Davlat boshqaruvi - Public administration

Davlat boshqaruvi ham o'quv intizomi, ham amaliyot sohasidir; ikkinchisi ushbu rasmda tasvirlangan Qo'shma Shtatlar yig'ilishda federal davlat xizmatchilari.

Davlat boshqaruvi amalga oshirishdir hukumat siyosati shuningdek, ushbu dasturni o'rganadigan va tayyorlaydigan akademik intizom davlat xizmatchilari da ishlash uchun davlat xizmati.[1] Asosiy maqsadi "oldinga siljish" bo'lgan "xilma-xil doiradagi so'rovlar sohasi" sifatida boshqaruv va hukumat ishlashi uchun siyosat ".[2] Ushbu atama uchun berilgan turli xil ta'riflardan ba'zilari: "davlat dasturlarini boshqarish";[3] ning "tarjimasi siyosat haqiqatga fuqarolar har kuni ko'rish ";[4] va "hukumat qarorlarini qabul qilishni o'rganish, siyosatni tahlil qilish o'zlari, ularni ishlab chiqargan turli xil ma'lumotlar va muqobil siyosatni ishlab chiqarish uchun zarur bo'lgan ma'lumotlar. "[5]

Davlat boshqaruvi "markaziy ravishda hukumat siyosati va dasturlarini tashkil etish bilan bir qatorda rasmiy ravishda javobgar mansabdor shaxslarning xatti-harakatlari (odatda saylanmagan) bilan shug'ullanadi".[6] Ko'pchilik saylanmagan davlat xizmatchilari davlat ma'murlari, shu jumladan shahar rahbarlari, okrug, mintaqaviy, shtat va federal idoralar, masalan munitsipal byudjet direktorlari, kadrlar bo'limi (HR) ma'murlari, shahar menejerlari, ro'yxatga olish menejerlar, davlat ruhiy salomatlik rejissyorlar va kabinet kotiblari.[4] Davlat ma'murlari davlat xizmatchilari davlat idoralarida va idoralarida, boshqaruvning barcha darajalarida ishlash.

In Qo'shma Shtatlar kabi davlat xizmatchilari va akademiklar Vudro Uilson lavozimga ko'tarildi davlat xizmatini isloh qilish 1880-yillarda, davlat boshqaruvini ko'chirish akademiya.[7] Biroq, "20-asr o'rtalariga qadar va nemis sotsiologining tarqalishiga qadar Maks Veber byurokratiya nazariyasi "" davlat boshqaruvi nazariyasiga katta qiziqish "mavjud emas edi.[8] Maydon ko'p tarmoqli xarakterda; davlat boshqaruvi sub-sohalari bo'yicha turli xil takliflardan biri oltita ustunni o'z ichiga oladi kadrlar bo'limi, tashkiliy nazariya, siyosat tahlili, statistika, byudjetlashtirish va axloq qoidalari.[9]

Ta'riflar

Ma'murlar qog'ozli hujjatlar bilan ham, kompyuter fayllari bilan ham ishlashga moyil: "So'nggi yigirma yil ichida qog'ozdan elektron yozuvlarga sezilarli o'zgarish yuz berdi. Garchi davlat idoralari qog'oz hujjatlarni" rasmiy yozuvlar "sifatida bosib chiqarishni davom ettirsa-da, ularning aksariyati yozuvlar endi yaratiladi va elektron shaklda saqlanadi. "[10] (bu erda rasm AQSh harbiy-dengiz kuchlari uchun nazoratchi o'rinbosari Stiven C. Dann)

1947 yilda Pol H. Appleby davlat boshqaruvi "ijro etuvchi harakatlar uchun bevosita mas'ul bo'lgan davlat ishlarining jamoat etakchisi" deb ta'riflagan. Demokratik davlatda u fuqaroning qadr-qimmati, qadr-qimmati va potentsialini hurmat qilish va ularga hissa qo'shish nuqtai nazaridan bunday etakchilik va ijro etuvchi harakatlar bilan bog'liq.[11] Bir yil o'tgach, Gordon Klapp, o'sha paytda raisi Tennessi vodiysi ma'muriyati davlat boshqaruvi "demokratik jamiyat to'liq amalga oshiriladigan davlat vositasi sifatida" belgilangan. Bu shuni anglatadiki, u "o'zini adolat tushunchalari, erkinlik va insonlar uchun ko'proq iqtisodiy imkoniyatlar bilan bog'lashi kerak" va shuning uchun "odamlar, g'oyalar va narsalar bilan" "bog'liqdir".[12] Jeyms D. Kerol va Alfred M. Zukning so'zlariga ko'ra, "Vudro Vilson o'zining inshosi" tomonidan nashr etilgan.Ma'muriyatni o'rganish "1887 yilda, odatda, ma'lum bir ta'lim sohasi sifatida davlat boshqaruvining boshlanishi sifatida qaraladi".[13]

Ga chizish demokratiya mavzusi va ijro hokimiyatiga havolani bekor qilish, Patrisiya M. Shilds davlat boshqaruvi "jonli demokratiya mahsulotlarini boshqarish va amalga oshirish bilan shug'ullanadi" deb ta'kidlaydi.[14] "Mahsulot" asosiy atamasi qamoqxonalar, yo'llar, qonunlar, maktablar va xavfsizlik kabi "qurilgan yoki ishlab chiqarilgan" narsalarni anglatadi. "Amalga oshiruvchi sifatida jamoat menejerlari ushbu mahsulotlarni jalb qilishadi." Ular "tirik" demokratiyani amalga oshirish va amalga oshirishda qatnashadilar. Jonli demokratiya "o'zgaruvchan, organik", nomukammal, nomuvofiq va qadriyatlar bilan birlashadigan muhitdir. "Boshqaruvni ta'kidlash kerak, chunki davlat boshqaruvi" hisobdorlik va kam manbalardan samarali foydalanish va oxir-oqibat amalga oshirish, ishlab chiqarish va demokratik qadriyatlar o'rtasidagi bog'liqlikni ta'minlash bilan bog'liq ".[15]

Yaqinda olimlar "davlat boshqaruvi umumiy qabul qilingan ta'rifga ega emas" deb da'vo qilmoqda, chunki "mavzu doirasi shunchalik katta va munozarali, tushuntirishdan ko'ra tushuntirish osonroq".[16] Davlat boshqaruvi - bu o'rganish sohasi (ya'ni intizom) va kasb. Davlat boshqaruvini o'rganishni intizom deb atash mumkinmi yoki yo'qmi, asosan, davlat boshqaruvi sub-sohasi bo'ladimi degan munozaralar tufayli juda ko'p kelishmovchiliklar mavjud. siyosatshunoslik yoki pastki maydon ma'muriy fan ", ikkinchisi siyosat tahlili va baholash tadqiqotida ildizlarning o'sishi.[16][17] Olim Donald Kettl davlat boshqaruvini "siyosatshunoslik sub-sohasi sifatida" ko'radiganlar qatoriga kiradi.[18] Lalorning fikriga ko'ra, kamida bittasini ta'minlaydigan davlat hokimiyatiga ega jamiyat jamoat foydasi davlat boshqaruviga ega deyish mumkin, ammo yo'qligi (yoki) fortiori ikkalasi ham) davlat hokimiyati organi yoki hech bo'lmaganda bitta jamoat molini ta'minlash davlat boshqaruvi mavjud emasligini anglatadi. Uning ta'kidlashicha, davlat boshqaruvi - bu talablar funktsiyasini siyosat ozmi-ko'pmi samarali qondiradigan, asosiy vositasi - ritorika bo'lgan, jamoat mollarini ta'minlaydigan, ta'minot funktsiyalari esa davlat boshqaruvi tomonidan ozmi-ko'pmi qoniqarli bo'lgan jamoat mahsulotlarini jamoat ta'minoti. , ularning asosiy vositalari jamoat mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqaradigan nutq aktlari. Davlat boshqaruvining axloqiy maqsadi, uning rolini qabul qilishda bevosita, jamoatchilikning o'z ehtiyojlarini qondirish imkoniyatlarini maksimal darajada oshirishdir.[19]

