Siyosiy-media kompleksi - Politico-media complex - Wikipedia


The siyosiy-media kompleksi (PMC, deb ham ataladi siyosiy-media kompleksi) yaqin trikotajga berilgan, tizimlashtirilgan, simbiyotik o'xshash tarmoq[1] o'rtasidagi munosabatlar davlatniki siyosiy va hukmron sinflar va uning media sanoat. U boshqalarni ham qamrab olishi mumkin qiziqish guruhlari, kabi qonun (va uning bajarilishi politsiya[2]), korporatsiyalar va ko'p millatli. PMC atamasi ko'pincha hukumatlar, ayrim siyosatchilar va ommaviy axborot vositalari o'rtasidagi kelishuvni nazarda tutuvchi, keng jamoatchilikni xabardor qilish o'rniga manipulyatsiya qilishga urinish sifatida ishlatiladi.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

Dastlabki ommaviy axborot vositalari institutlari

Oldin Yoxannes Gutenberg ixtiro qilingan harakatlanuvchi turi 1450 yilda aksariyat ma'lumotlar etkazib berildi shahar tashuvchilar, minbardan kelgan vazirlar yoki bufetchilar. Shahar ma'murlari ma'lumot va yangiliklarni, shu jumladan qirol farmonlarini, politsiya qoidalarini, muhim jamoat tadbirlarini va urush haqidagi yangiliklarni tarqatdilar. Ushbu dastlabki aloqa usullari ko'pincha xabarchilar tomonidan piyoda etkazilgan va hukmron sinf tomonidan osongina boshqarilishi mumkin edi.[10] Bosmaxona ixtiro qilinishi bilan yozma yangiliklar yoyila boshladi. Korantos, yangiliklar haqida xabar bergan yarim muntazam risolalar, dastlabki siyosiy-media kompleksining namunasidir. Angliyada mashhur bo'lgan korantoslar asosan chet el yangiliklarini xabar qilar edilar, chunki qirol hukumati ichki yangiliklarning ommaga etib borgan narsalarini nazorat qilishga urindi. Oxir oqibat Corantos muntazam ravishda nashr etilib, siyosiy jihatdan kamroq nazorat ostida bo'lgan va sanoatlashgan ommaviy axborot vositalarining oldingi shakllaridan biri bo'lgan.[11]

Chop etish

Global bosma ommaviy axborot vositalari

The Inson huquqlari umumjahon deklaratsiyasi "Har kim o'z fikr va fikrini bildirish huquqiga ega; bu huquq chegaralarni hisobga olmagan holda har qanday ommaviy axborot vositalari orqali o'z fikrlarini aralashuvisiz ushlab turish va axborot va g'oyalarni tarqatish erkinligini o'z ichiga oladi".[12] Bugungi kunda dunyoda mavjud bo'lgan xalqaro hujjatlarning aksariyati kengroq auditoriya uchun qayta tahrir qilingan milliy maqolalardir,[iqtibos kerak ] millatiga qarab noaniqliklar kiritishi mumkin.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ] Har qanday nashrda qanday yangiliklar yoritilganligi va nashrning bosh qismida qanday hikoyalar namoyish etilayotgani haqida biron bir noto'g'ri fikr mavjud.[13][tekshirib bo'lmadi ]

Garchi G'arbdagi bosma nashrlar reklama tendentsiyalarining pasayishidan aziyat chekayotgan bo'lsa ham,[14] ko'plab gazeta va jurnallar Yaqin Sharq yaxshi ishlashda davom eting.[15] Aholining aksariyati Internetga yoki televizorga kirish imkoni bo'lmagan mamlakatlar uchun gazeta va jurnallar yangiliklarni olishning bir necha yo'li.[16] Biroq, siyosiy ta'sirdan mustaqillik va gazeta qog'ozining ishonchliligi ko'plab mamlakatlarda shubhali. The Chegara bilmas muxbirlar Matbuot erkinligi indeksi ko'plab birinchi dunyo mamlakatlarida matbuot huquqlari to'liq hurmat qilinmasligini va matbuot hukumatni tergov qilish yoki tanqid qilishda to'liq erkin emasligini taklif qiladi, garchi vaziyat uchinchi dunyoda yoki siyosiy jihatdan beqaror davlatlarda yomonroq bo'lsa.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ][17]

G'arb

Gazetalar, bu erda ko'rinib turganidek, dunyoning ko'p qismlarida osongina mavjud.

Gazeta va jurnallarda o'quvchilar va jurnalistlar o'rtasida ikki tomonlama dialoglar ochiladi. Ba'zi tadkikotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, bosma nashrlar ommaviylarning mavjud siyosiy munosabatlarini o'zgartirishdan ko'ra ularni kuchaytirishi mumkin.[18]

Chegara bilmas muxbirlar, xalqaro nodavlat tashkilot bu targ'ib qiladi matbuot erkinligi, yillik ishlab chiqaradi Matbuot erkinligi indeksi mamlakatlarning matbuot erkinligini baholash. "Chegara bilmas muxbirlar" bosh kotibi Jan-Fransua Julliard 2009 yilgi matbuot erkinligi indeksini e'lon qilishda "Frantsiya, Italiya va Slovakiya kabi Evropaning demokratik davlatlarining yil sayin barqaror ravishda tushib borayotganini ko'rish tashvishga solmoqda [...] Evropa Fuqarolik erkinliklari borasida o'rnak ko'rsatishi kerak, agar siz o'zingizni uyingizda beg'ubor tutmasangiz, chet elda inson huquqlari buzilishini qanday qoralashingiz mumkin? Qo'shma Shtatlarga indeksda 16 o'rinni tiklashga imkon bergan Obama effekti tinchlantirish uchun etarli emas Biz."[17]

Osiyo

Xitoy Xalq Respublikasida matbuot tsenzurasi ostida Oltin qalqon loyihasi, so'zma-so'z sifatida Xitoyning buyuk xavfsizlik devori.[19] Chegara bilmas muxbirlar darajalar Xitoy matbuotidagi vaziyat "juda jiddiy" deb, ularning besh ballik tizimidagi eng yomon reyting.[20] Xitoy matbuoti 2013 yilgi Jahon matbuot erkinligi indeksida 179 mamlakat ichida 173-o'rinni egalladi.[21] Xitoy hukumati qonuniy vakolatni saqlab qoladi tsenzura matbuot va senzurani himoya qilib, Xitoyda Kommunistik partiya matbuot erkinligiga ega, chunki uni nazorat qiladigan boy ozchilik yo'q.[22]

Yaqin Sharq va Shimoliy Afrika

Yaqin Sharqdagi bosma nashrlar asosan xususiy oilalar yoki hukumat partiyalari tomonidan moliyalashtiriladigan xususiy kompaniyalar tomonidan to'lanadi.[iqtibos kerak ] Yaqin Sharqdagi ba'zi gazeta va jurnallar aniq siyosiy aloqalarda bo'lganlikda ayblanmoqda.[23] Yaqin Sharq va Afrikaning ko'plab mamlakatlarida siyosiy va iqtisodiy sharoitlarga qarab turli sabablarga ko'ra nashr etilishi mumkin bo'lgan hukumat tomonidan qattiq cheklovlar mavjud.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ] Eron Eron hukumati bosma va translyatsiya qilingan ommaviy axborot vositalari va yangiliklar veb-saytlarining aksariyati ustidan qattiq nazorat o'rnatganligi sababli, 2013 yildagi 179 reytingdan 174-o'rinni egallaganligi yuqori tsenzuraga uchragan deb ta'riflanadi.[21] "Chegara bilmas muxbirlar" ning aytishicha, jurnalistlar Isroil "harbiy tsenzuraga qaramay, haqiqiy ifoda erkinligidan bahramand bo'ling."[21] Biroq, professor Yoram Peri Merilend universiteti Isroil hukumatning urush paytida matbuot erkinligini qanday cheklashini aks ettirgan holda, harbiy harakatlar haqidagi ma'lumotlarni yoritishni tsenzuraga qo'yganligi sababli, Isroil ommaviy axborot vositalarining nazoratini kuchaytirdi.[24][tekshirish kerak ] "Chegara bilmas muxbirlar" ning 2009 yildagi ma'lumotlariga ko'ra Eritreya Shimoliy Afrikada jurnalistlar erkinligi bo'yicha eng yomon reytingga ega mamlakat. Eritreya hozirda bir partiyali "o'tish davri hukumati" bo'lib, u hali tasdiqlangan konstitutsiyasini qabul qilmagan.[25] 2009 yilgi matbuot erkinligi indeksining pastki qismida joylashgan boshqa Afrika mamlakatlari Suriya (165) va Somali (164).[17] Ikkala mamlakatda ham jurnalist erkinligi kam va ikkalasi ham tanilgan[kim tomonidan? ] ularning beqaror o'tish davri hukumatlari va doimiy urushlar uchun.[26][tekshirib bo'lmadi ]

Kurash

Ilgari gazetalar o'quvchilar va reklama beruvchilar o'rtasidagi eksklyuziv aloqani namoyish etgan bo'lsa, endi bosma nashrlar butun Internet kuchi bilan raqobatlashishi kerak.[27] Reklama daromadlarining pasayishi va tomoshabinlarning qisqarishi tufayli, bosma matbuot pasayish deb ta'riflangan.[14] Bugun amerikaliklarning yarmidan sal ko'proqrog'i har kuni gazeta o'qiydi. Biroq, 2004 yilgi hisobotda AQShda har kuni 55 million gazeta sotilishi,[28] va gazeta qog'ozi hali ham siyosiy-ommaviy axborot vositalarida muhim rol o'ynaydi.[29]

