bir tahdidiga duch keldi, bu erda Lyu Jiyuan yangisini e'lon qildi Keyinchalik Xan (Besh sulola) sulola. Kayfengni ishg'ol qilish Tayzong chiqib ketishdan oldin uch oy davom etdi. Liao hududiga etib borishdan biroz oldin, Taizong to'satdan kasal bo'lib, hozirgi kunga yaqin vafot etdi Shijiazhuang 45 yoshida 947 yil 18-mayda.[50]
Shizong (947–951)
Yelu Ruan, vafotidan keyin Liao imperatori Shizong, ning o'g'li edi Yelu Bey va belgilangan merosxo'r emas Liao imperatori Taizong, kim edi Yelu Lihu, Taizongning ukasi. Biroq Taizong 930 yilda Bei ketganidan keyin Ruanni ko'targan va ular o'rtasidagi munosabatlar ota va o'g'il kabi yaqin edi. Ruan bostirib kirishda qatnashgan Keyinchalik Jin, o'zini qobiliyatli jangchi va qo'mondon sifatida topish. Tayzong vafot etgach, Ruan o'zini "otasining tobuti" oldida o'zini imperator deb e'lon qildi.[51]
Lihu Ruanga Oliy poytaxtga qaytib ketayotganda hujum qildi, ammo mag'lubiyatga uchradi. Uning onasi, Shulu Ping, keyin o'z qo'shinini Ruan bilan to'qnashishga olib bordi. Ikki qo'shin maydonda bir-biriga duch keldi Xar Moron daryosi, Oliy poytaxt janubida, bir necha kun davomida. Tog'liq vaziyatni Yelu Vuzhi ismli qirolning amakivachchasi hal qildi va oxir-oqibat Kitan zodagonlari shafqatsiz va buzilgan deb hisoblagan Lihu Shizongga qarshi kurashish uchun etarli qo'llab-quvvatlay olmadi. Tinchlik vositachiligidan so'ng, Ruan rasmiy ravishda imperator rolini va imperator unvonini oldi. Shizong zudlik bilan imperator Shulu Ping va Yelu Lihuni ham siyosiy ambitsiyalariga barham berib poytaxtdan quvg'in qildi. Shizong bu uning mavqeini ta'minlashiga umid qilar edi, ammo Liaoning ichki holati beqarorligicha tezda ko'ngli qoldi. 948 yilda Taizongning ikkinchi o'g'li Yelu Tiande imperatorni o'ldirish uchun fitna uyushtirdi. Fitna muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi va fitnachilarning hayoti saqlab qolindi. Ular orasida Shuli Pingning jiyani Syao Xan keyingi yilda Shitsongga qarshi yana fitna uyushtirdi. Qaytadan tirik qolganiga qaramay, Syao Xan uchinchi marta eski uslubiga qaytdi, natijada u qatl etildi.[52]
947 yilda rejalashtirilgan bosqinchilik Goryeo Kitanlar dushman mudofaasi ular o'ylagandan ko'ra dahshatli ekanligini anglaganlarida bekor qilindi.[37]
949 yildan 950 yilgacha Shizong bostirib kirdi Keyinchalik Xan (Besh sulola). 951 yil oxirida Shizong bostirib kirishga qaror qildi Keyinchalik Chjou. Armiya yo'lga chiqmasdan oldin Shizong va uning atrofidagilar otasiga qurbonlik qilganlaridan keyin mast bo'lishdi. Chage, o'g'li Abaoji Kichik ukasi Anduan Shizongni o'ldirish uchun vaziyatdan foydalangan. Chage qatl etildi. Shizong 33 yoshida vafot etdi va taxtga merosxo'r bo'lish uchun o'g'il tug'ilmadi. Shizongning hukmronligi uning katta oilasi tomonidan bir qator isyonlar bilan ajralib turardi. Shizong atigi to'rt yil hukmronlik qilgan bo'lsa-da, Janubiy muassasa tuzilishini Tang sulolasi foydalangan modelga yaqinlashtirgan ikki tomonlama boshqaruv tizimining rasmiylashtirilishini nazorat qildi.[53]
Muzong (951–969)
Yelu Jing, vafotidan keyin Liao imperatori Muzong, amakivachchasining o'rnini egalladi, Liao imperatori Shizong. Muzong ichkilikboz bo'lgan va ko'p vaqtini ov qilish yoki uxlash bilan o'tkazgan. Xitoyliklar uni "uxlayotgan shahzoda" deb atashgan.[54] Uning hukmronligining birinchi yarmida uning oilasida doimiy beqarorlik hukm surgan. Shizongning ukasi Louguo, tog'alaridan biri bilan fitna uyushtirgan Keyinchalik Chjou. U fitna aniqlanganda qatl etildi. 953 yilda o'g'li Yelu Lihu Van ismli ham imperatorga qarshi fitna uyushtirdi. Van qutuldi, ammo uning sheriklari qatl etildi. 959 yilda Luguoning sheriklaridan biri bo'lgan Dili isyonni rejalashtirdi. Keyingi yili Vanning akasi Xiyin isyonni rejalashtirgani uchun hibsga olingan. Lihu ayblanib, qamoqxonada vafot etdi.[55]
Muzong davrida Liao Shimoliy Xan tomonidan hujumni oldini olishda Keyinchalik Chjou 952 yilda. Chjoular Xanga yana 954 yilda hujum qildilar va kitanlar yana yordamga kelishdi. Kitanlar xanlarning bir qancha qo'shinlarini xato bilan qo'lga olishdi va ularni qaytarib berishdi. Ba'zi hollarda Xan elchilari Liaoga tashrif buyurib, strategik masalalarni muhokama qilishgan. Keyinchalik Chjou imperatori Shizong Liao sulolasi Chjouga bostirib kirishga tayyor deb ishongan. 958 yilda xanliklar Chjoular tomonidan qayta hujumlar sodir bo'lganligi haqida xabar berishdi. Keyingi yilda Chjou ba'zi chegara prefekturalarini olib Liao hududiga bostirib kirdi. Muzong Chjou istilosiga qarshi kurashish uchun janub tomon yo'l oldi, ammo Chjou imperatori kasal bo'lib, qaytishga majbur bo'ldi Kaifeng. Ko'p o'tmay u vafot etdi va Chjou bosqinchilari chekinishdi.[56] 960 yilda Chjou o'rniga Qo'shiqlar sulolasi, 963 yilda Xanga hujum qilgan va Kitanlar yordamida qaytarilgan. 963 va 967 yillarda Liao va Song o'rtasida chegara to'qnashuvlari sodir bo'lgan.[57]
Bilan kichik muammolar mavjud edi Shivey va Xongirad 965 yilda, ammo aks holda shimoliy chegara Liao uchun tinch bo'lib qoldi.[58]
969 yilda Muzong butun bir oy ichkilikbozlik o'tkazdi va zo'ravonlik va mantiqsiz harakat qila boshladi, ba'zi soqchilarini so'yib tashladi. 12 mart kuni uning oltita shaxsiy xizmatchilari uni o'ldirdilar. U 37 yoshda edi. Muzong Yelu Beyning bevosita avlodi bo'lmagan Abaoji o'rnini egallagan ikkinchi va oxirgi Liao imperatori edi.[57][59]
Dzitson (969–982)
Yelu Sian, vafotidan keyin Liao imperatori Jingzong, ning o'g'li edi Liao imperatori Shizong. Uning hukmronligi davrida Besh sulola va o'n qirollik davri ning ko'tarilishi bilan yakunlandi Qo'shiqlar sulolasi, bu o'rnini egalladi Keyinchalik Chjou 960 yilda. Qo'shiq boshqa barcha raqib davlatlarni mag'lub etdi Shimoliy Xan 978 yilga kelib. Xanliklar o'zlarining xavfli vaziyatlarini tushunib, 971 yildan boshlangan oylik xushmuomalalik vazifalari bilan Liao bilan aloqalarini mustahkamladilar. 974 yilda Song Liao bilan mumkin bo'lgan betaraflik shartnomasi bo'yicha muzokaralarni boshladi. Diplomatik sa'y-harakatlar muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi va Song 976 va 977 yillarda Xanga bostirib kirdi va ikkala safar ham Liao aralashuvi bilan qaytarildi. Ning fathi bilan Vuyue 978 yilda Song butun kuchlarini Xan xujumiga jamladi. Bu safar ular Xia tomon yo'l olgan Liao kuchlarini ushlab, ularni tor-mor qildilar. 979 yil yozida, Imperator Taizong of Song oldi Taiyuan va Shimoliy Xanni qo'shib oldi. Keyin Taizong Liaoni bosib olishga urinishda halokatli xatoga yo'l qo'ydi. Uning allaqachon haddan tashqari kengaytirilgan va charchagan qo'shinlari Oliy poytaxtga ko'tarilishdi. Dastlabki to'qnashuvlar Song qo'shinining foydasiga tugadi, ammo ular jangda juda muhim mag'lubiyatga uchradilar Gaoliang daryosi. Taizong yaralangan va eshak aravasida janubga qochgan. Liao g'alabasidan foydalanib, Jingzong 980 yilda jazolash ekspeditsiyasini boshladi va Song qo'shinini mag'lub etdi. 982 yildagi yana bir yurishda Liao armiyasi mag'lubiyatga uchradi va Tszinzong orqaga chekinishga majbur bo'ldi.[60]
Song bilan to'qnashuvdan tashqari, Liao ham muammoga duch keldi Tangutlar 973 yilda. 975 yilda Balxay xalqining qoldiqlari bilan ziddiyat bosqinga olib keldi Jeongan, bu muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi.[37] The Jurxenlar 973 va 976 yillarda Liao hududini talon-taroj qildilar. 981 yilda asirga olingan xitoylik askarlar Xiyinning o'g'lini taxtga o'tqazishga urinishdi, ammo fitna amalga oshmadi va Xiyin o'z joniga qasd qilishga majbur bo'ldi.[60]
977 yilda janubiy poytaxt tashqarisida imtihon zali tashkil etildi.[61]
982 yil 13-oktabrda Jingzong ov qilish paytida kasal bo'lib, o'z lagerida vafot etdi. U 34 yoshda edi. O'limidan oldin u o'zining to'ng'ich o'g'li, 11 yoshli Longxu-ni voris qilib tayinladi.[60]
Shenzzong (982–1031)