The Shimoliy Amerika sanoat tasniflash tizimi davlat boshqaruvi ta'rifi (NAICS 91 ) sektorning ta'kidlashicha, davlat boshqaruvi "... asosan hukumat xarakteridagi faoliyat bilan shug'ullanadigan muassasalarni, ya'ni qonunlarni qabul qilish va sud tomonidan talqin etilishi va ularga muvofiq me'yoriy hujjatlar hamda ularga asoslangan dasturlarni boshqarishni o'z ichiga oladi". Bunga "Qonunchilik faoliyati, soliqqa tortish, milliy mudofaa, jamoat tartibi va xavfsizligi, immigratsiya xizmatlari, tashqi aloqalar va xalqaro yordam va hukumat dasturlarini boshqarish ma'muriy xarakterga ega bo'lgan faoliyatdir" kiradi.[20]

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlaridagi Ta'lim Statistikasi Milliy Markazi akademik nuqtai nazardan davlat boshqaruvini o'rganishni "Mahalliy, shtat va federal hukumatning ijro etuvchi organida menejer sifatida xizmat qilishga shaxslarni tayyorlaydigan va diqqat markazida bo'lgan dastur ijro etishni tashkil etish va boshqarishni muntazam o'rganish bo'yicha davlat boshqaruvining rollari, rivojlanishi va printsiplari bo'yicha ko'rsatmalarni o'z ichiga oladi; davlat siyosatini boshqarish; ijro etuvchi qonunchilik munosabatlari; davlat byudjet jarayonlari va moliyaviy menejment; ma'muriy huquq; davlat xodimlarini boshqarish; professional axloq qoidalari va tadqiqot usullari. "[21]

Tarix

Miloddan avvalgi 600 yilda Hindiston

Harappa va Mohenjo-daaro kabi toza va gullab-yashnagan tsivilizatsiyalar intizomli, xayrixoh va buzilmagan davlat xizmatchilariga ega bo'lishi kerak edi. Buni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun ko'plab havolalar mavjud Brixaspati qonunlar va boshqaruvga oid ishlar. Dan qiziqarli ko'chirma Aain-Akbari [III jild, tr. H. S. Barrett tomonidan, pp217-218] tomonidan yozilgan Abul Fazl, Akbar saroyining taniqli tarixchisi, 1578 yilda Akbar misolida o'tkazilgan barcha diniy faylasuflarning simpoziumini eslatib o'tadi. Bu Akbarning yangi dinni boshlashida aks etgan haqiqatni topishga bo'lgan tinimsiz istagi kontekstida ishonchli ko'rinadi Din-elaaxi. Maslahat ostida bo'lgan hisobotni taniqli tarixchi bergan Vinsent Smit, "Akbarning Jayn ustozlari" nomli maqolasida. Biroz Charvaka simpoziumda mutafakkirlar qatnashgan deyishadi. "Sarlavhasi ostida"Naastika "Abul Fazl ta'kidlagan yaxshi ish, oqilona boshqaruv va farovonlik sxemalariga murojaat qildi Charvaka qonun chiqaruvchilar. Somadeva ham buni aytib o'tgan Charvaka millat dushmanlarini mag'lub etish usuli. U xudbin manfaatlari uchun qirollikda yashiringan o'n uchta dushmanga murojaat qildi. Ularda qirolning bir necha qarindoshlari va yordamchi hukmdorlar bo'lishi mumkin, ammo ularni ayab o'tirish kerak emas. Ular boshqa har qanday raqib kabi qattiq jazolanishi kerak. Kautilya, allaqachon aytib o'tilganidek, do'stlar kiyimidagi dushmanlarni olib tashlashning batafsil sxemasini berdi. The Charvaka sodiq, Brixaspati, qadimgi davrga qaraganda ancha qadimiy Kautilya va Somadeva. U Xarappa va Mohenjo-daaro madaniyati bilan zamondoshga o'xshaydi.

An'anaviy diniy marosimning markaziy maqsadi uni sodir etganlar uchun tayyor pul topishdir. Tug'ilgunga qadar bir necha oydan boshlab va yillik sradda shaklida o'limdan keyingi bir necha yilgacha davom etadigan, inson hayotidagi turli lahzalarga mo'ljallangan barcha samarasiz, bepusht urf-odatlar, ularning aksariyati bugungi kunda ham mavjud, ammo ruhoniylarni boqish uchun kanallardir. Ular haqiqiy emas, tasavvurga ega va isrofgar. Ular haqiqiy bo'lmagan, tasavvurga ega va isrofgarchilikka ega bo'lsa-da; ovqatlanish haqiqiydir.

Ushbu hiyla-nayrang paradoksni Charvaka uning haqiqiy qiymati uchun. Ular moliyaviy sabablarni moliyaviy natijalarga olib kelishini xohlashdi. Tasavvur qilingan sabablar faqat haqiqiy natijalar emas, balki tasavvur qilingan natijalarni keltirib chiqaradi. [22] [23]

XIX asrga qadar qadimiylik

Antik davrdan boshlab, fir'avnlar, shohlar va imperatorlar hukumatning amaliy ishlarini boshqarish uchun sahifalar, xazinachilar va soliq yig'uvchilarni talab qilishgan. 19-asrga qadar aksariyat davlat boshqaruv idoralarida kadrlar qarindoshlik, favoritizm va siyosiy homiylik mavjud bo'lib, ular ko'pincha "tizimni buzadi ". Davlat ma'murlari azaldan hukmdorlarning" ko'zlari va quloqlari "bo'lgan. O'rta asrlarda o'qish va yozish, qo'shish va olib tashlash qobiliyatlari davlat ishi kabi o'qimishli elita tomonidan ustun bo'lgan. Binobarin, tajribali davlat xizmatchilariga ehtiyoj o'qish va yozish qobiliyati qonuniy ish yuritish, qo'shinlarni to'lash va boqish va yig'im olish kabi zaruriy faoliyat bo'yicha tajribani rivojlantirish uchun asos bo'ldi. soliqlar. Evropa imperatorlik davri rivojlanib, harbiy kuchlar boshqa qit'alar va odamlarga nisbatan o'z mavqeini kengaytirar ekan, zamonaviy davlat boshqaruviga ehtiyoj ortdi.

Maydon boshqaruv Qadimgi Xitoyda paydo bo'lgan deb aytish mumkin,[24] birinchi darajali markazlashtirilgan, shu jumladan byurokratik davlat va eng qadimgi (miloddan avvalgi II asrga kelib) an savobga asoslangan ma'muriyat orqali sinov.[25] Sinolog, dunyoning qolgan qismidan deyarli 18-asrning oxiriga qadar Herrlee G. Creel va boshqa olimlar XII asrga kelib Xitoy ma'muriyatining Evropadagi ta'sirini topadilar, masalan Fredrik II e'lonlari, "zamonaviy byurokratiyaning tug'ilganlik to'g'risidagi guvohnomasi" sifatida tavsiflanadi.[26][27][28][29]

Garchi xitoy ma'muriyati biron bir shaxsga tegishli emas, ta'kidlab, a merit tizimi raqamlari Fa-Jia miloddan avvalgi 4 asr islohotchisi singari Shen Buxay (Miloddan avvalgi 400-337 yillar) boshqalarga qaraganda ko'proq ta'sirga ega bo'lishi mumkin va mavhum ma'muriy nazariyaning zamonaviygacha bo'lgan noyob noyob namunasi sifatida qimmatli bo'lmasa, uning asoschisi deb hisoblanishi mumkin. Kril Shen Buxayda "ning urug'lari" mavjudligini yozadi davlat xizmati ekspertizasi "Va bu, agar mubolag'a qilishni xohlasa," shubhasiz Shen Buxayning "Shu" yoki texnikasini "ilm" deb tarjima qilish mumkin bo'ladi "va u birinchi siyosatshunos bo'lgan, ammo Kreel" ahamiyati yo'q " shu qadar uzoqqa borish ".[30]

XVIII asr zodagonlari, Prussiya qiroli Frederik Vilyam I yilda professorlar yaratdi Kameralizm yangi darajadagi davlat ma'murlarini tayyorlashga intilish. Ning universitetlari Frankfurt an der Oder va Halle universiteti edi Prusscha jamiyatni isloh qilish maqsadi bilan iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy fanlarni ta'kidlaydigan institutlar. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi Kameralizmning eng taniqli professori edi. Shunday qilib, G'arbiy Evropa nuqtai nazaridan Klassik, O'rta asrlar va Ma'rifatparvarlik davridagi olimlar davlat boshqaruvi deb nomlana boshlagan intizomga asos yaratdilar.