Iqtisodiy kurashlar va o'quvchilar sonining pasayishi bilan bir qatorda, gazeta qog'ozi ham o'quvchilar ishonchini yo'qotish bilan kurashdi. So'rovlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, odamlar gazetalarga boshqa axborot vositalariga qaraganda kamroq ishonishadi, qisman ular gazeta jurnalistlari "izolyatsiya qilingan va aloqadan tashqarida" va tijorat manfaatlariga asoslangan deb hisoblashadi.[30] Aksariyat odamlar o'zlarining mahalliy va milliy yangiliklar telekanallariga mahalliy va mahalliy gazetalarga qaraganda ko'proq ishonishadi.[30] Odamlar gazetalarga qaraganda kamroq ishonadigan yagona axborot vositasi bosma jurnallardir.[30]

Biroz[JSSV? ] bugungi kunda yoshlar ko'proq ko'rinishga moyil ekanliklarini va shuning uchun yozma siyosiy yangiliklar yoki tashviqotning ta'siriga duchor bo'lishlarini taxmin qilishdi.[30] Pew Center-ning bir tadqiqotiga ko'ra, ushbu avlodning 28% ma'lum bir kunda qog'ozni o'qiydi va o'rtacha 10 daqiqa o'qish vaqti. Garvard Professor Tomas Patterson shunday dedi: "Vaqt o'tishi bilan sodir bo'lgan narsa shundaki, biz o'qiydigan xalqdan ko'ra ko'proq ko'radigan millatga aylandik va Internet ikkalasi ham bir oz. Mening fikrimcha, yangiliklarning kelajagi yoqadimi yoki yo'qmi elektron ommaviy axborot vositalarida bo'ladi, ammo biz bu shakl qanday bo'lishini bilmaymiz. "[31]

Radio

Siyosiy radio tarixi

An RCA Radiola, 1925 yilda ishlab chiqarilgan.

Dastlabki Amerika radio sanoati navigatsiya uchun radiodan foydalanadigan tijorat transport kompaniyalari va uyda radioslarni quradigan havaskor radio ixlosmandlaridan iborat edi.[32] Harbiylar, sanoat va jamoatlarning bu aralashmasi shu vaqtgacha tartibga solinmagan 1912 yilgi radio akti, bu barcha kemalardan radio aloqasidan foydalanishni va doimiy radio soatini ushlab turishni, havaskor foydalanuvchilarni litsenziyalashni talab qildi va radioeshittirishlar uchun to'lqin uzunliklaridan foydalanishni tartibga solishni boshladi.[33] Ushbu akt hukumat va radio ommaviy axborot vositalari o'rtasidagi o'zaro aloqalardan birini anglatadi va keyinchalik radio qonunchiligi uchun namuna bo'lib xizmat qiladi,[asl tadqiqotmi? ] shu jumladan 1927 yilgi radio akti tashkil etgan Federal radio komissiyasi va tijorat va havaskor radio foydalanuvchilariga qo'shimcha tartibga solish kiritildi.[34] Hukumat tomonidan tartibga solish Amerikaning Birinchi Jahon urushiga kirishi bilan yana kuchaygan, Prezident Vudrou Uilson barcha radiostansiyalarni dengiz tomonidan boshqarishni buyurgan va havaskorlarga barcha radio faoliyatini to'xtatishni buyurgan. Jonathan Reed Winkler Ikkinchi Jahon urushi tarixchisining ta'kidlashicha: "Faqatgina Birinchi Jahon urushi paytida Qo'shma Shtatlar birinchi bo'lib qanday qilib strategik aloqa tarmog'i - dengiz osti telegraf kabellari to'plami va diplomatik xizmatlar uchun millat tomonidan foydalaniladigan shaharlararo radiostansiyalarni, tijorat va harbiy maqsadlar - zamonaviy dunyoda buyuk davlatning global siyosiy va iqtisodiy manfaatlari uchun juda muhim edi. ”[35] Birinchi jahon urushidan so'ng radio 1919 yilda Vestingxaus Aeriola Jr.ni chiqarganida keng fuqarolik auditoriyasiga taqdim etildi va Amerika radio korporatsiyasi (RCA) Radiolani 1920 yilda chiqargan. Kichik Aeriola va Radiola siyosiy-media majmuasi uchun minglab amerikaliklarning uylariga kirish uchun yangi kanal yaratishda yordam berishdi.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ] 1919 yilga kelib, Pitsburgning Pittsburg shahrida joylashgan eng qadimgi litsenziyaga ega bo'lgan Amerika radiosi KDKA muntazam ravishda musiqiy shoularni efirga uzatishni boshladi va tez orada musiqa, ta'lim dasturlari, sport va oxir-oqibat yangiliklarni tarqatish mashhur bo'ldi.[36] Siyosatni qamrab olish butun mamlakat bo'ylab tezda qamrab olindi, chunki stantsiyalar saylovlarni yoritishni boshladi va hukumat harakatlari to'g'risidagi yangiliklarni e'lon qildi. Hukumat va radio o'rtasidagi yaqin siyosiy-media kompleksi 1924 yilda yakunlandi[asl tadqiqotmi? ] Respublikachilar va Demokratik milliy konvensiyalar yoritilganida va nomzodlar saylovoldi chiqishlari arafasida bo'lganida, Amerika siyosiy jarayoniga ta'sir qilishi kerak bo'lgan radioeshittirishning birinchi instansiyasi.[37]

Radio foydalanuvchilari soni portladi. 1935 yilga kelib, Amerikaning har 3 uyidan ikkitasida radio mavjud edi.[38] Siyosatchilar tezda ushbu ulkan auditoriyaga etib borishni o'rganishdi.[iqtibos kerak ] Franklin Delano Ruzveltniki Fireside chatlar siyosiy-media kompleksining namunasidir.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ] 1933 yildan 1944 yilgacha bo'lgan qator norasmiy eshittirishlarida Ruzvelt Amerika jamoatchiligi bilan tasalli beruvchi aloqani ishlab chiqdi.[39] Fireside chatlar Prezidentga o'sha davrning eng mashhur ommaviy axborot vositalaridan biri orqali to'g'ridan-to'g'ri jamoatchilik bilan aloqa qilish imkoniyatini yaratdi. Siyosatchilar radiodan Ikkinchi Jahon Urushida foydalanishda davom etishadi, bu radio asosan yangiliklar tarqatish va uning tarqalishi uchun ishlatilgan tashviqot. Radio targ'ibotining bir misoli paydo bo'ldi Iva Toguri D'Aquino, Rut Xayakava, iyun Suyamavxo va Mirtl Lipton birgalikda tanilgan Tokio gul. Ushbu ayollar amerikalik askarlarning ruhiyatini pasaytirish va hukumat tomonidan ommaviy axborot vositalaridan jamoatchilikka yoki ularning dushmanlariga ta'sir o'tkazish uchun foydalanishni tasvirlashga qaratilgan anti-Amerika dasturlarini o'tkazdilar.[40] Biroq, Iva Toguri D'Aquino va ittifoqdosh harbiy asirlar singari ko'plab odamlar ushbu dasturlarda qatnashish istagiga qarshi majbur bo'ldilar va ittifoqchi kuchlarga yordam berish uchun ko'p ishladilar.[41]

Uillis Konover, mezbon Amerika Ovozi Musiqa AQSh dasturi, 1969 yil.

Ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyin va butun Sovuq urush davrda, Demokratik xalqlar temir parda ortidagi mamlakatlarga yoki boshqa yo'l bilan axborot buzilgan davlatlarga yangiliklar tarqatish uchun uzoq masofali radio to'lqinlaridan foydalanganlar. Amerika xalqaro radio dasturi Amerika Ovozi Ikkinchi Jahon urushi davrida tashkil etilgan, demokratik qadriyatlarni tarqatish va Amerika siyosatini chet ellarda ommalashtirishga qaratilgan Sovuq Urush davridagi "xalq diplomatiyasi" ning muhim qismiga aylandi.[42] 1950 yilda Prezident Garri S. Truman Sovuq Urush mojarosini "eng avvalo, odamlarning ongi uchun kurash" deb ta'riflagan bo'lib, Amerika xalqi "boshqa mamlakatlardagi odamlarga haqiqiy voqeani etkazish" orqali g'alaba qozonadi; boshqacha qilib aytganda, siyosiy-media majmuasini qamrab olish va undan chet ellik tinglovchilarga ta'sir o'tkazish uchun foydalanish.[43] Huzurida ishlagan Amerika Ovozi (Amerika Ovozi) Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Axborot agentligi, qirq beshta tilda dasturlashni qo'llab-quvvatladi va haftasiga 400 soatdan ortiq dasturlarni efirga uzatdi. Dasturlashda xolis yangiliklar, musiqiy dasturlar va Maxsus ingliz tili tinglovchilarga amerikalik ingliz tilini puxta o'zlashtirishga yordam berish uchun mo'ljallangan eshittirishlar.[44] Amerika Ovozi xalqaro radioeshittirish ishlarida yolg'iz emas edi, Qo'shma Shtatlar Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasi qo'llab-quvvatladi Ozod Evropa va Ozodlik radiosi, ikkala targ'ibotchi radio tarmog'i ham kommunizmga qarshi fikrni qo'zg'ashga qaratilgan.[45] Boshqa xalqlar ham xalqaro radiodan targ'ibot sifatida foydalanishgan. Masalan, Deutsche Welle (DW), Germaniya xalqaro radio dasturi Sovuq Urush davrida asosiy translyatsiya vositasi bo'lgan. 1965 yilga kelib DW Sovet Ittifoqiga va chet ellarga 848 soatlik dasturlarni efirga uzatdi va 1980 yilga kelib har hafta SSSR aholisining 5 foizini tashkil etdi.[46][47] Deutsche Welle-ning maqsadi "Germaniyani ildizlari Evropa madaniyatiga asoslangan mustaqil millat va liberal, demokratik, konstitutsiyaviy huquqiy davlat sifatida tushunishni rivojlantirish". Germaniyaning siyosiy-ommaviy axborot vositalaridan qanday foydalanishini tasvirlaydi.[48]