Yelu Longxu, vafotidan keyin Liao imperatori Shengzong, otasining o'rnini egalladi, Liao imperatori Jingzong. U otasining o'limida atigi 11 yoshda edi, shuning uchun haqiqiy kuch regentga, onasiga tushdi Syao Yanyan. 1009 yilda vafotigacha Kidan imperiyasini u va uchta vazir boshqargan, ulardan ikkitasi xitoylar edi.[62] Syao Yanyan nihoyatda qobiliyatli hukmdor edi, ham siyosatda, ham urushda zukko bo'lib, o'zi uchun 10 ming otliq otishni boshlashga qodir bo'lgan buyruq berar edi. Ga ko'ra Liao tarixi, "uning [Shengzong] muvaffaqiyatining aksariyati onasining ko'rsatmasi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi kerak."[63]
Shengzong davrida bir qancha ma'muriy yutuqlar ishlab chiqarildi. 983 yilda Tang kodi Shimoliy ma'muriyat tomonidan foydalanish uchun Kitan tiliga tarjima qilishga buyruq berildi va 994 yilda har qanday Kitan o'nta jirkanch jinoyatni buzgan bo'lsa, xitoyliklar bilan bir xil jazoga tortilishi to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi. 1027 yilda xitoycha uslubda qayta ko'rib chiqilgan huquqiy kodeks buyurildi.[64] Birinchi jinshi imtihon 988 yilda bo'lib o'tdi va ular sulolaning oxirigacha davom etdi.[61] Ammo o'nta bitiruvchidan atigi ikki-uch nafari ish bilan ta'minlandi. Imtihonlarda lirik metrli she'rlar va rapsodiyalarga e'tibor qaratildi va ularni faqat xitoyliklar oldi.[65] 991 yilda birinchi haqiqiy yozuvlar yaratildi, Jingzong hukmronligi 20 bobni egalladi. 994 yilda kitanlar o'z taqvimlarini tuzdilar. Qaysi masalalarni qayd qilish kerakligi to'g'risidagi qoidalar 1011 yilda tuzilgan.[66] 991 yilda kitanlar birinchi umumiy ro'yxatni o'tkazdilar va 997 yilda qabilalar aholisi uchun yana bir ro'yxatga olish o'tkazildi.[67]
The Kumo Xi 997 yilgacha Kitan ma'muriyatiga to'liq qo'shildi. Vassalaj va o'lponning oldindan tuzilishi shu davrdan beri davom etgan. Liao imperatori Taizong, ammo 994 va 997 yillar oralig'idagi bir qator islohotlar bu rolni to'xtatdi. Kumo Xi qiroli maosh oladigan amaldorga aylandi va Kumo Xi hududida xitoy uslubidagi ma'muriy birliklar tashkil etildi. Ularning avvalgi poytaxti "Markaziy poytaxt" ga aylandi (Chjunjing ), ichki va tashqi devorni olgan, a Konfutsiy ma'badi va jamoat binolari 1018 va 1020 yillarda qurilgan.[68]
Harbiy jihatdan kitanlar ikkalasi bilan to'qnash kelishdi Qo'shiqlar sulolasi va Koreya qirolligi Goryeo. 986 yilda, Imperator Taizong of Song uch tomonlama hujumni amalga oshirdi va Kitan chegaralarini mudofaasini tezda mag'lub etdi, ammo ular dushman hududiga chuqur kirib borganlarida oqim o'zgarib ketdi. Ularning ta'minot liniyalaridan uzoqda bo'lgan Song qo'shinlari har tomondan qurshovga olingan va hujumga uchragan, natijada kidanlar uch jabhada ham ajoyib g'alabalarga erishgan. G'alabaga qaramay, chegara jiddiy zarar ko'rdi va ko'plab odamlar uylarini tashlab ketishdi. Mintaqa yillar davomida tiklanmadi.[69]
986 yilda, Li Tsitsian ning Tangutlar Kitanlarga topshirilgan va uchtadan keyin Kitan imperatorlik oilasining a'zosi kelin sifatida berilgan va "Sya qiroli" sifatida tayinlangan.[70]
985-6 yillarda kitanlar hujum qildi Jeongan. 991 yilda ular quyida uchta mustahkam harbiy koloniyalar tashkil etishdi Yalu vodiysi.[37] 992 yilda kitanlar Goryeoga bostirib kirdi, go'yoki 800000 ta kuchli kuch yuborib, Goryodan Yalu daryosi bo'yidagi hududlarni berishini talab qildi. Goryeo appealed for assistance from the Song dynasty, with whhom they had a military alliance, but no Song assistance came. After the initial battles, the Khitans made steady southward progress before reaching the Ch'ongch'on daryosi, at which point they called for negotiations with Goryeo military leadership. While the Khitans initially demanded total surrender from Goryeo, and Goryeo initially appeared willing to consider it, Seo Xui was eventually able to convince the Khitans to accept Goryeo as a irmoq davlati o'rniga. By 994, regular diplomatic exchanges between the Khitans and Goryeo began.[71]
After securing the border with Goryeo, the Khitans attacked the Song dynasty in 994 and laid siege to Zitong, but was repelled by its defenders with olov o'qlari.[72] The Khitans began a series of campaigns against the Song in 999. While generally successful on the battlefield, they failed to secure anything of value from the Song. This changed in 1004 when Shengzong and his mother led a lightning strike campaign right to the outskirts of the Song capital of Kaifeng by only taking cities that surrendered, while avoiding protracted sieges of the cities that resisted heavily. Imperator Zhenzong Song marched out and met the Khitans at Chanyuan, a small city on the Yellow River. In January 1005, the two sides signed the Chanyuan shartnomasi, which stipulated that the Song would give the Liao 200,000 bolts of silk and 100,000 ounces of silver each year, that the two emperors would address each other as equals, that they would finalize the location of their disputed border, and that the two dynasties would resume cordial relations. While the sums (referred to as gifts by the Song and as tributes by the Liao) were later increased to 300,000 bolts of silk and 200,000 ounces of silver per year out of Song fears that the Khitans might form a military alliance with the G'arbiy Xia, no major wars were fought between the Khitans and the Song for over a century following the signing of the treaty.[73] By signing the treaty, the Song functionally renounced its claim over the O'n oltita prefektura.[74] Part of the border demarcated by the treaty was on the barrier-less North China Plain in Hebei. To fortify these most perilous borderlands, the Song created an extensive defensive forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks.[75]
Four years after the Song invasion, conflict with Goryeo erupted again. In 1009, the Goryeo general Gang Jo o'ldirilgan Goryoning Mokjong shahri va qo'ying Goryoning Xyonjoni on the throne with the intention of serving as the boy's regent. The Khitans immediately sent an army of 400,000 men to Goryeo to punish Gang Jo; however, after an initial period of military success and the breakdown of several attempts at peace negotiations, Goryeo and the Khitans entered a decade of continuous warfare. In 1018 the Khitans suffered katta mag'lubiyat and their army was all but annihilated at the Gviju jangi by the Goryeo forces under General Gang Gam-chan. The next year, the Khitans assembled another large army to march on Goryeo. At this point both sides realized that they could not defeat each other militarily, so in 1020 King Hyeonjong resumed sending tribute , and in 1022 the Khitans officially recognized the legitimacy of King Hyeonjong's reign. Goryeo would remain a vassal, and the relationship between Liao and Goryeo would remain peaceful until the end of the Liao dynasty.[76]
In 1006, the Kingdom of Guiyi sent tribute to Shengzong's court, which seems to have encouraged him to attack the Ganzhou Uyg'ur Qirolligi. Expeditions against the Ganzhou Uyghurs were conducted in 1008, 1009, and 1010. These achieved limited success resulting in the deportation of some of the captured population. In 1027, the Khitans laid siege to Ganzhou but failed to take the city, and ended in disaster when they were ambushed by Zubu qabilalar.[77]
In the 1020s, the Southern Establishment tried to extend its taxation system to the Balhae people of the defunct Dongdan qirolligi, who formerly only had to pay a tribute. The Balhae people were ordered to build boats to transport grain to the Southern Capital. The journey was dangerous and many boats were lost, leading to resentment. In the summer of 1029, a distant descendant of Balhae royalty, Da Yanlin, rebelled at the Eastern Capital. He imprisoned minister Xiao Xiaoxian and his wife, killed the tax commissioners and chief military commander, and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty. He requested aid from Goryeo but they refused to help. Other Balhae people serving in the military also refused to join him. Instead only a handful of Jurxenlar joined his regime. A year later, one of Da Yanlin's officers betrayed him and opened the Eastern Capital's gates to the Khitans. His short lived dynasty came to an end. The old Balhae nobility were resettled near the Supreme Capital while others fled to Goryeo.[78]