Lorenz fon Shteyn, 1855 yil nemis professori Vena, dunyoning ko'p joylarida davlat boshqaruvi fanining asoschisi hisoblanadi. Von Shtayn davrida davlat boshqaruvi ma'muriy huquqning bir shakli sifatida qaraldi, ammo Fon Shtayn bu tushunchani o'ta cheklovchi deb hisobladi. Von Shteyn davlat boshqaruvi ko'plab oldindan tuzilgan fanlarga tayanadi deb o'rgatdi sotsiologiya, siyosatshunoslik, ma'muriy huquq va davlat moliyasi. U davlat boshqaruvini birlashtiruvchi fan deb atadi va davlat ma'murlari ham nazariya, ham amaliyot bilan shug'ullanishi kerakligini ta'kidladi. Uning ta'kidlashicha, davlat boshqaruvi fan, chunki bilim ilmiy uslubga ko'ra hosil bo'ladi va baholanadi.

Zamonaviy Amerika davlat boshqaruvi - g'arb dunyosining mumtoz va liberal faylasuflari tomonidan oqlangan demokratik boshqaruvning kengayishi. Aristotel ga Jon Lokk[31] ga Tomas Jefferson.[32][33]

In Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, Vudro Uilson davlat boshqaruvining otasi hisoblanadi. U birinchi marta 1887 yilda chop etilgan maqolasida davlat boshqaruvini rasman tan oldi.Ma'muriyatni o'rganish ". Bo'lajak prezident" bu ma'muriy tadqiqotlar ob'ekti, birinchi navbatda, hukumat nimani to'g'ri va muvaffaqiyatli bajarishi mumkinligini, ikkinchidan, qanday qilib bu to'g'ri ishlarni maksimal darajada samarali va eng kam xarajat bilan amalga oshirishi mumkinligini aniqlashdir. yo puldan, yoki energiyadan ".[7] Uilson Von Shteynga qaraganda davlat boshqaruvi faniga ko'proq ta'sir ko'rsatgan, birinchi navbatda Uilson 1887 yilda to'rtta tushunchani ilgari surgan maqolasi tufayli:

  • Siyosat va boshqaruvni ajratish
  • Siyosiy va xususiy tashkilotlarning qiyosiy tahlili
  • Ishbilarmonlik amaliyoti va kundalik operatsiyalarga munosabat bilan samaradorlikni oshirish
  • Menejment orqali va davlat xizmatchilarini o'qitish orqali davlat xizmati samaradorligini oshirish, savob - asoslangan baholash

Siyosat va ma'muriyatni ajratish uzoq munozaralarga sabab bo'ldi. Ushbu ikkilamchi nuqtai nazardan turli qarashlar davlat boshqaruvining tavsiya etilgan avlodlari xususiyatlarini farqlashga yordam beradi.

20-asrning 20-yillariga kelib, davlat boshqaruvi olimlari Uilsonning iltimosiga javob berishdi va shu tariqa ushbu sohadagi darsliklar taqdim etildi. O'sha davrning bir nechta taniqli olimlari: Lyuter Gulik, Lindal Urvik, Anri Fayol, Frederik Teylor va boshqalar. Ma'muriyat va boshqaruv sohasidagi yana bir taniqli olim Frederik Teylor (1856–1915) ham nomli kitob nashr ettirdi Ilmiy boshqaruv tamoyillari (1911). U ilmiy tahlil ishlarni bajarish yoki operatsiyani amalga oshirishning "eng yaxshi usuli" ni topishga olib keladi deb ishongan. Uning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu xarajat va vaqtni tejashga yordam berishi mumkin. Keyinchalik Teylorning texnikasi xususiy sanoatchilarga, keyinchalik turli xil hukumat tashkilotlariga joriy qilindi (Jeong, 2007).[34]

Teylorning yondashuvi ko'pincha Teylorning tamoyillari yoki Teylorizm deb nomlanadi. Teylorning ilmiy boshqaruvi asosiy to'rt tamoyildan iborat edi (Frederik V. Teylor, 1911):

  • Bosh barmoqning ishlash usullarini vazifalarni ilmiy o'rganishga asoslangan usullar bilan almashtiring.
  • O'zlarini o'qitish uchun passiv qoldirmasdan, har bir xodimni ilmiy jihatdan tanlab oling, o'rgating va rivojlantiring.
  • "Ushbu ishchining alohida vazifasini bajarishda har bir ishchining batafsil ko'rsatmasi va nazorati" ni taqdim eting (Montgomery 1997: 250).
  • Ishni menejerlar va ishchilar o'rtasida teng ravishda taqsimlang, shunda menejerlar ishni rejalashtirishda ilmiy boshqaruv tamoyillarini qo'llaydilar va ishchilar aslida vazifalarni bajaradilar.

Teylor o'z tizimini (yondashuvni) qanday joriy etish haqida juda aniq g'oyalarga ega edi: 'Faqat tezlashtirilgan ish uslublarini majburiy ravishda standartlashtirish, eng yaxshi jihozlar va ish sharoitlarini majburiy qabul qilish va majburiy hamkorlik orqali. Va standartlarni qabul qilishni ta'minlash va ushbu hamkorlikni amalga oshirish vazifasi faqat menejmentga tegishli. '[35]

The Amerika davlat boshqaruvi jamiyati (ASPA) davlat boshqaruvi bo'yicha etakchi professional guruh 1939 yilda tashkil etilgan. ASPA jurnal homiysi Davlat boshqaruvini ko'rib chiqish, 1940 yilda tashkil etilgan.[36]

1940-yillarda AQSh

Lyuter Gulik (1892-1993) davlat boshqaruvi bo'yicha mutaxassis edi.

Uilson tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlangan siyosat va ma'muriyatning ajralib turishi bugungi kunda davlat boshqaruvida muhim rol o'ynamoqda. Biroq, bu ikkilamchining ustunligi 1940-yillardan boshlab ikkinchi avlod olimlari tomonidan e'tirozga uchradi. Lyuter Gulik Haqiqat-ikkiliklilik Uilson tomonidan taklif qilingan siyosiy-ma'muriy ikkilik uchun asosiy da'vogar edi. Uilsonning birinchi avlodi bo'linishi o'rniga Gulik "uzluksiz aql va o'zaro aloqalar tarmog'i" ni qo'llab-quvvatladi.[37]

Lyuter Gulik va Lindal Urvik Ikkinchi avlod olimlari. Gulikk, Urvik va yangi avlod ma'murlari zamonaviy xulq-atvor, ma'muriy va tashkiliy olimlar, shu jumladan Anri Fayol, Fredrik Uinslov Teylor Pol Pollibi, Frenk Gudnov va Uilam Uilufbi. Yangi avlod tashkiliy nazariyalari endi mumtoz va ma'rifatparvar nazariyotchilar singari inson tabiati haqidagi mantiqiy taxminlar va umumlashmalarga tayanmadi.