Zamonaviy siyosiy radio

Radioning Oltin asri 1935-1950 yillarda davom etgan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo radio hali ham siyosiy-ommaviy axborot vositalarining faol vositasidir.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ] Bugungi kunda siyosat bo'yicha keng radioeshittirishlar mavjud. Bunga misol Rush Limbaugh shousi tinglovchilar tomonidan "Amerikaning haqiqat detektori", "demokratiya doktori" va "Amerikadagi eng xavfli odam" deb nomlangan Rush Limbaughning siyosiy sharhini namoyish etadi.[49] Rush Limbaugh Shou ko'plab siyosatchilarga mezbonlik qildi, bu siyosatchilar hanuzgacha radiodan jamoatchilik fikri va siyosiy jarayonga ta'sir qilish uchun foydalanayotganligini namoyish etdi.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ] Endi ishlamay qoldi Air America Media kompaniya ilg'or siyosiy sharhlar va yangiliklar bilan ta'minladi va o'zini "minnatdor tinglovchi xalqqa mustaqil va filtrsiz ovoz bilan ta'minlaydigan eng taniqli ilg'or nutq radio tarmog'i" deb ta'rifladi.[50] Kabi Air America dasturlari Rachel Maddow shousi, Lionel shousi va Vashingtonda Jek Rays bilan yashang siyosatchilarning yozuvlarini muhokama qildilar, siyosatchilarni jonli mehmon sifatida qabul qildilar va siyosiy sinflar bilan ommaviy axborot vositalarining aloqasi sifatida harakat qildilar.[51][52][53]

Film

Milliy kino

Filmning eng kuchli siyosiy va sotsiologik shakllaridan biri milliy kino, buning uchun alohida mamlakatlar uchun to'liq kitoblar va turli xil ta'riflar mavjud.[54] Milliy kinematografiya orqali muayyan mamlakatlardagi mafkuraviy guruhlar o'zlarining kollektiv o'ziga xosliklarini, shuningdek, chet elliklarning shaxsiyatini yaratishi va mustahkamlashi mumkin.[55][56]

Madaniy siyosat

Ulf Hedetoft "siyosat va ta'sirning haqiqiy dunyosida ba'zi millatchiliklar, madaniyatlar, g'oyalar va talqinlar boshqalarnikiga qaraganda transmilliy jihatdan kuchli, qat'iyatliroq va muvaffaqiyatliroqdir. Ta'siri kam bo'lganlar o'zlarini tabriklashlari shart bo'lmagan joyda, ular, albatta, ichki tomonga qarashadi va har doim milliy o'ziga xoslik belgisini olib yuradilar ".[57] Ammo u, transmilliy jihatdan kuchliroq bo'lgan ushbu filmlar aslida "milliy-madaniy valyuta" ning kengroq va osonlikcha tarqalishi natijasida boshqa millatlarga aylantirilib, boshqa madaniyatlar bilan aralashib ketishi va boshqalarga "ijobiy qo'shimchalar" bo'lishini aytmoqda. mamlakatlarning madaniyati va o'ziga xosliklari yoki "taqlid qilish modeli".[57] U bunday jarayonlarni boshdan kechirayotgan milliy kinoni ingliz tilining jahon miqyosidagi frankaga aylanishi bilan taqqoslaydi: natijada madaniy almashinuv gegemonik va globallashuv jarayoni nosimmetrikdir.[57]

Targ'ibot

Asosiy maqola: Targ'ibot

Targ'ibot - bu filmni filmda namoyish etish va boshqarish uchun usul. Leyf Furhammar va Folke Isaksson rus ishlab chiqaruvchilariga kredit berishadi Sergey Eyzenshteyn va Vsevolod Pudovkin targ'ibot estetikasi tug'ilishi bilan, buning uchun voqelikni aks ettiruvchi kinematik obrazlarni boshqarish orqali ular tomoshabinlarning haqiqat tushunchalarini boshqarishi mumkin degan taxmin yotardi.[58] Hujjatli filmlar boshqalarga qaraganda yanada samarali targ'ibot shakli bo'lishi mumkin janr filmlar, chunki vakillik shakli haqiqatni aks ettirishni talab qiladi, bu esa tomoshabinlarni manipulyatsiya qilishni osonlashtiradi.[58]

Kabi Britaniyalik kinostudiyalar Somme jangi ning Birinchi jahon urushi targ'ibot edi, chunki ular urushni faqat o'z nuqtai nazaridan namoyish qilishdi, ammo bu so'nggi urush hujjatli filmlariga qaraganda halolroq va xolisroq deb da'vo qilishlari mumkin (chunki ular o'zgartirilmagan holda tahrir qilingan) dramatik yoki epik effekt).[iqtibos kerak ] Ularning fotosuratchilari hech bo'lmaganda biron bir haqiqatni taqdim etgan oldingi qatorlarida qolishdi.[58] Furhammar va Isakssonning fikriga ko'ra, aynan rus kinoijodkorlari "ustalari" bo'lganlar montaj "va filmning kesilganligi, ritmik tahriri va didaktik yondoshuvi bilan ishonchli illyuziya yaratadigan kuchini kashf etdi.[58]

"Dan sahnaBo'ling va g'olib bo'ling ", uchinchi qismi Nega biz kurashamiz, 1943.

Ovoz imkoni bo'lganida, hujjatli filmlar ma'ruzachilarning ovozi va musiqasidan foydalangan holda siyosiy jihatdan kuchliroq bo'lganligi aytilgan.[58] Fashistik Germaniyada kinostudiyalar badiiy filmlar singari muhim bo'lgan, fashistik Italiyada esa targ'ibot asosan hujjatli filmlar bilan cheklangan.[58] Amerika seriyasining dastlabki uchta qismini taqqoslash Nega biz kurashamiz va fashistlarning hujjatli filmi Sieg im Westen (G'arbdagi g'alaba) bir xil voqealarni qarama-qarshi ikkita talqin qilish ham qanchalik ishonchli bo'lishi mumkinligini namoyish etadi.[asl tadqiqotmi? ] Birinchisi bir necha soat ichida yillarni qamrab oladi, ammo uning zichligi haqiqatning yo'qligini yashiradi, ikkinchisi esa urushni haqiqiy tasvirlar bilan, ammo qon va o'limsiz tasvirlay oladi. Xuddi shu narsa Ispaniyadagi fuqarolar urushi haqidagi hujjatli filmlarda ham mavjud.[59]

Hujjatli filmlarda siyosiy masalalarni qalbakilashtirish, ko'rib chiqilayotgan voqealardan tashqari voqealarni kadrlarni ko'tarish va ularni o'zlarini vakili bo'lgan "haqiqat" ning bir qismi bo'lib ko'rinadigan qilib filmga qo'shish orqali yaratilishi mumkin. The Amerikaliklar faoliyati bo'yicha uy qo'mitasi, masalan, buni qildi Operatsiyani bekor qilish[60][61][62][63] 1960 yilda va natsistlar kinostudiyalarida ittifoqchilarning Dieppadagi mag'lubiyati sahnalari bir necha kundan keyin Reyxning muvaffaqiyatiga ishontirish uchun Normandiya bosqinchiligining haqiqiy sahnalari sifatida tasvirlangan.[iqtibos kerak ] 1944 yilgi natsistlar rasmlari kabi haqiqiy voqealarni sahnalashtirish orqali tomoshabinlarning siyosiy aloqalari ham boshqarilishi mumkin. Fyurer yahudiylarga shaharcha beradi qildi.[64]

Ikkinchi jahon urushi targ'ibot 30 yildan keyin ham davom etdi Dachau va Osvensim masalan, ingichka niqoblangan fashistik italyan filmidagi kabi Tungi yuk tashuvchi (1974). Film sadizm, shafqatsizlik va mahoratni ulug'lashda fashistlarning genotsidini qonuniylashtirishga intildi.[65] Ajablanadigan narsa Genri Jirou, u "Kinolarni buzish" da izohlaganidek, bunday ochiq mafkuraviy xabarlarga tanqidchilar va keng jamoatchilik tomonidan e'tibor berilmadi va jamiyat hozirgi zamonni o'tmishga qarshi sinovdan o'tkazishga qodir emasligi G'arbda postindustrial zulmga olib keldi. va unga qarshi turish strategiyalari. Ning yozuvlariga qaramay Antonio Gramsci, Gerbert Markuz va Paulo Freire, amerikaliklarning aksariyati sinf qanchalik muhimligini tan olishmaydi gegemonlik yoki madaniy hukmronlik, aholisi mafkuraviy vositalar orqali hukumatlariga bo'ysunadigan davlatlarda.[66] Uning ta'kidlashicha, "[siyosiy] va moddiy ma'noda nafaqat qurbonlar, balki hukmron sinf me'yorlari va qadriyatlari bilan hissiy va intellektual jihatdan ham bog'langanlar".[66]