Shengzong died on 25 June 1031 at the age of 60. At his deathbed, he entrusted his ministers Xiao Xiaomu and Xiao Xiaoxian to enthrone his eldest son, the 15 year old Yelu Zongjen.[79]
Xingzong (1031–1055)
The 15 year old Yelü Zongzhen, posthumously Liao imperatori Xingzong, tug'ilgan Liao imperatori Shengzong and one of his lesser consorts, Syao Noujin. Despite his parentage, he was raised as the adopted son of Empress Qitian (Xiao Pusage). Noujin fabricated a plot by Qitian to rebel and had her banished and then forced to commit suicide. Noujin declared herself the regent, made her birthday a public holiday, and began holding court and conducting duties normally within the purview of the emperor. In 1034, Noujin plotted to replace Xingzong with his younger brother, Zhongyuan, whom she had brought up herself. Zhongyuan wanted no part of this and informed Xingzong of their mother's plans, resulting in Noujin's banishment to their father's mausoleum. For his part in defeating the coup, Zhongyuan was given the title of "Imperial Younger Brother" and filled a succession of high ranking posts: commander in chief, northern commissioner of military affairs, and viceroy of the Southern Capital.[80] Noujin's relatives remained in power at court. In 1037, Xingzong attempted to reconcile with these elements by treating Noujin with great respect and paying her visits. Xingzong appointed her brother, Xiao Xiaomu, as northern chancellor. In 1039, Noujin returned to the capital and underwent a rebirth ceremony to symbolically re-establish her position. The Qo'shiqlar sulolasi began sending separate envoys to pay respects to her.[81]
Xingzong's reign saw the codification of law in 1036 with the promulgation of the Xinding tiaozhi which contained 547 articles and compiled all the laws since Abaoji hukmronligi. In 1046, all local administrators were ordered to report all legal cases to the Supreme Capital. The laws were further revised in 1051. The universal application of the law was opposed by the pro-Khitan faction of Zhongyuan. In 1043, Chinese living in the Southern Establishments were forbidden from owning bows and arrows. In 1044, at the suggestion of Zhongyuan, Khitan police inspectors were established in each of the capitals to protect Khitan interests. In 1046, Khitans were forbidden to sell slaves to Chinese.[82] On the other hand, restrictions on the Balhae people relaxed and they were allowed to play polo, a game regarded as a military exercise.[83]
Militarily, the Liao seemed to be in decline during Xingzong's reign. The number of wars conducted in previous decades had put a great burden on the people. In the late 1030s, Xingzong asked his ministers for advice on dealing with growing distress, impoverishment, internal discontent, and banditry due to excessive demands for corvée and military service. The Konfutsiy scholar, Xiao Hanjianu, advocated for withdrawing overextended garrisons from far off frontiers and the cessation of expansionist policies that incorporated useless territory. Instead, these forces should be concentrated in key areas to the south and east. In 1039, a census was conducted to provide a basis for levying manpower. The army was short on horses so the sacrifice of horses and oxen in ceremonies was banned in 1043. The army and its dependencies were organized into registries in 1046 and these registries were further revised in 1051. There was also concern about the quality of the troops' training, especially the Chinese troops that specialized in artillery and crossbows, skills that augmented the Khitans' cavalry forces.[84]
In 1042, the Khitans took advantage of the Li Yuanhao's invasion of Song to ask for territorial concessions from the Song. Negotiations resulted in the Liao dropping their territorial claims and an increase in annual tribute from the Song to 200,000 tales of silver and 300,000 bolts of silk. Qachon Li Yuanxao asked the Khitans in 1043 to join him in attacking the Song, Xingzong refused. In 1044, some Tangutlar living in Liao territory rebelled and sought refuge in G'arbiy Xia. The Khitans blamed Yuanhao for instigating the rebellion and immediately sent an invasion force led by Zhongyuan and the northern commissioner for military affairs Xiao Hui. Liao forces enjoyed an initial victory but failed to take the Xia capital and were brutally mauled by Yuanhao's defenders.[85] According to Song spies, there was a succession of carts bearing Liao dead across the desert.[86] In 1048, the Xia emperor died and the throne passed to an infant. The Khitans saw their opportunity for vengeance and invaded in a three pronged attack. The army under Xingzong's personal command encountered little resistance but had to withdraw owing to the lack of water and pasture for its horses. Xiao Hui's army advanced on the Sariq daryo with a flotilla of warships but was ambushed and defeated. The third army raided a Tangut palace in the Helan tog'lari, capturing Yuanhao's young widow and some high ranking officials. The Khitans invaded again the next year and plundered the Xia countryside and accepted the surrender of a Tangut general. The Western Xia agreed to become a tributary and peaceful relations were restored by 1053.[87]
In 1044, Datong formally became the "Western Capital" (Xijing), completing the five capital regions.[88]
Xingzong fell sick and died on 28 August 1055. He was 39 years old.[87]
Daozong (1055–1101)
Yelü Hongji, posthumously Liao imperatori Daozong, succeeded his father, Liao imperatori Xingzong, having already gained experience in governing while his father was alive. Unlike his father, Daozong did not face a succession crisis. Ikkalasi ham Syao Noujin and Zhongyuan still held substantial power, neither disputed the succession.[90]
Daozong's reign began with increased sinitsizatsiya. In 1055 all officials, and not just the emperor and members of the Southern Establishment, were required to wear Chinese court dress at major ceremonies. Daozong himself was highly taken with Chinese learning, poetry, Konfutsiylik va Buddizm. He placed greater emphasis on Chinese education and the imperiya imtihonlari for selection of officials. Soni jinshi passed in each examination increased from 50–60 during Xingzong's reign to over 100 under Daozong. In 1059 prefectural and county schools were established, as well as institutions for higher learning in the capitals. In 1060, a second Guozijian was set up in the Central Capital in addition to the one in the Supreme Capital. In 1070 a special palace examination called the "Examination for the worthy and good" (Xianliang ge) was established, requiring entrants to submit 100,000 characters worth of writing. In 1072 Daozong personally wrote the questions for the palace examination.[91]