Gulik ilmiy uslub, samaradorlik, professionallik, tarkibiy islohot va ijro etuvchi boshqaruvni ta'kidlaydigan keng qamrovli, umumiy tashkilot nazariyasini ishlab chiqdi. Gulik ma'murlarning vazifalarini qisqartma bilan umumlashtirgan; POSDCORB rejalashtirish, tashkil etish, kadrlar bilan ta'minlash, yo'naltirish, muvofiqlashtirish, hisobot berish va byudjetni shakllantirishni anglatadi. Fayol xususiy menejmentga nisbatan sistematik, 14 punktli muolajani ishlab chiqdi. Ikkinchi avlod nazariyotchilari ma'muriy fanlarni xususiy boshqarish amaliyotiga asoslanishdi. Xususiy va davlat sektorlari o'rtasidagi chegaralarni qon bilan to'kib tashlaydigan yagona umumiy boshqaruv nazariyasi mumkin deb o'ylardi. Umumiy nazariya bilan ma'muriy nazariyani hukumat tashkilotlariga yo'naltirish mumkin edi. 1940-yillarning o'rtalarida nazariyotchilar Uilson va Gulikka qarshi chiqishdi. Siyosiy-ma'muriy ikkilamchilik tanqidlar markazi bo'lib qoldi.

1950 yildan 1970 yilgacha

50-yillar davomida Qo'shma Shtatlar uzoq muddatli farovonlikni boshdan kechirdi va jahon etakchisi sifatida o'z o'rnini mustahkamladi. G'arbiy Evropa va Yaponiyada muvaffaqiyatli urush harakati va urushdan keyingi muvaffaqiyatli qayta tiklanishi tufayli davlat boshqaruvi o'ziga xos gullab-yashnagan davrni boshdan kechirdi. Hukumat prezident Eyzenxauer kabi mashhur edi. 1960-70-yillarda hukumatning o'zi samarasiz, samarasiz va asosan behuda harakat sifatida tanqid qilindi. Qimmat Amerikaning Vetnamga aralashuvi ichki mojarolar bilan bir qatorda Demokratik partiyaning shtab-kvartirasi (1974) Votergeyt janjal) - bu fuqarolarni chetga surib qo'ygan o'z-o'zini yo'q qiladigan hukumat xatti-harakatlarining ikkita misoli.

Qimmat Vetnam urushi AQSh fuqarolarini o'z hukumatidan ajratib qo'ygan (rasmda Arc Light operatsiyasi, AQShning bombardimon qilish amaliyoti)

Fuqarolar tomonidan samarasiz, isrofgarchilikka yo'l qo'yadigan byurokratiyani almashtirish uchun samarali ma'muriyat chaqirildi. Ushbu da'vatga javob berish va samarali bo'lish uchun davlat boshqaruvi o'zini siyosatdan uzoqlashtirishi kerak edi. Saylangan amaldorlar ushbu islohotlarni qo'llab-quvvatladilar. The Hoover komissiyasi, Chikago universiteti professori raislik qilmoqda Lui Braunlou, hukumatning qayta tashkil etilishini tekshirish. Keyinchalik Braunlo universitetda Davlat boshqaruvi xizmatini (PAS) tashkil qildi, bu tashkilot 1970 yillarga qadar barcha darajadagi hukumatlarga maslahat xizmatlarini ko'rsatib kelmoqda.[iqtibos kerak ]

Shu bilan birga, keyin Ikkinchi jahon urushi, davlat boshqaruvining butun kontseptsiyasi siyosat tuzish va tahlil qilishni o'z ichiga oldi, shu bilan "ma'muriy siyosatni ishlab chiqish va tahlil qilish" ni o'rganish hukumat qarorlarini qabul qilish organlariga kiritildi va takomillashtirildi. Keyinchalik, inson omili davlat boshqaruvini o'rganishda asosiy e'tibor va e'tiborga aylandi. Ushbu davr boshqa ijtimoiy fanlarning, asosan, psixologiya, antropologiya va sotsiologiyaning davlat boshqaruvini o'rganishga qo'shilishi va rivojlanishiga guvoh bo'ldi (Jeong, 2007).[34] Bundan buyon, kabi olimlarning paydo bo'lishi, Frits Morshteyn Marks kitobi bilan Davlat boshqaruvi elementlari (1946), Pol H. Appleby Siyosat va ma'muriyat (1952), Frank Marini 'Yangi davlat boshqaruvi sari' (1971) va bu ishlarda ijobiy hissa qo'shgan boshqalar.

1980-1990 yillar

1980-yillarning oxirida davlat boshqaruvi nazariyotchilarining yana bir avlodi oxirgisi o'rnini bosa boshladi. Deb nomlangan yangi nazariya Yangi davlat boshqaruvi, Devid Osborne va Ted Gaebler tomonidan o'zlarining kitoblarida taklif qilingan Hukumatni qayta kashf etish.[38] Yangi model davlat sektori samaradorligi va xizmatga yo'naltirilganligini oshirish uchun xususiy sektor uslubidagi modellardan, tashkiliy g'oyalar va qadriyatlardan foydalanishni qo'llab-quvvatladi. Davomida Klinton ma'muriyati (1993–2001), vitse-prezident Al Gor NPM yondashuvlaridan foydalangan holda federal agentliklarni qabul qildi va isloh qildi. 1990-yillarda yangi davlat boshqaruvi AQSh, Buyuk Britaniya va ozroq darajada Kanadadagi byurokratik idoralarda keng tarqaldi. Dastlabki davlat boshqaruvi nazariyalarining asoslari siyosat tahlili bilan bog'liq Richard Elmore da chop etilgan 1986 yilgi maqolasida "Siyosatni tahlil qilish va boshqarish jurnali ".[39]

Ba'zi zamonaviy mualliflar NPMni yirik byurokratik tashkilotlarni kichikroq, bo'linib ketgan agentliklarga bo'linish, turli davlat idoralari o'rtasidagi raqobatni rag'batlantirish va davlat idoralari va xususiy firmalar o'rtasida raqobatni rag'batlantirish hamda iqtisodiy rag'batlantirish yo'nalishlaridan foydalanish (masalan, yuqori lavozimli rahbarlar yoki foydalanuvchi uchun ish haqi) ning kombinatsiyasi sifatida ta'riflaydilar. -pay modellari).[40] NPM shaxslarga fuqaro sifatida emas, balki "mijoz" yoki "mijoz" (xususiy sektor ma'nosida) sifatida qaraydi.[41]

Ba'zi tanqidchilar ta'kidlashlaricha, odamlarga "fuqarolar" emas, balki "mijozlar" sifatida qarashning yangi davlat boshqaruvi kontseptsiyasi xususiy sektor modelidan noo'rin qarz olishdir, chunki korxonalar mijozlarni mulkdor sifatida emas, balki maqsad (foyda) olish vositasi deb bilishadi. faqat biznes mijozlariga (homiylariga) qarshi bo'lgan hukumat (egalari). Yangi davlat boshqaruvida odamlar demokratik ishtirokchilar bo'lmagan iqtisodiy birliklar sifatida qaraladi, bu esa MBA (biznes ma'muriyati, iqtisodiy va ish beruvchilarga asoslangan model) ni davlat boshqaruvi (hukumat, jamoat foydasi ) sektor. Shunga qaramay, NPM modeli (1986 yilda Elmore tomonidan tasvirlangan to'rttadan biri, shu jumladan "umumiy model") hukumatning ko'p darajalarida (masalan, munitsipal, shtat / viloyat va federal) va OECDning ko'plab mamlakatlarida keng tarqalgan.

1990-yillarning oxirlarida Janet va Robert Denxardt NPMning ustunligiga javoban yangi davlat xizmatlari modelini taklif qilishdi.[42] NPMning vorisi raqamli davrni boshqarish, hukumat majburiyatlarini qayta tiklash, ehtiyojlarga asoslangan yaxlitlik (vazifalarni o'qish usulida bajarish) va raqamlashtirish (zamonaviy axborot texnologiyalari va raqamli saqlashning transformatsion imkoniyatlaridan foydalanish) mavzulariga e'tiborni qaratdi.