Targ'ibotning o'ziga xos shakllarida hujjatli filmlarning aniqligi yo'q bo'lsa-da, ular siyosiy hokimiyatni saqlab qolishlari mumkin, chunki rejissyorlarning resurslari cheklangan va ular film haqiqatini yaratishi mumkin.[iqtibos kerak ] Ular ishonchsizlikni intensivlik bilan qoplaydilar.[59]

Filmdagi siyosat

Amerikaliklarning kuchli vatanparvarligi va millatchiligiga qaramay, AQShda ochiq siyosiy filmlar hech qachon yaxshi kutib olinmagan, ammo siyosatni ko'zga tashlanmaydigan tarzda namoyish etgan filmlar (masalan, targ'ibot shaklida) mashhur bo'lib qolgan.[67] Bundan tashqari Frank Kapra, boshqa biron bir yirik amerikalik kinorejissyor siyosiy dunyoning murakkabliklari va korrupsiyasi o'rtasida fuqarolik hayotida fuqarolik, ishtirok etish va javobgarlik to'g'risida markaziy mavzularni jiddiy ravishda namoyish etmagan.[iqtibos kerak ] Capra Charlz Lindxolm va Jon A. Xoll ta'riflaganidek, shaxsning "siyosiy harakatlari uchun ijobiy Amerika kinematik lug'atini ishlab chiqishga" intilgan bo'lsa-da, u oxir-oqibat muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi.[68]

Kapraning manzarasi Janob Smit Vashingtonga boradi, 1939

Kapraning filmlari xuddi shu asosiy formulalar bilan ajralib turadi, unga ko'ra Amerikaning asosiy adolat va halollik qadriyatlari siyosatning korrupsiyasi va shafqatsizligidan kelib chiqadi.[iqtibos kerak ] Keyinchalik Ronald Reygan janob Deedsning nutqini keng iqtibos qildi Janob Deeds shaharga boradi (1936) bu erda u siyosatning murakkabliklaridan nafratlanishini bildiradi va individual yaxshilikka chaqiradi.[69] Uning keyingi filmida Janob Smit Vashingtonga boradi, (1939) Capra maxsus manfaatdorlar guruhlarining qudrati va egriligiga qaramay siyosatdan ustun tura oladigan har bir insonning yaxlitligi va odob-axloqini mustahkamlaydi.[70] Ning qahramonidan keyin Jon Dou bilan tanishing boshqalarga bo'lgan ehtiyojini tushunadi, u o'zining prezidentlik uchun fashistik da'vogarni o'z klubining qo'llab-quvvatlashidan foydalanishni rejalashtirayotganligini aniqlaydi va ochib beradi. U zo'ravon olomon orasida muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi, chunki Amerika jamoatchiligi "Jon Dou" klubi a'zolari uning kechirimini so'rab kelguniga qadar uni manipulyatsiyaga moyil bo'lgan ishonchli olomon ekanligi va ularni boshqarish uchun qaytib kelishiga ishontirishi mumkin.[71]

Oxiri Jon Dou tomoshabinlar va tanqidchilar orasida muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lib, Capra uchun boshqa siyosiy filmlarni rad etdi va bundan keyin hech qanday xizmatga loyiq filmlar bo'lmadi Bu ajoyib hayot. Kapraning kino ijodidan tushganligi va barcha amerikalik kinorejissyorlar o'zlarini yarmini qisqartirishni istamasalar, siyosatni unutishlari kerakligi haqidagi maslahati, kinorejissyorlar siyosatni tanqid qilmoqchi bo'lganlarida yuzaga keladigan qiyinchiliklarni anglatadi.[72] Lindxolm va Xollning ta'kidlashicha, "Kaprani mag'lubiyatga uchratgan muammolar keyinchalik amerikalik kinorejissyorlarning AQShdagi individualizm va fuqarolik o'rtasidagi murakkab munosabatlarni tasvirlashga urinishlarini ham kamaytirdi" va Gollivud buning o'rniga Kapra engib o'tishga urinib ko'rgan siyosat paranoyasini qabul qildi. .[73] Binobarin, AQShda siyosiy filmlar etakchilarning nuqsonli xarakteriga e'tibor qaratish tendentsiyasiga ergashdi, masalan Fuqaro Keyn (1940) va Nikson (1995).[74] Aks holda, ular hokimiyatning buzilishini, masalan Nomzod (1972) va Asosiy ranglar (1998).[74] Shunga o'xshash boshqa filmlar Olomonning yuzi (1957) va Hamma qirol odamlari (1949), ogohlantirishiga amal qiling Jon Dou. JFK (1991) va Manjuriyalik nomzod (1962), aksincha, demokratiya illuziya va amerikaliklar, masalan, hukumat va ommaviy axborot vositalari o'rtasidagi kelishuvni o'z ichiga olgan turli fitnalarning johil garovlari, degan fikrga asoslanadi.[74]

Kinoning siyosiy bo'lmagan ta'siri

Filmlar haddan tashqari siyosiy bo'lishi mumkin bo'lsa-da, sinfiy kurash kabi tabiatan murakkab bo'lgan narsalarni siyosiylashtirishi va soddalashtirishi mumkin. Bu o'z hissasini qo'shadigan film ommaviy madaniyat, tanqid qilindi[kimga ko'ra? ] sinf tushunchasini stereotiplarga va mafkurani yuzaki tushunishga yordam beradigan taxmin qilinadigan formulalarga kamaytirish uchun. Bunday noto'g'ri ma'lumot va uni targ'ib qiladigan va davom ettiradigan bexabarlik, tomoshabinlarni va fuqarolarni murakkab haqiqatdagi siyosatchilarning manipulyatsiya taktikalari ta'siriga solishi aytilgan.[75] Kinoda soddalashtirish va g'oyaviy tekislash uchun istisnolardan biri aytilgan Norma Rae (1979), kundalik hayot darajasida ishchilar sinfi kurashi va madaniyati murakkabligi va siyosati odatdagidan ko'ra chinakam vakili bo'lgan film.[76]

Aktyor-siyosatchilar

Asosiy maqola: Aktyor-siyosatchilar ro'yxati

Televizor

Qo'shma Shtatlardagi prezident saylovlarida televizion rollari

The ommaviy axborot vositalari har doim siyosiy jarayonlarga ta'sir ko'rsatgan, ammo hech qachon televizorning yangiliklaridan ko'proq.[77] Saylovchilar nomzodlar va umuman yangiliklar haqida ma'lumot olishning eng mashhur vositasi bo'lganligi sababli, televidenie siyosiy guruhlarning jamoatchilikka ta'sir o'tkazadigan kuchli vositasidir.[78]

Ushbu o'zgarish 1960-yillarning boshlarida yangiliklar dasturlari o'ttiz daqiqali dasturlarga kengaytirilganda boshlandi, bu esa ko'proq yangiliklar va imkoniyatlarni kengaytirishga imkon berdi. Ushbu kengaytirilgan vaqt oralig'i prezidentlikka nomzodlarga ko'proq e'tibor berishga imkon berdi va tarmoq yangiliklari tez orada milliy siyosatni yoritadigan markazga aylandi. Yangiliklar milliy bo'lganligi sababli, efirga uzatilgan siyosiy kampaniyalar butun mamlakat bo'ylab tomoshabinlarga ta'sir o'tkaza oldi va butun mamlakat bo'ylab ta'sir o'tkaza oldi.[78]

Rik Shenkman o'z kitobida ommaviy axborot vositalarining siyosatga ta'sirini tahlil qilib, Biz qanchalik ahmoqmiz ?: Amerikalik saylovchilar haqida haqiqatga duch kelishva so'nggi 50 yil ichida amerikalik saylovchilar sezilarli siyosiy kuchga ega bo'lishganini kuzatmoqda, garchi ular siyosat va dunyo ishlari haqidagi bilimlari pasayganligi sababli ular manipulyatsiyaga moyilroq. U shuningdek, "siyosatchilar bir necha bor saylovchilarni yo'ldan ozdirishgan"pastga tushirish marketing, spin mashinalari va noto'g'ri ma'lumotlar orqali Amerika siyosatining ".[78]

Jon F. Kennedi va Richard Nikson prezidentlikka nomzodlarning birinchi televizion bahsida. 1960 yil.