In the early years, the court was dominated by two men, Xiao Ge and Xiao Ala. Xiao Ala was the son of Xiao Xiaomu and part of Xiao Noujin's extended family. He was a close friend of Xingzong and had served as state counselor and viceroy of the Eastern Capital. He was also married to an imperial princess. Upon Daozong's accession, Ala was made northern commissioner for military affairs, putting him alongside Xiao Ge as two of the most powerful men at court. The two had a falling out and Ala asked to retire. Instead he was sent to be viceroy of the Eastern Capital in 1059. In 1061 he returned to court and voiced harsh criticisms at the government. Ge denounced him to the emperor, and in spite of Empress Dowager Renyi's pleas, the emperor ordered Ala strangled. This left the court in the hands of Xiao Ge (who retired the next year), Yelü Renxian, and Yelü Yixin.[92] Yixin grew up in poverty but rose to become a palace attendant under Xingzong and by the end of his reign, a guard commander. Under Daozong, Yixin was made southern chancellor and then transferred to the northern Chancellery in 1059. Renxian rose to prominence during negotiations with the Qo'shiqlar sulolasi in 1042. In 1060 Zhongyuan tried to have Renxian, who opposed his faction, removed from the southern Chancellery, but Yixin interceded on his behalf by going directly to Daozong.[93]
In 1059 the tribal judges were ordered to refer all capital cases to the local prefect or magistrate for review. If anyone claimed that the sentence was unjust, it was to be referred to the central government for a decision. This possibly led to the rebellion of pro-Khitan elements under Zhongyuan in 1063. In 1061, Zhongyuan's son Nielugu was appointed southern commissioner for military affairs, and became a figurehead for dissident noblemen. Chief among the dissidents was Xiao Hudu, the northern commissioner for military affairs. In 1063, the dissidents ambushed Daozong while he was out on a hunting trip. Daozong was wounded when he had his horse shot out from under him by crossbowmen. He was saved by his servants while his mother, the Empress Dowager Renyi (Xiao Tali), led the guards to ward off the attackers. The battle lasted until dawn. Nielugu was killed by a stray arrow, Hudu fled and drowned himself, and Zhongyuan also fled and committed suicide. Yelü Ming, viceroy of the Southern Capital and a co-conspirator in the rebellion, did not give up when he heard of Zhongyuan's demise. He led a force of Kumo Xi into the capital and armed them with weapons to prepare for combat, but his deputy governor mobilized the Chinese garrison to resist them. When orders from the emperor arrived, Ming was executed. All the conspirators and their families, among them Xiao Ge, were executed, resulting in extensive changes in Liao leadership.[94]
After the rebellion, Yelü Yixin and his ally Yelü Renxian jointly controlled the Northern Commission for Military Affairs for a while. In 1065, Renxian became commander in chief. For the next 15 years, Yixin exercised unrivaled influence in court and acted opportunistically to advance self-interest, selecting corrupt and worthless men for office, taking bribes, and allowing the military to do anything they wanted. Renxian tried to contain him but eventually left for the post of viceroy of the Southern Capital. Daozong remained aloof from politics, providing no real leadership, and instead opted to pursue his own scholarly interests. In 1064 he ordered a search for books lacking in the imperial collection. In 1074 the government distributed copies of the Buyuk tarixchining yozuvlari va Xan kitobi. In the same year a bureau for compiling national history was established, which produced in 1085 Haqiqiy yozuvlar for the first seven reigns. Daozong gathered prominent scholars around him to expound on various canonical texts and greatly patronized Buddist rohiblar.[95] In 1090 a Song envoy commented on how lavishly the emperor patronized the Buddhist clergy and their all-pervasive influence on society. In the latter years of Daozong's reign, he all but abandoned his administrative duties. So ambivalent about administration was the emperor that he selected officials by having the candidates roll dice. This was how the historian who compiled the record of his reign was selected.[96]
Khitan resistance to Chinese influence did not disappear after the rebellion. In 1064 the private publication of books was banned, a measure that would have only impacted the urban Chinese elite. In 1067 Daozong underwent a traditional rebirth ceremony, while still engrossed in his studies, to re-establish his legitimacy as leader of the Khitans. In 1070 the Chinese were forbidden from hunting, which was considered a military exercise.[97] Daozong recognized that the Khitan and Chinese customs were different, so he ordered Yixin and Renxian to revise the universal laws to take this into account. The new laws, well over 1,000 articles and twice the size of the Xinding tiaozhi of 1036, receiving further amendments between 1075 and 1085, were so out of step with actual practice that they proved unenforceable. In 1089 the new laws were abandoned and the Xinding tiaozhi qayta tiklandi.[97] It is clear that while Daozong had a predilection towards Chinese culture, he also recognized that there were limits to how far he could advance pro-Chinese measures while governing Khitan elites. In 1074 the scholarly official Yelü Shuzhen suggested adopting Chinese style surnames for all Khitan tribes, which Daozong rejected, declaring that "the old order should not be changed suddenly".[98]
Yelü Renxian, the only man whose influence rivaled Yelü Yixin, died in 1072. In 1075, Daozong's son and heir apparent, Prince Jun, who was both well educated and skilled as a horseman and archer, emerged as a potential threat to Yixin's influence over Daozong. To remove Jun, Yixin first set in motion plans to eliminate his mother, Xiao Guanyin. One of her household members accused her of having an affair with a palace musician, Zhao Weiyi. In addition, Yixin and his ally, the Chinese scholar Zhang Xiaojie, fabricated evidence that the empress had written erotic poems to Zhao. Believing Yixin's evidence, Daozong ordered Zhao and his clan executed and the empress, Xiao Guanyin, to commit suicide. Her body was returned to her family wrapped in a mat. Yelü Jun swore revenge for her mother's death and shortly after her suicide, Yixin survived an attempted assassination. Xiao Guanyin was replaced by the sister of one of Yixin's henchmen, Xiao Xiamo, whose other sister was married to Yixin's son. After the death of Empress Dowager Renyi in 1076, the new empress, Xiao Tansi, was installed.[99] The next year, Yixin implicated a number of officials, all his enemies, with plotting a coup to replace Daozong with Jun. While the emperor was initially unmoved, Yixin fabricated a false confession by Jun, resulting in his demotion to commoner status and imprisonment. Yixin then sent emissaries to kill Jun and persuaded the viceroy of the Supreme Capital to report his death as a result of illness. Jun's wife was also killed when she was summoned to court by Daozong, who had almost immediately come to regret his actions.[99]
The new empress remained barren so Daozong decided upon Jun's son, Yelyu Yanxi, merosxo'r sifatida. In 1079 when the emperor was about to leave on his winter hunting trip, Yelü Yixin tried to persuade him to leave his grandson behind. Various courtiers hostile to him immediately protested this and convinced Daozong to take his grandson with him. This incident seemed to finally awaken the emperor to Yixin's true nature. In 1080 Yixin was demoted and sent to Xingzhong. A year later he was found guilty of trading prohibited goods with a foreign state and sentenced to death. Zhang Xiaojie and the new empress were both exiled from the capital, although Zhang would later be allowed to return and died peacefully in the late 1080s.[100] From then on, Yanxi was carefully groomed for the throne. In 1086 Daozong showed him the armour and weapons of Abaoji va Liao imperatori Taizong, describing to him the hardships of the campaigns on which the dynasty was founded. A few weeks later Yanxi underwent a rebirth ceremony. In 1088 he was assigned to his first office. A year later he was married and sons were born in 1089 and 1093.[96]