DEG-ni tarqatishda bitta misol openforum.com.au, siyosatchilarni, yuqori martabali davlat xizmatchilarini, akademiklarni, ishbilarmonlarni va boshqa muhim manfaatdor tomonlarni yuqori darajadagi siyosiy munozaralarga taklif qiladi. Bruneyning Axborot departamenti raqamli boshqaruv jarayonini takomillashtirishda Ijtimoiy media texnologiyalarini tarqatishda yana bir misol.[43] Kitobning bobdagi ishida raqamli dividendlar raqamli davrni boshqarish doirasida ijtimoiy tarmoqlardan samarali foydalanish orqali ta'minlanishi mumkin degan xulosaga kelindi.[44]

Davlat xizmatining yana bir yangi modeli - bu hokimiyatni markazlashtirishni o'z ichiga olgan "Yangi davlat boshqaruvi" deb nomlangan; partiyaviy-siyosiy kadrlar sonining ko'payishi, roli va ta'siri; katta davlat xizmatiga tayinlanishlarni shaxsiy-siyosiylashtirish; va davlat xizmatining kun hukumati uchun partiyaviy ekanligi haqidagi taxmin.[45]

1980-yillarning o'rtalarida Qo'shma Shtatlardagi jamoat dasturlarining maqsadi ko'pincha mustaqil hayot, jamoaviy integratsiya, qo'shilish, jamoatchilik ishtiroki, deinstitutsionizatsiya va fuqarolik huquqlari. Shunday qilib, bir xil davlat siyosati (va davlat boshqaruvi) nogironlik bilan birga barcha fuqarolarga nisbatan qo'llanilishi kerak edi. Biroq, 1990-yillarga kelib Qo'shma Shtatlarda kategoriyali davlat tizimlari kuchaytirildi (Racino, matbuotda, 2014) va nogironlik mazmunini davlat siyosati o'quv dasturlariga ko'proq kiritish uchun harakat qilindi.[46] nogironlik bo'yicha davlat siyosati (va ma'muriyati) o'zlarining alohida sohalari.[47][48] So'nggi yillarda bixevioriistlar umumiy davlat siyosatiga qarama-qarshi ekanliklariga ishonib, "aralashuv amaliyotida" (umuman, davlat boshqaruvi viloyati emas) ustunlik qilishdi (shunday nomlanadi) ekologik tizimlar nazariyasi, kech Uri Bronfenbrenner ).

Borgan sari, davlat siyosati akademiklar va amaliyotchilar nazariy tushunchalardan foydalanganlar siyosiy iqtisod islohot harakatlarining muvaffaqiyati yoki muvaffaqiyatsizligi yoki suboptimal natijalarning barqarorligi kabi siyosat natijalarini tushuntirish.[49]

Asosiy novdalar

Akademik davrda davlat boshqaruvi sohasi bir qator kichik sohalardan iborat. Olimlar bir nechta turli kichik maydonlarni taklif qildilar. Tavsiya etilgan modellardan biri beshta "ustun" dan foydalanadi:[9]

Qaror qabul qilish modellari

Davlat ma'murlari o'zlarini bajaradigan vazifalar qatorini hisobga olgan holda, professional ma'mur o'zi ishlashi mumkin bo'lgan nazariy asoslarga murojaat qilishi mumkin. Darhaqiqat, ko'plab davlat va xususiy ma'muriy olimlar qarorlar qabul qilish modellarini ishlab chiqdilar va o'zgartirdilar.

Niskanenning byudjetini maksimal darajada oshirish

1971 yilda professor Uilyam Niskanen taklif qilingan oqilona tanlov u "deb atagan variatsiyabyudjetni maksimal darajaga ko'tarish modeli "U ratsional byurokratlar har doim o'z bo'linmalarining byudjetlarini ko'paytirishga intilishlarini (ularning mavqeini oshirish uchun), shu bilan davlatning o'sishiga va davlat xarajatlarining ko'payishiga hissa qo'shadi, deb da'vo qildi. Niskanen Prezident Reyganning Iqtisodiy maslahatchilar kengashida ishlagan; uning modeli nima bo'lganini qo'llab-quvvatlagan. Biroq, byudjet xarajatlari va Reygan ma'muriyati davridagi o'sib borayotgan defitsit boshqa haqiqatning dalilidir. Ko'plab plyuralist mualliflar Niskanenning universalistik yondashuvini tanqid qildilar. Ushbu olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, mansabdor shaxslar ham motivatsiyaga moyil. jamoat manfaatlarini hisobga olgan holda.

Dunleavining byurosini shakllantirish

The byuroni shakllantirish model, Niskanen modifikatsiyasi, oqilona byurokratlar byudjetning o'z agentliklari faoliyatiga sarf qiladigan yoki pudratchilarga va manfaatdor guruhlarga beradigan qismini faqat maksimal darajada oshirishga imkon beradi. Yuqori mansabdor shaxslarga imtiyozlarning "qaytarilishini" tashkil qila oladigan guruhlar, ushbu nazariyaga ko'ra, ko'proq byudjet e'tiborini olishadi. Masalan, oqilona amaldorlar millionlab kam ta'minlangan fuqarolarga katta miqdordagi ijtimoiy to'lovlarni to'lashdan foyda ko'rishmaydi, chunki bu byurokratlarning maqsadlariga xizmat qilmaydi. Shunga ko'ra, uning o'rniga dasturlashda mudofaa va xavfsizlik maqsadlari uchun byudjetni oshirishni so'rab yurisdiktsiyani kutish mumkin. Agar biz Reyganga yana bir bor murojaat qilsak, Dunleavining byurosini shakllantirish byurosi hukumatning "hajmi" kamayganligi va xarajatlar kamayib ketishiga olib keladi. Ichki huquqni dasturlash harbiy tadqiqotlar va xodimlar uchun moliyaviy jihatdan ajratilgan.

Ilmiy yo'nalish

Talabalarni davlat boshqaruvidagi martabasiga tayyorlaydigan universitet dasturlari odatda davlat boshqaruvi magistri (MPA) darajasini beradi, garchi ba'zi universitetlarda MA Davlat boshqaruvida mukofotlanadi. In Qo'shma Shtatlar, davlat boshqaruvining akademik sohasi juda ko'p narsalardan foydalanadi siyosatshunoslik va ma'muriy huquq. Ba'zi MPA dasturlari talabalarga mikroiqtisodiy muammolar (bozorlar, me'yorlash mexanizmlari va boshqalar) va makroiqtisodiy muammolar (masalan, milliy qarz) haqida ma'lumot berish uchun iqtisodiy kurslarni o'z ichiga oladi. Kabi olimlar Jon A. Ror konstitutsiya orqasida uzoq tarixni yozish qonuniylik hukumat rasmiyatchilik. Evropada (xususan. Ichida Britaniya va Germaniya ), sohaning boshqa fanlardan ajralib turishi 1720-yillarda kuzatilishi mumkin kontinental universitet o'quv dasturi. Rasmiy ravishda akademik farqlar 1910 va 1890 yillarda mos ravishda amalga oshirildi.

Davlat boshqaruvi sohasining maqsadlari quyidagilar bilan bog'liq demokratik takomillashtirish qadriyatlari tenglik, adolat, notijorat joyda davlat xizmatlarining xavfsizligi, samaradorligi va samaradorligi; Biznes boshqaruv boshqa tomondan, birinchi navbatda bozor ulushini kengaytirish, daromad olish va daromad olish bilan bog'liq foyda. Kontseptsiyalar asosida qurilgan maydon uchun (javobgarlik, boshqaruv, markazsizlashtirish va mijozlar ), ushbu tushunchalar ko'pincha aniqlanmagan va tipologiyalar ko'pincha ushbu tushunchalarning ayrim jihatlarini e'tiborsiz qoldiradilar.[50]

Keyinchalik aniq atama "davlat boshqaruvi "erishishni maqsad qilgan oddiy, odatiy yoki odatdagi boshqaruvni nazarda tutadi jamoat foydasi. Ba'zi ta'riflarda "davlat boshqaruvi" xususiy sektorni, hukumat faoliyatining bozorga asoslangan nuqtai nazarini anglatadi. Bu, odatda, yuqori darajadagi rahbarlarni ishlash shartnomalari o'rniga qo'yishni o'z ichiga oladi ijaraga olingan lavozimlar, rahbarlar uchun ish haqi tizimini yaratish, daromad keltiruvchi agentliklarni yaratish va boshqalar. Ushbu so'nggi ko'rinish ko'pincha "deb nomlanadiyangi davlat boshqaruvi "(NPM) o'zining advokatlari tomonidan. Yangi davlat menejmenti davlat boshqaruvining professional xususiyatini ta'kidlaydigan islohotlarni namoyish etadi.[iqtibos kerak ]. NPM himoyachilari an'anaviy davlat boshqaruvining akademik, axloqiy yoki intizomiy e'tiborini professional yo'nalish bilan almashtirishga qaratilgan. Ba'zi nazariyotchilar siyosatshunoslik va sotsiologiya kabi tegishli fanlardan kasbiy sohani "yorqin yo'nalish" bilan farqlashni yoqlaydilar; u tabiatan fanlararo bo'lib qolmoqda.