Yangiliklarga ustuvor ahamiyat berib, yangiliklar ommaviy axborot vositalari millatning siyosiy haqiqatini aniqlashda muhim rol o'ynaydi; ular haqiqat deb qaraladigan siyosiy ma'lumotlarni taqdim etadi va tomoshabinlarga har bir mavzuga berilgan vaqtga qancha efir vaqti ajratganiga va unga urg'u berganligiga qarab qanchalik muhimligini ko'rsatib beradi.[79] Masalan, televidenie yangiliklari yangiliklarning boshlanish hikoyasi qanday bo'lishiga qaror qilish yoki hikoyani ajratish vaqtini o'zgartirish orqali mavzuni tanib olish uchun ko'rsatmalar berishi mumkin.[79] Ushbu ko'rsatuvlar efirga uzatilgandan so'ng, kundan-kunga takrorlanadigan translyatsiya qilinganida, ular har bir mavzuni istagan miqdordagi translyatorlar bilan samarali muloqot qilishlari mumkin.[80]

Televizor orqali dinga siyosiy ta'sir

Uning kitobida, Televiziondan keyingi siyosat: diniy millatchilik va Hindistondagi jamoatchilikni shakllantirish, Arvind Rajagopal Hindistonda 1980 va 1990-yillarning oxirlarida hind millatchiligini tekshiradi. Rajagopal ommaviy, milliy, madaniy, sinfiy va mintaqaviy o'ziga xoslik qurilishida ommaviy axborot vositalarining rolini tahlil qildi. Aniqrog'i, u gegemonlik rolini o'rgangan Ram Janmabxumi harakati va Ram loyihasi Hindiston milliy televideniyesida qanday o'ynaganligi. Rajagopal o'z tadqiqotida Ram loyihasi Hindistonda "1990-yillardan hozirgi kungacha milliy va madaniy o'ziga xosliklar to'g'risida nutqlarni shakllantirishda" muhim rol o'ynaganligini aniqladi.[81]

Rajagopal madaniy va siyosiy iqtisodiyotni o'rganib chiqdi zamonaviy Hindistonda televizor. Uning televizion muhokamasi seriyalangan eposning sanoat va madaniy siyosati atrofida bo'ladi Ramayan. Misli ko'rilmagan tomoshabinni yaratgan seriyali epos hind xudosining epik hikoyasiga asoslangan Ram va efirga uzatildi Doordarshan, Hindistonning davlat televideniesi. Rajagopal 1980-yillarning oxirlarida hindularning "Ramayan" diniy eposining milliy teletranslyatsiyasi Ram Janmabxumi harakatining boshlanishi uchun juda ko'p mafkuraviy zamin yaratgan va "televidenie siyosat kontekstini chuqur o'zgartiradi", deb ta'kidladi.[81](24-bet)

Doston milliy televidenie orqali namoyish etildi va sud qaroriga binoan homiylik qilindi Kongress hukumat. Rajagopalning ta'kidlashicha, Kongress eposga shunchaki homiylik yordami bilan hindlarning ovozini ko'pchilikni jalb qilish orqali uning saylov kelajagiga yordam beradi. Aksincha, bu hindlarning millatchi siyosiy organi sifatida zaif bo'lgan Bharatiya Janata partiyasi (BJP), bu serialning mashhurligidan foyda ko'rdi. BJP buni oldini olish orqali amalga oshirdi media effektlari doirasi Kongress tomonidan urinib ko'rilgan va televidenie orqali namoyish qilingan hind eposining o'zi bilan epchilligi o'rtasidagi murakkab munosabatlarni aniqlagan Hind millatchisi o'rniga e'tiqod. BJP jamoatchilikni serial ramzi bo'lgan Ram ramzi atrofida safarbar qildi, ammo Ram Janmabxumi harakati orqali ramzni strategik ravishda qayta ishlab, madaniy haqiqiylikni, milliy mansublikni va milliy maqsad va yo'nalishni yangilanganligini ta'kidladi. Ma'badni tiklash loyihasini saylov va'dasi doirasida bayon qilgan BJP ajablanarli emaski, keyingi umumiy saylovlarda milliy hukumatni tuzdi,[81]p. 43 Rajagopal ta'kidlaganidek, televidenie siyosatga chuqur ta'sir o'tkazishga qodir ekanligini ko'rsatib beradi.

BJP muvaffaqiyatining markaziy tomoni, Ramning asosiy figurasiga yo'naltirilgan stikerlar, tugmalar va audio lentalar kabi tovarlarni yaratish orqali partiyaning ommaviy axborot vositalarini va bozorni strategik ravishda ishlatishi edi. Rajagopalning ta'kidlashicha, televidenie eposida o'tmish va hozirgi zamon o'rtasidagi ziddiyatlar ko'p darajalarda ham ko'rib chiqilgan va bu eposni zamonaviy tijorat televideniesi konventsiyalariga mos ravishda qayta ishlashida ko'rish mumkin. Bundan tashqari, epos tanishtirildi va yigirma daqiqali reklama bilan yakunlandi, bu serialni o'tmishni hozirgi texnologiyalar orqali tiklashga yordam berdi.[81]

Dunyo bo'ylab televidenie va siyosat

Lila Abu-Lughod "Millat dramalari: Misrdagi televidenie siyosati" da ushbu millatning madaniyati, qudrati va zamonaviy o'zini o'zi shakllantirishga oid katta savollarga javob berish uchun xalq televideniyasini o'rganishni taklif qildi. Abu-Lughod diqqatini Misrga qaratadi va o'tmishda Misr televideniyesida hukmronlik qilgan taraqqiyot mafkurasi elementlari va milliy taraqqiyot orzularini o'rganadi. U mamlakatning televizion ko'rsatuvlarini tahlil qildi va haqiqiy milliy madaniyatni tasvirlashga urinish va diniy ekstremizmga qarshi qasddan qilingan strategiyani ta'kidladi.[82]

Abu-Lughod Misrni bog'laydigan asosiy madaniy shakl televizion seriallar ekanligini aniqladi. Ular amerikalik seriallarga o'xshash melodramatik dasturlar, ammo G'arbdagi hamkasblariga qaraganda siyosiy va ijtimoiy masalalar bilan chambarchas bog'liq. Ularning mazmuni O'rta Sharqdagi Misr xalqida islom dini, jinslar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar va kundalik turmushning o'zgaruvchan dinamikasini aks ettiradi va shu bilan birga bu o'zgarishlarga ta'sir ko'rsatishga va ularni boshqarishga harakat qiladi.[82]

Televizionning siyosatga ta'sirini o'rgangan yana bir guruh Xolli Semetko va Patti Valkenburg. O'zlarining tadqiqotlarida ular Evropa siyosatidagi matbuot va televizion yangiliklarning ramkalarini tahlil qildilar. O'quvchilarga aniqlik kiritish uchun ular ko'plab manbalardan aniqlangan yangiliklar ramkalarining eng yaxshi ish ta'riflarini taqdim etdilar. Yangiliklar - bu "ommaviy axborot vositalari va shaxslar ma'lumotni etkazish, talqin qilish va baholashda ishonadigan kontseptual vositalar",[83] "fuqarolar ommaviy tadbirlarni muhokama qiladigan" parametrlarni belgilaydigan[84] va "doimiy tanlov, diqqat va istisno" rejimida.[85] Kadrlar - bu "sezilgan haqiqatning ba'zi jihatlari" ni tanib olishlarini oshirish uchun "Muayyan muammolarni aniqlash, sababiy talqin qilish, axloqiy baholash va / yoki davolanish bo'yicha tavsiyalarni targ'ib qilish uchun".[86] Kadrlar tomoshabinlarga atrofdagi ma'lumot oqimini "topish, idrok etish, aniqlash va belgilash" ga yordam beradi (Goffman, 1974, 21-bet) va "mavjud siyosiy alternativalarni toraytirishga".[87][88]

Yangiliklar ramkalari ramka effekti yoki xabarning tegishli atributlari, masalan, uning tashkil etilishi, mazmuni yoki tuzilishi kabi - muayyan fikrlarni amalda qo'llash, natijada ularni faollashtirish va baholashda foydalanish.[89] Kadrlar effekti odamlarning tushunchalariga katta ta'sir ko'rsatishi va siyosiy masalalar yoki institutlar to'g'risida jamoatchilik tasavvurlarini shakllantirishi ko'rsatildi.[88]

Kun tartibini yaratish bo'yicha tadqiqotlar singari, kadrlar tahlili ham yangiliklardagi davlat siyosati muammolari va ushbu masalalarni jamoatchilik tomonidan qabul qilinishi o'rtasidagi munosabatlarga e'tiborni qaratadi. Biroq, kadrlarni tahlil qilish "odamlar qanday fikrlashlarini va yangiliklardagi mavzular haqida suhbatlashishni o'rganib, nima haqida gaplashishi yoki nima haqida o'ylashlari to'g'risida kun tartibini belgilaydigan tadqiqotlardan tashqari kengayadi."[88][90] Semetko va Valkenburg tadqiqotlarining natijalari shuni ko'rsatadiki, mas'uliyat doirasi atributsiyasi ko'pincha yangiliklar tomonidan qo'llanilgan bo'lib, u tomoshabinlarni ushbu rolga bog'liq bo'lgan har qanday vazifani bajarish majburiyatini his qilishiga va axloqiy javobgarlikni his qilishga qaratilgan. rolni bajarmaslik.[88]

Internet

Siyosiy ommaviy axborot vositalariga ta'siri

Internet dunyoga ta'lim, aloqa va siyosiy axborot va siyosiy rollarda muzokaralar olib borish vositasini berdi va undan shaxslar va tashkilotlar foydalanishi o'sdi va o'sishda davom etmoqda. Ushbu tez sur'atlarda o'sishni televideniyening jadal rivojlanib borayotgani va uning ommaviy axborot vositalarining siyosatdagi ta'siriga solishtirish mumkin. Internet sharhlar va tanqidlar dunyosini ochadi, bu esa o'z navbatida ko'plab odamlar orasida yangi va yaxshiroq g'oyalarni tarqatishga imkon beradi.[91] Bu odamlarga siyosat bilan bog'liq bo'lgan tashkilotlar yoki odamlar bilan aloqada bo'lishga imkon beradigan ko'p yo'nalishli aloqani beradi.[92] However, there are many controversies regarding the PMC in the medium as the Internet can encourage and facilitate the practice of providing bits of information extracted from a far wider context or biased information, which leads to public cynicism toward the media.[93]

The relative ease of entry into publishing through Internet/Web channels gives opportunities to become one-person contributors or players in the PMC [94]

Masalan, Vikipediya is a major global channel and is currently the thirteenth most visited website in the world.[95] In 2009 it found its objectivity being compromised at the highest levels with a member sitting on the influential Arbitraj qo'mitasi (ArbCom) who had an undisclosed conflict of interest. It was revealed that David Boothroyd - a serving Labour Party Councillor for Westminster City[96]—had gained a seat on the Arbitration Committee under the pseudonym of "Sam Blacketer" and also went on to make controversial edits to the Wikipedia entry on the then Leader of the Opposition, later Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Devid Kemeron. Boothroyd was also found to have operated prior his appointment to the Arbitration Committee other contemporary accounts—a practice in Wikipedia known as 'paypoq qo'g'irchoqbozligi'—to give undue weight through appearing as different identities to a particular point of view as opposed to representing a neutral point of view (NPOV). Given Wikipedia's presence and influence in the world, the "affair" attracted ommaviy axborot vositalari and other new media attention nationally and internationally, which damaged Wikipedia's standing among readers.[97][98][99] Boothroyd was forced to step down from the Arbitration Committee, although he claimed he had already asserted his intention to resign.