Economically the Liao dynasty suffered greatly from natural disasters during Daozong's reign. Starting from 1065, not a year went by without an area being struck by some natural disaster. At first it was mainly the southern agricultural regions that were effected but in the 1080s and 1090s, the tribal areas also seem to have experienced immense suffering, resulting in displaced families and vagrants. The government constantly lost revenue due to payments of relief and the granting of tax exemptions. In 1074, the Eastern Capital region was hit by severe flooding, after which orders were given to construct flood control works. This was opposed on grounds that the necessary labor levies involved would cause even greater hardship and unrest. In the winter of 1082-3, unusually heavy snowfall killed up to 60–70 percent of tribal livestock and horses.[101]
The tribal borderlands of the Liao empire were never clearly defined, constituting a zone inhabited by fragmented and unstable tribal groups who were loosely subject to the Liao court. Often some elements of the same people would be assimilated into the tribal section of the Liao empire while others of their relatives lived beyond the borders. The situation was always fluid, as groups merged and split apart and changed their allegiance. This situation was particularly complicated for two sets of peoples: the Jurchen in northern and eastern Manchuria and the Zubu tribes living in the heartlands of Mongolia, the Orkhon and Selenga valleys.[102]
— Denis Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze
Militarily the reign of Daozong saw little conflict with other settled states. In 1074 there was a border demarcation crisis with the Song but it was resolved by peaceful diplomacy in 1076. In 1078 Goryeo 's king asked for territory east of the Yalu daryosi, which was rejected without any trouble or break in relations. The situation on the northwestern borderland was less stable and events toward the end of Daozong's reign would see the subjugation of the Zubu tribes, some of whom lived in Liao territory but had long resisted Khitan rule. There were outbreaks of warfare with the Zubu previously in 997-1000, 1007, 1012-23, and 1027. In 1063, 1064, and 1070, prohibitions were placed on the trade of metals to the G'arbiy Xia, Zubu tribes, and Uyg'urlar. In 1069, there was a renewed Zubu rebellion which was put down by Yelü Renxian. In 1086 the Zubu chieftain attended court and Daozong ordered his grandson, Yelü Yanxi, to be friendly towards him as he was a valuable ally. However in 1089, Zubu leadership passed to Mogusi. In 1092, the Khitans attacked several tribes in the northwest neighboring the Zubu and the Zubu became involved. In 1093 Mogusi led a series of raids deep into Liao territory and drove off many of the state herds of horses. Other tribes such as the Dilie (Tiriet), who had previously rebelled in 1073, also joined Mogusi. It took until 1100 for the northern commissioner for military affairs, Yelü Wotela, to capture and kill Mogusi. His death did not end warfare with the northwestern tribes and it took another two years to defeat the remaining Zubu forces. The war against the Zubu was the last successful military campaign waged by the Liao dynasty.[103]
Daozong passed away on 12 February 1101 at the age of 68. He was succeeded by his grandson, Yelü Yanxi.[104]
Tianzuo (1101–1125)
The accession of Yelü Yanxi, posthumously Liao imperatori Tianzuo, proceeded without incident. His first act upon becoming emperor was to desecrate the tomb of Yelü Yixin and all those who brought about the deaths of his grandmother and parents. The corpses of Yixin and his allies were mutilated. The deceased Liao imperatori Daozong was interred together with the empress who had been forced to commit suicide. Tianzuo's father, Jun, was given a posthumous temple name as though he had reigned as emperor.[105]
Natural disasters continued to plague the Liao dynasty intermittently. In 1105 Tianzuo went out in disguise to see the suffering of the people, but nothing else on record hints at what he may have prescribed in policy. In the same year, merchant families were from barred from taking the jinshi exam, which suggests continued sinitsizatsiya in the Liao mode of governance. Between 1103 and 1105, the G'arbiy Xia repeatedly requested the Kitanlar hujum qilish Qo'shiqlar sulolasi, but the Liao court refused. The Liao cemented its relations with the Tangutlar with a marriage alliance and sent an envoy requesting the Song to stop its attacks on Western Xia. Diplomatic relations with the neighboring settled states remained cordial and even the Zubu sent embassies pledging their allegiance in 1106, 1110, and 1112.[105]
Despite international peace on several fronts, the Liao dynasty would fall to the Jurxenlar by 1125. The Jurchens were a Tungus xalqi who lived in fragmented tribes stretching northward from the border of Goryeo. They had been in contact with the Khitans ever since Abaoji hokimiyatga ko'tarilish. Despite their marginal status, they were militarily significant enough that the Song considered them a potential ally against the Liao, and periodically caused trouble for the Khitans. The Liao categorized the Jurchens into three groups: "civilized" Jurchens (shu nüzhi) descended from tribes captured by the Liao in the 10th century and assimilated into Khitan society, "obedient" Jurchens (shun nüzhi) subordinate to the Liao and had regular contact with the court, and "wild" Jurchens (sheng nüzhi) who inhabited the lower Songxua daryosi valley and the eastern mountains of modern Heilongjiang. The wild Jurchens were nominally subordinate to the Liao but were functionally independent. During the 11th century, one of the wild Jurchen clans, the Vanyan, established dominance over their neighbors and created a semblance of Jurchen unity. The Liao court recognized this and conferred on their chieftains the title of military governor.[106]
As the Wanyan clan consolidated their control over the Jurchens, relations with the Liao also became increasingly strained. The Jurchens resented the behavior of Liao officials at Ningjiang, the main border trading post, who constantly cheated them. The Liao also placed on them the obligation of supplying the Liao emperor with gyrfalkonlar deb nomlangan haidongqing, only bred on the coastal regions and required the Jurchens to fight across the territory of their neighbors, the Five Nations, to access. Liao envoys also habitually beat their village elders and abused their women.[106] One of the primary causes of the Jurchen rebellion was the odatiy of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens.[107] The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companisons, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao.[108] Jinlar orasidagi qo'shiq elchilariga Xenan shahridagi Giddagi qo'shiqchi qizlar ham xuddi shunday zavq bag'ishladilar.[109] There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later.[110]
The Jurchen problem reared its head in late 1112 when Tianzuo embarked on a fishing expedition to the Huntong River (modern Songxua daryosi ), where the Jurchen tribes were expected to pay homage to the emperor. As a symbolic gesture of obeisance, the Jurchen chieftains were supposed to get up in turn and dance in the emperor's camp, but one of them, Aguda, rad etdi. Even after being bidden three times, Aguda still refused to dance. Tianzuo wanted him executed for his act of defiance but the influential chancellor, Xiao Fengxian, dissuaded him from that course and belittled the harm Aguda could do. This would prove to be a fatal mistake as Aguda was elected ruler of the Jurchens in the following year. Aguda immediately began harassing the Liao for the return of Ashu, a Jurchen chieftain who opposed Wanyan hegemony and had taken refuge in Liao territory, and when his demands were refused, began building fortifications on the Liao border. In the late autumn of 1114 Aguda attacked Ningjiang. Underestimating the Jurchen threat, Tianzuo only sent some Balhae detachments from the Eastern Capital, which was utterly defeated. Another force composed of Khitan and Kumo Xi troops led by Xiao Sixian, the brother of Xiao Fengxian, was also defeated on the Songhua. Despite Sixian's incompetence, he escaped punishment, leading to demoralization of Khitan generals. By the end of the year, several border prefectures had been taken by the Jurchens and some neighboring tribes had also joined them.[111]