Bir davlat boshqaruvi bo'yicha olimlardan biri Donald Kettl "davlat boshqaruvi intizomiy orqada o'tiradi", degan fikrni ilgari surmoqda, chunki "so'nggi avlod uchun olimlar uni tejashga yoki uni amalga oshirish, davlat boshqaruvi va rasmiy byurokratik nazariya kabi sohalar bilan almashtirishga harakat qilishgan". .[18] Kettlning ta'kidlashicha, "davlat boshqaruvi, uning ichidagi subfild sifatida siyosatshunoslik... intizom ichidagi rolini aniqlash uchun kurashmoqda ".[18] U davlat boshqaruvi bilan bog'liq ikkita muammoni ta'kidlaydi: bu "uslubiy jihatdan orqada qolgandek tuyuldi" va "sohaning nazariy ishlari ko'pincha buni belgilamaydi", chunki davlat boshqaruvidagi so'nggi eng qiziqarli g'oyalar tashqaridan kelib chiqqan. maydon ".[18]

Davlat boshqaruvi nazariyasi hukumatning mazmuni va maqsadi, demokratik hukumatlarni, byudjetlarni, boshqaruvni va jamoat ishlarini qo'llab-quvvatlashdagi byurokratiyaning rolini muhokama qiladigan maydon. So'nggi yillarda davlat boshqaruvi nazariyasi vaqti-vaqti bilan tanqidiy nazariyaga va og'ir yo'nalishga bog'liq postmodern hukumat, boshqaruv va hokimiyatning falsafiy tushunchalari. Shu bilan birga, ko'plab davlat boshqaruvi bo'yicha olimlar konstitutsiyaga, davlat xizmatiga, tashkilotning byurokratik shakllariga va ierarxik boshqaruvga urg'u beradigan atamaning klassik ta'rifini qo'llab-quvvatlaydilar.

Qiyosiy davlat boshqaruvi

Qiyosiy davlat boshqaruvi yoki CPA ma'muriy tizimlarni qiyosiy qiyosda o'rganish yoki boshqa mamlakatlarda davlat boshqaruvini o'rganish deb ta'riflanadi. Qiyosiy davlat boshqaruvining rivojlanishiga to'sqinlik qiladigan bir nechta muammolar mavjud edi, shu jumladan: G'arb mamlakatlari va rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlar o'rtasidagi katta farqlar; davlat boshqaruvi dasturlarida ushbu kichik yo'nalish bo'yicha o'quv dasturining etishmasligi; va ilmiy sinovdan o'tkazilishi mumkin bo'lgan nazariy modellarni ishlab chiqishda muvaffaqiyatsizlik. CPA umuman zaif shakllangan soha bo'lsa-da, davlat boshqaruvining ushbu kichik sohasi madaniyatlararo tahlilga urinish, "ma'muriy harakatlar va xatti-harakatlarning qonuniyatlari va qonuniyatlarini izlash" dir.[51] CPA davlat boshqaruvi texnikasini tahlil qilishning ajralmas qismidir. The process of comparison allows for more widely applicable policies to be tested in a variety of situations.

Comparative public administration emerged during the post-World War II period in order to seek international developmental strategies which aided in the qamoq ning kommunizm davomida Sovuq urush. (Riggs 1954, Heady 1960)[52] The developers of this field expanded on a general theory, a research agenda, and generalized "lessons learned". (Riggs 1954, Heady 1960) A prominent figure of Public Administration, Woodrow Wilson, commented on the study by saying, "Like principles of civil liberty are everywhere fostering like methods of government; and if comparative studies of the ways and means of government should enable us to offer suggestions which will practicably combine openness and vigor in the administration of such governments with ready docility to all serious, well-sustained public criticism, they will have approved themselves worthy to be ranked among the highest and most fruitful of the great departments of political study".[53] As the financial state of the powering countries began to stabilize toward the decline of the Cold War, the field of CPA began to diminish.[52] The resulting decline caused the lack of further expansion of this study making it irrelevant.

Comparative public administration lacks curriculum, which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study. This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that build this field's foundation has ultimately led to its lack of use. For example, William Waugh, a professor at Georgia State University has stated "Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the sociopolitical context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities."[54] He also asserts, "Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated."[54]

Waugh argues that public administration requires an understanding of different administrative structures and a comparison of different public administration models. The literature to build this base of knowledge is scattered and often hard to obtain. The lack or ill-formed use of comparative public administration has been detrimental for many countries, including the United States. Fred Riggs a political scientist, states that "comparisons to the United States also can be problematic, because of the tendency of many American scholars to presume the American organizational structures and processes are models for other nations to emulate, which was a failing of early developmental administrative studies."[54] In this, he claims the misuse and misapplication of comparative public administration has led to it being underdeveloped.

The development and better use comparative public administration could lead to better understanding. In 2002, the National Security Strategy was used in the battle of hearts and minds.[55] They tried to assimilate with an Arab and Islamic audience to push American values and democracy in an attempt to stop terrorism, when in fact the lack of comparison on the public level was ineffective and backfired.[55] The lack of willingness to understand their culture led to more tension in the Middle East.[55] In conclusion of these events there are not enough resources directed to the study of comparative public administration. For a basic understanding of sociopolitical structure of a society or culture is a key component of comparative public administration.

Despite all of its set backs there are examples of the application of well-formed Comparative Public Administration working in the world today. One of which is the comparison on the national level David Clark an author in this field states "In spite of similarities in public management reform rhetoric, it is argued that there is increasing divergence in the philosophy & practice of public service in the two nations, & and these differences reflect regimes that incorporate different ideals of citizenship."[56] This highlights the benefit of proper comparison of public administration. By examining patterns that emerge in international public sectors one can identify similarities and differences in many things including ideals of citizenship on the local level. Although the United States failed use of Comparative Public Administration in the Middle East is noted, they did properly incorporate it domestically. "During the Clinton administration, the focus on residential energy consumption in the United States was elevated to a high level with the inauguration of the Million Solar Roofs initiative, in which the Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored workshops, developed a pool of existing federal lending and financing options, and worked with partners in the solar and building industries to remove market barriers to strengthen grassroots demand for solar technologies".[57]

This grassroots demand may have come from the comparative knowledge that concluded "In the United States, residential and commercial buildings combined now use 71% of all electricity produced and account for 79% of all electricity expenditures. Annual CO2 emission attributed to electricity consumption in these U.S. buildings constitute 43% of the country's annual total CO2 emission, which is approximately equivalent to the total CO2 emission of Japan, France, and the United Kingdom combined. These levels support the claim of the Iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha hukumatlararo hay'at that energy use in buildings offer more potential for reducing carbon emission than any other single sector in the United States and abroad.".[57] This example compares CO2 emission in the United States to other countries and through the buildings sector; the US could cut down on CO2 emission. The field of comparative public administration is often misunderstood for the definition itself is complex and requires layers of understanding. The field will require many more years of collaborative research before it becomes a widely recognized academic study.