The impact of the internet on politics has been notable, as this form of media has more current information than others as it is constantly being updated. Another advantage is its capacity to have extensive information in one place, like voting records, periodicals, press releases, opinion polls, policy statements, speeches, etc. Obtaining a comprehensive understanding of an election, for example, is more convenient than it has been in the past. Political information available on the internet covers every major activity of American politics. Users, nonetheless, remain susceptible to bias, especially on websites that represent themselves as objective sources.[93]

Bill Klinton birinchi bo'ldi AQSh prezidenti to utilize the Internet in a national campaign and to appoint a Director of Email and Electronic Publishing.

Elektron pochta is heavily used among numerous levels of government, political groups, and even media companies as a means of communicating with the public which plays a significant role in the political-media complex. The popularity of e-mail hit the Internet and the public in the mid-1990s as a way to stay in touch with family and friends. 1993 yilda Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Kongressi va oq uy began using it for internal communication and as a means of communicating with the general public. During the Clinton administration, a director for email and electronic publishing was appointed and by the summer of 1993, the White House was receiving 800 emails per day. In order to deal with the influx of e-mail, a more sophisticated system was put in. In a six-month period, at one point, there were half a million emails sent to the president and vice president.[100]

Saylovlar

AQSH Prezidentlik kampaniya in 1996 between sitting-President Bill Klinton va Bob Dole was one of the first campaigns to utilize the Internet on a national level in the US.[93]

With so many campaigns using the Internet, it raises a significant amount of money in a shorter period of time compared to any other method. The web sites are set up like advertising sites – there are links to click on to watch ads, information and background on the candidate, photos from the campaign trail, schedules, donation links, etc. E-mail gives a great low-cost way of connecting with the campaign trail and voters.[93]

Davomida 2008 Qo'shma Shtatlar Prezident saylovi o'rtasida Jon Makkeyn va Barak Obama, the Internet was extensively utilized by both candidates. Facebook, an Internet social network, was heavily used to give people the ability to support their views and share information with their friends. Both sent out messages daily to promote themselves and the issues at hand, for leverage against the other candidate.[iqtibos kerak ]

Discussion forums and blogs

Bloglar are a type of website, usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video. Blogging started to become popular in the early 2000s and was used mostly by highly educated, highly paid, males. Around 2004 blogging became more mainstream and was typically used for political interaction.

The Internet creates a space in which people can voice their opinions and discuss political issues under the protection of anonymity. Some discussion forums are actually groups or organizations that set up a discussion for a specific purpose about one issue or person in politics. Some problems with discussion forums include the lack of personal contact, which allows people not to take responsibility for posts, such as personal attacks on others.[iqtibos kerak ] Bias is another issue of online discussion forums because many websites attract like-minded individuals, making it less likely for alternative perspectives to be introduced.[101]

Elektron hukumat

An elektron hukumat is a government that is inter-networked through digital technology for mass media distribution and communication for voters, taxpayers, schools, hospitals, etc. It has been described[kimga ko'ra? ] as a new way to transform government programs by closing the gap between distance and time. This idea has been said to be a more cost effective and convenient way to form programs around the needs of citizens rather than civil servants.[102]

UK media phone hacking scandal

Asosiy maqola: News International telefon xakerlik mojarosi

The first major reappraisal of the relationship between a political elite/class and the media in a major modern Western PMC, with respect to the decline of representative political and legal processes and the consequent erosion of and dangers to the public interest in a Western democracy, is captured in excerpts from three contributions to an emergency three-hour debate[103] conducted by members of parliament (MPs) in the Buyuk Britaniya parlamenti on the afternoon of the 6 July 2011.[noto'g'ri sintezmi? ]

We, politicians, have colluded for far too long with the media: we rely on them, we seek their favour, and we live and we die politically because of what they write and what they show, and sometimes that means we lack the courage or the spine to stand up when wrong has occurred.

— House of Commons Hansard Debates for 06 July 2011, Phone Hacking Kris Brayant, MP. Column 1540 Emergency debate under the Standing Order No. 24.

As MPs, we depend on the media. We like to be liked by them; we need to be liked by them. We depend on the media, and that applies still more to Governments. It is an unavoidable observation that Parliament has behaved with extraordinary cowardice for many years...

— House of Commons Hansard Debates for 06 July 2011, Phone Hacking Zak Goldsmit, MP. Column 1569 Emergency debate under the Standing Order No. 24.

We are faced with a scandal of expanding proportions, including hacking, allegations of interference in police investigations, and claims that payments have been made to officers. To restore faith and trust in the police and the media, we must lock up the guilty, establish a statutory inquiry, shine a cleansing light on the culture of the media and, if necessary, of the police, and implement the reforms necessary to ensure that the privacy of victims and citizens is never intruded on again. It is clear from today’s debate that this is the will of the House, and we are committed to making it happen.

— House of Commons Hansard Debates for 06 July 2011, Phone Hacking Tom tormoz, MP. Column 1580 Emergency debate under the Standing Order No. 24.

These comments refer to the apparent effects of the relationships between the members of (the UK) parliament and those that form the Buyuk Britaniya hukumati, Metropolitan politsiyasi va Xalqaro yangiliklar (NI [UK subsidiary of Yangiliklar korporatsiyasi ]) and the influence of the latter organization on the former two institutions.

The debate was precipitated by the some of the information procurement methods found to have been used by the now-defunct major British Sunday newspaper Dunyo yangiliklari, which was owned by NI.

The Parliamentary turmoil resulted in the UK government instituting a three-pronged public judicial examination known as the Leveson so'rovi into the relations and interactions between the media and the public, the media and the police and the media and the politicians. Its findings were published November 29, 2012 based on an eight-month investigation (November 2011 to June 2012) that probed into the relationships. While the Leveson findings are oriented toward the PMC of the UK, some commentators argued that its findings will have global implications through their relevance to similar existing networks in other countries.[8][9][104][105][106]

Noam Chomsky reaction

Linguist and dissident Noam Xomskiy warned that naming (as a "complex") points of intersection and apparent cooperative benefit, to some degree, of diverse, nominally independent, areas of public faced activity puts participants in danger of missing a more fundamental and general insight. Such identifiable collaborations/collusions are to be expected and are a natural outcome to the working of the "industrial system", as it has evolved in the West and has the taxpayer-funded sector at its core, which is as opposed to the contemporary an'anaviy donolik, that distinctly separates state and private sectors.[107] Chomsky blamed its existence on the "socialization of costs and the privatization of profits".

Chomsky discusses the harbiy-sanoat kompleksi (MIK)[108] and argues that its embedded behavior is not just about the "military" but also the modern economy, of which that behavior is at the heart and does not have much to do with erkinlik (of choice) or demokratiya.

Using the technology of hisoblash as an example, Chomsky notes that when Duayt Eyzenxauer was making his speech about the putative MIC, institutions like Garvard universiteti va Massachusets texnologiya instituti (MIT) were working and used government funds to reduce roomfuls of machinery into a package that could be sold as a asosiy kompyuter. Reaching that point, project heads began to leave to set up manufacturers. Similarly, established notables like Xalqaro biznes mashinalari (IBM) used public funds to advance their technology from punch card sorting to advanced general purpose computers of their own around the beginning of the 1960s. None of this was about "consumer choice" since the work was being done for government organizations such as the Milliy xavfsizlik agentligi (NSA).

Chomsky points to the same script being followed in areas such as biotexnologiya va nevrologiya and how "goods" like the Internet, telekommunikatsiya, lazerlar, etc. came into existence. He summarizes that anybody or anything with power that is deeply embedded in the interests of the industrial system is "deathly afraid" of admitting such a state of affairs and that attitudes must be manipulated towards the "appropriate" outcomes.

Edvard S. Xerman and Chomsky proposed a tashviqot modeli hypothesis in Ishlab chiqarish roziligi. They demonstrated the ways in which power and money help filter the news and aid governments and private interests. Siyosiy yozuvchi Jorj Oruell noted "[a]ll the papers that matter live off their advertisements and the advertisers exercise an indirect censorship over the news."[109] This observation fundamental to two of the filters that structure the propaganda model: advertising (of corporations) as the primary source of income for the mass media and the dependence upon information provided by government, business and "experts" approved and paid for by these primary sources.