In 1115 Tianzuo sent envoys to negotiate with the Jurchens, but Aguda had already declared himself emperor of the Jin sulolasi, and rejected the Liao letters because they did not address him by his new title. Aguda continued to demand the return of Ashu and the withdraw of Liao troops from Huanglong, the major administrative center of the region. Huanglong fell to the Jin in late autumn. Tianzuo assembled a massive army west of the Songhua and crossed the river in the winter of 1115. His invasion was undermined by a plot to dethrone him and install his uncle, Prince Chun. The conspirators led by Yelü Zhangnu deserted the army and sent messengers informing Chun of their plan. Chun refused to take part in the coup and beheaded Zhangnu's messengers. The rebels then went about the countryside creating havoc until they were defeated by a small group of loyal Jurchens. Zhangnu was caught trying to escape to the Jin disguised as a messenger and was executed by being cut in half at the waist. More than 200 implicated nobles were executed and their families condemned to slavery. In early 1116 another rebellion occurred at the Eastern Capital when a Balhae officer named Gao Yongchang declared himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty and requested aid from the Jin. The Jin relief troops to Yuan easily repulsed the Liao troops but then turned on the Balhae rebels and killed Gao Yongchang. With the destruction of the Yuan dynasty, the entire region east of the Liao daryosi fell to the Jin. To ensure Chun's continued loyalty, he was made commander in chief of the Liao armies and entrusted with defense operations against the Jin. Chun proved to be an awful commander. His new army, composed of Balhae refugees, inflicted more damage on the civilian population than the enemies. When the Jin attacked Chunzhou on the Songhua in early 1117, the Liao army melted away, not even offering a token resistance. At the end of the year, the Jin forces crossed the Liao River, defeated Chun's army, and conquered several prefectures.[112]
After the Jin's initial conquests, a lull in military activity followed. In 1118 Tianzuo initiated peace negotiations, but the Jin demands were so onerous, requesting half of the Liao empire in addition to payments of silk and silver, that they were impossible to meet. Aguda was unable to immediately continue military campaigns against the Liao due to stretched resources. 1119 yilda Sharqiy poytaxtda Jinlarga qarshi isyon ko'tarilib, bostirilishi kerak edi. Ushbu qisqa intermediya ochlik, mahalliy isyonlar va Djin tomon burilishlar boshidan kechirgan Liao uchun kam bo'lmagan. 1020 yil bahorida Aguda muzokaralarni to'xtatganda harbiy harakatlar yangilandi.[113]
Jin 1120 yil o'rtalarida Oliy poytaxtni qo'lga kiritdi va yozgi jaziramadan qochish uchun o'z harakatini to'xtatdi. 1121 yil bahorida Tianzuoning ikkinchi rafiqasi Ledi Ven, qaynotasi general Yelu Yudu bilan til biriktirib, imperatorni taxtdan ag'darish va o'g'lini taxtga o'tirishni buyurdi. Ushbu fitnani Xiao Fengxian ochib berdi, uning singlisi Ledi Yuan ham o'g'lining muvaffaqiyat qozonishini umid qilgan. Ledi Ven o'z joniga qasd qilishga majbur bo'ldi, ammo Yudu qochib, Jin tomonga o'tib ketdi. Unga o'z qo'shinlari qo'mondonligida qolishga ruxsat berildi va 1121-2 yil qishda u Jin kuchlarini Markaziy poytaxtni egallashga boshladi. Janubiy poytaxtni boshqarish uchun knyaz Chunni tark etib, Tianzuo Jin orqali uzoq masofaga uchib, yo'ldan o'tdi. Juyong dovoni G'arbiy poytaxtga. Ko'p o'tmay, Tianzuo Syao Fensyanning o'g'lining o'limiga sabab bo'lgan hiyla-nayranglaridan charchagan va uni o'z joniga qasd qilishga majbur qilgan. Keyin Tianzuo qochib ketdi Yin tog'lari u erda u mahalliy qabilalardan yangi qo'shinlarni jalb qilishga urindi. Uning izidan kelib chiqib, Jin 1122 yil bahorida G'arbiy poytaxtni oldi Tangutlar o'z chegaralarini bosib olishidan qo'rqib, Tianzuoni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun qo'shin yubordi va Yurxen yurishini to'sib qo'ydi. Aguda kelganidan ko'p o'tmay, u Xia chegarasi yaqinida Kitan-Tangut kuchlarini mag'lubiyatga uchratdi va shahzoda Chun yangi Liao imperatori deb e'lon qilingan Janubiy poytaxtni olish uchun sharqqa burildi (Shimoliy Liao ).[114]
Imperator bo'lganidan atigi uch oy o'tgach, Chun vafot etdi va beva ayol imperatorni mas'ul qoldirdi. 1122 yilning kech kuzida uning qo'mondonlari Guo Yaoshi va Gao Fen qo'shinlari bilan Songga qarab yo'l oldilar. Ular Song qo'shinlarini Janubiy poytaxtga hujum qilishda boshchilik qilishdi, ammo Liaoning qurib qolgan davlatida ham Song qo'shini hali ham Kitan mudofaasini engib o'tolmadi va shaharni egallab olmadi. Qishda Aguda Janubiy poytaxtni oldi va qolgan kitanlar g'arbga ikki guruhga qochib ketishdi. Xiao Gan boshchiligidagi bir guruh G'arbiy Sia tomon qochib, u erda qisqa muddatli Si sulolasini o'rnatdilar, u Gan o'z qo'shinlari qo'lida vafot etishidan atigi besh oy davom etdi. Boshchiligidagi boshqa guruh Yelu Dashi, Sian chegarasida Tianzuoga qo'shildi. 1123 yil yozining boshlarida Dashi Djin tomonidan asirga olingan va ularni Tianzuoning lageriga olib borishga majbur bo'lgan, bu erda Tianzuo va bitta o'g'lidan tashqari butun imperator oilasi qo'lga olingan. Tianzuo boshpana izladi G'arbiy Sya imperatori Chonzzong Dastlab qabul qilganda, yurxenlarning ogohlantirishlaridan so'ng fikrini o'zgartirib, 1124 yilda o'zini Jinning vassali deb e'lon qildi. Tianzuo shimoldan dashtga qochib ketdi, u erda kiyimlarini oziq-ovqat bilan almashtirdi. Xongirad. Bu kabi muvaffaqiyatsizliklarga qaramay, Tianzuo hali ham G'arbiy va Janubiy poytaxtlarni qaytarib olish xayolini ushlab turdi va yaqin atrofdagi prefekturalarga hujum qildi. Tianzuoga qo'shilgan Dashi, uning xatti-harakatlaridan charchab, g'arb tomon yo'l oldi. Tianzuo 1125 yil boshida asirga olingan va Jin saroyiga olib borilgan va u erda "dengiz qiroli" unvoniga ega bo'lgan (haipin wang). Ga ko'ra Liao tarixi, Tianzuo 1128 yilda 54 yoshida vafot etdi.[115]
Qara Xitai
Yelu Dashi shimoli-g'arbdan qochib, bosh idorasini Kedun (Chjenjjou) harbiy garnizonida tashkil etdi Orxon daryosi. Dashi 20 ming kishilik garnizon qo'shinlarining sodiqligini ta'minladi va o'zini o'zi qo'ydi gurxan (universal xon). 1130 yilda Dashi o'z mezbonini g'arbiy tomonga olib borib, yangi hudud qidirdi. Bir yil ichida u o'zini suzerain sifatida namoyon qildi Qocho va o'z o'rnini egalladi Transsoxiana. Fathdan keyin Qoraxoniylar shahri Balasagun (zamonaviy Qirg'iziston ), u halokat bilan yakunlangan sobiq Liao hududini qaytarib olishga harakat qildi. Dashi bu urinishni uddalay olmay, O'rta Osiyoda doimiy nomi bilan tanilgan Kidanlar davlatini tashkil etdi Qara Xitai yoki G'arbiy Liao sulolasi. Yangi Liao imperiyasi kengayib ketdi Orol dengizi, mag'lubiyatga uchragan Qoraxoniylar xonligi va Saljuqiylar imperiyasi da Katvan jangi va mintaqada o'z hukmronligini o'rnatish. Bir necha muhim savdo shaharlari bo'lgan Qara Xitay diniy bag'rikenglik ko'rsatadigan ko'p madaniyatli davlat edi. "Qara" qora degan ma'noni anglatadi, Liaoning sulola rangiga va uning sulola elementi suviga to'g'ri keladi.[49]