Magistr darajalari

Fanlar Po, Havre Campus

Some public administration programs have similarities to Biznes boshqaruv programs, in cases where the students from both the Master's in Public Administration (MPA) and Master's in Business Administration (MBA) programs take many of the same courses.[iqtibos kerak ] In some programs, the MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that pertain to administering government programs for the public good that have not been key criteria for business managers, who typically aim to maximize foyda yoki aktsiya narxi.The MPA is related to similar graduate-level government studies programs including San'at magistri (MA) programs in public affairs, davlat siyosati va siyosatshunoslik. MPA degrees may be more likely to include program emphases on siyosat tahlili techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of xalqaro ishlar as opposed to MA degrees, which tend to focus on konstitutsiyaviy masalalar kabi hokimiyatni taqsimlash, ma'muriy huquq, contracting with government, problems of boshqaruv and power, and ishtirok etish demokratiyasi. Some MPA degrees may be more oriented towards training students to undertake public service work tasks, whereas some MA programs may have a more academic, theoretical focus. Some universities offer their Masters in public administration as an MA degree (e.g., Karleton universiteti in Ottawa, Canada and the University of Kerala in India).

Some universities offer mid-career Master's programs, sometimes called an MC/MPA, that can be taken part-time (often outside of business hours) by public servants and public service managers who are working full-time. Community programs may offer internships or continuing education credits. One example is the Maxwell School's mid-career Masters at Sirakuza universiteti, which was launched by Robert Iversen in the 1970s.

Doktorlik darajasi

There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) and the Ph.D. davlat boshqaruvida. The DPA is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on the practice of public administration more than on its theoretical aspects. The DPA requires coursework beyond the Masters level and a thesis, dissertation or other doctoral project. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. foydalanish mumkin. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in public administration (e.g., Karleton universiteti in Ottawa, Canada, and the University Of Kerala Hindistonda). Ph.D. is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professorlar of public administration or researchers. Individuals pursuing a Ph.D. in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts.

Taniqli olimlar

Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, administrative law, and, other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories.

Taniqli institutlar

Xalqaro tashkilotlar

There are a number of international public administration organizations. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) is diverse, as it includes the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from India and the UK to Nauru. Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service, top public officials and leading scholars. Eng qadimgi tashkilot Xalqaro ma'muriy fanlar instituti (IIAS). Based in Brussels, Belgium, the IIAS is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and good practices to improve the organization and operation of public administration. The IIAS also aims to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. The IIAS has set up four entities: the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), The Latin American Group for Public Administration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group for Public Administration (AGPA). IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management. The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers. It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management. EGPA, LAGPA and AGPA are the regional sub-entities of the IIAS. Another body, the International Committee of the US-based Davlat siyosati, ishlari va boshqaruv maktablari tarmog'i (NASPAA), has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.[58]

The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Karakas, Venesuela, this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region.[59] The Institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network of Public Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working in public administration and policy analysis. It has more than 49 members from top research schools in various countries throughout the hemisphere.[60]

NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in central Europe and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.[61] The US public administration and political science associations like NASPAA, American Political Science Association (APSA)[62] and American Society of Public Administration (ASPA).[63] These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public administration.

Davlat boshqaruvining Sharqiy mintaqaviy tashkiloti (EROPA) is a state-membership based organization, open to other organizations and individuals, headquartered in Filippinlar with centres and membership organized around the Osiyo Tinch okeani mintaqa. EROPA organizes annual conferences, and publishes a journal Asian Review of Public Administration (ARPA). It has a number of centres in the region, and assists in networking experts with its members.[64]

Public management

"Public management" is an approach to government administration and non-profit administration that resembles or draws on private-sector boshqaruv va biznes techniques and approaches. These business approaches often aim to maximize samaradorlik va samaradorlik and provide improved mijozlarga hizmat. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g., Graham T. Allison va Charlz Gudsel ) makes it different from the private sector.[iqtibos kerak ] Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in rivojlangan xalqlar.

Tashkilotlar

Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including:

Comparative public management, through government performance auditing, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments.

Ibtido

The Greek philosopher Socrates' emerged an ideal. In this perspective, Plato established another though which was good justice for all. Again, Plato's doctrine extended by Aristotle and created a rational structure of the state. Additionally, people moderated the state to good living. Finally, the tool of management has emerged which is branded as public administration.[66]

Shuningdek qarang

Jamiyatlar

Public management academic resources

  • Public Policy and Administration, ISSN  1749-4192, (electronic) ISSN  0952-0767 (print), SAGE nashrlari va Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences
  • International Journal of Public Sector Management, ISSN  0951-3558, Emerald Group Publishing
  • Public Management Review, ISSN  1471-9045 (elektron) ISSN  1471-9037 (qog'oz) Yo'nalish
  • Public Works Management & Policy, ISSN  1552-7549 (elektron) ISSN  1087-724X (qog'oz), SAGE nashrlari