Herman and Chomsky see the ideas cast as testable gipotezalar that can be corroborated through empirical evidence and not merely as assertions. Examination of contemporary developments in the context of the hypotheses is encouraged.

Chomsky states the general and fundamental understanding of the working of the industrial system in the modern economy is met with corroboration from bozor tizimi. Under debt restructuring, "good debt" is returned to private hands as soon as possible and the taxpayer is left saddled with the "bad debt" which is most likely unrecoverable.[110][111][112]

The influence corporations exert on the media through advertising (corroboration of Herman and Chomsky's propaganda model filters through advertising) were illustrated in the closure of News International's 168-year-old flagship Sunday title, the Dunyo yangiliklari when major advertisers boycotted the paper as a consequence of the "phone hacking scandal", as they did not wish to be associated with a paper whose production was based on frequent engagement in serious criminal activity.[113][114]

From Chomsky's perspective, whatever set of interactions is being referred to as the politico-media complex represents the propaganda model to manufacture consent in the service of the industrial system.

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ "Hacking reveals power network". BBC. 2011 yil 13 sentyabr. Olingan 15-noyabr, 2011. The story of the News of the World phone-hacking scandal has revealed a web of links between senior figures within politics, the police and the media.
  2. ^ "Filkin report: Police warned over press links". BBC. 2012 yil 4-yanvar. Olingan 6 yanvar, 2012. The "close relationship" between parts of Scotland Yard and the media has caused "serious harm", a report says.
  3. ^ Swanson, David L. "The Political-Media Complex at 50: Putting the 1996 Presidential Campaign in Context." Amerikalik xulq-atvor bo'yicha olim 40 (1997): 1265.
  4. ^ Ronsli, Endryu (May 13, 2001). "A conspiracy that threatens democracy". Kuzatuvchi. p. 29. Olingan 19 sentyabr, 2011. The politico-media complex has locked itself into a cycle where politicians and journalists feed each other's negativity.
  5. ^ Rentoul, John (January 8, 2006). "John Rentoul: Whodunnit? Cameron, of course". Mustaqil. Olingan 21 sentyabr, 2011. The key to understanding the Conservative revival, as it was to understanding the Blair bubble, is to know about the dynamics of the politico-media complex. Cameron wants to be written up as new and exciting. The media want to write him up as new and exciting, because that fits the template into which news reporting either fits or is made to fit.
  6. ^ Jenkins, Simon (September 8, 2006). "The weekend's 9/11 horror-fest will do Osama bin Laden's work for him". The Guardian. p. 36. Olingan 19 sentyabr, 2011. This response has become 24-hour, seven-day-a-week amplification by the new politico-media complex, especially shrill where the dead are white people.
  7. ^ Symons, Emma-Kate (June 13, 2011). "French culture in the dock over Strauss-Khan". Avstraliyalik. News Limited. Olingan 20 sentyabr, 2011. ...French newspapers and magazine sales have skyrocketed as voters voraciously consume every detail of DSK's (Dominik Strauss-Xan ) woes and digest the massive collateral damage his case has inflicted across their politico-media complex.
  8. ^ a b "Front Page Leveson: Papers lead with freedom the day after the Report". Media Policy Project. 2012 yil 4-dekabr. Olingan 2 avgust 2018.
  9. ^ a b "The Day After Leveson: Newspapers covered more than just their own defence". Media Policy Project. 2012 yil 5-dekabr. Olingan 2 avgust 2018.
  10. ^ Fellow, Anthony (2005). Amerika ommaviy axborot vositalari tarixi. Boston, MA: Michael Rosenberg. p. 1. ISBN  978-0-495-56775-2.
  11. ^ Patterson, Catherine. "Inventing the News." Engines of our Ingenuity. Xyuston universiteti. 2005 yil. http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1983.htm. Dec. 14, 2009.
  12. ^ "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Birlashgan Millatlar. 2009 yil. UN.org
  13. ^ Tunstall, Jeremy. pg 12. The Media In Britain. 1983 yil.
  14. ^ a b Fontevecchia, Agustino (12 September 2011). "New York Times Agonizes As Print Media Ad Revenues Continue To Slide". Forbes. Olingan 2 avgust 2018.
  15. ^ "Middle East Newspapers Struggle in New Age". 2009 yil 26 oktyabr. Zawya.com
  16. ^ Geography of the Third World. pg 303. Routledge. Nyu York. 1996 yil.
  17. ^ a b v "Press Freedom Index 2009". RSF.org Arxivlandi 2011-08-21 da Veb-sayt
  18. ^ Byerly, Caroline. Ross, Karen. “Women and media: international perspectives”. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2004.
  19. ^ Norris, Pippa; World Bank Staff (2009). Public Sentinel: News Media and Governance Reform. Jahon banki nashrlari. p. 360. ISBN  978-0-8213-8200-4. Olingan 11 yanvar 2011.
  20. ^ "The News by Country". Chegara bilmas muxbirlar. Retrieved August 25, 2006
  21. ^ a b v "Arxivlangan nusxa" (PDF). Arxivlandi asl nusxasi (PDF) 2015-10-13 kunlari. Olingan 2013-02-23.CS1 maint: nom sifatida arxivlangan nusxa (havola)
  22. ^ "History of Publishing." Britannica entsiklopediyasi. 2009 yil 2-noyabr. Britannica Entsiklopediyasi Onlayn.
  23. ^ Lyuis, Bernard. pg 11. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. Britaniya. Vaydenfeld va Nikolson. 1995 yil.
  24. ^ Peri, Yoram. Between Battles and Ballots: Israeli Military in Politics. pg 2. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. 1983 yil.
  25. ^ "Eritrea." The World Fact Book. The Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/er.html
  26. ^ "Syria" & "Somalia." The World Fact Book. The Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html & https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html
  27. ^ Ivan, Robert. The Krugman Paradox: newspaper websites' inability to generate economically sustainable advertising revenue. Nyu-York universiteti. Fall 2008. pg. 18.MA Thesis PDF
  28. ^ "The State of the News Media 2004". Stateofthemedia.org Arxivlandi 2017-08-28 at the Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  29. ^ Chozick, Amy (20 April 2013). "Conservative Koch Brothers Turning Focus to Newspapers". The New York Times. Olingan 9 aprel 2015.
  30. ^ a b v d "The State of the News Media 2004". Stateofthemedia.org
  31. ^ Jones, Juston. "Young Adults Are Giving Newspapers Scant Notice". July 16, 2007. Nyu-York Tayms
  32. ^ Craig, Douglas B. Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States. pg 26. The Jons Xopkins universiteti matbuoti. 2000.
  33. ^ An Act to Regulate Radio Communication, August 13, 1912.
  34. ^ Public Law No. 632, February 23, 1927, 69th Congress. An Act for the regulation of radio communications, and for other purposes.
  35. ^ Winkler, Jonathan Reed. Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I. pg. 2018-04-02 121 2. Garvard universiteti matbuoti. 2008.
  36. ^ Bliss, Edward. Now the News: the Story of Broadcast Journalism. pgs. 10, 13-16. Kolumbiya universiteti matbuoti. 1991.
  37. ^ Bliss, Edward. Now the News: the Story of Broadcast Journalism. pg. 18. Columbia University Press. 1991 yil.
  38. ^ Schoenherr, Steven E. "Golden Age of Radio,1935-1950" Sandiego.edu
  39. ^ "Treasures of American History: The Great Depression and World War II." Amerika tarixi milliy muzeyi. Kenneth E. Behring Center. Smitson instituti. SI.edu
  40. ^ "Famous Cases: Iva Toguri d'Aquino and 'Tokyo Rose.'" The Federal Bureau of Investigation. FBI.gov
  41. ^ "Iva Toguri". Sunday Times. Olingan 28 iyun 2011.
  42. ^ McMahon Robert. "Channeling the Cold War: U.S. Overseas Broadcasting". The Foreign Service Journal. pg. 58. October 2009.
  43. ^ Gorman, Lyn. Maklin, Devid. Media and Society in the Twentieth Century: a historical introduction. pg. 107. Wiley Blackwell. 2003 yil.
  44. ^ Voice of America in the Postwar Years. About VOA. Voanews.com
  45. ^ Puddington, Arch. Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. pg. ix. Kentukki universiteti matbuoti. 2000.
  46. ^ Yog'och, Jeyms. History of International Broadcasting, Vol. 2. bet. 51. IET. 2000 yil.
  47. ^ R. Parta, R. Eugene. Discovering the Hidden Listener. pg. 9. Hoover Press. 2007.
  48. ^ From the Heart of Europe. About Deustche Welle. Deustche Welle. 2009 yil. Dw-world.de
  49. ^ "About the Rush Limbaugh Show." Premier Radio Networks. RushLimbaugh.com
  50. ^ "About Air America." AirAmerica.com
  51. ^ "About the Rachel Maddow Show", AirAmerica.com
  52. ^ "About the Lionel Show" AirAmerica.com
  53. ^ "About Live in Washington with Jack Rice" AirAmerica.com
  54. ^ Hjort, Mette, and Scott MacKenzie, eds. Kirish Cinema and Nation. By Hjort and MacKenzie. New York: Routledge, 2000. p. 3