Yelu Dashining sulolasi Naymanlar ostida Kuchlug 1211 yilda va an'anaviy xitoy, fors va arab manbalarida zo'ravonlikni sulolaning oxiri deb hisoblashadi.[116] Imperiya. Bilan tugadi Mo'g'ullar istilosi 1218 yilda.[117]
The Jurchen Jin sulolasi edi zabt etilgan tomonidan Mo'g'ul imperiyasi 1234 yilda.[118]
Hukumat
Liao sulolasi eng baland bo'lganida, hozirgi Shanxi shahrini boshqargan, Xebey, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang va Ichki Mo'g'uliston Xitoyning viloyatlari, shuningdek, shimoliy qismlari Koreya yarim oroli, ning qismlari Rossiya Uzoq Sharq va Mo'g'uliston mamlakatining katta qismi.[119][120] Aholining eng yuqori darajasi 750 ming kitan va ikki-uch million etnik xitoylik xitoylar.[121]
Huquq va boshqaruv
Liao bir-biriga parallel ravishda ishlaydigan ikkita alohida hukumatni ishg'ol qildi: Kitan va boshqa ko'chmanchi xalqlar uchun mas'ul bo'lgan Shimoliy ma'muriyat, aksariyati Liao hududining shimoliy qismida yashagan va janubiy ma'muriyat asosan Xitoy aholisi uchun mas'ul bo'lgan. janubiy tomonda. Abaoji birinchi marta tizimni o'rnatganida, bu ikki hukumat qat'iy hududiy chegaralarga ega emas edi, ammo imperator Shizong o'z hukmronligining boshlarida ikkala ma'muriyat uchun rasmiy ravishda belgilangan chegaralarni o'rnatdi. Yangi belgilangan Shimoliy ma'muriyatda yirik xitoy xitoylari, balxaylar va Uyg‘ur populyatsiyalarga ega bo'lib, ularga parallel ravishda shimoliy va janubiy hukumatlar berilgan.[122]
Shimoliy ma'muriyat va janubiy ma'muriyat hukumatlari juda boshqacha ishladilar. Shimoliy ma'muriyat Tvithet va Titsze "mohiyatan buyuk qabila rahbarining shaxsiy izdoshi" deb nomlagan tizimda ish yuritgan.[123] Ko'pgina hukumat tayinlovlari qabila ishlari, podalar va podshohlar imperatoriga xizmat qiluvchilar bilan, eng qudratli va yuqori lavozimlar esa harbiy ishlar bilan shug'ullangan. Ofis egalarining aksariyati kitanlar bo'lib, asosan imperator Yelu va Xiao konsorts klanlaridan bo'lgan.[124] Tvithett va Titsze uni "T'ang modeliga taqlid qilib ishlab chiqilgan" deb atashgan Janubiy ma'muriyat ancha tuzilishga ega edi.[123] Shimoliy ma'muriyatdan farqli o'laroq, Janubiy ma'muriyatdagi past va o'rta darajadagi amaldorlarning aksariyati xitoyliklar edi.[125]
Liao sulolasi yana beshta "sxemaga" bo'lindi, ularning har biri poytaxt shahar edi. Ushbu tizim uchun umumiy g'oya Balxeydan olingan, garchi qo'lga kiritilgan Balxay shaharlari shahar poytaxtiga aylanmagan bo'lsa ham.[126] Beshta poytaxt - Shangjing (上京), ya'ni zamonaviy poytaxt Ichki Mo'g'ulistonda joylashgan Oliy poytaxt; Nankin (南京), ya'ni zamonaviy poytaxtga yaqin joylashgan Janubiy poytaxt Pekin; Dongjing (東京), ya'ni zamonaviy Liaoning yaqinida joylashgan Sharqiy poytaxt; Zhongjing (zh中ng), ya’ni zamonaviy poytaxt degan ma'noni anglatadi Xebey ga yaqin viloyat Laoha daryosi; va Tszin (西京), ya'ni G'arbiy poytaxt, zamonaviy Datong yaqinida joylashgan.[127] Har bir tumanni o'z raisidagi aholi ehtiyojlarini qondirish uchun siyosatni ishlab chiqish uchun avtonomiyaga ega bo'lgan qudratli noib boshqargan.[125] Sxemalar qo'shimcha ravishda fu (府) deb nomlangan ma'muriyatlarga bo'lindi, ular poytaxt shaharlarini o'rab turgan metropolitenlar edi va metropolitenlardan tashqarida zhou (州) deb nomlangan prefekturalarga bo'linib, ular o'zlarini xian (縣) deb nomlangan tumanlarga bo'lishdi.[128]
Ushbu ma'muriy tizimlarga qaramay, muhim davlat qarorlari hali ham imperator tomonidan qabul qilingan. Imperator yiliga ikki marta Shimoliy va Janubiy ma'muriyatlarning rasmiylari bilan uchrashgan, ammo bundan tashqari imperator ko'p vaqtini poytaxt shaharlaridan tashqarida qabilalar ishlariga qatnashgan.[129]
Harbiy
Liao armiyasi dastlab turli qabilalardan atigi 2000 kishidan iborat bo'lgan Abaoji shaxsiy izdoshi. Ushbu 2000 kishiga asirlardan olingan asirlar qo'shildi Balhae va Tszinchjou prefekturasi. Bu vaqtga kelib orda, imperatorning shaxsiy armiyasi tarkibida 15000 xonadon bor edi va 6000 otliqgacha maydonga tushishi mumkin edi. Liao zodagonlarining har biri Liao hukumati saylov kampaniyasi uchun "qarz olgan" o'z orda-lariga ega edilar. Ga ko'ra Liao tarixi, Liao zodagonlari davlatga xuddi o'zlarining oilalari kabi munosabatda bo'lishdi. Ular urush paytida hukumatga yordam berish uchun xususiy qo'shinlar bilan ta'minladilar. Kattaroq ordalar ming yoki undan ortiq otliqlardan, kichiklari esa bir necha yuz otliqlardan iborat edi. Sulolaning oxiriga kelib, ordalar birgalikda 81000 kitan xonadoni va 124000 balhae va xitoylik uy xo'jaliklarini birlashtirgan bo'lib, ular birgalikda 101000 otliqgacha sayohat qilishlari mumkin edi.[130]
Liao armiyasi 3 qismdan iborat edi Orduular imperatorning elita shaxsiy otliqlari, kitanlarning urug 'otliqlari va xitan bo'lmagan qabilalarning yordamchi kuchi hamda xan xitoylari va boshqa harakatsiz xalqlarning militsiya piyoda qo'shinlari bo'lib, ular piyoda o'q otuvchilar va katapult ekipajlarini ham ta'minladilar. Qo'llash hududlari ko'pincha qo'mondonlarga berildi.[131] Liao armiyasining yadrosi og'ir zirhli otliqlardan iborat edi. Jangda ular old tomondan engil otliqlar va orqadan zirhli otliqlarning ikki qatlamini joylashtirdilar. Hatto em-xashakchilar ham zirhli edi.[132] Kitan og'ir otliq qo'shinlari 500 dan 700 kishigacha guruhlarga uyushgan. Ko'chmanchi qabilalardan kelib chiqqan ba'zi boshqa imperiyalardan farqli o'laroq, kitanlar ot kamonchilarining keng shakllanishidan ko'ra zich og'ir otliq tuzilmalarida jang qilishni afzal ko'rishgan.[133]
Jamiyat va madaniyat
Til
The Kitan tili bilan eng yaqin bog'liqdir Mo'g'ul tillari oilasi; mo'g'ullar oilasining ba'zi kengroq ta'riflari Kitanni a'zosi sifatida o'z ichiga oladi.
Shimoliy Xitoyni bosib olish va Liao sulolasi tashkil etilishidan oldin kitanlar yozma tilga ega emas edilar. 920 yilda Kitan yozuvlaridan ikkitasining birinchisi, Kidancha katta yozuv, ishlab chiqilgan. Ikkinchi skript, Kidancha kichik yozuv, 925 yilda ishlab chiqilgan.[134] Ikkala stsenariy bir xil og'zaki tilga asoslangan va ikkalasida ham qorishma mavjud logograflar va fonograflar.[135] Ga o'xshashliklariga qaramay Xitoycha belgilar, kidan yozuvlari funktsional jihatdan xitoy tilidan farq qilar edi.[134]
Kitan tilidagi katta yoki kichik yozuvlarda yozilgan ozgina hujjatlar shu kungacha saqlanib qolgan. Ko'pchilik ikkala kite yozuvlarining omon qolgan namunalari bor epitefiya tosh lavhalardagi yozuvlar, shuningdek bir qator yozuvlar tangalar, nometall va muhrlar. Kitan katta yozuvidagi faqat bitta qo'lyozma matni ma'lum (Nova N 176 ) va Kitan kichik yozuvidagi qo'lyozmalar ma'lum emas.[136] Liao imperatorlari xitoy tilini o'qiy olishgan va Liao sulolasi davrida Kitan tiliga tarjima qilingan ba'zi xitoy asarlari bo'lganida, Konfutsiy klassiklari Xitoyda hukumatni boshqarish uchun asosiy qo'llanma bo'lib xizmat qilgan, Kitan tiliga tarjima qilinganligi ma'lum emas.[137]
Ayollarning holati
Liao sulolasidagi ayollarning mavqei juda xilma-xil bo'lib, Kitan Liao bilan (boshqalari singari) ko'chmanchi jamiyatlar) ayollarga nisbatan tengdoshlik nuqtai nazariga ega bo'lib, xan xitoylariga qaraganda. Kidan ayollariga ov qilishni o'rgatishgan va erlari urush paytida oilaviy podalarni, podalarni, moliya va mol-mulkni boshqarishni o'rgatishgan.[138][139][140] Yuqori sinfdagi ayollar hukumat va harbiy lavozimlarda ishlashga qodir edilar.[140] Liao sulolasi ostida yashagan xan xitoylar kitanlik odatlarini qabul qilishga majbur bo'lmadilar va ba'zi xan xitoylari buni amalga oshirgan bo'lsalar ham, ko'pchilik bunday qilmadilar.[141]
Nikoh amaliyoti