Izohlar

  1. ^ "Random House Unabridged Dictionary". Dictionary.infoplease.com. Olingan 2014-08-23.
  2. ^ Handbook of Public Administration. Eds Jack Rabin, W. Bartley Hildreth, and Gerard J. Miller. 1989: Marcel Dekker, NY. p. iii
  3. ^ Robert and Janet Denhardt. Davlat boshqaruvi: harakat yo'nalishi. 6-chi Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.
  4. ^ a b Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009 yil. The Politics of the Administrative Process. Vashington D.C .: CQ Press.
  5. ^ Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. Ikkinchi Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62
  6. ^ BMTning iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy kengashi. Committee of Experts on Public Administration. Definition of basic concepts and terminologies in governance and public administration. 2006 yil
  7. ^ a b Wilson, Woodrow. June, 1887. "The Study of Administration ", Siyosatshunoslik chorakda 2.
  8. ^ Public administration. (2010) In Britannica entsiklopediyasi. Retrieved August 18, 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  9. ^ a b Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007 yil. Classics of Public Administration. Wadsworth: Boston.
  10. ^ "Electronic Records and Document Management Systems: A New Tool for Enhancing the Public's Right to Access Government-Held Information?" (PDF). Olingan 2017-04-29.
  11. ^ Appleby, Paul 1947. "Toward Better Public Administration", Davlat boshqaruvini ko'rib chiqish Vol. 7, No. 2 pp. 93–99.
  12. ^ Clapp, Gordon. 1948. "Public Administration in an Advancing South", Davlat boshqaruvini ko'rib chiqish Vol. 8. yo'q. 2 pp. 169–75. Clapp attributed part of this definition to Charles Beard.
  13. ^ Carroll, J.D. & Zuck, A.M. (1983). "The Study of Public Administration Revisited". A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for Public Administration. Vashington, DC; American Society for Public Administration.
  14. ^ Qalqon, Patrisiya. 1998 yil. "Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public Administration " Research in Public Administration Vol. 4. pp. 195–225.
  15. ^ Qalqon, Patrisiya. 1998 yil. "Pragmatizm fan falsafasi sifatida: davlat boshqaruvi vositasi", Davlat boshqaruvidagi tadqiqotlar Vol. 4. p. 199.
  16. ^ a b "Public Administration | the Canadian Encyclopedia". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2017 yil 28 martda. Olingan 13 mart, 2018.
  17. ^ Haveman, R. H. (1987). Policy analysis and evaluation research after twenty years. "Policy Studies Journal", 16(1): 191–218.
  18. ^ a b v d Kettl, Donald F. "The Future of Public Administration" (PDF). H-net.org. Olingan 25 oktyabr, 2010.
  19. ^ Lalor, Stiven A General Theory of Public Administration (2014)
  20. ^ "Definition Public Administration (NAICS 91)". Ic.gc.ca. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2013 yil 6 mayda. Olingan 25 oktyabr, 2010.
  21. ^ "CIP user site". Nces.ed.gov. Olingan 2014-08-23.
  22. ^ Salunkhe, A. H. (October 16, 1998). "Astik Shiromani, Charvak". Lokayat – via Google Books.
  23. ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur (October 16, 1917). "The Jain Teachers of Akbar". Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005) The Oxford Handbook of Public Management, s.30.
  25. ^ Kazin, Edvards va Rotman (2010), 142. One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed' in the imperial bureaucracy of China.
    • Tan, Chung; Geng, Yinzheng (2005). India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations. Michigan universiteti matbuoti. p. 128. China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"
    • Konner, Melvin (2003). Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews. Viking Compass. p.217. China is the world's oldest meritocracy
    • Tucker, Mary Evelyn (2009). "Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia". Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities: 51. To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics
  26. ^ Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt 2005 p.30, The Oxford Handbook of Public Management
  27. ^ Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. "Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration", Xitoy falsafasi jurnali 1-jild.
  28. ^ Creel, "The Origins of Statecraft in China, I", The Western Chou Empire, Chicago, pp.9–27
  29. ^ Otto B. Van der Sprenkel, "Max Weber on China", Tarix va nazariya 3 (1964), 357.
  30. ^ Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94
  31. ^ Second Treatise on Government
  32. ^ Mustaqillik deklaratsiyasi
  33. ^ Ryan, M., Mejia, B., and Georgiev, M. (Ed). 2010. AM Gov 2010. McGraw Hill: New York.
  34. ^ a b Jeong Chun Hai Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Davlat boshqaruvining tamoyillari: kirish. Kuala-Lumpur: Karisma nashrlari. ISBN  978-983-195-253-5
  35. ^ Frederick W. Taylor. (1856-1915). Principles of Scientific Management. New York & London: Harper Brothers; Also see, Jeong Chun Hai Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Davlat boshqaruvining tamoyillari: kirish. Kuala-Lumpur: Karisma nashrlari. ISBN  978-983-195-253-5
  36. ^ "Our Web Site Has Moved!". Aspanet.org. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2011-12-03 kunlari. Olingan 2014-08-23.
  37. ^ Fry, Brian R. 1989. Mastering Public Administration; from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc. p. 80
  38. ^ Kamensky, John M. (May–June 1996). "Role of the "Reinventing Government" movement in Federal management reform". Davlat boshqaruvini ko'rib chiqish. 56 (3): 247–55. doi:10.2307/976448. JSTOR  976448.
  39. ^ Elmore, Richard F. (1986). "Graduate education in public management: working the seams of government". Siyosatni tahlil qilish va boshqarish jurnali. 6 (1): 69–83. doi:10.1002/pam.4050060107.
  40. ^ Margetts, Xelen; Dunleavi, Patrik; Bastov, Simon; Tinkler, Jeyn (2006 yil iyul). "Yangi davlat boshqaruvi o'lik - raqamli davrda uzoq umr ko'ring". Davlat boshqaruvi tadqiqotlari va nazariyasi jurnali. 16 (3): 467–94. doi:10.1093 / jopart / mui057.
  41. ^ Diane Stone, (2008) "Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks", Journal of Policy Sciences.
  42. ^ Denhardt, Robert B.; Vinzant Denhardt, Janet (November–December 2000). "The new public service: serving rather than steering". Davlat boshqaruvini ko'rib chiqish. 60 (6): 549–59. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00117. JSTOR  977437.
  43. ^ Omar, A. M. (2020). Raqamli davrni boshqarish va ijtimoiy media: Bruney axborot bo'limi ishi. Raqamli boshqaruvni takomillashtirish uchun so'nggi texnologiyalarni qo'llashda (19-35 betlar). IGI Global.
  44. ^ Xuddi shu erda
  45. ^ Aucoin, Peter (2008). "New Public Management and the Quality of Government: Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada", Conference on New Public Management and the Quality of Government, SOG and the Quality of Government Institute, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p. 14.
  46. ^ Elmore, Richard F.; Watson, Sara; Pfeiffer, David (1992). "A case for including disability policy issues in public policy curricula". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management (Curriculum and Case Notes). 11 (1): 167–73. doi:10.2307/3325146. JSTOR  3325146.
  47. ^ Zola, Irving K. (1993), "Introduction", in Brown, Susan T. (ed.), An Independent Living Approach to Disability Policy Studies, Berkeley, CA: Research and Training Center on Public Policy And Independent Living, World Institute on Disability, OCLC  36404707.
  48. ^ Racino, Julie A. (2015). Public administration and disability community services administration in the US. Boka Raton: CRC Press. ISBN  9781466579828.
  49. ^ Corduneanu-Huci, Cristina; Hamilton, Alexander; Masses Ferrer, Issel (2012). Understanding Policy Change: How to Apply Political Economy Concepts in Practice. Washington DC.: The World Bank.
  50. ^ Dubois, Hans F. W.; Fattore, Giovanni (2009). "Definitions and Typologies in Public Administration Research: The Case of Decentralization". Xalqaro davlat boshqaruvi jurnali. 32 (8): 704–27. doi:10.1080/01900690902908760. S2CID  154709846. The field of public administration knows many concepts. By focusing on one such concept, this research shows how definitions can be deceptive...
  51. ^ Jreisat, Jamil E. (2005-03-01). "Comparative Public Administration Is Back In, Prudently". Davlat boshqaruvini ko'rib chiqish. 65 (2): 231–42. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2005.00447.x. ISSN  1540-6210.
  52. ^ a b utminers.utep.edu/spena2/PAD5355/WHAT%20IS%20CPA.ppt
  53. ^ "American Founders | The Heritage Foundation". Heritage.org. 2013-07-08. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2017-01-12. Olingan 2017-04-29.
  54. ^ a b v Waugh, William L, Jr. (Spring 2004). "Comparative Politics: Review of Comparative Bureaucratic Systems, Tummala, Krishna K., ed". Siyosatshunoslikning istiqbollari. Filadelfiya. 33 (2): 119. doi:10.1080/10457090409600740. S2CID  220344433.
  55. ^ a b v "Off Campus Database Authentication". ProQuest  209950790. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
  56. ^ "Off Campus Database Authentication". ProQuest  218320986. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
  57. ^ a b "Off Campus Database Authentication". ProQuest  224021643. Iqtibos jurnali talab qiladi | jurnal = (Yordam bering)
  58. ^ "NASPAA International Web Portal". Globalmpa.net. Arxivlandi asl nusxasi 2014-05-17. Olingan 2014-08-23.
  59. ^ "CLAD". CLAD. 2007-08-29. Olingan 2017-04-29.
  60. ^ [1] Arxivlandi May 25, 2015, at the Orqaga qaytish mashinasi
  61. ^ Studio, Floyd; Andruch, Ján. "Homepage – NISPAcee Information Portal". nispa.sk.
  62. ^ "APSA – American Political Science Association". Apsanet.org. Olingan 2014-08-23.
  63. ^ "aspanet.org". Arxivlandi asl nusxasi on 2019-10-29. Olingan 2004-09-13.
  64. ^ "Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration". Davlat boshqaruvining Sharqiy mintaqaviy tashkiloti. Olingan 17 aprel 2017.
  65. ^ "Uy". Mancosa. Olingan 2017-04-29.
  66. ^ Public Administration (Meaning and Definitions), HigherStudy.org
  67. ^ "Indian Institute Of Public Administration – Home". Iipa.org.in. Olingan 2014-08-23.

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–27.
  • Jeong Chun Xai @ Ibrohim va Nor Fadzlina Navi. (2007). Davlat boshqaruvining tamoyillari: kirish. Kuala-Lumpur: Karisma nashrlari. ISBN  978-983-195-253-5
  • Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. (2006) Public Administration – Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government, LA: Roxbury Pub. Co. ISBN  1-933220-04-X
  • White, Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice. 1994.
  • Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity. Nyu-York: M. E. Sharpe.

Public management

  • Janicke, M. (1990). State Failure. Kembrij: Polity Press.
  • Kanter, R. M. (1985). The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work. Hemel Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks.
  • Lane, R. E. (1991). Bozor tajribasi. Nyu-York: Kembrij universiteti matbuoti.
  • Lynn, L. E., Jr. (1996). "Public Management as Art, Science, and Profession." Chatham House, CQ Press.
  • Lynn, L. E., Jr. (2006). "Public Management: Old and New." Yo'nalish.

Tashqi havolalar