  55. ^ Choi, Jimmy. "Is National Cinema Mr. MacGuffin?" International Films The Institute of Communications Studies, Lids universiteti, Buyuk Britaniya. Mavjud: Leeds.ac.uk
  56. ^ Lindholm, Charles and John A. Hall. "The Sociological Scope of National Cinema." Cinema and Nation. Eds. Mette Hjort and Scott Mackenzie. New York: Routledge, 2000. p.22-26
  57. ^ a b v Hedetoft, Ulf. "Contemporary Cinema: Between Cultural Globalisation and National Interpretation." Cinema and Nation. Eds. Mette Hjort and Scott Mackenzie. New York: Routledge, 2000. p. 280
  58. ^ a b v d e f Furhammar, p. 152.
  59. ^ a b Furhammar, p. 153.
  60. ^ "Operation Abolition," 1960 - YouTube
  61. ^ "Operatsiyani bekor qilish ", Vaqt jurnal, 1961 yil.
  62. ^ Operation Abolition (1960) - YouTube
  63. ^ "Operatsiyani bekor qilish ", video.google.com va Vaqt magazine, Friday, Mar. 17, 1961.
  64. ^ Furhammar, p. 154.
  65. ^ Giroux, p. 29
  66. ^ a b Giroux, p. 31
  67. ^ Lindholm, p. 32
  68. ^ Lindholm, p. 33
  69. ^ Lindholm, p. 34
  70. ^ Lindholm, p. 34-35
  71. ^ Lindholm, p. 36
  72. ^ Lindholm, p. 40
  73. ^ Lindholm, p. 42
  74. ^ a b v Lindholm, p. 43
  75. ^ Giroux, p. 19
  76. ^ Giroux, p. 20-21
  77. ^ Du, Yueying. "From Television to Twitter: How Media Influence the Presidential Election in the United States | Center for Mobile Communication Studies". sites.bu.edu.
  78. ^ a b v Heard, Alexander and Nelson, Michael, eds. Presidential Selection. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari: Dyuk universiteti matbuoti, 1987. ISBN  0-8223-0750-2
  79. ^ a b McCombs, Maxwell E. and Shaw, Donald L. "The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media." Har chorakda jamoatchilik fikri, 1972, XXXVI.2, 110.
  80. ^ McCombs, Maxwell E. and Shaw, Donald L. "The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media." Har chorakda jamoatchilik fikri, 1972, XXXVI.2.
  81. ^ a b v d Rajagopal, Arvind. "Politics After Television: Religious Nationalism and the Reshaping of the Public in India." Cambridge, United Kingdom: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 2001.
  82. ^ a b Abu-Lughod, Lila (2005). Dramas of Nationhood: The Politics of Television in Egypt. Chicago: The Chikago universiteti matbuoti.
  83. ^ Neuman et al., 1992, p. 60
  84. ^ Tuchman, 1978, p. IV
  85. ^ Gitlin, 1980, p. 7
  86. ^ Entman, 1993, p. 53
  87. ^ Tuchman, 1978, p. 156
  88. ^ a b v d Semetko, Holli A. and Valkenburg, Patti M. “Framing European Politics: A content Analysis of Press and Television News.” Journal of Communication, Vol. 50, 2000.
  89. ^ Price et al., 1997, p. 486
  90. ^ Pan & Kosicki, 1993, p. 70; emphasis in the original
  91. ^ Kaid, Lynda (2004). Siyosiy kommunikatsiyalarni o'rganish bo'yicha qo'llanma. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers. p. 508. ISBN  0-8058-3775-2.
  92. ^ Shane, Peter (2004). Democracy online: The Prospects for Political Renewal Through the Internet. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group. p. 89. ISBN  0-415-94864-9.
  93. ^ a b v d Kaid, Lynda; Holtz-Bacha, Christina (2008). Encyclopedia of Political Communication, Volume 1. Ming Oaks, Kaliforniya: Sage nashrlari. p. 334. ISBN  978-1-4129-1799-5.
  94. ^ Lefort, Rebecca; Leapman, Ben (8 May 2010). "MPs accused of Wikipedia expenses 'cover-up'". Daily Telegraph. Olingan 15 avgust 2011.
  95. ^ "Alexa - Top sites". www.alexa.com. Olingan 2020-05-02.
  96. ^ "David Boothroyd". LabourList. LabourList. 2009 yil 16 fevral. Olingan 15 avgust 2011.
  97. ^ Welham, Jamie; Lakhani, Nina (7 June 2009). "Wikipedia 'sentinel' quits after using alias to alter entries". Mustaqil. Independent Press Ltd. Olingan 15 avgust 2011.
  98. ^ "Sockpuppeting British politico resigns from Wikisupremecourt". Ro'yxatdan o'tish. Ro'yxatdan o'tish. 2009 yil 29-may. Olingan 17 avgust 2011.
  99. ^ "ArbCom 'Sam' quits Wikipedia". Qo'shimcha West End. New Journal Enterprises. 2009 yil 5-iyun. Olingan 20 avgust 2011.
  100. ^ Davis, Richard; Owen, Diana (1998). New Media and American Politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. p.123. ISBN  0-19-512060-4. New Media and American Politics.
  101. ^ Tremayne, Mark (2007). Blogging, Citizenship, and the future of media. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group, LLC. p. 266. ISBN  978-0-415-97940-5.
  102. ^ Tapscott, Don (1999). "The Digital Economy: Promise & Peril in the Age of Networked Intelligence" (PDF). The Industrial Age Bureaucracy. Toronto, Ontario: Alliance for Converging Technologies. p. 3. Olingan 13 dekabr, 2009.
  103. ^ House of Commons Hansard Debates for 06 July 2011, Phone Hacking Column 1534. Emergency debate under the Standing Order No. 24.
  104. ^ "Leveson Round-Up: Over Cosy? The Leveson Love Triangle". Media Policy Project. 2012 yil 4 aprel. Olingan 2 avgust 2018. Do the complex relationships of power and reciprocity between the press and other centres of power lead to corruption – if we define corruption as a replacement of an ethic oriented to the public interest with private, self-serving interests?
  105. ^ "Leveson Round Up: 'Twas Ever Thus' – And ever thus shall be?". Media Policy Project. 2012 yil 5-iyul. Olingan 2 avgust 2018. If anything is clear to Leveson and his team of assessors, it is that the problem is systemic, structural and only a multi-pronged approach stands any chance of dealing with it.
  106. ^ "The Phone Hacking Scandal: Global Implications". Karnegi xalqaro ishlar bo'yicha axloqiy kengash. Olingan 2 avgust 2018. Its [the Leveson Inquiry] remit is not only to investigate the role of Rupert Murdoch's tabloid newspapers—the News of the World [NoW] and The Sun—in the phone hacking scandal, but to investigate the bribery and corruption of senior police and politicians and the cozy relationship between Murdoch, his newspapers, and the ruling establishment—the unique 'politico-media' complex.
  107. ^ Bernhut, Stephen (May–June 2006). "An Interview With John Kenneth Galbraith". Ivey Business Journal. Olingan 29 sentyabr 2011. The myth of the two sectors, the public sector and the private sector... at a time when the private sector has taken over big chunks of the public sector, particularly in military operations and armament, defense budget. That's a very fairly central theme.
  108. ^ Barsamian, David (September–October 2004). "War Crimes and Imperial Fantasies". Xalqaro sotsialistik sharh (37). Olingan 29 sentyabr 2011. ...the military-industrial complex, as he (Eisenhower) called it, is actually the core of the modern economy. It’s not specifically military.
  109. ^ Oruell, Jorj. "The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism And The English Genius". Nima uchun yozaman. Olingan 21 sentyabr 2011.
  110. ^ Dossani, Sameer (10 February 2009). "Chomsky:Understanding the Crisis -- Markets, the State and Hypocrisy". Tashqi siyosat markazida. Olingan 29 sentyabr 2011. It's true across the board from electronics to pharmaceuticals to the new biology-based industries. The idea is that the public is supposed to pay the costs and take the risks, and ultimately if there is any profit, you hand it over to private tyrannies, corporations.
  111. ^ Freedland, Jonathan (23 January 2008). "The free-marketeers abhor the crutch of the state - until they start limping". The Guardian. Olingan 20 sentyabr, 2011. No industry has a comparable talent [to that of banking] for privatising gains and socialising losses.
  112. ^ Pickard, Jim (November 15, 2012). "Warning on £66bn public bank stakes". Financial Times. Olingan 5 dekabr 2012. Taxpayers may never see the return of the £66bn spent on shares in Royal Bank of Scotland and Lloyds Banking Group four years ago, an influential [sic] group of MPs warned on Friday. (ro'yxatdan o'tish talab qilinadi)
  113. ^ Rogers, Simon (July 7, 2011). "Top 50 News of the World advertisers - and what they spend". The Guardian. Olingan 19 sentyabr, 2011.
  114. ^ Mason, Paul (10 July 2011). "Murdoch: the network defeats the hierarchy". BBC. Olingan 19 sentyabr, 2011. The Dunyo yangiliklari is closing - at least partly due to a strong campaign to make advertisers drop the title, following the latest phone hacking revelations.

Adabiyotlar

  • Lindholm, Charles; Hall, John A. (2000). "Frank Capra meets John Doe: Anti-politics in American National Identity." Cinema and Nation. Eds. Mette Hjort and Scott Mackenzie. Nyu-York: Routledge. ISBN  0-415-20862-9
  • Giroux, Henry A (2002). Breaking in to the Movies: Film and the Culture of Politics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN  0-631-22603-6
  • Furhammar, Leif; Isaksson, Folke (1968). Politics and Film. Trans. Kersti French. Nyu-York: Praeger Publishers. ISBN  978-0-7425-3809-2

Qo'shimcha o'qish

Tashqi havolalar