Kitan elitasi ayollari ba'zi hollarda siyosiy maqsadlarda nikoh tuzishgan.[142][143] Elita sinfidagi erkaklar o'zlaridan katta avloddagi ayollarga uylanishga moyil edilar. Garchi bu er va xotin o'rtasidagi yoshlarda katta farq bo'lishini anglatmasa-da, ko'pincha shunday bo'lgan. Hukmdor Yelu urug’i orasida o’g’il bolalarning o’rtacha yoshi o’n olti yoshni tashkil etgan bo’lsa, qizlarning turmush qurishi o’n olti yoshdan yigirma ikki yoshgacha edi. Noyob bo'lsa-da, o'g'il bolalar va qizlar uchun o'n ikki yoshgacha bo'lgan yosh qayd etilgan.[144] Maxsus xilma-xilligi ko'pxotinlilik erkak singil bo'lgan ikki yoki undan ortiq ayolga uylanadigan sororat deb nomlanuvchi Liao elitasi orasida amal qilgan.[140][145] Ko'pxotinlilik faqat sororatlar bilan cheklanmagan, ba'zi erkaklar uch va undan ortiq ayolga ega bo'lgan, ulardan ba'zilari faqat opa-singil bo'lgan. Sororat, bu amaliyotni taqiqlovchi qonunlarga qaramay, Liao sulolasi davrida davom etdi.[145] Sulola davrida Kitan elitasi bir nechta xotin olishdan voz kechib, Xan xitoylari tizimida bir xotin va bir yoki bir nechta ayollarga ega bo'lishdi. kanizaklar.[145] Bu asosan merosxo'rlik jarayonini yumshatish uchun qilingan.[140]
Liao sulolasidagi quyi sinf kitan ayollari nikoh tuzmagan va ko'chalarda qo'shiq kuylash va raqsga tushish orqali sovchilarni jalb qilishardi. Qo'shiqlar o'zlarining reklama reklamalari bo'lib, ayollar o'zlarining go'zalligi, oilaviy ahvoli va uy mahoratini aytib berishdi. Kitanlar orasida bokiralik nikoh uchun shart emas edi va ko'plab kitan ayollari turmush qurishdan oldin jinsiy aloqada bo'lishgan.[142] Betrothal Kidan jamiyatida nikohning o'zi uchun bir xil darajada jiddiy, agar jiddiyroq bo'lmasa, uni bekor qilish qiyin bo'lgan. Kuyov kelinning oilasi uchun uch yil ishlashga va'da bergan edi kelinning narxi, va sovg'alar bilan kelinning oilasini to'kib tashlang. Uch yildan so'ng, kuyovga kelinni o'z uyiga olib ketishga ruxsat beriladi va kelin odatda oilasi bilan barcha aloqalarni uzadi.[146] Nikoh yoshidagi ayollarni o'g'irlash Liao sulolasi davrida keng tarqalgan edi. Faoliyatda barcha ijtimoiy tabaqalardagi kitanlar ishtirok etishgan va o'g'irlanganlar kitan va xan xitoylarini ham o'z ichiga olgan. Ba'zi hollarda, bu ayolni o'g'irlash va natijada jinsiy aloqada bo'lishiga rozi bo'ladigan, keyin esa o'g'irlab ketgan va olib qochgan ayol uyiga qaytib, uylanish niyatini e'lon qilish uchun uchrashish jarayonida bir qadam edi. Ushbu jarayon sifatida tanilgan edi baimen (拜 門). Boshqa hollarda, o'g'irlash kelishuvga bog'liq bo'lmagan va zo'rlashga olib keladi.[147] Kitan ayollari erlari bilan ajrashish huquqiga ega edilar va ajrashgandan keyin yana turmush qurishlari mumkin edi.[140]
Din
Liao jamiyatidagi din sintez edi Buddizm, Konfutsiylik, Daoizm va Kitan qabilaviy dini. Abaoji davrida uchta asosiy dinlarning ham ibodatxonalari qurilgan, ammo keyinchalik imperatorlik homiyligi asosan X asrning boshlarida kitanlarning ko'p qismi qabul qilgan buddaviylik bilan cheklangan.[148] The Budda kitanlar tomonidan himoya xudosi deb hisoblanib, uni "Mamlakatni qo'riqlaydigan xayrixoh shoh" deb atashgan. Ular urushga borganlarida va halok bo'lgan askarlarning ruhlarini joylashtirish uchun ulkan qurbonliklar qilganlarida buddizmga murojaat qilishgan.[149] Liao 990-yillarda buddaviy matnlarni va uning to'liq nusxasini chop etishni boshladi Tripitaka Uning qismlari 1056 yilda qurilgan pagoda topilgan.[150] Liao sulolasi davrida yashagan buddist olimlarning taxmin qilishicha mofa (末法), bu yosh buddizmning uchta xazinasi yo'q qilinishi kerak edi, bu 1052 yilda boshlanishi kerak edi. Avvalgi sulolalar, shu jumladan Suy va Tanglar ham mofa, ularning taxminlari qachon bo'lishiga qaramay mofa boshlash Liao tomonidan tanlanganidan farq qiladi. Suy sulolasidayoq buddaviylik ta'limotlarini toshga o'ymak yoki ko'mish orqali saqlab qolish uchun harakatlar qilingan. Ushbu harakatlar Liao sulolasida davom etdi, 1052 yildan oldingi yillarda imperator Xingzong bir nechta loyihalarni moliyalashtirdi.[151]
An'anaviy Kidan qabilaviy dinining ba'zi elementlari ham kuzatilgan. Kitanlar quyoshga sajda qildilar va imperator uchun marosim holati janubga qaragan Xan xitoylik imperatorlardan farqli o'laroq, quyosh ko'tarilgan sharqqa qarab turishi kerak edi. Qirollik uylari ham sharqqa qaragan. Kitanlar, shuningdek, Kitanlar ajdodlarining afsonaviy uyi va "Qora tog '" Muye tog'ining ruhlariga sig'inishgan.[152] Liao dafn etilgan joylar shuni ko'rsatadiki, nikoh va dafn marosimlarida budizm bilan birga animistik yoki shamanistik amaliyotlar mavjud bo'lgan. Liao qabrlarida buddaviylik ta'sirining ko'rsatkichlari bilan bir qatorda hayvon va inson qurbonliklari topilgan. Daoist, burj va Zardushtiylik ta'sirlar Liao dafn etilgan joylarda ham topilgan.[153]
Liao sulolasi davrida Niujie masjidi tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Nazaruddin, mahalliy imomning o'g'li.
Luoxan haykal, Liao sulolasi, 11-asr
Liao davrining bronza figurasi Gautama Budda
Bronza Guanyin Oliy poytaxtning Xitoy bo'limidan haykal
Liao davri bo'yalgan yog'och haykal Guanyin
Bronza haykali Guanyin, Liao sulolasi, 10-asr
Madaniy meros
Liao sulolasining keyingi madaniyatga ta'siri katta merosni o'z ichiga oladi haykaltaroshlik san'ati ishlari, bo'yalgan yog'och, metall va uch rangli sirlarga oid saqlanib qolgan muhim misollar bilan sancai keramika. Liao sulolasining musiqa va qo'shiqlari mo'g'ul, yurxen va xitoy musiqa an'analariga bilvosita yoki bevosita ta'sir ko'rsatgani ham ma'lum.
Ning ritmik va tonal naqshlari ci (词) she'riyat shakli, uning muhim qismi Qo'shiq sulolasi she'riyati, she'riy metrlar to'plamidan foydalanadi va aniq musiqiy qo'shiq kuylariga asoslanadi. Ushbu turli xil o'ziga xos kuylar va musiqiy uslublarning o'ziga xos kelib chiqishi ma'lum emas, ammo Lyao sulolasi lirikasining bevosita va bilvosita Jurchen Jin sulolasi musiqasi va lirikasi orqali ta'siri katta ehtimollik bilan paydo bo'ladi. Eng kamida bitta xitoylik manba Liao (va Yurxen) musiqasini chegara urushi orqali tarqalib ketgan otliq jangchilarning kuchli va kuchli musiqasi deb hisoblagan.[154][155]
Liao madaniy an'analarining yana bir ta'siri Yuan sulolasi "s zaju (杂剧) teatr, u bilan bog'liq orkestr va qu (曲) va sanqu (散曲) shakllari Klassik xitoy she'riyati. Ushbu ta'sirning yuzaga kelishining bir usuli, 1211 yildan 1215 yilgacha bo'lgan birinchi mo'g'ul bosqini paytida Kidan zobitlari va odamlarini mo'g'ul kuchlari xizmatiga qo'shilish edi.[156] Liao madaniyati merosini madaniy etkazishning ushbu shimoliy yo'li keyinchalik Yuan sulolasi davrida Xitoyga qaytarilgan.
Tarixiy sayt
Xitoy davlat axborot agentligi Sinxua 2018 yil yanvar oyida ichki mo'g'ulistonning Duolun okrugidagi qirollar oilasi va Liao sulolasining izdoshlari uchun yozgi chekinish vazifasini o'tagan qadimiy saroy xarobalari topilganligini e'lon qildi. Ular har yili issiqdan qochish uchun aprel oyining o'rtalaridan iyul oyining o'rtalariga ko'char edilar. Saytda 2500 kvadrat metrdan ortiq bo'lgan 12 ta binolarning poydevorlari va shu kungacha ishlatilgan sirlangan plitkalar, sopol idishlar va mis mixlar kabi asarlar mavjud.[157]
Shuningdek qarang
- Liao sulolasi imperatorlari ro'yxati
- Imperatorlar nasl-nasab shajarasi
- Shimoliy Liao
- G'arbiy Liao
- Sharqiy Liao
- Keyinchalik Liao
Adabiyotlar
Iqtiboslar
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及 契丹 小字
B的n y音n h〉 (Liao sulolasining davlat nomi "Qara Khitai (Liao Khitai)" emas edi: Xitay katta yozuvining fonetik qiymatlari taxminlari bilan va Khitai Small Script ) - ^ Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun (2009). "〈契丹 文 gur dan gur 與「 丹 國 國 」國 號 ： 兼 評 劉 浦江「 東 東 丹 國 國 「東 丹」 "」 号 問題 」〉 (Dan gur ning xitay yozuvlarida asl ma'nosi: davlat nomini muhokama qilish bilan Dongdanguo) " (PDF). 《愛 新 覚 羅烏拉 女真 契丹 学 研究》 [Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun tomonidan yurxen va kitanshunoslik bo'yicha tadqiqotlar] (xitoy tilida). Shōkadō (松香 堂).
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Tashqi havolalar
| Oldingi Tang sulolasi Beshta sulola | Xitoy tarixidagi sulolalar 907–1125 | Muvaffaqiyatli Jin sulolasi Shimoliy Liao G'arbiy Liao |
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